2

3
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Review
Received: 22 December 2012 Revised: 5 March 2013 Accepted article published: 28 March 2013 Published online in Wiley Online Library: 3 May 2013
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/jsfa.6154
Date fruit: chemical composition, nutritional
and medicinal values, products
Zhen-Xing Tang,
a,b
Lu-E Shi
c
and Salah MAleid
b
Abstract
Date fruit has served as a staple food in the Arab world for centuries. Worldwide production of date fruit has increased
almost threefold over the last 40 years, reaching 7.68 million tons in 2010. Date fruit can provide many essential nutrients and
potential health benets to the consumer. Date fruit goes through four ripening stages named kimri, khalal, rutab and tamer.
The main chemical components of date fruit include carbohydrates, dietary bre, enzymes, protein, fat, minerals, vitamins,
phenolic acids and carotenoids. The chemical composition of date fruit varies according to ripening stage, cultivar, growing
environment, postharvest conditions, etc. The nutritional and medicinal activities of date fruit are related to its chemical
composition. Many studies have shown that date fruit has antioxidant, antimutagenic, anti-inammatory, gastroprotective,
hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, anticancer and immunostimulant activities. Various date fruit-based products such as
datesyrup, datepaste, datejuiceandtheir derivedproducts areavailable. Dateby-products canbeusedas rawmaterials for the
productionof value-addedproducts suchas organic acids, exopolysaccharides, antibiotics, date-avouredprobiotic-fermented
dairy produce, bakery yeasts, etc. In this paper the chemical composition and nutritional and medicinal values of date fruit as
well as date fruit-based products are reviewed.
c 2013 Society of Chemical Industry
Keywords: date; nutritional values; medicinal activities
INTRODUCTION
Date palm (Fig. 1) is a particularly important crop in arid and
semi-arid regions of the world.
1
It may be one of the oldest
cultivated plants, with a history of more than 6000 years.
1
The
earliest planting of date palm extended from northeast Africa to
northwest of the Tigris and Euphrates plateau. The Phoenicians
promoted the planting of date palm around the Mediterranean,
possibly because date fruit providedrapidenergy tothe consumer
andcouldalsobepreservedfor alongtime. It was aperfect foodfor
people such as soldiers during military expeditions and merchants
and explorers during long journeys, who may have scattered
and spread the plant by throwing away date seeds after eating
the fruit.
1
Today, more than 2000 varieties of dates are grown
throughout the world.
2
They are mainly cultivated in the Middle
East, North Africa, parts of Central and South America, southern
Europe, India and Pakistan.
24
Based on FAO statistics, Egypt,
Saudi Arabia, Iran, United Arab Emirates and Algeria are the main
producing countries.
5
Worldwide production of date fruit reached
7.68 million tons in 2010, and expectations are that it will continue
to increase.
6,7
However, the average per capita consumption of
date fruit has decreased recently owing to changing dietary habits
and lifestyles.
810
The major component of date fruit (Fig. 2) is carbohydrate (the
mainsugars beingsucrose, glucoseandfructose), whichmayreach
morethan70%. Datefruit is alsoagoodsourceof breandcontains
many important vitamins and minerals such as calcium, iron,
uorine, selenium, etc.
2,11,12
Based on its chemical composition,
date fruit can be considered as one of the most appropriate
substrates for manufacturing value-added products such as
organic acids, exopolysaccharides, antibiotics, date-avoured
probiotic-fermented dairy produce, bakery yeasts, etc.
13
Recent
studies have shown that date fruit and its aqueous extract have
free radical-scavenging, antimutagenic and immunomodulatory
activities.
8,14,15
Considering the importance of date fruit to the
date-producingregions, the chemical compositionandnutritional
and medicinal values of date fruit as well as date fruit-based
products are discussed in this review.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONOF DATE FRUIT
The maturation stages of date fruit are usually described by
the Arabic terms kimri, khalal, rutab and tamer (Fig. 3). Many
physical characteristics of date fruit at different stages have been
reported.
2,8
Fruit at the kimri stage is the youngest, with a green
colour and hard texture. Fruit at the khalal stage may turn yellow,
purplish-pink, red or yellowish-scarlet in colour depending on the
cultivar; it still has a rm texture and maximum size and weight.
Fruit at the rutab stage is less astringent, with a soft texture and
darker colour. At the tamer stage, whole fruit becomes dark brown
in colour, with a soft texture and wrinkled appearance; it also has

Correspondence to: Zhen-Xing Tang, Department of Food Science, Anqing

Vocational and Technical College, 246003, Anqing, Anhui, China and Date
PalmResearchCenter, KingFaisal University, POBox 420, Al-hasa, 31982, Saudi
Arabia. E-mail: tangzhenxing@126.com
a Department of FoodScience, AnqingVocational andTechnical College, 246003,
Anqing, Anhui, China
b Date PalmResearch Center, King Faisal University, POBox 420, Al-hasa, 31982,
Saudi Arabia
c College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University,
310016, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
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Figure 1. Photograph of date palm (published with permission of Date
Palm Research Center, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia).
Figure 2. Photographs of date fruit (published with permission of Date
Palm Research Center, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia).
A B
C D
Figure 3. Different stages of date ripening (published with permission of
Date Palm Research Center, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia).
maximum soluble solid content, highest sweetness and lowest
astringency. The chemical components of date fruit are described
in more detail in the following sections.
