06 - Computational Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer Emerging Topics

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Associate Editors
R. Amano
University of Wisconsin, USA
C.A. Brebbia
Wessex Institute of Technology, UK
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University of Udine, Italy
R.M. Cotta
COPPE/UFRJ , Brazil
S.K. Das
India Institute of Technology, Madras,
India
L. De Biase
University of Milan, Italy
G. De Mey
University of Ghent, Belgium
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University of Udine, Italy
M. Faghri
University of Rhode Island, USA
C. Herman
J ohn Hopkins University, USA
Y. Jaluria
Rutgers University, USA
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Helmut Schmidt University, Hamburg,
Germany
D.B. Murray
Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
P.H. Oosthuizen
Queens University Kingston, Canada
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Lithuanian Energy Institute, Lithuania
B. Sarler
Nova Gorica Polytechnic, Slovenia
A.C.M. Sousa
University of New Brunswick, Canada
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CHAM, UK
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University of Mining and Metallurgy,
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D. Tafti
Viginia Tech., USA
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Xian J iatong University, China
S. Yanniotis
Agricultural University of Athens, Greece
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C CC CComputational Fluid Dynamics omputational Fluid Dynamics omputational Fluid Dynamics omputational Fluid Dynamics omputational Fluid Dynamics
and Heat T and Heat T and Heat T and Heat T and Heat Transf ransf ransf ransf ransfer er er er er
EMERGING TOPICS
Editor s
R.S. Amano
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, USA
&
B. Sundn
Lund University, Sweden
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R.S. Amano
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, USA
B. Sundn
Lund University, Sweden
Contents
Pr eface xiii

I. Finite-Volume Method 1
1 A higher -or der bounded discr etization scheme 3
Baojun Song and R.S. Amano
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Numerical Formulation..............................................................6
1.2.1 Governing equations.......................................................6
1.2.2 Discretization..................................................................6
1.2.3 Higher-order schemes.....................................................7
1.2.4 Weighted-average coefficient ensuring
boundedness...................................................................8
1.3 Test Problem and Results.........................................................11
1.3.1 Pure convection of a box-shaped step profile...............11

1.3.2 Sudden expansion of an oblique velocity field in a
cavity............................................................................12
1.3.3 Two-dimensional laminar flow over a fence................15
1.4 Conclusions..............................................................................16

2
Higher -or der numer ical schemes for heat, mass, and
momentum tr ansfer in fluid flow 19
Mohsen M.M. Abou-Ellail, Yuan Li and Timothy W. Tong
2.1 Introduction..............................................................................20
2.2 Single-Grid Schemes................................................................21
2.3 New Numerical Simulation Strategy........................................22
2.4 Novel Multigrid Numerical Procedure.....................................23
2.5 The First Test Problem.. 29
2.6 Numerical Results of the First Test Problem............................30
2.7 The Second Test Problem. 39
2.8 Numerical Results of the Second Test Problem.......................41
2.9

Application of NIMO Scheme to Laminar Flow
Problems...................................................................................44
2.9.1 Steady laminar flow in pipes........................................47
2.9.2 Steady laminar flow over a fence 48
2.10

Application of the NIMO Higher-Order Scheme to the
Turbulent Flow in Pipes...........................................................52
2.11 Conclusions..............................................................................58

3 CFD for industr ial tur bomachiner y designs 61
C. Xu and R.S. Amano
3.1 Introduction..............................................................................61
3.1.1 Computational methods in turbomachinery..................61
3.1.2 Grid-free vortex method...............................................63
3.2 Numerical Methods for Incompressible Flow..........................64
3.3 Numerical Methods for Compressible Flow.............................65
3.4 Governing Equations for Two-Dimensional Flow...................70
3.5 Decomposition of Flux Vector.................................................72
3.5.1 Governing equations.....................................................72
3.5.2 Special treatment of the artificial dissipation terms
and numerical algorithm..............................................74
3.6 Stability Analysis.....................................................................77
3.7 Applications in Turbine Cascade..............................................80
3.7.1 C3X turbine cascade.....................................................80
3.7.2 VKI turbine cascade.....................................................85
3.8 Numerical Method for Three-Dimensional Flows....................88
3.9 Applications of Three-Dimensional Method............................89

3.9.1 Analysis of pitch-width effects on the secondary-
flows of turbine blades................................................89
3.9.2 Flow around centrifuge compressors scroll tongue....101
3.10 CFD Applications in Turbomachine Design..........................113
3.10.1 Flow solver for section analysis...............................116
3.10.2 Optimization.............................................................116
II. Finite Element Method 127
4
The finite element method: discer tization and
application to heat convection pr oblems 129
Alessandro Mauro, Perumal Nithiarasu, Nicola Massarotti and
Fausto Arpino
4.1 Governing Equations..............................................................129
4.1.1 Non-dimensional form of fluid flow equations..........129
4.1.2 Non-dimensional form of turbulent flow equations....138
4.1.3 Porous media flow: the generalized model equations.143
4.2 The Finite Element Method....................................................146
4.2.1 Strong and weak forms...............................................146
4.2.2 Weighted residual approximation...............................148
4.2.3 The Galerkin, finite element, method.........................149

4.2.4 Characteristic Galerkin scheme for
convection-diffusion equation...................................150
4.2.5 Stability conditions.................................................... 155
4.2.6 Characteristic-based split scheme.............................. 157

5 Equal-or der segr egated finite-element method
for fluid flow and heat tr ansfer simulation 171
Jianhui Xie
5.1 Introduction............................................................................ 171
5.2 Finite-Element Description.................................................... 175
5.2.1 Two-dimensional elements........................................ 175
5.2.2 Three-dimensional elements...................................... 177
5.2.3 Degenerated elements................................................ 179
5.2.4 Special elements (rod and shell) ................................ 179
5.3

Governing Equations for Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer
Problems................................................................................ 179
5.3.1 General form of governing equations........................ 180
5.3.2 Discretized equations and solution algorithm............ 182
5.3.3 Stabilized method....................................................... 187
5.4 Formulation of Stabilized Equal-Order Segregated Scheme. 193
5.4.1 Introduction................................................................ 193
5.4.2 FEM-based segregated formulation........................... 195
5.4.3 Data storage and block I/O process............................ 205
5.5 Case Studies........................................................................... 208
5.5.1 Two-dimensional air cooling box.............................. 208
5.5.2 CPU water cooling analysis....................................... 210
III.

Tur bulent Flow Computations/Lar ge Eddy
Simulation/Dir ect Numer ical Simulation 215

6

Time-accur ate techniques for tur bulent heat tr ansfer
analysis in complex geometr ies 217
Danesh K. Tafti
6.1 Introduction............................................................................ 217
6.2 General Form of Conservative Equations.............................. 218
6.2.1 Incompressible constant property assumption........... 220
6.2.2 Modeling turbulence.................................................. 224
6.3

Transformed Equations in Generalized
Coordinate Systems............................................................... 225
6.3.1 Source terms in rotating systems................................ 226
6.4 Computational Framework.................................................... 227
6.5 Time-Integration Algorithm................................................... 231
6.5.1 Predictor step............................................................. 231
6.5.2 Pressure formulation and corrector step..................... 232
6.5.3 Integral adjustments at nonmatching boundaries....... 239
6.6 Discretization of Convection Terms.......................................240
6.7 Large-Eddy Simulations and Subgrid Modeling....................246
6.8 Detached Eddy Simulations or Hybrid RANS-LES...............252
6.9 Solution of Linear Systems....................................................254
6.10 Parallelization Strategies........................................................256
6.11 Applications...........................................................................259

7

On lar ge eddy simulation of tur bulent flow and heat
tr ansfer in r ibbed ducts 265
Bengt Sundn and Rongguang Jia
7.1 Introduction............................................................................265
7.2 Numerical Method..................................................................267
7.3 Results And Discussion..........................................................267
7.3.1 Fully developed pipe flow..........................................267
7.3.2 Transverse ribbed duct flow.......................................269
7.3.3 V-shaped ribbed duct flow.........................................271
7.4 Conclusions............................................................................273

8

Recent developments in DNS and modeling of tur bulent
clows and heat tr ansfer 275
Yasutaka Nagano and Hirofumi Hattori
8.1 Introduction............................................................................275
8.2 Present State of Direct Numerical Simulations......................276
8.3 Instantaneous and Reynolds-Averaged Governing
Equations for Flow and Heat Transfer ...................................277
8.4 Numerical Procedures of DNS...............................................279
8.4.1 DNS using high-accuracy finite-difference method...280
8.4.2 DNS using spectral method........................................280
8.5 DNS of Turbulent heat Transfer in Channel Flow with
Transverse-Rib Roughness: Finite-Difference Method..........281
8.5.1 Heat transfer and skin friction coefficients.................281
8.5.2 Velocity and thermal fields around the rib.................284

8.5.3 Statistical characteristics of velocity field and
turbulent structures....................................................287

8.5.4 Statistical characteristics of thermal field and related
turbulent structures....................................................291
8.6

DNS of Turbulent heat Transfer in Channel Flow with
Arbitrary Rotating Axes: Spectral Method.............................295
8.7

Nonlinear Eddy Diffusivity Model for Wall-Bounded
Turbulent Flow.......................................................................301

8.7.1 Evaluations of existing turbulence models in
rotating wall-bounded flows......................................301

8.7.2 Proposal of nonlinear eddy diffusivity model for
wall-bounded flow.....................................................304
8.8 Nonlinear Eddy Diffusivity Model for Wall-Bounded
Turbulent Heat Transfer......................................................... 310

8.8.1 Evaluations of turbulent heat transfer models in
rotating channel flows............................................... 310

8.8.2 Proposal of nonlinear eddy diffusivity model for
wall-bounded turbulent heat transfer......................... 312
8.9 Model Performances.............................................................. 316
8.9.1 Prediction of rotating channel flow using NLEDMM316

8.9.2 Prediction of rotating channel-flow heat transfer
using NLEDHM........................................................ 322
8.10 Concluding Remarks.............................................................. 327

9

Analytical wall-functions of tur bulence for complex
sur face flow phenomena 331
K. Suga
9.1 Introduction............................................................................ 331
9.2 Numerical Implementation of Wall Functions....................... 333
9.3 Standard Log-Law Wall-Function (LWF) ............................. 334
9.4 Analytical Wall-Function (AWF).......................................... 335
9.4.1 Basic strategy of the AWF......................................... 335
9.4.2 AWF in non-orthogonal grid systems........................ 338

9.4.3 AWF for rough wall turbulent flow and heat
transfer....................................................................... 339
9.4.4 AWF for permeable walls.......................................... 352
9.4.5 AWF for high Prandtl number flows.......................... 359
9.4.6 AWF for high Schmidt number flows........................ 365
9.5 Conclusions............................................................................ 369
9.6 Nomenclature......................................................................... 376
IV. Advanced Simulation Modeling Technologies 381

10 SPH a ver satile multiphysics modeling tool 383
Fangming Jiang and Antonio C.M. Sousa
10.1 Introduction............................................................................ 383
10.2 SPH Theory, Formulation, and Benchmarking...................... 384
10.2.1 SPH theory and formulation...................................... 384
10.2.2 Benchmarking........................................................... 389
10.3 Control of the Onset of Turbulence in MHD Fluid Flow....... 392
10.3.1 MHD flow control..................................................... 394
10.3.2 MHD modeling......................................................... 395

10.3.3 SPH analysis of magnetic conditions to restrain the
transition to turbulence............................................. 396
10.4

SPH Numerical Modeling for Ballistic-Diffusive
Heat Conduction.................................................................... 400
10.4.1 Transient heat conduction across thin films............. 402
10.4.2 SPH modeling.......................................................... 403
10.4.3 Boundary treatment..................................................405
10.4.4 Results...................................................................... 406
10.5

Mesoscopic Pore-Scale SPH Model for Fluid Flow
in Porous Media..................................................................... 409
10.5.1 Modeling strategy..................................................... 412
10.5.2 Results and discussion..............................................416
10.6 Concluding Remarks.............................................................. 420

11 Evaluation of continuous and discr ete phase models
for simulating submicr ometer aer osol tr anspor t and
deposition 425
Philip Worth Longest and Jinxiang Xi
11.1 Introduction............................................................................ 426
11.2 Models of Airflow and Submicrometer Particle Transport.... 428
11.2.1 Chemical species model for particle transport.........428
11.2.2 Discrete phase model ............................................... 429
11.2.3 Deposition factors.................................................... 430
11.2.4 Numerical methods..................................................430
11.3 Evaluation of Inertial Effects on Submicrometer Aerosols....431
11.4 An Effective Eulerian-Based Model for Simulating
Submicrometer Aerosols 434
11.5

Evaluation of the DF-VC Model in an Idealized
Airway Geometry................................................................... 437
11.6 Evaluation of the DF-VC Model in Realistic Airways...........441
11.6.1 Tracheobronchial region..........................................441
11.6.2 Nasal cavity..............................................................446
11.7 Discussion..............................................................................451

12

Algor ithm stabilization and acceler ation in
computational fluid dynamics: exploiting r ecur sive
pr oper ties of fixed point algor ithms 459
Aleksandar Jemcov and Joseph P. Maruszewski
12.1 Introduction............................................................................ 460
12.2 Iterative Methods for Flow Equations.................................... 462
12.2.1 Discrete form of governing equations......................463
12.2.2 Recursive property of iterative methods...................465
12.3 Reduced Rank Extrapolation..................................................467
12.4 Numerical Experiments..........................................................470
12.4.1 RRE acceleration of implicit density-based solver... 470
12.4.2 RRE acceleration of explicit density-based solver...475

12.4.3 RRE acceleration of segregated pressure-based
solver........................................................................ 477
12.4.4 RRE acceleration of coupled pressure-based solver.480
12.5 Conclusion............................................................................. 482

