If applicable, page number will go here after aggregating all papers

Proceedings of the International Symposium on

Sustainable Systems and Technologies, v2 (2014)

Life cycle assessment of protein-soil composites for sustainable
construction

Henning Roedel PhD Candidate, Stanford University, hroedel@stanford.edu
Patricia Aubuchon Graduate Student, Stanford University, pattij@stanford.edu
Satej Desai Graduate Student, Stanford University, sdesai2@stanford.edu
Flavia Grey Graduate Student, Stanford University, fgrey@stanford.edu
Pratyush Havelia Graduate Student, Stanford University, phavelia@stanford.edu
Caroline Nowacki Graduate Student, Stanford University, cnowacki@stanford.edu
Michael Lepech Assistant Professor, Stanford University, mlepech@stanford.edu
David J. Loftus Medical Officer, NASA Ames Research Center, david.j.loftus@nasa.gov

Abstract
The results of a life cycle analysis (LCA) are presented for a novel biocomposite material that is
under investigation by NASA for the purpose of construction on planetary surfaces. The material
consists of soil particles solidified by the addition of a protein binding agent. Preliminary
compressive strength data suggests the biocomposite could be used for construction on earth.
To assess the biocomposites potential for use in more sustainable construction a comparative
process-based LCA between biocomposite bricks and concrete pavers was performed to
analyze the embedded energy and greenhouse gas emissions of both types of bricks. In order
to account for economies of scale, a functional unit of ten thousand 12 inch by 12 inch by 1.5
inch pavers was chosen. Analysis of both types of bricks included raw material acquisition,
material processing, manufacturing and end of life disposal/recycling as well as transportation
between phases. The manufacture of biocomposite bricks assumed the mixing of protein binder
with water and soil, followed by the formation of bricks using a hydraulic press. The use phase
was not analyzed due to limited data on the service life of the biocomposite material. The
software package SimaPro was used to construct the life cycle inventories of the two brick
designs as well as to analyze their impacts using the IMPACT 2002+ methodology. Results
show that the concrete bricks outperform the biocomposite in initial impact. However,
biocomposite bricks are more favorable when recycling scenarios are taken into account.
Analysis of the LCA results for the biocomposite point to the purification of the protein binder as
a significant contributor to the environmental impact of the material. Based on these results,
recommendations include switching to a mixture of proteins, i.e. a lower grade, to reduce the
biocomposite impact as well as further laboratory investigations into recycling scenarios.



Proceedings of the International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and Technologies (ISSN 2329-9169) is
published annually by the Sustainable Conoscente Network. Melis sa Bilec and Jun-Ki Choi, co-editors.
ISSSTNetwork@gmail.com.

Copyright 2014 by Henning Roedel, Patricia Aubuchon, Satej Desai, Flavia Grey, Pratyush Havelia, Caroline
Nowacki, Mike Lepech, and David Loftus Licensed under CC-BY 3.0.

Cite as:
Life cycle assessment of protein-bonded composites for sustainable construction, Proc. ISSST, H. Roedel, P.
Aubuchon, S. Desai, F. Grey, P. Havelia, C. Nowacki, M. Lepech, and D.J. Loftus. Doi information v2 (2014)
Life cycle assessment of protein-bonded composites for sustainable construction
If applicable, page number will go here after aggregating all papers
Introduction

Materials production is a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions. As an example,
cement production accounts for 5% of global anthropogenic CO2 emissions

along with
significant levels of SO2, NOx, particulate matter and other pollutants (Hendriks et al. 1998;
Worrell et al. 2001). Moreover, the mining, manufacturing, and transportation of other concrete
components (i.e. sand, aggregates, supplementary cementitious materials, admixtures) creates
additional burdens in the form of CO2 emissions, SO2 emissions, NOx emissions, particulate
matter releases, and other impacts (Keoleian et al. 2005). Following this pattern, the
production flows for many materials that form the foundation of our modern economy (i.e.
cement, silicon, steel) are energy-intensive, consume raw materials in an inefficient manner,
and are emissions-intensive in nature. In response, research and development of more
sustainable materials and processes are being suggested from a wide variety of disciplines and
industries.