Carbohydrate
Owing to its high carbohydrate content, date fruit can provide
rapidenergy tothe consumer.
16
The most important carbohydrate
components in date fruit are glucose, fructose and sucrose,
which can reach up to 7080% (Table 1).
1,1719
Variation in
Table 1. Chemical composition of date fruit
6,19
Component Concentration
Carbohydrate (g kg
1
) 526886
Fructose 136368
Glucose 176414
Sucrose 0.533.9
Total bre (g kg
1
) 35.7109
Fat (g kg
1
) 114
Ash (g kg
1
) 1019
Protein (g kg
1
) 1126
Minerals (10
1
g kg
1
) 41.74198.2
Vitamins (10
3
g kg
1
) 22.55200.24
the carbohydrate concentration of date fruit can be attributed to
differences in cultivar, harvest/postharvest factors and growing
environment (temperature, humidity, fertiliser use, etc.).
2023
Borchani et al.
21
analysed the main chemical components of
date fruits from11 Tunisian cultivars and found that they were rich
in sugar (799.3880.2 g kg
1
dry matter). Ali et al.
23
found that
the total sugar concentration in three Omani date cultivars ranged
from 685.3 to 753.7 g kg
1
, the highest level being observed
in Khalas cultivar. Amoros et al.
24
found that the total sugar
concentration in Caqui 24 and Caqui 22 date fruits ranged from
424 to 542 g kg
1
.
Thetotal sugar concentrationandtheproportionof glucoseand
fructose in date fruit also change with growth stage (Table 2).
25
The total sugar concentration usually increases from the kimri
stage to the tamer stage. Ahmed et al.
26
reported that the total
sugar concentration at the kimri stage varied from 3.4 to 7.7%,
while that at the tamer stage varied from44.3 to 64.1%. In another
date cultivar the total sugar concentration in the tamer stage was
as highas 88%.
2
Theincreaseinsugar concentrationfromthekimri
stage to the tamer stage is related to loss of moisture from date
fruit.
2
The proportion of glucose and fructose in Barhi dates was
found to increase from the kimri stage (4.9 and 2.8% respectively)
to the tamer stage (29.7 and 27.6% respectively).
The date cultivar can also signicantly affect the proportion
of glucose and fructose in date fruit.
8,23,25
Ali et al.
23
observed
an overall glucose/fructose ratio of 1.3 in three different Omani
date cultivars. However, Ismail et al.
9
reported a higher fructose
concentration(glucose/fructoseratio<1) at thetamer stageinve
different UAE date cultivars (Khalas, Barhee, Fard, Boumaan and
Ruzeiz). Amoros et al.
24
found that the accumulation of fructose
and glucose started from the khalal stage. The concentration of
fructose was higher than that of glucose at the tamer stage in all
investigated date fruits.
Table 2. Total sugar concentration in different varieties of dates at
different ripening stages
25
Total sugar (%)
Cultivar Khalal stage Rutab stage Tamer stage
Alig 47.92 52.62
Degla 53.56 53.89
Deglet Nour 61.47 63.16
Gosbi 56.11 57.56
Horra 53.38 55.44
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Table 3. Total dietary bre concentration in different varieties of
dates
21
Cultivar Total dietary bre (%)
Alligh 11.45
Tranja 11.26
Deglet Nour 8.09
Bajo 16.95
Boufeggous 10.05
Goundi 10.16
Ikhouat 17.82
Kenta 12.18
Kentichi 20.25
Lgou 18.53
Touzerzaillet 17.25
Fibre
Date fruit can be considered as a good source of dietary bre
such as cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, etc.
16,27
Like the
carbohydrate concentration in date fruit, the bre concentration
is also dependent on date cultivar and ripening stage (Table 3).
20
Elleuch et al.
28
reported the dietary bre concentration of two
Tunisian date cultivars (Deglet-Nour and Allig) and studied
its characteristics. The dietary bre concentration obtained for
Deglet-Nour andAlligwas 14.4 and18.4%respectively. The dietary
bre showed a high water-holding capacity (15.5%) and a high
oil-holding capacity (9.7%). Borchani et al.
21
found that the bre
concentration in 11 Tunisian cultivars ranged from 80.9 to 202.5
g kg
1
dry matter. The date bre presented a high water-holding
capacity (6.2 10
3
g kg
1
) and a high oil-holding capacity (1.8
10
3
g kg
1
). Mrabet et al.
29
determined the composition and
water- andoil-holdingcapacities of datedietarybrefromTunisian
oases. The total bre concentration decreases when date fruit
becomes soft at the tamer stage.
30
During the ripening process,
enzymes gradually break down polysaccharides into more soluble
compounds, thus decreasing the bre concentration and making
the fruit more tender andsofter.
16,29
The crude bre concentration
indate fruit at the kimri stage is higher (6.213.2%) thanthat at the
tamer stage (2.13.0%).
1
Al-Turki et al.
31
foundthat the proportion
of pectin in date fruit decreased fromthe kimri stage (44.4 g kg
1
)
to the tamer stage (16.8 g kg
1
).
Minerals
Many minerals such as boron, calcium, cobalt, copper, uorine,
iron, magnesium, manganese, potassium, phosphorus, sodium,
zinc, etc. are found in date fruit.
11,12,20,21
Of all the minerals present
in date fruit, the potassium concentration is probably the highest,
reaching up to 0.9%.