Sunden Prelims.tex 15/9/2010 15: 48 Pagevii
Preface
Themainfocusof thisbook istointroducecomputational methodsfor uidow
and heat transfer to scientists, engineers, educators, and graduate students who
areengaged in developing and/or using computer codes. Thetopic ranges from
basic methods such as a nite difference, nite volume, nite element, large-
eddy simulation(LES), anddirect numerical simulation(DNS) to advanced, and
smoothed particlehydrodynamics (SPH). Theobjectiveis to present thecurrent
state-of-the-artforsimulatinguidowandheattransferphenomenainengineering
applications.
Therst andsecondchapters present higher-order numerical schemes. These
schemes include second-order UPWIND, QUICK, weighted-average coefcient
ensuringboundedness(WACEB), andnon-upwindinterconnectedmultigridover-
lapping (NIMO) nite-differencing and nite-volume methods. Chapter 3 gives
overviewof thenite-differenceandnite-volumemethods coveringsubsonic to
supersonic ow computations, numerical stability analysis, eigenvalue-stiffness
problem, featuresof two- andthree-dimensional computational schemes, andux-
vector splitting technique. Thechapter shows afew casestudies for gas turbine
bladedesignandcentrifugal compressor owcomputations.
The fourth and fth chapters give overview of the nite-element method
and its applications to heat and uid ow problems. An introduction to
weighted residual approximation and nite-element method for heat and uid
ow equations are presented along with the characteristic-based split algorithm
in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 discusses two important concepts. One is the equal-
order mixed-GLS (Galerkin Least Squares) stabilized formulation, which is a
generalizationof SUPG(streamline-upwind/PetrovGalerkin) andPSPG(pressure
stabilizing/PetrovGalerkin) method. Thesecondisthenumerical strategiesfor the
solutionof largesystemsof equationsarisingfromthenite-elementdiscretization
of theaboveformulations. Tosolvethenonlinear uidow/heat transfer problem,
particular emphasisisplacedonsegregatedscheme(SIMPLElikeinnite-volume
method) innonlinear level anditerativemethodsinlinear level.
Chapters6througheightgivenumerical methodstosolveturbulentows. Chap-
ter6overviewsmostimportantmethodsincludingRANSapproach, LES, andDNS
anddescribesthenumerical andtheoretical backgroundcomprehensivelytoenable
theuseof thesemethodsincomplexgeometries. Chapter7demonstratestheadvan-
tagesof large-eddysimulation(LES) forcomputationsof theowandheattransfer
in ribbed ducts through agas turbineblade. Direct numerical simulation (DNS)
Sunden Prelims.tex 15/9/2010 15: 48 Pageviii
is introducedinChapter 8. Inthis chapter recent studies onDNS andturbulence
models fromthestandpoint of computational uiddynamics (CFD) andcompu-
tational heat transfer (CHT) arereviewedandthetrends inrecent DNS research
and its rolein turbulencemodeling arediscussed in detail. Chapter 9 discusses
theanalytical wall-function of turbulencefor complex surfaceows. This chap-
ter introduces therecently emerged analytical wall-function (AWF) methods for
surfaceboundaryconditionsof turbulent ows.
Someadvancedsimulationmodelingtechnologiesaregiveninchapters10and
11. InChapter10thecurrentstate-of-the-artandrecentadvancesof anovel numer-
ical method the smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) is reviewed through
casestudieswithparticular emphasisonuidowandheat transport. Toprovide
sufcient backgroundandtoassessitsengineering/scienticrelevance, threepar-
ticular case studies are used to exemplify macro- and nanoscale applications of
thismethodology. Therstapplicationinthischapter dealswithmagnetohydrody-
namic(MHD) turbulencecontrol. Chapter 11providesthecontinuousanddiscrete
phasemodelsforsimulatingsubmicrometeraerosol transportanddeposition. Lastly
Chapter 12discusses convergenceaccelerationof nonlinear owsolvers through
use of techniques that exploit recursive properties xed-point methods of CFD
algorithms.
Theauthorsof thechapterswereall invitedtocontributetothisbookinaccor-
dancewiththeir expert knowledgeandbackground. All of thechapters followa
uniedoutlineandpresentationtoaidaccessibilityandthebookprovidesinvaluable
informationtoresearchersincomputational studies.
Finally, wearegrateful to theauthors and reviewers for their excellent con-
tributions to completethis book. Wearethankful for theceaseless helpthat was
providedby thestaff members of WIT Press, inparticular Mr. BrianPrivett and
Mrs. ElizabethCherry, andfor their encouragementintheproductionof thisbook.
Finally, our appreciationgoes to Dr. Carlos Brebbiawho gaveus strongsupport
andencouragement tocompletethisproject.
Ryoichi S. AmanoandBengt Sunden
Sunden CH001.tex 17/8/2010 20: 14 Page1
I. Finite-Volume Method
1 A higher-order bounded discretization
scheme
BaojunSongandRyoS. Amano
University of WisconsinMilwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, USA
Abstract
Thischapter presentsanoverviewof thehigher-order schemeandintroducesanew
higher-orderboundedscheme, weighted-averagecoefcientensuringboundedness
(WACEB), for approximatingtheconvectiveuxesinsolvingtransport equations
withthenite-volumedifferencemethod.Theweighted-averageformulationisused
for interpolatingthevariablesat cell faces, andtheweighted-averagecoefcient is
determinedfromnormalizedvariableformulationandtotal variationdiminishing
(TVD)constraintstoensuretheboundednessof solutions.Thenewschemeistested
bysolvingthreeproblems: (1) apureconvectionof abox-shapedstepproleinan
obliquevelocityeld, (2) asuddenexpansionof anobliquevelocityeldinacavity,
and(3) alaminar owover afence. Theresults obtainedby thepresent WACEB
arecompared with theupwind and QUICK schemes and show that this scheme
has at least thesecond-order accuracy whileensuring boundedness of solutions.
Moreover, it is demonstrated that this schemeproduces results that better agree
withtheexperimental dataincomparisonwithother schemes.
Keywords: Finite-volumemethod, Higher-order scheme
1.1 Introduction
Theapproximationof theconvectionuxesinthetransportequationshasadecisive
inuenceontheoverall accuracyof anynumerical solutionfor uidowandheat
transfer. Althoughconvectionis representedby asimplerst-order derivative, its
numerical representationremainsoneof thecentral issuesinCFD.Theclassicrst-
orderschemessuchasupwind, hybrid, andpower-lawareunconditionallybounded,
but tend to misrepresent the diffusion transport process through the addition of
numerical or false diffusion arising fromow-to-grid skewness. Higher-order
schemes, suchasthesecond-orderupwind[1] andthethird-orderupwind(QUICK)
[2], offer a route to improve accuracy of the computations. However, they all
suffer fromtheboundednessproblem; thatis, thesolutionsmaydisplayunphysical
4 Computational Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer
oscillationsinregionsof steepgradients, whichcanbesufcientlyserioustocause
numerical instability.
During the past two decades, efforts have been made to derive higher res-
olution and bounded schemes. In 1988, Zhu and Leschziner proposed a local
oscillation-damping algorithm(LODA) [3]. SincetheLODA schemeintroduces
thecontribution of theupwind scheme, thesecond-order diffusion is introduced
intothoseregionswhereQUICK displaysunboundedbehavior. In1988, Leonard
[4] developedanormalizedvariableformulationandpresentedahigh-resolution
bounded scheme named SHARP (simple high-accuracy resolution program).
Gaskell andLau[5]developedaschemecalledSMART(sharpandmonotonicalgo-
rithmfor realistic transport), whichemploysacurvature-compensatedconvective
transport approximationandapiecewiselinear normalizedvariableformulation.
However, numerical testing[6]showsthatbothSMARTandSHARPneedanunder-
relaxationtreatment at eachof thecontrol volumecell faces inorder to suppress
the oscillatory convergence behavior. This drawback leads to an increase in the
computer storagerequirement, especially for three-dimensional owcalculation.
In1991, Zhu[7]proposedahybridlinear/parabolicapproximation(HLPA)scheme.
However, thismethodhasonlythesecond-order accuracy.
Inthepresent study, aweighted-averagedformulationisemployedtointerpo-
latevariablesatcell facesandtheweighted-averagecoefcientisdeterminedbased
onthenormalizedvariableformulationandtotal variationdiminishing(TVD) con-
straints. Three test cases are examined: a pure convection of a box-shaped step
proleinanobliquevelocityeld, asuddenexpansionof anobliquevelocityeld
inacavity, andlaminar owover afence. Computationsareperformedonagener-
alizedcurvilinear coordinatesystem. Theschemesareimplementedinadeferred
correctionapproach. Thecomputedresultsarecomparedwiththoseobtainedusing
QUICK andupwindschemesandavailableexperimental data.
In CFD research, there are three major categories to be considered for ow
studiesinturbines:
1. Mathematical models thephysical behaviors that areto bepredictedtotally
depend on mathematical models. Thechoiceof mathematical models should
be carefully made, such as inviscid or viscous analysis, turbulence models,
inclusionof buoyancy, rotation, Corioliseffects, densityvariation, etc.
2. Numerical models selectionof anumerical techniqueisveryimportanttojudge
whether or notthemodelscanbeeffectivelyandaccuratelysolved. Factorsthat
needtobereviewedfor computationsincludetheorder of accuracy, treatment
of articial viscosity, considerationof boundednessof thescheme, etc.
3. Coordinate systems thetypeandstructureof thegrid(structuredor unstruc-
turedgrids) directlyaffect therobustnessof thesolutionandaccuracy.
Numerical studies demand, besides mathematical representations of theow
motion, ageneral, exible, efcient, accurate, and perhaps most importantly
stableandbounded(freefromnumerical instability) numerical algorithmfor solv-
ingacompletesetof averageequationsandturbulenceequations. Theformulation
A higher-order bounded discretization scheme 5
Table1.1. SchemesusedinCFD
Scheme Developers Order False Boundedness
diffusion
Upwind 1st High Unconditionally
bounded
Hybrid Gosman(1977) 1st High Unconditionally
bounded
Power-law Patankar (1980) 1st Medium Unconditionally
bounded
Second-order Priceet al. (1966) 2nd Low Unbounded
upwind
QUICK Leonard(1979) 3rd Low Unbounded
LODA ZhuLeschziner 2nd Low Conditionally
(1988) bounded
SHARP Leonard(1988) 2nd Low Conditionally
bounded
SMART GaskellLau(1988) 2nd Low Conditionally
bounded
WACEB Songet al. (1999) 2nd Low Unconditionally
bounded
of thediscretizationschemeof convectionuxesmaybeoneof themajor tasksto
meet suchdemands.
As for thenumerical method, theclassic rst-order schemes suchas upwind,
hybrid, and power-law [8] are unconditionally bounded (solutions do not suffer
fromover/undershoot), but tend to misrepresent the transport process through
additionof numerical diffusionarisingfromow-to-gridskewness. Thesearethe
schemes that most of thecommercial codes employ. Insomeapplications, small
overshootsandundershootsmaybetolerable. However, underothercircumstances,
thenonlinear processes of turbulencediffusionwill feedback andamplify these
over/undershoots, andmayleadtodivergenceof asolution. Duringthepastdecade,
efforts havebeen madeto derivehigh-resolution and bounded schemes. LODA,
SHARP, andSMART all display unboundedbehavior, whichleadstoanincrease
in the computer storage requirement, especially for three-dimensional ow cal-
culations. Therefore, thetraditional method for simulating turbulent ows is the
hybrid(upwind/central differencing) scheme, andtheupwindisusedforturbulence
equationssuchaskineticenergyequation, dissipationrateequation, andReynolds
stressequations. Sinceit hasapoor track record, oneshouldalwaysbesuspicious
of therst-order upwindscheme.
1.2 Numerical Formulation
1.2.1 Governing equations
The conservation equations governing incompressible steady ow problems are
expressedinthefollowinggeneral form:
div[
V+I
+
grad(+)] = S
+
(1)
where+ isanytransport variable,

V thevelocityvector, thedensityof theuid,
I
+
thediffusivecoefcient, andS
+
isthesourcetermof variable+.
With , , and representing the general curvilinear coordinates in three-
dimensional framework, thetransport equation(1) canbeexpressedas:
1
J
_
U+
V+
W+
_
=
1
J
_
I
+
J
(q
11
+
)
_
1
J
_
I
+
J
(q
22
+
)
_
1
J
_
I
+
J
(q
33
+
)
_
S
CD
S
+
(, , )
(2)
whereU, V, andW arecontravariant velocitiesdenedasfollows:
U = j
11
u j
21
: j
31
w (3a)
V = j
12
u j
22
: j
32
w (3b)
W = j
13
u j
23
: j
33
w (3c)
J istheJ acobiancoefcient, q
ij
and j
ij
(i =13and j =13) arethetransforma-
tioncoefcients(refer totheappendix), andS
CD
isthecross-diffusionterm(refer
totheappendix).
1.2.2 Discretization
Thecomputational domainisuniformly dividedintohexahedral control volumes,
andthediscretizationof transport equation(2) isperformedinthecomputational
domainfollowingthenite-volumemethod.
Integrating equation (2) over a control volume as shown in Figure 1.1 and
applyingtheGauss Divergence Theorem inconjunctionwithcentral differencefor
diffusion, wehave:
F
e
F
w
F
n
F
s
F
t
F
b
= S
+
LV S
CD
LV (4)
whereF
f
representsthetotal uxesof + acrossthecell facef (f =e, w, b, s, b, t).
W
z T
w
t
s
S
b
b
P
e
x E
n
Figure1.1. A typical control volume.
Takingtheeast faceasanexample, thetotal uxesacrossit canbewrittenas:
F
e
= (U+)
e
_
I
+
J
J
11
_
e
(+
E
+
P
) (5)
Intheaboveequation, thecell facevaluesof +canbeapproximatedwithdifferent
schemes.
For therst-order upwindscheme, thecell facevalueisexpressedas:
+
e
= +
P
if U
e
> 0
+
e
= +
E
if U
e
- 0
(6)
Substitutingequations(5) and(6) intoequation(4), wehave:
A
P
+
P
=
i=E,W,N,S,T,B
A
i
+
i
S
C
(7)
wheresubscripti denotesneighboringgridpoints, A
P
andA
i
thecoefcientsrelating
totheconvectionanddiffusion, andS
c
isthesourceterm.
1.2.3 Higher-order schemes
Theapproximationof convectionhasadecisiveinuenceontheoverall accuracyof
thenumerical simulationsfor auidow. Therst-order schemessuchasupwind,
hybrid, and power-law all introduce the second-order derivatives that then lead
to falsely diffusive simulated results. Therefore, the higher-order schemes have
to beusedto increasetheaccuracy of thesolution. Generally, withuniformgrid
spacing, the higher-order interpolation schemes can be written in the following
weighted-averageform:
+
e
= +
P
1
4
[(1)L
e
(1)L
e
] if U
e
> 0
+
e
= +
E