NASA Ames Research Center has started to examine materials and means that could enable
construction on planetary surfaces. Building materials that could be manufactured largely from
resources available at the destination could provide a substantial benefit to NASA, by greatly
reducing or even eliminating the requirement to launch this materials into space (Bodiford et al.
2006). The solution, studied since early 2012, is the use of soil, or regolith, from the surface,
mixed with water and proteins, produced in situ, to fabricate a brick or other building products.
Recent laboratory experiments have shown that the mixture of bovine serum albumin with lunar
regolith simulant, JSC1A, form a composite strong enough for use on earth. The motivation for
this study is to determine whether altering and scaling the laboratory process for earth based
construction could potentially have fewer environmental impacts than traditional cement-based
construction materials.

To evaluate large scale manufacture of products, like cement, life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a
valuable tool for understanding the environmental impacts. LCA can be applied to both products
and processes to help identify sources of pollution or to compare products using the same
functional unit. As defined by the International Standards Organization 14040 document, there
are four steps to performing an LCA: 1) goal definition and scoping, 2) inventory analysis, 3)
impact assessment, and 4) interpretation. The remainder of this paper will go through this
process.

Goal and Functional Unit

The goal of this study is to compare resource depletion and climate change impacts of cement
based pavers used for sidewalk construction versus the protein based approached being
developed at NASA. The functional unit is defined as 10,000 12in by 12in by 1.5in paver
bricks (Nantucket Pavers Patio-on-a-Pallet 2014), which is chosen in order to capture
economies of scale for protein production that are already accounted for in cement based brick
production. Additionally, the use of a volume definition, rather than mass definition, allows the
differences in product composition to contribute to the LCA.

Methodology

In this paper, a comparative process-based LCA was implemented to determine the
environmental impacts of concrete vs. protein-soil pavers (biocomposite bricks) based on the
aforementioned functional unit. The LCA was modeled using the SimaPro 7.2 software package
and inventory data from the following databases: Eco-Invent 2000, Franklin Associates USA 98,
H. Roedel et al.
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and BUWAL 250. The following subsections describe scope, method of assessment, and the
materials and processes used to model and assess the inventory.

The scope of the LCA includes material extraction, material processing and purification, paver
manufacturing, and disposal as well as transportation between cradle-to-gate phases. The use
phase is specifically not included as there is little data, laboratory or otherwise, to predict the
performance of the biocomposite paver. Figure 1 depicts the scope of the LCA.

The IMPACT 2002+ methodology was used to determine a single point impact score from the
modeled life cycle inventories. The IMPACT 2002+ assessment was chosen due to its robust
characterization of over 1500 different life cycle inventory results, as well as its assessment of
greenhouse gas emissions and resource depletion, which are key metrics in addressing the
issues outlined in the introduction of this paper (Jolliet et al. 2003).


Figure 1: LCA Scopes of Cement and Protein Bound Pavers. Modeled scope of the two paver materials, dashed
boxes were excluded from the analyses. Data sources of the items within the scope of the model originate from
available databases, laboratory studies, and literature.

Concrete Paver Model

The concrete paver was modelled using a lightweight concrete block, with an expanded clay
aggregate included in the Eco-Invent database (Frischknecht et al. 2005). The mass of each
Life cycle assessment of protein-bonded composites for sustainable construction
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paver was calculated assuming a density of 2,055kg/m
3
, which equates to 7.3kg per paver. The
total mass modelled using the lightweight concrete block is therefore 72,727kg.