The mineral concentration in date fruit is inuenced by soil
fertility, date cultivar and ripening stage (Table 4).
32
Amira et al.
25
foundthat the mineral concentrationinve Tunisiandate cultivars
increased with ripening. The mineral concentration in Deglet
Nour variety at the kimri stage was increased from 1.06% at
the rutab stage and 3.25% at the tamer stage. However, other
researchers found that the mineral concentration decreased with
date ripening.
30,3335
Al-Shahib and Marshall
2
reported that the
mineral concentrationindatefruit decreasedfrom3.7%at thekimri
stage to 2.8%at the khalal stage, 2.6%at the rutab stage and 1.7%
at the tamer stage. The concentrations of phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, sodium and zinc decreased from the kimri
stage to the tamer stage. Al-Hooti et al.
36
found that the mineral
concentrationinve date varieties was dependent onthe ripening
stage. The concentration of iron in four cultivars decreased from
the kimri stage to the tamer stage, whereas it increased in Lulu
date. The concentrations of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus,
potassium, sodium and zinc in all ve cultivars decreased from
the kimri stage to the tamer stage. Rastegar et al.
37
also found
the mineral concentration decreased from the kimri stage to the
tamer stage. Among the studied minerals, potassium was most
abundant at 11.727.2 g kg
1
.
Enzymes
Enzymes in date fruit, namely invertase, -galactosidase,
endo-1,4--D-glucanase, pectin methyl esterase, cellulase and
polyphenol oxidase, play an important role in fruit softening
and maturation.
3840
The activities of these enzymes change
with ripening stage.
37,41
Invertase is responsible for hydrolysing
sucrose to glucose and fructose. The activity of invertase increases
sharply from the kimri stage, reaching its maximum at the tamer
stage.
37
Pectin methyl esterase can convert protopectin to soluble
pectin. The activity of pectin methyl esterase increases from the
khalal stage to the rutab stage and then decreases sharply at
the tamer stage.
2,27,37
The role of cellulase in date fruit softening
is uncertain. Awad et al.
38
showed that the activity of cellulase
was relatively low at the kimri stage, then increased sharply to
its maximum at the khalal stage, followed by a slight decrease
at the rutab stage. Similar results were reported by Rastegar
et al.
37
-Galactosidase activity is very lowat the green stage, then
increases gradually to its maximum at the tamer stage.
37,40
Date
fruit softening during ripening may be due, at least partially, to the
actionof -galactosidase.
42
Loss of galactosyl residues frompectin
fractions duringripening, probably causedby -galactosidase, has
been reported.
41,43
The involvement of endo-1,4--D-glucanase in
the softeningprocess of date fruit was reportedby Rastegar et al.
37
The activity of endo-1,4--D-glucanase increased signicantly with
fruit growth and reached its maximum at the rutab stage (with
the exception of Shahani cultivar), followed by a slight decrease
at the tamer stage. Polyphenol oxidase is mainly involved in
the metabolism of tannins. The activity of polyphenol oxidase
decreases from the kimri stage to the tamer stage.
30,34
The
relation between polyphenol oxidase activity and the intensity
of date colour during ripening has been studied.
44
Through the
metabolismof tannins, thecolour of datefruit changes fromyellow
to brown.
Carotenoids
Major carotenoids in date fruit include lutein, -carotene,
zeaxanthin and neoxanthin.
45
The carotenoid concentration in
date fruit may be dependent on many factors such as date cultivar,
maturation stage and drying and postharvest conditions.
11,45
Carotenoid degradation occurs during ripening from the khalal
stage to the tamer stage, so ripe date fruit has a low carotenoid
concentration. Al-Farsi et al.
11,14
reported that around 430% of
carotenoids indatefruit weredegradedafter sundrying. According
to the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference,
Release 19 (2007), the total carotenoid concentration in Deglet
Noor andMedjool dates is 0.81and1.1210
3
gkg
1
respectively.
The -carotene concentration in Algerian date varieties Deglet
Noor, Tantebouchte and Hamraya was found to be 6.44, 3.3 and
2.5 10
5
g kg
1
respectively, while the lutein concentration was
1.56, 0.28 and 0.336 10
3
g kg
1
respectively.
6,45
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Table 4. Mineral concentration in different varieties of dates at different ripening stages
37
Mineral concentration (10
2
g kg
1
)
Macroelements Microelements
Cultivar Ripening stage K Ca Mg Na Mn Zn Fe
Shahani Kimri 2720 440 330 120 3.6 3.5 3.5
Khalal 2330 300 240 132 1.3 2.3 2.0
Rutab 1350 150 130 123 0.7 1.4 1.8
Tamer 1170 140 114 129 0.4 1.4 1.6
Piarom Kimri 2440 360 275 124 1.3 2.5 2.4
Khalal 1940 230 156 129 1.1 1.7 1.5
Rutab 2040 238 225 128 0.6 2.8 2.3
Tamer 1380 160 123 126 0.4 2.0 1.7
Deiry Kimri 2630 490 340 133 1.3 2.1 2.5
Khalal 2300 450 370 128 1.1 1.9 2.0
Rutab 1440 200 173 123 0.6 1.5 1.2
Tamer 2440 385 250 134 1.6 2.3 1.8
Phenolic acids
Phenolic acids are a class of bioactive substances containing a
hydroxylated benzene ring with one or more carboxyl groups.