1
4
[(1)L
e
(1)L
e
] if U
e
- 0 (8)
where L
e
=+
P
+
W
, L
e
=+
E
+
P
, L
e
=+
EE
+
E
and is the weighted-
averagecoefcient. Inequation(8), theunderlinedtermsrepresent thefragments
of the rst-order upwind scheme. Therefore, the higher-order schemes can be
implemented in a deferred correction approach proposed by Khosla and Rubin
[9]; that is,
+
n1
f
= +
UP,n1
f
(+
HO,n
f
+
UP,n
f
) (9)
where n indicates the iteration level, and UP and HO refer to the upwind and
higher-orderschemes, respectively. Theconvectiveuxescalculatedbytheupwind
schemesarecombinedwiththediffusiontermtoformthemaincoefcientsof the
differenceequation, whilethoseresultingfromthedeferredcorrectionterms are
collected into thesourceterm, say, S
DC
. Such atreatment leads to adiagonally
dominant coefcient matrixandenablesahigher-order accuracytobeachievedat
aconvergedstage.
With this method, the deferred correction source term, taking eastwest
directionasanexample, iscalculatedby:
S
DC
=
1
4
_
U
e
U
e
[(1)L
e
(1)L
e
] U
e
U
e
[(1)L
e
(1)L
e
]
U
w
U
w
[(1)L
w
(1)L
w
] U
w
U
w
[(1)L
w
(1)L
w
]
_
(10)
whereU
e
isdenedas:
U
f
=
1sgn(U
f
)
2
If isxedat asuitableconstant valueeverywhere, several well-knownschemes
canbeformed.
However, theschemeslistedinTable1all sufferfromboundednessproblem; that
is, thesolutionsmay display unphysical oscillationsinregionsof steepgradients,
whichcanbesufcientlyserioustoleadtonumerical instability.
1.2.4 Weighted-average coefcient ensuring boundedness
Basedonthevariablenormalizationproposedby Leonard[4], withathree-node
stencil asshowninFigure1.2, weintroduceanormalizedvariabledenedas:
+ =
++
U
+
D
+
U
(11)
Table1.2. Typical interpolationschemes
Expressionfor +
e
whenu >0 Leadingtruncationerror term
1,2(3+
P
+
W
) 3,8Lx
3
+
//
1,2(+
E
+
P
) 1,8Lx
2
+
//
1,8(3+
E
6+
P
+
W
) 1,16Lx
3
+
///
1,6(2+
E
5+
P
+
W
) 1,24Lx
2
+
//
F
U
W E P w e
F
C
F
f
F
D
Figure1.2. Three-nodestencil.
where the subscripts U and D represent the upstream and downstream loca-
tions, respectively. In the normalized form, the higher-order schemes can be
rewrittenas:
+
f
=

+
C
1
4
[(1)(1

+
C
) (1)
+
C
] (12)
SeeFigure1.2for notationsof theterms. Solvingfor ,
=
4
+
f
4
+
C
1
12
+
C
(13)
Inorder toensureboundedness, theTVDconstraintscanbeused; that is,
+
f
1,

+
f
2+
C
,

+
f

+
C
for 0-

+
C
- 1
+
f
=

+
C
for

+
C
0 or

+
C
1 (14)
whichcorrespondtothetriangleregionshowninFigure1.3.
TVD
constraints
A
1.0
B 1.0
CF
c
WACEB
QUICK
~
2F
c
~
F
f
~
F
c
~
Figure1.3. Diagrammatic representation of the TVD constraint and WACEB
scheme.
The Taylor series expansion shows that the rst two leading trunca-
tion error terms of the interpolation scheme (7) are 1,4( 1,2)Lx
2
+
//
and
1,8(1)Lx
3
+
///
. Therefore, theschemehasat least thesecond-order accuracy.
Themaximumaccuracy(thirdorder) canbeachievedif isset equal to1/2. Thus,
theschemecanbeformedinsuchawaythat liesascloseaspossibleto1/2, while
satisfyingtheTVDconstraints. Basedonthisidea, thenormalizedcell facevalue
canbecomputedbythefollowingexpressions:
+
f
=
_
+
C

+
C
, [0, 1]
2
+
C

+
C
[0, 0.3)
3,8(2
+
C
1)

+
C
[0.3, 5,6]
1

+
C
(5,6, 1]
(15)
As shown in Figure 1.3, TVD constraints are overly restrictive according to
convectionboundednesscriterion(CBC). However, theuseof alarger multiplying
constant will not noticeably increasetheaccuracy. Thereasons arethat, rst, the
constant affects theaccuracy only intherangefromA to B (seeFigure1.3), and
this range varies at most from0 to 0.3 (if we use constant 3, A=0.1666 and
B=0.3). Secondly, evenwiththesmaller constant, theaccuracy of theschemeis
still second order. Therefore, thepresent WACEB (weighted-averagecoefcient
ensuringboundedness) schemeemploys normalizedvariableformulation(15) to
calculatetheweighted-averagecoefcient topreserveboundedness.
1.00
0.50
0.00
0.5
1.0
2.5 0.0 2.50
Figure1.4. Thevariationinweighted-averagecoefcientwithnormalizedvariable.
Fromequations(7) and(8), theweighted-averagecoefcient canbegivenby:
=
_
_
1,(12
+
C
)

+
C
, [0, 1]
(4
+
C
1),12
+
C

+
C
[0, 0.3)
(34
+
C
),(12
+
C
)

+
C
[0.3, 5,6]
1,2

+
C
(5,6, 1]
(16)
Thevariationin with

+
C
isshowninFigure1.4. It iseasytoseethat thepresent
WACEBschemesatisesconvectivestabilitycondition[2]. Itisnecessarytomen-
tionthat theabovealgorithmisformulatedontheassumptionof theconstant grid
spacing. For nonuniformgrids, theweighted-averagecoefcient will also bethe
functionof thegridspacingaspect ratio.
1.3 Test Problem and Results
The governing transport equations are solved by using the nonstaggered nite-
volumemethod. A special interpolationproceduredevelopedby RhieandChow
[10] isusedtopreventpressureoscillationsduetononstaggeredgridarrangement.
PressureandvelocitycouplingisachievedthroughtheSIMPLE algorithm[8].
ItisnecessarytomentionthatQUICK andWACEBschemesall needtoemploy
two upstreamnodes for each cell face, which mandates one to involve a value
outsidethesolution domain for anear-boundary control volume. Therefore, the
upwindschemeisusedfor all thecontrol volumeadjacent toboundaries.
1.3.1 Pure convection of a box-shaped step prole
TheowcongurationshowninFigure1.5constitutesatestproblemforexamining
theperformanceof numerical approximationtoconvectionbecauseof theextremely
1.0
0.15
0
.
1
5
= 0
v
u
1.0
0
.
1
5
0.15
= 1
= 0
V
Figure1.5. Pureconvectionof abox-shapedstepbyauniformvelocityeld.
sharp gradient in ascalar. This is alinear problemin which thevelocity eld is
prescribed. The calculations are performed with two different uniformmeshes,
2929and5959.
Comparisons of the numerical solutions obtained with the upwind, QUICK,
andWACEB schemes arepresented in Figure1.6(a) and (b). It can beseen that
theupwind schemeresults in aquitefalsely diffusiveprolefor thescalar even
withthener mesh. AlthoughtheQUICK schemereducessuchafalsediffusion,
it producessignicant overshootsandundershoots. Unlikely, theWACEB predicts
afairly good steep gradient without introducing any overshoots or undershoots.
Therefore, weconcludethattheWACEBschemeresolvestheboundednessproblem
whilereservingahigher-order accuracy.
1.3.2 Sudden expansion of an oblique velocity eld in a cavity
Thegeometryunder considerationisdepictedinFigure1.7. Theowisassumedto
besteadyandlaminar. At theinlet, U-velocityandV-velocityaregivenaconstant
valueof U
ref
. TheboundaryconditionsattheoutletareU,x =0andV,x =0.
Thecalculationsareperformedontheuniformmeshes(5959). Figure1.8shows
thecomparisonof U-velocity alongthevertical central lines of thecavity for the
Reynolds number 400. It is noticed that the upwind scheme cannot predict the
secondary recirculation region well, which should appear near theupper sideof
thecavityandsmearsout thesteepgradientsof thevelocityprolenear themain-
stream. WeobservethatboththeWACEBandQUICK schemesdistinctivelypredict
this secondary recirculatingregion. Furthermore, it is noteworthy toobservethat
bothproduceverysimilar results. Thestreamlinepatternspredictedwiththethree
schemes are all shown in Figure 1.9. It is clearly seen, again, that the upwind
1.250
1.000
0.750
0.500
0.250
0.000
0.000 0.250 0.500 0.750 1.000
0.250
Y 29 29
1.250
(b) (a)
1.000
0.750
0.500
0.250
0.000
0.000 0.250 0.500 0.750 1.000
0.250
Y 59 59
Exact
Quick
Waced
Upwind
Exact
Quick
Waced
Upwind
Figure1.6. Scalar prolesalongthecenter line.
L
y
L
x
0
.
1
5
L
0
.
1
5
L
Figure1.7. Geometryof acavity.
scheme predicts a much smaller vortex on the upper left side of the cavity and
muchwider mainstreamregionthantheQUICK andWACEB schemes. Thecom-
putationswerefurther extendedtoahigher Reynoldsnumber upto1,000. At this
Reynoldsnumber, theQUICK schemeproducesawigglesolution. Figure1.10
showsstreamlinepatternspredictedwiththeWACEB andupwindschemes. These
two schemes givevery different owpatterns; withtheincreaseintheReynolds
number, theconvectionisenhancedanddiffusionissuppressedandthenthedead
water regions shouldhavelesseffect onthemainstreamregion. Theresultswith
0.250
0.500
QUICK
WACEB
UPwind
0.750
U
/
U
r
e
f
0.000
0.000 0.250 0.500
y/L
0.750 1.000
0.25
Figure1.8. U-velocity prole along the vertical center line of the domain
(Re=400).
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
0.00 0.25 0.50
x/L
0.75 1.00
y
/
L
(a) (b)
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
0.00 0.25 0.50
x/L
0.75 1.00
y
/
L
(c)
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
0.00 0.25 0.50
x/L
0.75 1.00
y
/
L
Figure1.9. Streamlines for sudden expansion of an oblique velocity eld
(Re=400): (a) QUICK; (b) WACEB; (c) upwind.
the WACEB scheme clearly show this trend. It is also noted that the WACEB
schemeproducestwoadditional vorticesatthetwocornersof thecavity. However,
theupwindschemepredictsonly avery small additional vortex at thelower right
corner andfailstocapturetheadditional vortexat theupper left corner.
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
0.00 0.25 0.50
x/L
0.75 1.00
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
0.00 0.25 0.50
x/L
0.75 1.00
y
/
L
y
/
L
(a) (b)
Figure1.10. Streamlines for sudden expansion of an oblique velocity eld
(Re=1,000): (a) WACEB; (b) upwind.
0.1H
6H 30H
H
S