Biocomposite Paver Model

The biocomposite paver is modeled as a mixture of regolith, protein, and water at the following
ratios 13:1:2.5 respectively. This ratio is based on data collected during laboratory experiments
using JSC1A lunar regolith simulant (Orbitec), and bovine serum albumin (BSA) protein (Sigma
Aldrich). Thus the mass of regolith, BSA, and water required to meet the functional unit was
59,750kg, 4570kg, and 11390kg respectively. The next subsections describe the manufacture of
JSC1A and BSA respectively.

The manufacture of the biocomposite involves mixing, forming, and drying the three constituents.
The process was modelled using a DASION JS1500 concrete batch plant mixer and a hydraulic
DY-150TB brick molding machine. Paver desiccation was assumed to be a passive evaporative
process and was not modeled. For both mixing and molding only power consumption was
modeled using the Franklin USA power grid mix. Calculations are included in Appendix A.

JSC1A Model

The production of JSC1A lunar regolith simulant was commissioned by NASA for the purposes
of preserving Apollo return samples while promoting research and development for technologies
such as the biocomposite in this study. Orbitec, Inc. located in Madison, WI oversees the
manufacture and distribution of JSC1A. Basaltic material is sourced from the San Francisco
volcano near Flagstaff, AZ, and is then hauled to a jet milling facility in Richardson, TX to reduce
the particle size distribution to that of lunar mare regolith. Once milled to the appropriate size,
the material is sent to the Orbitec warehouse where it is packaged and distributed. For the
purpose of this LCA, JSC1A was chosen as the soil component of the biocomposite brick, with
the understanding that a wide variety of terrestrial soils or sand may in fact be more practical if
the technology were to be adopted for use on earth.

The source material was modelled in SimaPro using an Eco-Invent module. The jet milling
energy and transport are also included modules from the Franklin Associates USA 98 database.
Calculations are included in Appendix B.

BSA Model

Serum albumin is the most abundant protein in blood plasma, accounting for approximately 50%
of the total protein, and over 3% of the total blood mass (Duarte, et al. 1999). The production of
purified bovine serum albumin follows a series of precipitation and centrifugation steps to
separate it from red blood cells and other proteins found in the plasma. Figure 2 below, adopted
from Proliant Biologicals, Inc. (Ankey, IA), depicts a purification process commonly referred to
as the heat shock method, which was used as the basis for the BSA model. The method from
Proliant Biologicals was chosen because of its industrial scale and large BSA production market
share.

The heat shock process was broken down and modeled as seven steps: 1) red blood cell and
lipid separation, 2) transport to Ankey, IA (the location of the Proliant Biologicals plant), 3)
removal of immunoglobulin, 4) heat shock, 5) filtration, 6) lyophilization, and 7) transport to
Mountain View, CA.

H. Roedel et al.
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A key assumption in this model excludes the embedded impacts associated with the bovine
protein source. This assumption was made due to the small amount of albumin that constitutes
total bovine mass, roughly 0.2% (Alberghina et al. 2011), and the fact that cows are not raised
for albumin production. Due to the proprietary nature of the process, several sources for each
step were referenced in order to qualify assumptions in the modeling process. Plant and
infrastructure were not included in the model because the throughput of the Proliant Biologicals
factory is unknown. The calculations and their references for heat shock purified BSA are
included in Appendix C.


Figure 2: Bovine Serum Albumin Heat Shock Purification Process. The process for separating and purifying BSA
from a solution of bovine plasma as used by Proliant Biologicals, Inc.

Disposal Scenarios

The disposal of the cement-based bricks assumes the majority (95% or 9,500 bricks) would be
crushed and recycled to be used as aggregate, with the remainder sent to landfill to account for
losses during recycling. The impacts for crushing the pavers are modeled using a rock crushing
module from the Eco-Invent database.

The biocomposite disposal scenario reflects the recyclability of both the soil and the protein,
since the protein is readily soluble in water and can easily dissociate from the soil particles.
Once submerged, rotary mixed, and centrifuged, 95% of the protein and regolith, can be reused
for new biocomposite. The disposal scenario assumes the remaining 5% of protein and soil is
sent to landfill. Energy of the mixer and centrifuge and 11390kg of water are modelled as part of
this process. The energy calculations assume the use of the same type of centrifuge and mixer
used in the production of BSA and can be found in Appendix C.