Many studies have showed that date fruit is rich in phenolic
acids.
11,46
Differences in date fruit phenolic acid concentration
are attributed to date cultivar, environmental conditions, etc.
Mansouri et al.
47
found that the main phenolic acids in seven
Algerian varieties of date fruit were p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid,
sinapic acid, some cinnamic acid derivatives and three different
isomers of 5-O-caffeoyl shikimic acid. The main phenolic acids in
Omani date fruit were ferulic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid
and o-coumaric acid.
6,14
The total concentration of these phenolic
acids varied from 0.0261 to 0.1227 g kg
1
and from 0.0606 to
0.1477 g kg
1
in fresh and dried dates respectively. Chaira et al.
48
found the lowest phenolic acid concentration in Mermella cultivar
(0.0573 g kg
1
) and the highest in Korkobbi cultivar (0.5466 g
kg
1
). The main phenolic acids were ellagic acid, gallic acid and
p-coumaric acid. Caffeic acid was not detected.
Flavonoids
Flavonoids areimportant phenoliccompounds that includeproan-
thocyanidins, avanoid glycosides and anthocyanins.
11,47,49,50
Hong et al.
49
identied 13 avonoid glycosides of luteolin,
quercetin and apigenin in date fruit at the khalal stage. Chaira
et al.
48
found the highest concentration of avonoids in Tunisian
dates in Korkobbi cultivar (544.6 g kg
1
). Biglari et al.
51
reported
that the avonoid concentration in Iranian date fruit varied from
0.0162 to 0.8179 g kg
1
.
Other chemical components
Protein
Most proteins with molecular weight between 12 and 72 kDa in
date fruit are soluble albumins. The protein concentration in date
fruit is around (1.53.2) 10
3
g kg
1
, varying with date cultivar
and ripening stage.
9,11
The protein concentration in date fruit
at the kimri stage is 5.56.4%. After the kimri stage the protein
concentration begins to decrease gradually, reaching 2.02.5%at
the tamer stage.
16,20,33,52
The decrease in protein concentration
duringripeningis attributedtonon-enzymaticbrowning(Maillard)
reactions andtanninprecipitation. Twenty-three aminoacids have
been found in date fruit, most of which are not found in other
popular fruits such as oranges, apples and bananas.
2
The amino
acid composition of date fruit varies with maturation stage. High
concentrations of glutamic acid, aspartic acid, lysine, leucine,
alanine and serine are found at the kimri stage, while glutamic
acid, aspartic acid, lysine, leucine, proline and glycine are most
abundant during the ripening stages.
53
Fat and fatty acids
The fat concentration in date fruit is very low, usually in the range
0.10.9%.
22,25,30,52
The fat of date fruit is concentrated in the skin.
The role of fat in date fruit is to protect the fruit. Major fatty acids in
date fruit include lauric acid, myristic acid, palmitic acid and oleic
acid.
2,27,54
Hasnaoui et al.
20
reported fat concentrations between 1
and 4.76 g kg
1
. Analysis of variance of fat concentration showed
a signicant difference between cultivars.
Vitamins
Date fruit has reasonable amounts of vitamins, including vitamin
A, vitamins B
1
and B
2
, niacin (nicotinic acid), vitamin C and folic
acid.
2,6,18,27
The vitamin concentration in date fruit decreases with
maturation owing to drying and environmental factors.
2,8,34,55
Phytosterols
Date fruit contains many phytosterols.
56,57
However, the change
in phytosterol concentration in date fruit during ripening
is still unclear. In a recent study, Liolios et al.
58
identied
various phytosterols in date fruit, including campesterol,
stigmasta-5,22-dien-3-ol, -sitosterol, sitosterol, lupenone,
lupeol, 24-methylenecycloartanol, (E)-24-propylidenecholesterol,
stigmastan-3,5-diene, cholest-4-en-3-one, 4-methyl-cholest-4-en-
3-one, spinasterone, stigmast-4-en-3-one and cholesta-3,5-diene.
Phytoestrogens
Phytoestrogens in date fruit were revealed by Thompson et al.
59
The chemical structure of phytoestrogens is similar to that
of estradiol. There are three major classes of phytoestrogens,
namely isoavones, coumestans and lignans. The distribution
of phytoestrogens in different date cultivars and the change in
phytoestrogen concentration during ripening have not yet been
investigated.
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Table 5. Nutritional and medicinal values of date fruit
Nutritional or medicinal value Observed effect(s) and reference(s)
Antioxidant activity Inhibits peroxidation and protein oxidation and neutralises superoxide and hydroxyl radicals
6365,132
Antimutagenic activity Inhibits benzo(a)pyrene-induced mutagenecity in the Ames test
75
Gastrointestinal-protective activity Increases gastrointestinal transit time and reduces ethanol-induced gastric ulceration
84,85
Hepatoprotective activity Reduces CCl
4
-induced elevation of plasma enzyme and bilirubin concentrations
90
Anti-inammatory activity Reduces erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) and plasma brinogen and increases body weight gain and
food efciency ratio
80
Nephroprotective activity Inhibits hepatic lipid peroxidation and ameliorates superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase
(GPx) and catalase (CAT) activities
63
Anticancer activity Signicantly stimulates IFN- mRNA expression in cells and increases Th1 immune response
65
Gonadotropic activity Increases sperm count in guinea pigs, enhances spermatogenesis and increases testosterone and
follicle-stimulating hormone concentrations
98
NUTRITIONAL ANDMEDICINAL VALUES OF
DATE FRUIT
Antioxidant activity
Antioxidant activity of date fruit has been reported by many
investigators (Table 5).