=

0
.
7
5
H
Figure1.11. Geometryof owover afence.
Fromtheabovediscussions, it isconcludedthat thesolutionwiththeWACEB
schemeis comparableto that with theQUICK scheme. Even under highly con-
vectiveconditionsinwhichtheunboundedQUICK schememayproducewiggle
solutions, theboundedWACEB schemestill producesareasonablesolution.
1.3.3 Two-dimensional laminar ow over a fence
A two-dimensional laminar owover afence(seeFigure1.11) withtheReynolds
number basedontheheight of thefence, themeanaxial velocity of 82.5, andthe
blockageratio(s,H) of 0.75isabenchmark casestudy. Theboundary conditions
at theinlet areprescribedas aparabolic prolefor theaxial velocity U andzero
for thecross-owvelocity V. At theoutlet, theboundary conditions aregivenas
U,x =0 and V,x =0. Thepresent study shows that thegrid-independence
resultscanbeachievedwith15078uniformmeshesfor all theschemes.
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
y
/
H
y
/
H
0.2
0.0
6.8 5.3 0 1.2 2.0
x/s
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
4.0 5.0 6.0 8.8
x/s
(a)
(b)
1.5
Figure1.12. Comparisonbetweenpredictionandmeasurement for owover the
fence (Re=82.5) (square symbol, experimental data; solid line,
WACEB; dashedline, QUICK; dashdot line, upwind)
Figure1.12presentstheaxial velocityprolesat different locations(x,s) mea-
sured[11] andcalculatedwiththeQUICK, WACEB, andupwindschemes. Wecan
observethat whenx,s islessthan2, theresultswiththethreeschemesarenearly
identical andareingoodagreement withexperimental data. However, whenx,s is
larger than2, wherethesecondseparatedowonthetopwall appears, theupwind
schemepredictsverypoor resultsandtheQUICK andWACEB schemesgivevery
satisfactory results in comparison with theexperimental data[11]. Theseresults
verifytheconclusiondrawnfromprevioussection.
1.4 Conclusions
By using normalized variableformulation andTVD constraints, theWACEB of
thesolutionisdeterminedandthenaboundedschemeispresentedinthischapter.
This newschemeis tested for four different owapplications including alinear
convectiontransport of ascalar, asuddenexpansionof anobliqueoweld, anda
laminar owover afence. Thenumerical testsshowthat thenewWACEB scheme
retains theability of theQUICK toreducethenumerical diffusionwithout intro-
ducing any overshoots or undershoots. The scheme is very easy to implement,
stable, and freeof convergenceoscillation and does not need to incorporateany
under-relaxationtreatment for weighted-averagecoefcient calculation.
Appendix
Thecross-diffusionsourceterminequation(2) isdenedasfollows:
S
CD
=
1
J
_
I
+
J
(q
21
+
q
31
+
)
_
1
J
_
I
+
J
(q
12
+
q
32
+
)
_
1
J
_
I
+
J
(q
13
+
q
23
+
)
_
Thetransformationcoefcientsaredenedasfollows:
j
11
=
y
, j
12
=
y
, j
13
=
y
,
j
21
=
x
, j
22
=
x
, j
23
=
x
,
j
31
=
x
, j
32
=
x
, j
33
=
x
and
q
ij
=
3
k=1
j
ki
j
kj
(i = 1, 3, j = 1, 3)
Nomenclature
A coefcientsinequation(7)
F total uxesacrossthecell faces
H height of channel
J determinant of J acobian
j
ij
, q
ij
(i =1, 3and j =1, 3) transformationfactor
L lengthof cavity
Re Reynoldsnumber
S
+
, S
C
, S
CD
, S
DC
sourceterm
s hight of fence
U, V, W contravariant velocitycomponents
U
m
meanvelocityinthechannel
u, :, w Cartesianvelocitycomponents
x, y, z Cartesiancoordinates
Greek Symbols
I diffusioncoefcient
weighted-averagecoefcient
+ dependent variable
, , generalizedcurvilinear coordinates
Superscript
HO termassociatedwithhigher-order scheme
UP termassociatedwithupwindscheme
n iterationlevel
normalizedvalue
Subscripts
f (=e, w, n, s, t, b) valueat thecell faces
F (=E,W, N, S,T, B) valueat thenodes
References
[1] Price, H. S. Varga, R. S., and Warren, J. E. Application of oscillation matrices to
diffusion-correctionequations, J. Math. Phys., 45, pp. 301311, 1966.
[2] Leonard, B. P.Astableandaccurateconvectivemodellingprocedurebasedonquadratic
upstreaminterpolation, Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., 19, pp. 5998, 1979.
[3] Zhu, J., andLeschziner, M. A. A local oscillation-dampingalgorithmfor higher-order
convectionschemes, Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., 67, pp. 355366, 1988.
[4] Leonard, B. P. Simplehigh-accuracy resolutionprogramfor convectivemodellingof
discontinuities, Int. J. Numer. Methods Fluids, 8, pp. 12911318, 1988.
[5] Gaskell, P. H., and Lau, A. K. C. Curvature-compensated convective transport:
SMART, anewboundedness preservingtransport algorithm, Int. J. Numer. Methods
Fluids, 8, pp. 617641, 1988.
[6] Zhu, J. Onthehigher-order boundeddiscretizationschemesfor nitevolumecompu-
tationsof incompressibleows, Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., 98, pp. 345360,
1992.
[7] Zhu, J. A low-diffusiveandoscillation-freeconvectionscheme, Comm. Appl. Numer.
Methods, 7, pp. 225232, 1991.
[8] Patankar, S. V. Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow, McGraw-Hill, NewYork
1980.
[9] Khosla, P. K., andRubin, S. G. A diagonallydominant second-order accurateimplicit
scheme, Comput. Fluids, 2, pp. 207209, 1974.
[10] Rhie, C. M., andChow, W. L. A numerical studyof theturbulent owpast anisolated
airfoil withtrailingedgeseparation, AIAA J., 21, pp. 15251532, 1983.
[11] Carvalho, M. G. Durst, F., andPereira, J. C. Predictionsandmeasurementsof laminar
owover two-dimensional obstacles, Appl. Math. Model., 11, pp. 2334, 1987.
2 Higher-order numerical schemes for
heat, mass, and momentum
transfer in uid ow
MohsenM. M. Abou-Ellail,YuanLi, andTimothyW. Tong
The George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA
Abstract
A novel numerical procedure for heat, mass, and momentumtransfer in uid
ow is presented in this chapter. The new scheme is based on a non-upwind,
interconnected, multigrid, overlapping (NIMO) nite-difference algorithm. In
two-dimensional (2D) ows, theNIMO algorithmsolves nite-differenceequa-
tions for eachdependent variableonfour overlappinggrids. Thenite-difference
equationsareformulatedusingthecontrol-volumeapproach, suchthatnointerpo-
lationsareneededfor computingtheconvectiveuxes. For aparticular dependent
variable, four elds of values are produced. The NIMO numerical procedure is
tested against the exact solution of two test problems. The rst test problem
is an oblique laminar 2D ow with a double-step abrupt change in a passive
scalar variable for innite Peclet number. The second test problemis a rotating
radial ow in an annular sector with a single-step abrupt change in a passive
scalar variable for innite Peclet number. The NIMO scheme produces essen-
tially the exact solution using different uniform and nonuniform square and
rectangular grids for 45- and 30-degreeangles of inclination. All other schemes
are unable to capture the exact solution, especially for the rectangular and
nonuniformgrids. The NIMO scheme is also successful in predicting the exact
solution for the rotating radial ow, using a uniformcylindrical-polar coordi-
nate grid. The new higher-order scheme has also been tested against laminar
and turbulent ow in pipes as well as recalculating ow behind a fence. The
two laminar test problems are predicted with a very high accuracy. The turbu-
lent ow in pipes is well predicted when the low Reynolds number k-e model
isused.
Keywords: Discretizationscheme, Non-upwind, Interconnectedgrids, Convective
uxes
2.1 Introduction
Finite-differencenumerical simulationshavesufferedfromfalsediffusion, which
issynonymouslyreferredtoasnumerical diffusion.Thisdeciencyandothererrors
incomputational uiddynamics(CFD) areaninevitableoutcomeof thedifferent
interpolationschemesusedfor theconvectiveterms. Theinterpolationschemesfor
theconvectivetermsareclassiedasone-pointschemessuchasrst-orderupwind,
two-point schemes suchas central differencing(CD), andhybridscheme, which
is a combination of CD and upwind differencing [14]. Higher-order schemes,
suchasthree-point second-order (CUI) [5], third-order quadraticinterpolationfor
convectivekinetics(QUICK [6] andQUICK-2D[7]), four-point third-order inter-
polation (FPTOI), and four-point fourth-order interpolation (FPFOI) [8], offer a
routeto improvingtheaccuracy of thecomputations. TheQUICK-2D schemeis
anextensionof theQUICK algorithmtoenhanceitsstability inellipticuidow
problems[7]. It utilizesasix-point quadratic interpolationsurfacethat favorsthe
locally upstreampoints [7]. All of theabove-mentionedschemes wereunableto
predict theexact prolealongthey-axisonthemid-planeof therst test problem
of the45-degreeobliqueowwithinnitePeclet number [810]. Theseschemes
produceduncertaintiesrangingfromfalsediffusionandnumerical instabilitiesto
overshootingandundershooting[8]. Songet al. [9,10] introducedahigher-order
boundeddiscretizationalgorithm(weighted-averagecoefcientensuringbounded-
ness, WACEB) toovercomeovershootingandundershootingencounteredintheir
previousFPTOI andFPFOI schemes[8].Theywereabletoremovetheovershooting
andundershootingintheir numerical results of the45-degreeobliqueow. Even
thehigher-order schemes, mentionedabove, wereunableto predict theinnitely
steepgradient of thescalar variable asit abruptlychangesfrom0to1inthetest
problem[810]. Raithby [11] presentedaskewdifferencingschemethat utilizes
theupstreamvaluesprevailingalongthelocal velocityvectorsat thefour facesof
the2Dcontrol volumesurroundingeachgridnode. Thisskewdifferencingscheme
wouldcapturemost of thedetails of theobliqueowif thegridis alignedalong
thelocal velocityvectors. Raithbyobtainedaccurateresultsfor theproblemof step
changeof apassivescalar usingasquareuniformgridwithdimensions 1111
whentheowisinclinedbya45-degreeangle[11]. Inthiscaseoneof thediagonals
of thecontrol volumesurroundingeachnodeisalignedalongtheuniformveloc-
ity eld, whiletheother diagonal is perpendicular to ow direction. Vermaand
Eswaran[12] usedoverlappingcontrol volumestodiscretizethephysical solution
domain.Theyobtainednite-differenceequationsthatfavortheupwindnodesfrom
whichtheincomingowemanates[12]. Theytestedtheir schemeusinga1111
gridfor thestepchangeinpassivescalar inanobliqueowproblem. They were
unabletocapturetheexact solutionwithasquaregridfor the45-degreeowwith
stepchangeinthepassivescalar [12]. Interpolationfor theconvectivetransport is
commonto all of theaboveschemes, causingavaryingdegreeof errors. More-
over, most of theaboveschemesinvolveupwinddifferencing, either explicitly or
implicitly. However, thediffusiveterms of theuidowgoverningequations are
mucheasier andaremoreaccuratelymodeledinmost numerical schemes.
Higher-order numerical schemes for heat, mass, momentum transfer 21
i, j +2
i, j +1
i +1, j +1
i 2, j
i +2, j
i 1, j
i 1, j 1

i +1, j 1
i +1, j
i, j 2
i, j 1
i, j
i1, j +1
Figure2.1. Control volumeof single-gridschemes.
2.2 Single-Grid Schemes
Most of thepublishednumerical proceduresuseasinglegrid. Themaingoverning
equationscanbecast inonegeneral form, namely,
(u
k
)
x
k

x
k
_
I
x
k
_
= S
(1)
where u
k
is the uid velocity along coordinate direction x
k
, while stands for
any dependent variable such as mass fraction or dimensionless temperature. As
explainedbyAbou-Ellail et al. [1], equation(1) canbeformally integrated, over
thecontrol volumeshowninFigure2.1, toproducethefollowingnite-difference
equation:
(d
i1, j
d
i1, j
d
i, j1
d
i, j1
S
p
)
i, j
= d
i1, j
i1, j
d
i1, j
i1, j
d
i, j1
i, j1
d
i, j1
i, j1
c
i1, j
i1,2,j
c
i1, j
i1,2,j
c
i, j1
i, j1,2
c
i, j1
i, j1,2
S
u
(2)
whered
i1, j
andc
i1, j
arediffusionandconvectioncoefcientstobecomputedat
thecenter of theeast faceof thecontrol volume, midwaybetweenthecentral node
(i) andtheeast node(i1). Theyaregivenas:
d
i1, j
=
_
AI
x
_
at i1,2,j
(3)
c
i1, j
= (uA)
ati1,2, j
(4)
where isthedensity, u thevelocityalongthex-axis, A theeast facesurfacearea,
x thedistancebetweennodesi and(i 1), I
thediffusioncoefcientof , andS
u
andS
p
arethecoefcientsof theintegratedsourcetermconvenientlyexpressedasa
linear expression. Equationssimilar to(3) and(4) applytothewest(i 1, j), south
(i, j 1), andnorth(i, j 1)nodes. Unliketheconvectiveterms, thediffusionterms
requirenointerpolationfor intermediatevaluesof . Convectiveterms, involving
CV facevaluessuchas
i1,2, j
, requireinterpolationbetweentheneighboringgrid
nodes. Thesingle-gridnite-differenceequationcanbewritten, for acentral nodal
point P andneighboringeastwestnorthsouthnodes(E, W, N, S), as:
(a
E
a
W
a
N
a
S
S
p
)
p
= a
E
E
a
W
W
a
N
N
a
S
S
S
u
(5)
Thehybridschemedenestheabovenite-differencecoefcientsasfollows:
a
E
= max
_
d
i1, j
,
1
2
c
i1, j
1
2
c
i1,j
(6)
a
W
= max
_
d
i1, j
,
1
2
c
i1, j
1
2
c
i1,j
(7)
Intheaboveequations, max [. . . . ,. . . .] represents themaximumvalueof the
twovalues insidethebracket. Coefcients a
N
anda
S
havesimilar expressions in
the hybrid scheme. The pure upwind differencing scheme has slightly different
expressionsfor thenite-differencecoefcients.
2.3 New Numerical Simulation Strategy
As mentioned above, most of the existing schemes, whether upwind or higher
order, haveacertaindegreeof falsediffusionand/or over- andundershooting. All
theabove-mentionedschemes cannot produceanexact numerical solutionto the
rst test problemof a45-degreeobliqueowwithstepchangesinapassivescalar
for squaregrids[810] andparticularlyfor rectangular andnonuniformgrids[11].
Thepresent simulation strategy is based on removing all theambiguity of inter-
polating for theCV facevalues of thescalar variable. This is donesimply by
superimposing four grids on the 2D solution domain. These grids are arranged
insuchaway that eachgriduses theremaininggrids to obtaindirectly, without
any interpolations, theCV facevalues of thescalar variableused in computing
theconvectiveterms. Thepresent newschemeessentially replaces theinterpola-
tionprocess, bynite-differenceequationsfor theCV facevaluesof . Therefore,
the non-upwind, interconnected, multigrid, overlapping (NIMO) scheme elimi-
natesmost of theinterpolation-basedfalsediffusionthat creepsintothenumerical
results. Inadditiontohandlingthescalar variables, theNIMOsystemcanstorethe
velocitycomponents, pressureanditscorrection, onsamespacelocations. Inthis
case, thevelocity components ononegridwill still belocatedbetweenthepres-
sures, andtheir corrections, ontheneighboringgridsaspreferredbytheSIMPLE
algorithmexplainedbyAbou-Ellail et al. [1] andPatankar [2]. TheNIMO inter-
connectedgrids sharesomefeatures withthewell-knownstaggered-gridmethod
[1,2]. Both methods havedisplaced grids, relativeto adened main grid. How-
ever, theNIMOschemeuses four overlappinggrids for eachdependent variable,
whilethestaggered-gridmethodrequiresonlyonegridper dependent variable, as
explainedbyAbou-Ellail etal. [1] andPatankar[2]. WhiletheNIMOschemeneeds
no interpolations for all dependent variables, thestaggered-gridmethodremoves
theneedfor interpolationsonlyfor thevelocitycomponentsbut not for thescalar
variables[1,2].
2.4 Novel Multigrid Numerical Procedure
ThenewNIMO systemis showninFigure2.2. Themaingriddenes thenodes
where
i, j
islocatedinspace. Threeothergridsareshiftedinspacewhere
x
i, j
,
y
i, j
,
and
xy
i, j
arelocatedmidwaybetweenthemain-gridnodes, asdepictedinFigure2.2.
Thesuperscriptsx andy indicateshiftingof gridsmidwaywithrespecttothemain-
gridnodes. Moreover, thesuperscriptxy indicatesthatthegridisshifteddiagonally
suchthat theshiftednodes occupy thecenter nodebetweentheneighboringfour
nodesof themaingrid. Thefour-nodearrowheadclustersshowninFigure2.2are
used to indicatethecommon indices (e.g., i, j) afliated with ,
x
,
y
, and
xy
.
Thespatial locationsof ,
x
,
y
, and
xy
afliatedwithcluster(i, j), inthesolution
domain, are(x
i
, y
j
), (x
i
Lx
i
,2, y
j
), (x
i
, y
j
Ly
i
,2), and(x
i
Lx
i
,2, y
j
Ly
i
,2),
respectively.Thisclustertechniquesimpliesgreatlythenite-differenceequations
of NIMO. It alsosimpliesthecomputer codingof thesystemof equationsof the
NIMOscheme. TheNIMOcontrol volumesCV, CV
x
, CV
y
, andCV
xy
aredepicted
i,j +1