Results

Results were obtained from the SimaPro 7.2 LCA software, where the inventories of the cement
and biocomposite pavers were modeled. Figure 3 shows the life cycle single point scores,
Life cycle assessment of protein-bonded composites for sustainable construction
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climate damage, and energy resource damage of the two materials based on the IMPACT
2002+ impact assessment methodology. The actual values of the single point scores, climate
damage, and energy resource damage for the cement and biocomposite pavers are shown in
Table 1. Network flow diagrams depicting the single score impacts of the cement paver and
biocomposite are included as Appendices D and E respectively.


Figure 3: Life Cycle Models of Cement and Protein bound Pavers. Single point score, climate damage, and
energy resource damage comparison of the lightweight concrete paver and the biocomposite paver. Scores were
determined using the IMPACT 2002+ impact assessment methodology.

The majority of impacts from the pavers stemmed from manufacturing phase. For the
biocomposite the largest contributions to its impact are generated during the protein purification
stages, with the largest share coming from the energy needed to freeze dry the protein. By
comparison the production of JSC1A contributes roughly 27% of the biocomposite impacts. The
biocomposite material end-of-life scenario, greatly improves the impact score, reducing it by
nearly 95% as the majority of the proteins and JSC1A can be reused. For the cement based
pavers, however, nearly the entirety of the impact stems from the production of the bricks.

Table 1: Impact Assessment of Cement and Biocomposite Pavers. Scores were determined using the IMPACT
2002+ impact assessment methodology.
Cement Paver Biocomposite
Single Point Score 8.5 2.6
Climate Damage (kg CO2

-eq) 30,800 7,490
Energy Resource Damage
(MJ Primary Energy)
362,000 113,000

Conclusion

This report presents, for the first time, an LCA for the production and utilization of albumin at an
industrial scale. Furthermore it compares the impacts of using albumin proteins versus cement
in building product (paver) production. Our results show that the protein-based product has one
fourth of the impact of the concrete-based product, when recycling is taken into account, owing
to the excellent solubility of proteins in water. However there is a relatively high uncertainty in
H. Roedel et al.
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this assessment as much of the data is predicated on laboratory experiments, which do not
always translate when scaled up. A prime example is the mass production of the JSC1A lunar
regolith simulant which has a complex supply chain and energy intensive jet milling process.
Furthermore, since there is no data on the durability of the biocomposite over time, the LCA
does not account for the use phase of the pavers.

For terrestrial use, further development of the biocomposite technology is needed, with effort
aimed at developing strategies for protecting the product from precipitation and other sources of
water, to help ensure durability, while maintaining the beneficial recyclability. The LCA also
points to the need to reduce impacts associated with production of the protein binder. The use of
less stringently purified blood proteins, or the use of protein mixtures, should go a long way
toward addressing this issue. Finally, the terrestrial application of this technology will benefit
from the use of locally acquired soil or sand, rather than the lunar soil simulant (JSC1A)
developed by NASA. If the desirable properties of the product can be maintained when locally-
acquired soil or sand is used, manufacturing impacts and transportation impacts can be
expected to drop significantly.

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Supplementary Information

Appendix A: Calculations for Biocomposite Production

Mixer Energy Calculation

Volume of bricks = 12in 12in 1.5in 10000 1.64E-5m
3
/in
3
= 35.4m
3

Production rate of mixer = 75 m
3
/hr*
Time required to mix = 35.4m
3
1 hr/75m
3
= 0.47hr
Power requirement = 66.5kW*
Energy entered into SimaPro = 0.47hr 66.5kW = 31.4kWh

*(2012 New Arrival Industrial Cement Mixer JS Mixer Mortar Mixer and Pump 2014)