14,24,31,47,60,61
Date fruit extract can inhibit
protein oxidation as well as neutralise superoxide and hydroxyl
radicals. Many medicinal values such as hepatoprotective,
nephrotoprotective and neuroprotective effects are related to
the antioxidant activity of date fruit.
10,6265
Chaira et al.
66
found
that Korkobbi cultivar had the best lipoperoxyl radical-scavenging
activity, while Rotbi cultivar had good ability to scavenge hydroxyl
radicals. The antioxidant activity of date fruit is attributed to
phytochemical compounds such as phenolic acids, avonoids,
anthocyanins, etc. as well as the mineral selenium.
14,61,67
Selenium
can contribute to the antioxidant effect through its important role
in activating enzymes related to reactive oxygen species (ROS)
detoxication.
68,69
Three methods are currently used to evaluate the antioxidant
capacity of date fruit invitro, namely 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
(DPPH) radical-scavenging ability, ferric-reducing ability of plasma
(FRAP) and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC).
7072
Chaira et al.
73
demonstrated that 100 g of ethyl acetate extract of
Deglet Noor cultivar could inhibit DPPH radical formation by 54%,
while the same amount of extract from Alig cultivar did not have
the ability to scavenge DPPH radicals. Rock et al.
72
showed that
Medjool and Hallawi date cultivars could inhibit DPPH radicals by
44 and 39% respectively at a concentration of 10 g mL
1
. Abdul
Ameer
61
investigated the antioxidant capacity of 16 date cultivars
commonly grown in Bahrain using the FRAP assay. Fruit at the
unripened stage had the highest antioxidant activity (57.1 4.31
mmol kg
1
), followed by fruit at the rutab (12 mmol kg
1
) and
tamer (9.4 0.21 mmol kg
1
) stages. Al-Farsi et al.
11
evaluated
three Oman date cultivars using the ORAC method and found that
the antioxidant ability of fresh dates was higher than that of dried
dates. Investigation of the free radical-quenching activity of date
fruit extract in a cell culture system has also been carried out.
Asadi-Shekaari et al.
74
showed that aqueous extract of date fruit
had potent activity against H
2
O
2
-induced cell damage in HEPG-2,
A172, U937 and PC12 cell lines.
Antimutagenic activity
Vayalil
75
investigatedthe antimutagenic activity of date fruit using
the Ames mutagenicity assay (Table 5). The results showed that
date fruit could inhibit benzo(a)pyrene-induced mutagenicity
on Salmonella tester strains TA-98 and TA-100 with metabolic
activation. Components suchas proanthocyanidins, anthocyanins,
-carotene, phenolic acids and seleniumpresent in date fruit have
been reported to have an antimutagenic effect.
7679
However,
more studies are needed to evaluate the antimutagenic effect of
these compounds.
Anti-inammatory activity
It is very important for human health to control the excessive
generation of free radicals by inamed leukocytes. Mohammed
andAl-Okbi
80
investigatedthe anti-inammatory potential of date
fruit. The results showed that oral administration of methanolic
or aqueous extract of date fruit could suppress adjuvant-induced
inammation in the foot, reduce erythrocyte sedimentation rate
(ESR) and plasma brinogen and increase body weight gain and
food efciency ratio compared with adjuvant-treated controls.
Date fruit constituents such as proanthocyanidins, avonoids,
polyphenols, -carotene and selenium may contribute to the
anti-inammatory effect.
8183
Gastrointestinal-protective activity
Date fruit is traditionally used to protect the gastric mucosa
from the damaging effects of stomach acids.
84
Al-Qarawi
et al.
85
investigated the inuence of date fruit extract on
gastrointestinal mobility andfoundthat it causeda concentration-
dependent increase in transit time (Table 5). Aqueous and
ethanolic extracts of date fruit could be effective in ameliorating
ethanol-induced gastric ulceration. The gastroprotective activity
of date fruit is correlated with antioxidant compounds such
as proanthocyanidins, avonoids, -carotene, -sitosterol and
selenium.
8689
Hepatoprotective activity
Liver disease is one of the most serious health problems, and
no satisfactory protective drugs are available. Saa et al.
63
reported that date fruit extract could decrease the levels of
hepatic marker enzymes (transaminases, alkaline phosphatase,
-glutamyl transferase and lactate dehydrogenase) and hepatic
levels of malondialdehyde and concomitantly increase the
levels of antioxidant enzymes. Al-Qarawi et al.
90
found that
feeding rats with date fruit extract could signicantly reduce
the CCl
4
-induced elevation of plasma enzyme and bilirubin
concentrations. Histopathological studies also conrmed the
biochemical observations that date fruit extract possessed a
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hepatoprotective effect. Many studies have indicated that the
hepatoprotective activity of date fruit may be due to compounds
suchas selenium, anthocyanins, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, quercetin,
-carotene, proanthocyanidins, luteolin, etc.
89,9194
Nephroprotective activity
Nephrotoxicity is a common side effect of pharmacological agents
such as analgesics, antibiotics, cytostatics and other drugs. Al-
Qarawi et al.