i +1,j +1
i 1,j +1

x
i,j 1

i +1,j 1
xy
i 1,j
i 1,j 1
i +1,j
i,j
xy
xy
x
i,j
i,j
i,j 1
i +1,j 1
i,j 1
i +1,j
i,j +1
xy
y
i 1,j 1 i,j 1
i 1,j
i 1,j
i 1,j +1
i 1,j
i 1,j 1
i 1,j 1
i,j
Figure2.2. NIMOcoordinatesystem, deningarrowheadclusters, of nodeswith
sameindices, but differingintheir spatial locations, inmain, x, y, and
xy grids.
xy
xy
i
,
j
i,j+1
i,j+1
i ,j 1
i 1,j i 1,j
i,j+1
i +1,j
i,j

y

xy
xy
xy
y
CV
xy
CV
y
CV
x
CV
y
i,j+1
xy

y
i,j
y
i1,j
i1,j

xy
i1,j
i,j

y
i,j
i,j+1
i,j+1
i,j+1
xy
i,j+1
i,j
i+1,j
i,j+1
i,j1
xy
i,j
i+1,j
i+1,j
i 1,j i
,
j
i,j
i+1,j
i+1,j
i ,j 1
i ,j 1
Figure2.3. NIMO control volumes (CV, CV
x
, CV
y
, and CV
xy
) surrounding the
nodesof themain, x, y, andxy grids.
in Figure 2.3. The main-grid typical control volume CV is formed by the four
planesbisectingthedistancesbetweentheneighboringnodesandthecentral node
(i, j). Control volumes CV
x
, CV
y
, and CV
xy
enclose nodal variables
x
i, j
,
y
i, j
,
and
xy
i, j
. Alongthex- or y-coordinate, thefacesof thesecontrol volumespassby
thenearest neighboring nodes belonging to any of thefour grids, as depicted in
Figure2.3. Theactingnodal andfacevaluesusedforconvectiveuxesof thescalar
variable pertainingtoeachcontrol volumesurroundingeachnodeareshownin
theFigure. It shouldbementionedherethat thecontrol-volumeapproachadopted
here is similar to the nite- volume method [2]. However, in the nite-volume
method, thesolutiondomainis discretizedinto node-centerednitevolumes [2].
With this arrangement, the computations of the convective uxes pertaining to
each control volume can be computed without the need for interpolation, even
when using nonuniformgrids. First, themain control volumeCV is considered.
Equation (1) is formally integrated over themain control volumesurrounding a
typical node (i, j) where volume integrals are replaced by their surface integral
counterparts performed over thefour faces of theCV shown in Figure2.3. The
resultingnite-differenceequationof themaingridcanbewrittenasfollows:
(d
i1, j
d
i1, j
d
i, j1
d
i, j1
S
p
i, j
)
i, j
= d
i1, j
i1, j
d
i1, j
i1, j
d
i, j1
i, j1
d
i, j1
i, j1
c
i1, j
x
i1, j
c
i1, j
x
i, j
c
i, j1
y
i, j1
c
i, j1
y
i, j
S
u
i, j
(8)
Thenite-differencemass continuity equationof themain-gridnodes canbe
writtenasfollows:
c
i1, j
c
i1, j
c
i, j1
c
i, j1
= 0 (9)
Equation(9) indicates, asitshould, thatthesumof theincomingmassuxesis
equal tothesumof theoutgoingmassuxes. Equationssimilar to(8) and(9) exist
for control volumesCV
x
, CV
y
, andCV
xy
of theother threegrids. Theconvective
anddiffusiveuxes(e.g., d
i1, j
andc
i1, j
) arestill givenbyequations(3) and(4).
Equation (8), together with similar equations for CV
x
, CV
y
, and CV
xy
, rep-
resentsaclosedset of nite-differenceequationsfor ,
x
,
y
, and
xy
. Although
they represent thesamescalar variable(), they differ intheir physical locations
inspace. However, thesolutionof theseinterconnectednonlinear equationsisnot
easy, atleastwiththetraditional methods, forexample, thetri-diagonal matrixalgo-
rithm(TDMA). Evenfor apassivescalar, equation(8) has extraterms that must
beincludedassourceterms. Inthiscase, thesourcetermsrepresent passivescalar
convectiveuxesfromthex- andy-gridstothemaingrid. Therefore, equation(9)
ismultipliedby
i, j
andisusedtomodifyequation(8).Thismodicationismaneu-
veredsuchthat theincominguxesof areaddedtotheleft-handside, whilethe
outgoinguxesof areattachedtotheright-handsideof equation(8). Thismodi-
cationhelpsstabilizethesolutionsobtainedusingTDMA aspartof aline-by-line
alternating-directionalgorithm(ADA). SinceTDMA is very economical bothin
storageandinexecutiontimedemands, it hasbeenfavoredover 2D-matrix-solver
algorithms. Moreover, iteratingbetweenthefour gridsisinevitableasthesolution
of each grid is strongly dependent on thesolutions of theother grids. Thenal
NIMOnite-differenceequationsareasfollows:
(d
i1, j
d
i1, j
d
i, j1
d
i, j1
S
p
i, j
c
i1, j
c
i1, j
c
i, j1
c
i, j1
)
i, j
= d
i1, j
i1, j
d
i1, j
i1, j
d
i, j1
i, j1
d
i, j1
i, j1
(c
i1, j
x
i1, j
c
i1, j
i, j
) ( c
i1, j
i, j
c
i1, j
x
i, j
) (10)
(c
i, j1
y
i, j1
c
i, j1
i, j
) ( c
i, j1
i, j
c
i, j1
y
i, j
) S
u
i, j
The terms c and c are convective uxes written in a general formto allow
incominguxestobetransferredtotheleft-handsidewhileoutgoingonesappear
onlyintheright-handsideof equation(10). Thenewconvectiveuxesaredened
alongtheEWdirectionsas:
c
i1, j
=
1
2
c
i1, j
1
2
c
i1, j
(11)
c
i1, j
= c
i1, j
c
i1, j
(12)
c
i1, j
=
1
2
c
i1, j
1
2
c
i1, j
(13)
c
i1, j
= c
i1, j
c
i1, j
(14)
Similarly, alongtheNSdirection, c and c aredenedas:
c
i, j1
=
1
2
c
i, j1
1
2
c
i, j1
(15)
c
i, j1
= c
i, j1
c
i, j1
(16)
c
i, j1
=
1
2
c
i, j1
1
2
c
i, j1
(17)
c
i, j1
= c
i, j1
c
i, j1
(18)
It canbeeasilyshownthat thesumof thefour componentsof c isequal tothe
sumof thefour componentsof c; thisisdonebyaddingequations(12), (14), (16),
and(18); that is,
c
i1, j
c
i1, j
c
i, j1
c
i, j1
= c
i1, j
c
i1, j
c
i, j1
c
i, j1
(19)
(c
i1, j
c
i1, j
c
i, j1
c
i, j1
)
Thesumof terms inparentheses ontheright-handsideof equation(19) is equal
to zero, as given by equation (9). Further simplication can be achieved if the
diffusionuxesandtheconvectiveuxesarepaired, namely,
(a
i1, j
a
i1, j
a
i, j1
a
i, j1
S
p
i, j
)
i, j
= d
i1, j
i1, j
d
i1, j
i1, j
d
i, j1
i, j1
d
i, j1
i, j1
(20)
(c
i1, j
x
i1, j
c
i1, j
i, j
) ( c
i1, j
i, j
c
i1, j
x
i, j
)
(c
i, j1
y
i, j1
c
i, j1
i, j
) ( c
i, j1
i, j
c
i, j1
y
i, j
) S
u
i, j
It shouldbementionedthat equation(20) isstill equivalent toequation(10) or
equation(8). Thecoefcient a ontheleft-handsideof equation(20) issimilar to
theupwinddifferingcoefcient, inasmuchastheybothrepresentthenettransport
byconvectionanddiffusion. However, theright-handsidehasacompletelydiffer-
ent structureas it accepts theoutgoinguxes. Theseoutgoinguxes arereduced
tozerointhepureupwindscheme. Equation(20) isfoundtohavebetter conver-
sioncharacteristicsthanthenal NIMOequation(10). Theabovecoefcientsare
denedas:
a
i1, j
= d
i1, j
c
i1, j
(21)
a
i1, j
= d
i1, j
c
i1, j
(22)
a
i, j1
= d
i, j1
c
i, j1
(23)
a
i, j1
= d
i, j1
c
i, j1
(24)
Similarly, theNIMOnite-differenceequationsfor control volumesCV
x
, CV
y
,
andCV
xy
canbewrittenas:
(a
x
i1, j
a
x
i1, j
a
x
i, j1
a
x
i, j1
S
x
i, j
p
)
x
i, j
= d
x
i1, j
x
i1, j
d
x
i1, j
x
i1, j
d
x
i, j1
x
i, j1
d
x
i, j1
x
i, j1
(25)
(c
x
i1, j
i, j
c
x
i1, j
x
i, j
) ( c
x
i1, j
x
i, j
c
x
i1, j
i1, j
)
(c
x
i, j1
xy
i, j1
c
x
i, j1
x
i, j
) ( c
x
i, j1
x
i, j
c
x
i, j1
xy
i, j
) S
x
i, j
u
(a
y
i1, j
a
y
i1, j
a
y
i, j1
a
y
i, j1
S
y
i, j
p
)
y
i, j
= d
y
i1, j
y
i1, j
d
y
i1, j
y
i1, j
d
y
i, j1
y
i, j1
d
y
i, j1
y
i, j1
(26)
(c
y
i1, j
xy
i1, j
c
y
i1, j
y
i, j
) ( c
y
i1, j
y
i, j
c
y
i1, j
xy
i, j
)
(c
y
i, j1
i, j
c
y
i, j1
y
i, j
) ( c
y
i, j1
y
i, j
c
y
i, j1
i, j1
) S
y
i, j
u
(a
xy
i1, j
a
xy
i1, j
a
xy
i, j1
a
xy
i, j1
S
xy
i, j
p
)
xy
i, j
= d
xy
i1, j
xy
i1, j
d
xy
i1, j
xy
i1, j
d
xy
i, j1
xy
i, j1
d
xy
i, j1
xy
i, j1
(27)
(c
xy
i1, j
y
i, j
c
xy
i1, j
xy
i, j
) ( c
xy
i1, j
xy
i, j
c
xy
i1, j
y
i1, j
)
(c
xy
i, j1
x
i, j
c
xy
i, j1
xy
i, j
) ( c
xy
i, j1
xy
i, j
c
xy
i, j1
x
i, j1
) S
xy
i, j
u
Theconvectiveuxespertainingtoeachof thefour NIMOgridsareshowninthe
Figure2.4. Theproper locations of theuxes enteringor leavingCV, CV
x
, CV
y
,
andCV
xy
areshownclearlyintheFigure. Interpretationof theabovegeneral NIMO
equations is not easy. This interpretationbecomes clear after reducingtheabove
equationtothetest problem, whichisshowninFigure2.5.
y
c
i,j+1
i,j+1
i,j+1
i,j1
i,j
1
i,j1
i,j1
i,j+1
i+1,j
i+1,j
i+1,j
i1,j
y
c
y
c
y
c
i1,j
c
i,j +1
c
x
c
x
c
i,j 1
i,j
CV
x
CV
xy
c
i,j1
c
y
c
xy
c
xy
y

xy
xy
xy
c
xy
xy
xy
xy
y
i,j
i,j
i,j+1
i+1,j

x
i1,j

+
j

i +1
,j
i,j 1
CV
CV
y
i1,j
i1,j
i1,j
i1,j
i,j1
i1,j
i +1,j i 1,j
i +1,j
i,j +1
Figure2.4. NIMOconvectiveuxescrossingthefacesof CV, CV
x
, CV
y
, andCV
xy
control volumesof themain, x, y, andxy grids.
u = 1/tan
v = 1
(0, 1)
0
.
1
5
0
.
1
5
(0.0)
0.15/tan
0.15/tan
(1/tan, 0)
(1/tan, 1)
x
y
u
v
v
F