Hydraulic Molder Energy Calculation

Production rate = 3500 bricks/8hr = 437.5bricks/hr**
Time required to compact bricks = 10000bricks 1hr/437.5bricks = 22.9hr
Power requirement = 7.7kW**
Energy entered into SimaPro = 22.9hr 7.7kW = 176kWh

**(Hydraulic DY-150TB Cement Paver Brick Molding Machine 2014)

Appendix B: Calculations for JSC1A Production

Step 1: Mining

Amount of JSC1A required = 59750kg
Losses due to jet milling = 0.5kg loss/1000kg product
Amount of Sand to be mined = 59750kg (1+0.5kg/1000kg) = 59780kg

Step 2: Transport to Texas for Jet Milling

Driving distance = 1539km
Transportation impact = 1539km 59.8tonne = 91980tkm

Step 3: Jet Milling

Production rate = 4536kg/hr*
Time required to mill = 59782kg 1hr/4536kg = 13.2hr
Power requirement = 580.9kW*
Energy entered into SimaPro = 13.2hr 580.9kW = 7656kWh
Mass to be transported = 59750kg

Step 4: Transport to Madison, WI

Driving distance = 1571km
Transportation impact = 1571km 59.8tonne = 93950tkm

Step 5: Transport to Mountain View, CA

Life cycle assessment of protein-bonded composites for sustainable construction
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Driving distance = 2122km
Transportation impact = 2122km 59.8tonne = 126900tkm

*(Micronizer Jet Mill Overview | Sturtevant Products 2014)

Appendix C: Calculations for BSA Production

Amount of BSA needed = 4570kg

Step 1: Blood and Lipid Centrifugation

Concentration of BSA in blood = 20kg BSA/1,000kg blood = 2%*
Mass of blood needed = 4,570kg / 2% = 228.3tonne of blood
Density of blood = 1,050kg/m
3
**
Volume of blood needed = 228.3tonne 1 m
3
/1050kg = 217m
3
= 217,000L
Centrifuge throughput = 2,900L/hr***
Time to separate lipids, red blood cells, and plasma = 217,000L 1hr/2,900L = 74.8hr
Power required for centrifuge = 2.2kW***
Energy entered into SimaPro = 74.8hr 2.2kW = 164.6kWh
Volume of plasma in blood = 65-70% = 67.5%****
Volume of lipids removed by centrifugation = 1.4%****
Volume reduction = 67.5% 1.4% = 66%
Plasma volume = 217,000L 66% = 143,220L = 141.9m
3
Plasma density = 1,025kg/m
3
**
Plasma mass = 141.9m
3
1,025kg/m
3
= 146,800kg

Centrifuge waste was not modeled as the red blood cells are used in downstream processes.

Secondary Calculation to Determine Percent BSA in Blood

Average Concentration of BSA in blood = 31.864.60g/L*****
Percent BSA in blood = 31.86g/L 1L/1,050g** = 3%
2% is more conservative use as assumption

*(Manufacture of Bovine Serum Albumin 2001)
**(Elert 2014)
***(New Brunswick CEPA High-Speed Centrifuges 2013)
****(Duarte, Carvalho Simes, and Sgarbieri 1999)
*****(Alberghina et al. 2011)

Step 2: Transport Plasma to BSA Production Facility

Assume average distance = 250km (locally sourced cattle)
Transportation impact into SimaPro = 250km 146.8tonne = 36,700tkm

Step 3: Removal of Immunoglobulin (IgG) by Sodium Sulphate

Na2SO4 solution concentration = 18%(w/v)*
Mass of Na2SO4 needed = 18% 143,220L = 25,780kg
Centrifuge throughput = 2,900L/hr (same as Step 1)
Time to separate IgG = 143,220L 1hr/2,900L = 49.4hr
H. Roedel et al.
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Power required for centrifuge = 2.2kW (same as Step 1)
Energy entered into SimaPro = 49.4hr 2.2kW = 108.6kWh

Fraction of solution that is IgG = 4.2%**
Mass reduction from centrifugation = 146,800kg 4.2% = 6,170kg
Mass of plasma and Sodium Sulphate minus IgG = 146,800kg + 25,780kg 6,170kg =
166,410kg
Volume of new solution = 166,410kg 1m
3
/1,025kg = 162.4m
3
= 162,400L

Centrifuge waste was not modeled as the IgG is used in downstream processes.