95
investigated the nephroprotective effect of date
fruit extract on gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity in rats. The
results showed that feeding rats with date fruit extract could
reduce the levels of plasma creatinine and urea and ameliorate
gentamicin-induced damage to the proximal tubular region of
the kidney. Saa et al.
63
found that date fruit extract could
combat liver damage induced by dimethoate, as revealed by
inhibitionof hepatic lipidperoxidation, ameliorationof superoxide
dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and catalase (CAT)
activities and improvement of histopathological changes. Some
research has suggested that vitamin E, ascorbic acid, selenium,
quercetin and melatonin in date fruit may be responsible for its
nephroprotective activity.
96,97
Gonadotropic activity
Date fruit has been used as an important ingredient in various
aphrodisiacs and tonics. El-Mougy et al.
98
found that date
fruit extract could increase the sperm count in guinea pigs
as well as enhance spermatogenesis and increase the levels
of testosterone, follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinising
hormone in rats (Table 5). Phytochemicals such as genistein,
vitamin A and selenium have been reported to protect testicular
functions against various stresses and to possess gonadotropic
activity.
99101
Prevention and control of cancer
Date fruit has shown potential benet against many types of
cancer, but only a few studies have been reported on the
anticancer activity of date fruit. Vayalil
75
found that date fruit
was effective against chemical carcinogens by demonstrating
its antimutagenic activity on Salmonella tester strains. Excessive
production of reactive oxygen radicals and other reactive radical
species is related to the formation of cancer. Thus an antioxidant
with the ability to scavenging such radicals can be considered as
a potential anticancer agent.
75
Since date fruit can scavenge free
radicals, it canbe consideredas a potential anticancer agent. Many
phytochemicals in date fruit, including phytoestrogens such as
genistein, glycitein and daidzein, phenolic acids such as gallic acid
and ferulic acid, anthocyanins, avonoids, phytosterols, vitamins
and minerals such as magnesium, manganese, zinc, copper and
selenium, have shown anticancer activity.
Activation of the immune system is another approach to
cancer prevention. Puri et al.
102
showed that date fruit extract
could improve immune activity in rats. Seven days of continuous
treatment with date fruit extract could stimulate the antibody titre
and plaque-forming cells. In a recent study, Karasawa et al.
65
also
found that date fruit extract could signicantly stimulate IFN-
mRNA expression in cells and increase Th1 immune response.
These effects were attributed to polyphenols and polysaccharides
present in date fruit.
67
Some studies showed that dietary bre could be considered as
an antimutagen in the intestinal tract because it could dilute
mutagen concentrations and increase faecal transit time by
increasing faecal mass through its water-binding capacity. Al-
Qarawi et al.
84
showed that date fruit extract could be effective in
decreasingethanol-inducedgastriculcerationowingtothedietary
bre contained in date fruit. Recently, Ishurd and Kennedy
103
extracted the glucans from date fruit and validated their dose-
dependent anticancer activity.
Prevention and control of diabetes mellitus
Date fruit has potential medicinal value for the prevention and
control of diabetes mellitus owing to its richness in antioxidants
and minerals. Phenolic compounds in date fruit can inhibit the
activities of -glucosidase and -amylase.
71
The digestion rate of
carbohydrate is reduced when the activities of these enzymes are
inhibited; as a result, less glucose is absorbed into the circulation.
Many studies have indicated that there is a deciency of certain
minerals in diabetic patients. Therefore the use of minerals can
be investigated as a potential preventive and treatment strategy
for diabetes. As mentioned above, date fruit is rich in minerals
involvedin glucose metabolism, so it may be potentially benecial
for the prevention of diabetes. Such minerals include magnesium,
zinc, chromium and selenium.
104
Therefore regular consumption
of date fruit may prevent the development of diabetes in healthy
people as well as control diabetes in patients who are decient in
these minerals.
Generally, diabetes is accompaniedbyincreasedoxidativestress
due to hyperglycaemia, which leads to micro- and macrovascular
complications. Several studies have shown signicantly decreased
levels of - and -tocopherol, lycopene, - and -carotene, lutein,
-cryptoxanthin, retinol, zeaxanthin and ascorbic acid in diabetic
patients.
105
Therefore the use of antioxidants is considered as a
treatment strategy for diabetes either alone or in combination
with other treatment strategies.
106
As mentioned above, date fruit
has strong antioxidant activity owing to its content of phenolic
compounds and carotenoids. These compounds can effectively
reduce ROS production by inhibiting several ROS-producing
enzymes, chelating trace metals and inhibiting phospholipases
A2 and C.
107
Evidence has shown that dietary phytoestrogens may play a
benecial role in diabetes. Phytoestrogens such as isoavones,
lignans, genistein and daidzein appear to act through various
mechanisms that modulatepancreaticinsulinsecretionor regulate
glucosehomeostasis.
108,109
Thus thehighlevels of phytoestrogens
in date fruit may potentially help to maintain normal glucose
metabolism in healthy people as well as in diabetic patients.
Weickert and Pfeiffer
110
showed that consumption of date fruit
rich in dietary bre could improve insulin sensitivity, modulate the
secretion of certain gut hormones and affect various metabolic
and inammatory markers that are associated with metabolic
syndrome. Therefore the dietary bre in date fruit may help to
prevent the development of diabetes.