=

0
F

=

0
F = 0
F = 0
F = 1
Figure2.5. Computational domainof thetest problemof inclinedowat angle
withdouble-stepchangeinpassivescalar variable from0to1.
2.5 The First Test Problem
The rst test problemchosen to check the present NIMO scheme is shown in
Figure2.5. ThisobliqueowcongurationwasalsousedbySonget al. [810] to
test their fourth-order schemes. A similar test problemwithasingle-stepchange
in was utilized by Raithby [11] and by Vermaand Eswaran [12]. Thelimiting
caseof theowcongurationof Figure2.5withinnitePecletnumberhasanexact
analytical solution. Inthiscase, withtheabsenceof diffusion, thevalueof remains
constant in thevicinity of thediagonal of thesolution domain at avalueof 1.0,
while assumesavalueof zeroelsewhere, asshowninFigure2.5.Thevariable is
apassivescalar thathasavanishingsourceterm. Thetestproblemsolutiondomain
is[(1/tan)1], whilethevelocity components(u and:) areequal to1/tan and
1.0, respectively.Thedensityisalsotakenasconstantandisequal to1.0.Thewidth
alongthex-coordinate, for y =0.0and =1.0, isequal to(0.15/tan), whilealong
they-coordinate, at x =0.0, it is0.15, asshowninFigure2.5. All theabovevalues
areinSI units. TheboundaryconditionisalsoshowninFigure2.5, with =1.0in
adistrictedzoneandzeroeverywhereonthesolutiondomainboundaries. Thecell
Peclet number at anynode(i, j) isdenedas:
Pe
i, j
= [c
i, j
[,d
i, j
(28)
Foruniformconvectionanddiffusionuxes, thecell Pecletnumberisalsouniform;
otherwiseit isgrid-nodedependent.
For thetest problemof Figure2.5, thevalues of sourceterms and theuxes
coefcientsinequations(20), (25)(27) are:
S
p
i,j
= 0; S
u
i,j
= 0 (29)
c
i1, j
= c
i1, j
; c
i, j1
= c
i, j1
(30)
c
i1, j
= 0; c
i, j1
= 0 (31)
c
i1, j
= 0; c
i, j1
= 0 (32)
c
i1, j
= c
i1, j
; c
i, j1
= c
i, j1
(33)
Similarly, thevaluesof c and c intheother threecontrol volumes, CV
x
, CV
y
, and
CV
xy
, canbeobtained. TheNIMOnite-differenceequationsfor thetest problem
canthusbeobtainedfromequations(20), (25)(27) asfollows:
[d
i1, j
(d
i1, j
c
i1, j
) d
i, j1
(d
i, j1
c
i, j1
)]
i, j
= d
i1, j
i1, j
d
i1, j
i1, j
d
i, j1
i, j1
d
i, j1
i, j1
(34)
c
i1, j
x
i1, j
c
i1, j
(
i, j

x
i, j
) c
i, j1
y
i, j1
c
i, j1
(
i, j

y
i, j
)
[d
x
i1, j
(d
x
i1, j
c
x
i1, j
) d
x
i, j1
(d
x
i, j1
c
x
i, j1
)]
x
i, j
= d
x
i1, j
x
i1, j
d
x
i1, j
x
i1, j
d
x
i, j1
x
i, j1
d
x
i, j1
x
i, j1
c
x
i1, j
i, j
c
x
i1, j
(
x
i, j

i1, j
) c
x
i, j1
xy
i, j1
c
x
i, j1
(
x
i, j

xy
i, j
) (35)
[d
y
i1, j
(d
y
i1, j
c
y
i1, j
) d
y
i, j1
(d
y
i, j1
c
y
i, j1
)]
y
i, j
= d
y
i1, j
y
i1, j
d
y
i1, j
y
i1, j
d
y
i, j1
y
i, j1
d
y
i, j1
y
i, j1
c
y
i1, j
xy
i1, j
c
y
i1, j
(
y
i, j
xy
i, j
) c
y
i, j1
i, j
c
y
i, j1
(
y
i, j
i, j1
) (36)
[d
xy
i1, j
(d
xy
i1, j
c
xy
i1, j
) d
xy
i, j1
(d
xy
i, j1
c
xy
i, j1
)]
xy
i, j
= d
xy
i1, j
xy
i1, j
d
xy
i1, j
xy
i1, j
d
xy
i, j1
xy
i, j1
d
xy
i, j1
xy
i, j1
c
xy
i1, j
y
i, j
c
xy
i1, j
(
xy
i, j
y
i1, j
) c
xy
i, j1
x
i, j
c
xy
i, j1
(
xy
i, j
x
i, j1
)
(37)
It should be mentioned here that all the above convective uxes are positive in
thecaseof thetest problemshowninFigure2.5. This is becauseall thevelocity
componentsinthesolutiondomainarepositive, asdepictedintheFigure.
The above equations share one feature with the pure upwind method. This
shared featureis theleft-hand sides of theaboveequations. However, theright-
handsidesof theNIMOequationsareessentially different, asthey accommodate
theoutgoing uxes that areignored in theupwind scheme. Each NIMO control
volume receives incoming convective uxes fromtwo other grids; for example
themainCV receivestwoincomingconvectiveuxesfromthex- andy-grids. In
addition to theincoming upwind ux effects, theoutgoing uxes haveaunique
perturbation. Theyleavetracesbehindinthecontrol volumes, ascanbeseenfrom
thelasttermsof equations(34)(37).Thesetracesaretheoutcomeof thedifferences
betweentheCV center andtheleaving values. Positiveandnegativetracesare
possible. Whiletheincominguxes of tendto increasetheCV central values,
thetraces may increaseor decrease at thecenter of thecontrol volumeof the
gridinquestion. Eachgridreceivesuxesfromneighboringgridsaswell astraces
resulting fromthe leaving uxes of to the same neighboring grids, as can be
seen fromthe above set of equations dening the NIMO scheme. The net gain
in each control volume is redistributed by the diffusion mechanism, as dictated
bytheNIMOnite-differenceequationsabove. Theinterpretationsof thereduced
NIMOnite-differenceequations, reectingthetestproblemowconditions, apply
equallytotheir general counterparts.
2.6 Numerical Results of the First Test Problem
Thesolutionof thetest problemisobtainednumerically. TheTDMA, line-by-line,
ADA is adopted[1]. Equations (34)(37) aremodiedat thenodes adjoiningthe
QUICK
FPTOI
FPTOI
WACEB
NIMO
Exact
solution
0.25 0.5
Y
0.75 1
0.25
0
0.25
0.5 F
0.75
1
1.25
0
Figure2.6. Prolesof for previousnumerical schemesandNIMOatx =0.5and
Pe=for 5959squaregridand =45degrees.
boundarytosatisfytheconditionsimposedthere. Thevalueof thecell Pecletnum-
ber isxedat avery largenumber tosimulatePe= of thelimitingcaseof the
test problem. A valueof Pe>10
4
is found sufcient enough to essentially sup-
press diffusiontransport fromequations (34)(37). TheNIMOsimulationresults
depictedinFigure2.6areobtainedfor axedvalueof Pe=10
6
. TheNIMOsolu-
tion procedure computes the diffusive uxes fromthe given Peclet number and
equation(28). Different gridsareusedfor the45-degreeobliqueowfor thefour
gridsof theNIMOscheme. Thesegridsareasfollows: onesquaregrid(5959),
tworectangular grids(5969and5953), andonenonuniformgrid(5969).
However, auniform9959gridisutilizedfor the30-degreeobliqueow. These
different meshesareusedtoexplorethebehavior of theNIMOschemeunder con-
ditionedimposedby square, rectangular, andnonuniformgrids. Under-relaxation
factors (URFs) in therangeof 0.3to 0.5for the45-degreeobliqueowand0.6
for the30-degreeobliqueowareusedfor thenite-differenceequationsof each
grid. Theaboveranges areconvenient to control theconversionprocesses of the
interlinkedvariables,
x
,
y
, and
xy
of theNIMOscheme. Thenumber of iter-
ationsandtheresidual errorsof eachgridarediscussedbelow. Figure2.6depicts
theresultsof Songet al. [810] for different single-gridschemesandthepresent
resultsof thehybridsingle-gridandNIMOschemes, for =45degrees. Theexact
solutionisalsodepictedintheFigure. Thepresent resultsof themultigridsystem
(NIMO) gaveanumerical solution that exactly ts theanalytical solution of the
limiting case, when Pe=. No overshooting, undershooting, or falsediffusion
canbedetectedfromthepresent results. It canbenoticedthat theNIMOscheme
essentiallypredictstheproperinnitegradientof aty =0.35and0.65, asdepicted
inFigure2.6. Moreover, thehybridscheme, withitsdominantfalsediffusion, gave
Y
F
0 0.2
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Exact Solution, Infinate Pelect Number
Hybrid, Pe2
NIMO, Pe 10
NIMO, Pe 50
NIMO, Pe 200
NIMO, Pe 1000
Figure2.7. Proles of at x =0.5 for Pe=10, 50, 200, and 1,000 and exact
solutionfor Pe=for 5959squaregridsand =45degrees.
theleast agreement withtheanalytical solution. TheFPFOI, FPTOI, andWACEB
schemes are much better than the hybrid scheme. However, FPFOI and FPTOI
schemes [8] suffer fromovershootingandundershootingandwereunabletopre-
dicttheinnite(d/dy) aty =0.35and0.65. AlthoughtheWACEBscheme[9, 10]
resultsareproperlyboundedbetween0and1, it still couldnot predict theinnite
gradient of at y =0.35and0.65, ascanbeseenfromFigure2.6.
It seemed interesting to see how NIMO works for values of Peclet number
lessthaninnity. Numerical resultsof arealsoobtainedfor thesameboundary
conditions and using the45-degreeobliqueow. TheNIMO schemeproles of
alongthey-axis andat x =0.5for Pe=10, 50, 200, and1,000aredepictedin
Figure2.7. Thehybridresultsfor Pe>2andtheanalytical solutionfor Pe=are
replottedinFigure2.7for comparison. It canbeseenthat asPeincreases, (d/dy),
at y =0.35 and 0.65, increases. When Pe=1,000, (d/dy) is so steep it almost
reachesinnity.
Thefour-gridvalues of thepassivescalar variable, that is, ,
x
,
y
, and
xy
,
areplottedinFigure2.8. Theproles of thescalar variableareplottedat x =0.5
for avalueof Peclet number equal to5. Thevaluesof
x
and
xy
at x =0.5usedin
Figure2.8havebeenobtainedbyinterpolatingtheconvergednal solutiondueto
theshiftingof thex- andxy-grids withrespect tox =0.5plane. Thefour proles
fall ontopof eachother, indicatingthat theelds of ,
x
,
y
, and
xy
converge
together to essentially the same values. The accuracy of each grid of NIMO is
accessed by computing thesum, over all nodes, of theabsoluteresidual errors.
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4
y
F
0.6 0.8 1
0.2
Exact solution, infinite pelect number
Main grid
X-grid
Y-grid
XY-grid
Pe = 5
Figure2.8. Prolesof ,
x
,
y
, and
xy
at x =0.5for Pe=5for 5959square
gridsand =45degrees.
The residual error at a node of each grid is computed as the imbalance of the
pertinent nite-differenceequation.
Thesumsof absoluteresidual errorsof themaingrid, x-grid, y-grid, andxy-grid
areplottedasapercentageof theincomingtotal uxesof versusthenumber of
iterations (n) inFigure2.9, for Pe=5andURF=0.3. Theiterations arestopped
whenthemaximumerror of anygridislessthan0.1%. Thisconditionissatised
whenn =975. Theaboveconversioncriterionisalsoalmostsatisednear n =600.
However, thelarger number of iterationsisfavoredtoensurecompleteconversion.
Thepatternof changes of theerror curves is very interesting. Themain-gridand
xy-grid errors are similar and decrease monotonically. However, the x-grid and
y-griderrors arenearly identical, as canbeseenfromFigure2.9. They converge
faster at thebeginningandthensuddenly divergeslightly only toconvergetothe
desiredaccuracy at 975iterations. Part of thefaster convergenceat thebeginning
isattributedtothefact that four sweepsper iterationwereusedfor thex-gridand
y-grid, while only two sweeps per iteration proved to be sufcient for the main
gridandthexy-grid. It is interestingto noticethat thefour grids interact insuch
away that themain grid and thexy-grid haveno direct link. However, they are
linkedindirectlythroughtheir interactionswithboththex-gridandy-grid. Onthe
other hand, thex-gridandy-gridestablishtheir indirect linkbyinteractingdirectly
withboththemaingridandthexy-grid. Theinterlinkingof thegridsexplainsthe
pairingof thesumof theabsoluteresidual errorsof themaingridandthexy-gridas
well asthepairingof thex-gridandy-grid. It shouldbementionedthat theinitial
10.00
1.00
0.10
0.01
0 200 400 600 800
Number of iterations (n)
S
u
m