*(Page and Thorpe 2002)
**(Duarte, Carvalho Simes, and Sgarbieri 1999)

Step 4: Heat Shock

Sodium Caprylic acid solution concentration = 3%(w/v)*
Mass of Sodium Caprylic acid = 162,400L 3% = 4,870kg
Enter into SimaPro = 4,870kg of Fatty alcohol, from palm kernel oil, at plant/RER S
Caprylic acid is naturally found in palm kernel oils, assume 100% substitute is on-site at
factory**

Mass of solution = 164,880kg + 4870kg = 171,290kg
Specific heat of plasma = 3.93kJ/kg-K***
Temperature Rise = 43K
Assumed heating element efficiency = 0.95
Heat energy entered into SimaPro = 171,290kg 3.93kJ/kg-K * 43K/0.95 * 0.000278kWh/kJ =
8,460kWh

Temperature reduction = 53K
Cooling energy entered into SimaPro = 171,290kg 3.93kJ/kg-K * 53K/0.95 * 0.000278kWh/kJ
= 10,430kWh

Volume of solution = 171,290kg * 1m
3
/1,025kg = 167,110L
Centrifuge throughput = 2,900L/hr (same as Step 1)
Time to separate remaining proteins = 167,110L 1hr/2,900L = 57.6hr
Power required for centrifuge = 2.2kW (same as Step 1)
Energy entered into SimaPro = 57.6hr 2.2kW = 126.8kWh
Assume new volume is original plasma volume = 143,220L

*(Chang 1993)
**(DrugBank: Caprylic Acid (DB04519) 2013)
***(Blood Plasma 2014)

Step 5: Purification

Assumed pump pressure = 15 psi
Pressure head* = 15psi 2.31 / 1.025 = 35.5ft
Pump efficiency = 0.8**
Pump power requirement = 12.7kW***
Pump flow rate = 420,000L/hr***
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Time to pump = 143,220L 1hr/420,000L = .34hr
Energy entered into SimaPro = .34hr 12.7kW = 4.3kWh

Calculation does not include degradation of filters due to use, also assumes reverse osmosis
pressure gradient is constant.

*(Converting Pump Head to Pressure 2014)
**(Evans 2014)
***(Pump Power Calculator 2014; Chemical Processing Pumps 2014)

Step 6: Lyophilization

Assume BSA concentration = 30%(w/v)
Mass of BSA = 4,570kg
Total volume of solution = 4570kg / 30% = 15,220L
Solution density = 1.0555kg/L (Laboratory measurement)
Mass of solution = 1.0555kg/L 15,220L = 16,070kg
Mass of water = 16,070kg 4,570kg = 11,500kg

Ice capacity of lyophilizer = 800 kg/day*
Time required to freeze dry = 11,500kg 1day/800kg = 14.4day
Power requirement = 284kW*
Energy entered into SimaPro = 14.4day 24hr/day 284kW = 97,980kWh

*(450FXS800-SS25C 2014)

Step 7: Transport to Mountain View, CA

Distance Ankey, IA to Mountain View, CA = 2,970km
Transportation impact into SimaPro = 2,970km 4.57tonne = 13,550tkm


H. Roedel et al.
If applicable, page number will go here after aggregating all papers
Appendix D: Single Point Score Network Flow Diagram for Cement Pavers*


*Not all process and material flows shown
Life cycle assessment of protein-bonded composites for sustainable construction
If applicable, page number will go here after aggregating all papers
Appendix E: Single Point Score Network Flow Diagram for Biocomposite Pavers*

*Not all process and material flows shown