Therapy for cardio- and cerebrovascular diseases (CCVD)
Date fruit can provide a therapy against the initiation and
progression of CCVDin many ways, e.g. by reducing hypertension,
hypercholesterolaemia and lipoprotein oxidation, enhancing
serum antioxidant status and alleviating harmful effects of
oxidative stress.
Hypertensionis a major risk factor for the development of CCVD.
Date fruit has been used for centuries as an antihypertensive food
and medicine in eastern Africa as well as in the Middle East.
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However, only recently has the antihypertensive activity of date
fruit been studied.
Controllingthe activity of angiotensin-convertingenzyme (ACE)
in the pulmonary circulation as well as in the endothelium of
blood vessels is an important treatment strategy to reduce blood
pressure. Braga et al.
111
showed that date fruit had potent ACE-
inhibitory activity. Also, the total phenolics in date fruit possessed
ACE-inhibitory activity.
The minerals in date fruit can play an important role in
maintainingthebloodpressure. Ahighsodiumintakecoupledwith
a low potassium intake can cause a rise in blood pressure.
112,113
The best way to maintain the blood pressure is to consume
fruits and vegetables with low sodium content. Date fruit is
an excellent dietary source of potassium with very low sodium
content. Consumption of date fruit may prevent the development
and progression of hypertension by maintaining the electrolyte
balance within the body. Other major elements that have been
shown to protect against hypertension are magnesium and
calcium.
Hypercholesterolaemia is another major risk factor for the
development of CCVD. Alsaif et al.
114
foundthat addingdatefruit to
a high-cholesterol diet fed to hamsters could signicantly reduce
thecholesterol-inducedincreaseinorganweightsandplasmatotal
cholesterol, triglycerideandLDLcholesterol levels andincreasethe
plasma HDL cholesterol level. The study thus suggested that date
fruit supplementationhadgoodpotential tomodulate cholesterol
absorptionor metabolism. The dietary bre andphytochemicals in
date fruit may be responsible for this effect. Date dietary bre may
exert signicant hypocholesterolaemic activity by three potential
mechanisms: (a) it may reduce the absorption of cholesterol and
reabsorption of bile acids in the intestinal lumen; (b) it may
reduce insulin secretion; (c) its fermentation can produce short-
chain fatty acids that may inhibit hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis.
Phytochemicals such as phytosterols and phytoestrogens can
inhibit intestinal cholesterol absorption by displacing cholesterol
from micellar binding and thereby lower the cholesterol level.
115
The pronounced cholesterol-lowering effects of stigmasterol and
sitosterol have been demonstrated in animals
116
and humans.
117
FOODPRODUCTS FROMDATE FRUIT
Fresh date fruit can be eaten directly without any fumigation
or washing. To meet the high quality standards expected by
consumers, date fruit is alsoprocessedintomany types of product,
and a number of date-packing and date-processing factories have
been built.
Date juice-based products
In the most common method for producing date juice, a mixture
of pitted (or sometimes unpitted) date fruit and water is heated
to boiling and then ltered and concentrated.
118
Date juice has a
tendency to lose avour, vitamins and colour during processing
when subjected to open conditions.
119
To overcome this problem,
some mild technologies have been applied during the production
of date juice. The juice can be extracted at lower temperature
under vacuum.
118
Date juice (Fig. 4A) has considerable antioxidant and
antimutagenic activity.
75
Many products such as carbonated and
non-carbonated beverages, date juice wine, ice cream, jam and
jelly (as a sugar substitute) are made using date juice.
1
A B
C D
E
F
G
Figure 4. Date products: A, date juice; B, date syrup; C, date paste; D, date
pickle; E, date bar; F, date butter; G, date jam (published with permission
of Date Palm Research Center, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia).
Date syrup-based products
Date syrup (Fig. 4B) has the same quality as date juice but is more
concentrated. Date syrup is one of the most common date fruit
derivatives. Date fruit at the khalal stage of maturity, being high
in soluble sugars, is an excellent raw material for the preparation
of date syrup.
120
Like the method for producing date juice, the
general process for the production of date syrup includes pitting,
hot water extraction, autoclaving, ltration and concentration.
Recently, Ei-Sharnouby et al.
121
reported that the recovery of
soluble solids obtained by pectinase and cellulase extraction
was almost twice that obtained by conventional hot water and
autoclaving extraction. The date syrup extracted with pectinase
and cellulase was found to be a good substitute for sucrose in
bakery products.
Date syrup can be used in beverages, confectionery, biscuits,
bread, ice cream and cakes as a sweetening and avouring
agent.
122
Liquid date sugar is made fromrened date syrup, being
a mixture of various sugars (i.e. glucose, fructose and sucrose)
with a soluble solid content of 75%, and is used mostly in soft
drinks, cakes, jellies, preserved fruits, confectionary products and
ice cream.
Date paste-based products
Date food producers are very interested in producing date paste
in order to reduce transportation and storage costs but also to
convert dates of inferior quality into a value-added product.
30
For the preparation of date paste (Fig. 4C), pitted date fruit is
soaked in hot water or steamed under a certain pressure and
then ground. To improve the shelf life and desirable colour of
date paste, citric acid or ascorbic acid (0.2%) is generally used.
118
Date paste can be used as a substitute for our in bakery and
confectionary products.