o
f

a
b
s
o
l
u
t
e

r
e
s
i
d
u
a
l

e
r
r
o
r
s

(
%
)
1000 1200
Main grid X-grid y-grid xy-grid
Figure2.9. Percentagesumof absoluteresidual errorsof thenite-differenceequa-
tions of main, x-, y-, and xy-grids of NIMO for Pe=5 for 5959
squaregridsand =45degrees.
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4
y
F
0.6 0.8 1
0.2
Exact solution, infinite peclet number
Hybrid, Pe = 1
NIMO, Pe = 1
Figure2.10. Prolesof for NIMOandhybridschemesat x =0.5for Pe=1for
5959gridsand =45degrees.
error, whichisapproximatelyequal to3.4, arisesfromtheinitial guess. Theexact
analytical solutionof thetest problemisusedastheinitial guessfor ,
x
,
y
, and
xy
for all runsreportedinthepresent work.
NIMO andhybridproles of aredepictedin Figure2.10, for Pe=1.0and
x =0.5. In this case, is equally transported by convection and by diffusion.
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
F
0.2
0.0
1.0E+00 1.0E+01 1.0E+02
Peclet number
1.0E+03 1.0E+04
Edge value [(x,y) =(0.5,0.65)]
Central value [(x,y) =(0.5,0.5)]
Figure2.11. NIMO values of at edge [(x, y)=(0.5,0.65)] and center of the
solutiondomain[(x, y)=(0.5,0.5)] versusPeclet number for 5959
squaregridsand =45degrees.
Figure 2.10 shows that the hybrid scheme produced skewed proles of along
they-axis, whileNIMO properly predicts symmetrical proles. Theskewedpart
of is anoutcomeof theinevitablefalsediffusionof thehybridscheme, which
resultsfromblowingwindalongthepositivedirectionof they-axis. Thiscanalso
bedetectedfromthehybridschemeproleof , for Pe>2.0, whichis shownin
Figure2.7. Similar skewedprolesof werealsoobtainedbySonget al. [810],
for Pe>2.0. It canbeseenfromFigure2.10that thecentral valueof ishigher in
thecaseof NIMO. Thisisbecausethehybridschemesuffersfromextranumerical
diffusion, asshowninFigure2.10.
It is also interesting to determinetheminimumPeclet number that produces
essentiallyaatproleof alongthey-axisfor0.35-y -0.65.Thisisachievedin
Figure2.11byplottingthevalueof alongtheedgeandcenterof thediagonal edge
versusPe. A valueof 10
4
isjust sufcient for Petoproducenearly diffusion-free
results.
The contours that produced Figure 2.11 are depicted in Figure 2.12. The
skewed prole of the hybrid scheme along the y coordinate direction is also
obvious fromFigure 2.12a. However, the hybrid scheme contours appear to be
nearly symmetrical around the diagonal of the solution domain, as this is the
true ow direction. Moreover, the NIMO results indicate that is more con-
tained inside the zone bounded by y =0.35 and y =0.65, as can be seen from
Figure2.12b.
Morecontours areplottedinFigure2.13. Theadditional NIMO contours are
for Pe=10, 50, 200, and 1,000. Figure2.13ashows hybrid scheme contours
for Pe>2.0. The hybrid contours show that remains close to unity in a very
x
y
0
.
0
1
0
.
2
5
0
.
5
0
.
5
0
.
2
5
0
.
0
1
0
.
7
5
0.99
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
(a)
(b)
x
y
0
.
0
1
0
.
2
5
0
.
5
0
.
7
5
0
.
7
5
0
.
5
0
.
2
5
0
.
0
1
0
.
7
5
0
.
9
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Figure2.12. Contour plotsof for unity Peclet number for 5959squaregrids
and =45degrees. (a) Hybrid, Pe=1. (b) NIMO, Pe=1.
small area next to the inlet section where assumes a value of 1.0. However,
theNIMOcontoursshowthat theareawhere remainsuncontaminatedincreases
as thePeclet number increases. Finally at Pe=1,000, most of thecorealongthe
diagonal of thesolution domain is lled with unity uid, as can beseen from
Figure 2.13e. Moreover, the widths of the narrow strips, bounded by =0.99
and 0.01, that surround the diagonal core decrease as Peclet number increases.
These narrow strips become nearly nonexistent as the Peclet number increases
beyond1,000. Inorder tondout howmuchNIMOisdependent ontheboundary
conditions, along theexit sections of thesolution domain, afewcomputer runs
wereperformed. Theserunshadzero gradientsat theexit sectioninsteadof the
xed--valueboundarycondition. Theseruns, althoughnot reportedhere, showed
that theNIMO schemeis not sensitiveto this changein boundary condition for
the ow conguration of Figure 2.5, except for the nodes very near to the exit
boundaryof thesolutiondomain. For thesenodes, insignicant differencesonthe
order of 0.1%, betweenzero-gradientandxed-valueboundaryconditions, were
encountered.
Inordertochecktheconsistencyof theNIMOscheme, anumberof mesheswere
usedto computetheobliqueowof Figure2.5, for =45degrees. All thegrids
have59nodesalongthex-coordinate, while53, 59, and69nodesareusedalong
they-coordinate. Oneof thesegridsisnonuniform(5969), whiletheother three
areuniform(5953, 5959, and5969). Thescalar variableproles, alongthe
x =0.5plane, areshowninFigures 2.14and2.15, for two nominal values of the
Peclet number, namely, 50.0and1,000. Onlythe5959squaregridhasuniform
Peclet number. However, therectangular uniformgridshavePeclet number values
alongthey-axis higher or lower thanthenominal valuealongthex-axis. This is
becauseLx does not equal Ly for therectangular grids, whiletheuidphysical
propertiesareuniformandu =: for the45-degreeow. Moreover, thenonuniform
gridhasPeclet numbersthat arespacedependent. For anominal Peclet number of
50.0, theproles of at x =0.5for theabove-mentionedgriddimensions arein
x
y
0
.
0
1
0
.
2
5
0
.
5
0
.
7
5
0
.
7
5
0
.
5
0
.
2
5
0
.
0
1
0
.9
9
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
x
y
0
.
0
1
0
.
2
5
0
.
5
0
.
7
5
0
.
7
5
0
.
5
0
.
2
5
0
.
0
1
0
.
9
9
0
.
9
9
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0
.
0
1
0
.
2
5
0
.
5
0
.
7
5
0
.
9
9
0
.
9
9
0
.
7
5
0
.
5
0
.
2
5
0
.
0
1
x
y
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0
.
0
1
0
.
2
5
0
.
5
0
.
7
5
0
.
9
9
0
.
9
9
0
.
7
5
0
.
5
0
.
2
5
0
.
0
1
x
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
y
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
x
y
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0.01
0.01
0.99
(e)
Figure2.13. Contour plots of for hybrid scheme (Pe>2) and NIMO system
(5959squaregrids, =45degreesandPe=10, 50, 200and1,000).
(a)Hybrid, Pe>2. (b)NIMO,Pe=10. (c)NIMO,Pe=50. (d)NIMO,
Pe=200. (e) NIMO, Pe=1,000.
goodagreementwitheachother, asdepictedinFigure2.14. Theminor differences
betweenthemarisefromthenonuniformityof thePecletnumber of therectangular
andnonuniformgrids, ascanbeseenfromtheFigure.
Theprolesof for different gridgeometriesanddimensionsaredepictedin
Figure2.15, for anominal Pecletnumber of 1,000and =45degrees. The5969
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6 F
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4
Y
0.6 0.8 1.0
Exact solution, infinite peclect number
59 69, Pe
x
= 50, Pe
y
= 42.54
59 69, irregular grid, Pe
min
= 9.62, Pe
max
= 50
59 53, Pe
x
= 50, Pe
y
= 55.88
59 59, Pe = 50
Figure2.14. Prolesof at x =0.5, for different griddimensionsandgeometries
for Peclet numbersalongthex-axisequal to50and =45degrees.
1.2
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
Y
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.2
F
59 69, Pe
x
= 1000, Pe
y
= 850.75
59 59, Pe = 1000
59 53, Pe
x
= 1000, Pe
y
= 1117.65
59 69, irregular grid, Pe
min
= 192.41, Pe
max
= 1000
Figure2.15. Prolesof atx =0.5, foruniformandirregulardifferentgriddimen-
sions, Peclet numbers along the x-axis equal to 1,000 and =45
degrees.
30-degree inclined flow, 99 59 grid,
pe
x
= 1,730, pe
y
= 1,000
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6 F
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4
y
0.6 0.8 1.0
Figure2.16. Prolesof , at x =0.5/tan, for 9959grids, Peclet number along
y-axis=1,000, and =30degrees.
nonuniformgrid is uniformalong thex-coordinateand nonuniformalong the y
direction. The5969gridcontractsalongthey-coordinatefromtheouter bound-
aries toward the center, where y =0.5. For this grid, the ratio of the maximum
increment to theminimumincrement along they-coordinateis 4.5. Theproles
essentially capture the analytical solution for innite Peclet number and =45
degrees, although they werecomputed for different grid geometries and dimen-
sions. It canbeconcludedthat irrespectiveof thedimensions or geometry of the
computational grid, theNIMOschemeiscapableof computingtheexact solution.
However, theskewed upstream-differencing schemeof Raithby [11] can capture
theexact solutiononly for squaregridswherethediagonalsof thecomputational
cellsareparallel andnormal totheowdirection.
Another test is introduced in Figure 2.16 for an angle of inclination of 30
degrees. In this case, the oblique ow passes diagonally through a rectangular
solutiondomain. Thedistanceof thesolutiondomainandthevelocitycomponent
along thex-axis areapproximately equal to 1.73. Thegrid used for theproles
intheFigurehas dimensions of 9959. ThePeclet numbers alongthex- andy-
axes are1,730and1,000, respectively. Herealso noneof thecomputational cell
diagonalsisparallel or normal totheowdirection. However, theproleof cap-
turestheexact analytical solutionfor innitePeclet numbers, ascanbeseenfrom
Figure2.16.
2.7 The Second Test Problem
The second test problemis chosen in the cylindrical-polar domain to check the
accuracy and applicability of the NIMO numerical scheme in coordinates with
u 1
u 1
v 1/r
0
1
1 rad
0
1
1
u 1
v 1
r
r
1
2
r
0
1
v 1/2
Figure2.17. Cylindrical-polar computational domainof thetest problemof rotat-
ingradial owinanannular sector withsingle-stepchangeinpassive
scalar variable from0to1.
curvature. Thecongurationis that of arotatingradial owinanannular sector.
The velocity eld is prescribed as shown in Figure 2.17. The tangential veloc-
ity u is taken as uniformand is equal to unity, while the radial velocity : is
inversely proportional to theradial distancer. This velocity conguration satis-
es themass continuity of theconstant-density rotatingradial owinanannular
sector.
Theannular sector isboundedbyr
0
=1.0, r
1
=2.0, and =0.0and1.0, along
theradial andtangential directions, respectively. Thepassivescalar variable is
equal to0.0and1.0at thetwoinlet sectionsdenedby =0.0andbyr =1.0. For
innitePeclet numbers, theexit sectionshavevaluesof equal to1.0and0.0for
=1.0andr =2.0, respectively. For thiscasetheexact solutionfor thestreamline
that dividesthesector intoa =0.0zoneandanother zonewith =1.0isshown
inFigure2.18. Thestreamline, whichrunsfrompoint(1,0) topoint(2,1), isshown
intheFigure, superimposedontheprescribedvelocity vector eld. Thevelocity
vectors vary indirectionandmagnitude, whichis agoodtest totheextent of the
accuracyof theNIMOnumerical schemeinconditionswherefalsediffusionisnot
uncommon. Equations(20), (25), (26), and(27) areapplicableto2D cylindrical-
polar coordinatesows. Thesuperscriptsx, y, andxy, arereplacedby, r, andr,
whilethedistances betweenthecentral nodeandtheneighboringnodes become
r and r, along the tangential and radial directions, respectively. For this test
problem, a5959 uniformgrid is superimposed on thesolution domain of an
annular sector. Thedistances along thetangential (angular) direction, which are
involvedintheNIMOequations, increaseintheradial direction, althoughthegrid
itself isuniform.
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
= 1
= 0
Figure2.18. Velocityvectoreldforrotatingradial owinanannual sector, show-
ingtheboundary curvebetweenregions of =1and0inr plane,
for innitePeclet number.
2.8 Numerical Results of the Second Test Problem
Thenumerical solutionof thesecondtestproblemisalsoobtainedwiththeTDMA,
line-by-line, ADA.Thevalueof 10
4
for thecell Pecletnumber atpoint(r,)=(1,0)
is found sufcient to producenearly diffusion-freeproles of thepassivescalar
variable. TheURF is takenas 0.5, whichproducedconvergedsolutions after 500
iterations with an error less than 0.1%. The local cell Peclet number along the
tangential (angular) directionincreasesfrom10
4
to210
4
, whilealongtheradial
directionit decreasesfrom10
4
to51,000. Thisisanoutcomeof thevariations
alongtheradial directionof theradial velocityandthetangential distance.
Figure2.19showstheangularprolesof thepassivescalarvariable computed
numericallyandthecorrespondingstepfunctionexactsolution. Theexactsolution
isobtainedfor thelimitingcaseof innitePeclet number. Theagreement between
thetwoprolesisexcellent. Themaindifferencesoccur inavery narrowangular
zone, where changesabruptlyfrom1.0to0.0. However, outsidethisnarrowzone,
isproperlycomputedaszeroononesideandunityontheother side.
Similarly, theradial proles of thepassivescalar aredepictedinFigure2.20.
TheNIMO results showanexcellent agreement withtheexact solutionof astep
functionchangeinthepassivescalar variable. Thegradient of thepassivescalar
alongtheradial direction(/r) ishigher thanthat alongthetangential direction
(/r), as can beseen fromFigures 2.19 and 2.20. This is an outcomeof the
higher meanvalueof thePeclet number alongtheradial directionrelativeto the
correspondingvaluealongthetangential direction.
0 1
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(rad)
Exact solution
at r 1.5
Numerical data
at r 1.5
10,000 <Pe

< 20,000
5,000 <Pe
r
<10,000
Figure2.19. Angular proles of , at r =1.5, for Peclet numbers ranging from
5,000to10,000(angular) andfrom10,000to20,000(radial), using
5959cylindrical-polar grid.
r
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
0 .5
Exact solution
at 0.5
Numerical data
at 0.5
10,000 <Pe