118,123
The use of 48% date paste in
bread formulation results in a signicant improvement in the
dough rheological properties, delays gelatinisation, improves gas
production and retention, extends the shelf life, retards staling
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andimproves the crumbandcrust characteristics. Sanchez-Zapata
et al.
124
investigated the effect of date paste on the quality of a
cooked meat product. The results showed that the addition of
date paste to the meat product could decrease its fat content and
increase the nutritive value of the product.
Date paste can also be used to prepare date candy and date
powder.
123
To further enhance the nutritive value of date paste,
it can be mixed with skim milk powder, chocolate and fruit juice
(e.g. banana, orange, pineapple, apple, grape or strawberry juice)
to yield a high-protein product, tamar heep.
Products fromby-products of date processing
Date processing results in substantial losses of date palm fruit.
Dates of imperfect appearance are discarded as unsuitable for
packaging for the marketplace. However, these by-products can
be used as substrates for fermented products because of their
nutritivecomponents for micro-organismgrowthandmetabolism,
such as sugars, protein, minerals and bre. Many studies on the
potential use of date by-products as substrates for fermented
products have been reported.
Acourene et al.
125
investigated the potential of date waste
as a substrate for the production of citric acid using strains of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae ATCC 1102 and Aspergillus niger ATCC
16404. The results showed that 0.1264 kg L
1
citric acid could
be obtained under optimal fermentation conditions. Chauhan
et al.
126
investigated the possibility of lactic acid production by
Lactobacillus sp. KCP01 using date juice as a carbon source. The
results showed that 0.0151 kg L
1
lactic acid could be obtained
under optimal pH and temperature conditions.
Moosavi-Nasab and Youse
127
utilised low-quality date syrup
for the production of bacterial cellulose using Gluconacetobacter
xylinus. The results showed that 0.0435 kg L
1
bacterial cellulose
could be obtained. Moosavi-Nasab et al.
128
used Xanthomonas
campestris withdate syrupas a substrate toproduce xanthangum.
The results showed that the maximum gum concentration could
be increased to 8.9 10
3
kg L
1
.
Radwan et al.
129
obtained a high yield of bleomycin (0.138
10
3
kg L
1
) when date syrup was used as an additional carbon
source.
Aleid
13
incorporatedprobiotic micro-organisms Bidobacterium
lactis Bb-12, Bidobacterium longum Bb-46 and Lactobacillus
acidophilus La-5 into date paste. All three probiotic bacteria were
capableof survivingindatepaste. Theviablecount of L. acidophilus
remained above 6 10
3
log
10
CFU kg
1
in date paste until the
third week of storage.
Al-Jasass et al.
130
investigated the production of the bakery
yeast strain S. cerevisiae using substrates of pure date syrup and
pure molasses. The results showed that the overall biomass yield
from the pure date syrup substrate was signicantly lower than
that from the pure molasses substrate. This may be due to the
effect of yeast-toxic organic acids contained in date syrup at high
concentrations.
Other products
Date pickles (Fig. 4D), including pickles-in-oil, brine and salt-stock
pickles and chutney, are other popular products that can be made
using date fruit at the kimri and khalal stages.
30
Pickles-in-oil are
prepared using pitted fruit at the kimri stage with various spices,
condiments and mustardoil.
118
Chutney is composedof date fruit,
vinegar, vegetables and hot spices.
Date bars (Fig. 4E) can be made using date pulp, sesame seeds,
almonds and oak akes and are very popular with young children.
Such fortied date fruit bars can also supply a reasonable amount
of fat, protein, bre and minerals.
Tamer stage dates with high sugar content are suitable for
making date butter (Fig. 4F).
30
The procedure is similar to jam
making, except that the pH is adjusted to 4.7.
118
Date pulp and clear date fruit extract can be used to prepare
date jam(Fig. 4G) anddate jelly respectively. Gooddate jamcanbe
made with a sugar concentration of 65%, a pectin concentration
of 1% and a pH of 33.2. Some date fruit cultivars such as Khalas,
Sukkary and Ruzeiz are very suitable for jam making. Masmoudi
et al.
131
reported that various types of jelly prepared from date
fruit had high adhesiveness, chewiness, cohesiveness and taste
attributes.
CONCLUSION
Date fruit plays an important role in date-growing regions, espe-
cially in countries of the Middle East. Many chemical components
of datefruit havebeenreported, themajor onebeingcarbohydrate
(mainly sucrose, glucose and fructose). Date fruit is also a good
source of bre, vitamins, minerals, enzymes and phytochemicals,
includingcarotenoids, phenolics andavonoids. Date fruit cannot
only provide antioxidant, antimutagenic and immunomodulatory
benets to health but also has diverse medicinal values, including
antihyperlipidaemic, anticancer, gastroprotective, hepatoprotec-
tive and nephroprotective activities. The observed medicinal
properties have a good relationship with the composition of
date fruit, such as its high concentration of minerals and antioxi-
dants. Date fruit has been processed into many products such as
date juice, date paste, date syrupandother derivedproducts. Date
by-products can be used as raw materials for the production of
value-added products such as organic acids, exopolysaccharides,
antibiotics, date-avoured probiotic-fermented dairy produce,
bakery yeasts, etc.
In the future we need to characterise and quantify the various
antioxidants present indatefruit andstudytheir bioavailabilityand
metabolism in humans. In order to further explore the nutritional
and medicinal benets of date fruit, we also need to explore
its health benets and develop value-added food products and
supplements based on its functional components.
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