< 20,000
5,000 <Pe
r
< 10,000
Figure2.20. Prolesof , at =0.5rad, for Pecletnumbersrangingfrom5,000to
10,000(angular) andfrom10,000to 20,000(radial), using5959
cylindrical-polar grid.
0
0
0.5
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
1.5 2 1
f 1
f 0
f 0.999
f 0.001
Figure2.21. Opencontoursof thepassivescalar variable, for a5959r grid.
Figure2.21depictstheopencontoursof intherotatingradial owinanannular
sector. A thincurvedstrip, where variesfrom0.001to0.999, iscomputedusing
theNIMO scheme. Outsidethis narrowstripthepassivescalar variablechanges
abruptly from0.0 to 1.0. It is interesting to noticetheresemblancebetween the
shape of the narrow strip and the exact solution curve that divides the annular
sectorsto =0.0and1.0zones(Figure2.18).
Thesystemof nite-differenceequations(equations(20), (25)(27) canfurther
be simplied if the central node (i, j) is replaced by the subscript P, while the
neighboringnodesaredenotedbythesubscriptsE, W, N, andS.Theactual position
inthexy spaceis determinedby thesuperscript onthemainvariable to reect
the different control volumes, CV, CV
x
, CV
y
, and CV
xy
of the NIMO scheme.
Therefore, theNIMOequationsaresimpliedas:
a
P
P
=
n
a
n
n
S
N
S
u
(38)
a
x
P
x
P
=
n
a
x
n
x
n
S
x
N
S
x
u
(39)
a
y
P
y
P
=
n
a
y
n
y
n
S
y
N
S
y
u
(40)
a
xy
P

xy
P
=
n
a
xy
n

xy
n
S
xy
N
S
xy
u
(41)
wherethesummation
n
isover thefour neighboringnodes(E, W, N, andS) of the
central nodeP of eachgridof theNIMOscheme. Thecoefcientsa
P
, a
x
P
, a
y
P
, and
a
xy
P
aredenedasfollows:
a
P
=
n
a
n
S
P
(42)
a
x
P
=
n
a
x
n
S
x
P
(43)
a
y
P
=
n
a
y
n
S
y
P
(44)
a
xy
P
=
n
a
xy
n
S
xy
P
(45)
Intheaboveequations, S
P
andS
u
arethecoefcients of thelinearizedsource
termsof theoriginal governingequations. Moreover, S
N
, S
x
N
, S
y
N
, andS
xy
N
areextra
sourcetermsresultingfromtheNIMOscheme. Theyaregivenexplicitlyas:
S
N
= ( c
W
P
c
W
x
W
c
W
W
) ( c
E
P
c
E
x
P
c
E
E
)
(46)
( c
S
P
c
S
y
S
c
S
S
)( c
N
P
c
N
y
P
c
N
N
)
S
x
N
= ( c
x
W
x
P
c
x
W
P
c
x
W
x
W
) ( c
x
E
x
P
c
x
E
E
c
x
E
x
E
)
(47)
( c
x
S
x
P
c
x
S
xy
S
c
x
S
x
S
) ( c
x
N
x
P
c
x
N
xy
p
c
x
N
x
N
)
S
y
N
= ( c
y
W
y
P
c
y
W
xy
W
c
y
W
y
W
) ( c
y
E
y
P
c
y
E
xy
P
c
y
E
y
E
)
(48)
( c
y
S
y
P
c
y
S
S
c
y
S
y
S
) ( c
y
N
y
P
c
y
N
N
c
y
N
y
N
)
S
xy
N
= ( c
xy
W
xy
P
c
xy
W
y
P
c
xy
W
xy
W
) ( c
xy
E

xy
P
c
xy
E

y
E
c
xy
E

xy
E
)
(49)
( c
xy
S

xy
P
c
y
S
x
P
c
xy
S

xy
S
) ( c
xy
N
xy
P
c
xy
N
x
N
c
xy
N
xy
N
)
Intheaboveequationsthenite-differencecoefcientsa
E
, a
W
, a
N
, anda
S
are
still given, respectively, byequations(21)(24). Itshouldbementionedherethatthe
exact locationof aparticular gridnodeisdeterminedbyboththesubscript andthe
superscript attachedtothevariableinquestion. For example,
x
P
isthedependent
variableat thecentral nodeP of thecontrol volumeCV
x
reectingtheshiftingof
thex-gridwithrespect tothemaingrid, asillustratedinFigure2.3.
2.9 Application of NIMO Scheme to Laminar Flow Problems
TheNIMO schemeis nowappliedto steady owproblems. For constant density
andviscosity laminar owproblems, thegoverningequationsfor momentumand
massarewrittenintensor formasfollows:
(u
i
u
j
)
x
i

x
i
_
j
u
j
x
i
_
=
p
x
j
(50)
(u
i
)
x
i
= 0 (51)
wherej is thelaminar viscosity, u
j
is thevelocity component alongthex
j
coor-
dinate, and p is theuid pressure. For 2D owu
j
=(u
1
, u
2
) whilex
j
=(x
1
, x
2
).
On theother hand, if x y planeis used then u
j
=(u, :) and x
j
=(x, y). In this
case, invokingequations(38)(41), thenite-differenceequationsfor u and: are
givenas:
a
uP
u
P
=
a
un
u
n
A
uE
(p
x
P
p
x
E
) S
uN
(52)
a
:P
:
P
=
a
:n
:
n
A
:S
(p
y
S
p
y
S
) S
:N
(53)
wheresubscriptsu and: denotecoefcientspertainingtothevelocitycomponents
u and :. Also, A
u
and A
:
are areas of main-grid control-volume CV surfaces
normal tou and:, respectively. Similarly, for CV
x
, CV
y
, andCV
xy
themomentum
nite-differenceequationsareasfollows:
a
x
uP
u
x
P
=
a
x
un
u
x
n
A
x
uE
(p
P
p
E
) S
x
uN
(54)
a
x
:P
:
x
P
=
a
x
:n
:
x
n
A
x
:S
(p
xy
S
p
xy
P
) S
x
:N
(55)
a
u
uP
u
y
P
=
a
y
un
u
y
n
A
y
:W
(p
xy
W
p
xy
P
) S
y
uN
(56)
a
y
:P
:
y
P
=
a
y
:n
:
y
n
A
y
:N
(p
P
p
N
) S
y
:N
(57)
a
xy
uP
u
xy
P
=
a
xy
un
u
xy
n
A
xy
uE
(p
y
P
p
y
E
) S
xy
uN
(58)
a
xy
:P
:
xy
P
=
a
xy
:n
:
xy
n
A
xy
:N
(p
x
P
p
x
N
) S
xy
:N
(59)
Equations (52)(59) denetheeight velocity components of thefour grids of
theNIMOscheme. Additional equationsfor p, p
x
, p
y
, andp
xy
areneededtoclose
the above equations. This is done by writing the pressure correction equations
for the NIMO scheme control volume CV, CV
x
, CV
y
, and CV
xy
. These pres-
surecorrectionequationsarethecounterpartsof themasscontinuityequationsfor
CV, CV
x
, CV
y
, andCV
xy
control volumes.
The pressure correction equation of CV can be obtained fromthe corrected
velocity components u
x
P
, u
x
W
, :
y
P
, and :
y
S
, which areused in themass continuity
nite-differenceequationof control volumeCV. Thecorrectedvelocitycomponents
aregivenas:
u
x
P
= u
x
P
Du
x
E
(p
/
P
p
/
E
) (60)
u
x
W
= u
x
W
Du
x
W
(p
/
W
p
/
P
) (61)
:
y
P
= :
y
p
D:
y
n
(p
/
P
p
/
N
) (62)
:
y
S
= :
y
S
D:
y
S
(p
/
S
p
/
P
) (63)
whereu
x
P
, u
x
W
, :
y
P
, and:
y
S
arethecorrectedvelocitycomponentspertainingtoCV.
Correspondingto theabovecorrectedvelocity components, thepressureat each
grid node is corrected to (p
p
/
). Moreover, the asterisk superscript indicates
momentum-basedvelocity components andpressure. Inequations (60)(63), the
coefcientsDu
x
E
andDv
y
N
aredenedas:
Du
x
E
=
_
u
p
_
E
=
A
x
uE
a
x
uP
(64)
D:
y
N
=
_
:
p
_
N
=
A
y
:N
a
y
uP
(65)
Similar expressionsexistforDu
x
W
andDv
y
S
. Substitutingequations(60)(63) in
themasscontinuityequationof CV, thecorrespondingpressurecorrectionequation
canbeobtainedasfollows:
a
P
p
/
P
=
a
n
p
/
n

mP
(66)
wherep
/
isthepressurecorrectionof themaingrid, while
mp
istheexcessmass
leavingcontrol volumeCV per unit time. It isdenedexplicitlyas:
mP
=
E
A
x
uE
u
x
P

W
A
x
uW
u
x
W

N
A
y
:N
:
y
P

S
A
y
:S
:
y
S
(67)
Thenite-differencecoefcient a
n
stands for a
E
, a
W
, a
N
, anda
S
, andcanbe
denedas:
a
E
=
E
A
x
uE
Du
x
E
(68)
a
N
=
N
A
y
:N
D:
y
N
(69)
Similar expressions exist for a
W
and a
S
. The remaining pressure correction
equationsfor CV
x
, CV
y
, andCV
xy
aresimilarlyobtainedas:
a
x
P
p
/
x
P
=
a
x
n
p
/
x
n

x
mP
(70)
a
y
P
p
/
y
P
=
a
y
n
p
/
y
n

y
mP
(71)
a
xy
P
p
/
xy
P
=
a
xy
n
p
/
xy
n

xy
mP
(72)
Equations (52)(57), (66), and (70)(72) represent a complete set of nite-
differenceequationsforu, :, u
x
, :
x
, u
y
, :
y
, u
xy
, :
xy
, p
/
, p
/
x
, p
/
y
, andp
/
xy
of theNIMO
scheme.Theabovenite-differencepressurecorrectionequationsapplytoturbulent
owaswell astolaminarow. However, themomentumnite-differenceequations
for theturbulent owhaveextrasourcetermsthantheir laminar counterparts. The
NIMO higher-order schemewill nowbeapplied to steady laminar owin pipes
and2Dsteadylaminar owover afence.
2.9.1 Steady laminar ow in pipes
Equations(50)and(51)arethegoverningequationsforsteadylaminarowinpipes
withconstantphysical properties. Theexactanalytical solutionfor thistypeof ow
is aparabolic prolefor thefully developedaxial velocity distributionalongthe
radial coordinate. It isgivenas:
u
u
0
= 2[1(r,R)
2
] (73)
whereu
0
istheuniformaxial velocityat thepipeentrance, r istheradial distance
fromthepipeaxis, and R is thepipeinner radius. Equation (73) is usedhereto
test theaccuracy of theNIMOscheme. Equations (52)(59), (67), and(70)(72)
represent theNIMO nite-differenceequations applicableto thelaminar owin
pipes. ThepiperadiusR istakenas1.0cmandtheinlet uniformaxial velocity is
1.0m/s. Theowing gas is air at atmospheric pressureand 300K. For this ow,
Reynoldsnumberis1,300.Thedimensionlesspipelength(L,D) is50.Thepressure
correctionnormal gradient, for eachgridof theNIMOscheme, isequal tozerofor
thefour boundariesof thesolutiondomain. Thisboundaryconditionisvalidfor all
thetestproblemsreportedbelow. Zeronormal gradientsof all dependentvariables,
at theexit section, areimposed. Againthis boundary conditionis commonto all
test problems reportedbelow. Theinlet axial velocity is 1.0m/s, whiletheradial
velocityisequal tozero.Atthepipewall thevelocitycomponentsareequal tozero.
However, atthepipeaxistheaxial velocitygradientisequal tozero, whiletheradial
velocityitself isequal tozero. Forauniform(8080)grid, thenumberof iterations
is1,000, whichgivesanerrorlessthan0.1percentinthenite-differenceequations.
Figure2.22depictstheradial prolesof thedimensionlessaxial velocityfor axial
distances(x,D)=2, 10, and20. Theaxial velocityradial prolesfor themaingrid
andthex-gridareconsistent, showingcontinuousincreaseinthecenterlinevelocity.
Thefullydevelopedaxial velocityradial proles, showninFigure2.23forthegrids
of theNIMOscheme, areinexcellent agreement withtheexact analytical solution
givenbyequation(73). InFigures2.22and2.23, u
m
isthemeanaxial velocity. The
radial velocityprolesaredepictedinFigures2.24and2.25fordimensionlessaxial
distancesof 2, 10, 20, and50. Itisinterestingtonoticethatthemaximumnegative
radial velocity occurs at (x,D)=2; then it decreases sharply as theexit section
is approached. Figure2. 26 shows thevariations in thepressurealong theaxial
distance. Thenumerical results indicatethat thepressureis uniformly declining
alongthepipelengthtoovercomethelaminar wall shear stresses.
0
1
2
0 1
1.5
0.5
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
r /R
u
/
u
m
x/D = 2
x/D = 10
x/D = 20
Main grid
x-shifted
Figure2.22. Dimensionless axial velocity proles at different axial locations for
thelaminar owinpipeswithRe=1,300.
0
1
2
0 1
1.5
0.5
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
r /R
u
/
u
m
x/D 50
Main grid
x-shifted
Analytical
solution
Figure2.23. Dimensionless axial velocity prolefor laminar owinapipewith
Re=1,300.
2.9.2 Steady laminar ow over a fence
This is a 2D steady laminar ow over a single fence in a rectangular channel.
The nite-difference equations used in the laminar pipe ow problemare also
applicabletoowoverafence. Excellentexperimental resultswereobtained, using
laser-Doppler anemometry, by Carvalho et al. [13]. Theow geometry used by
0
0 1
0.002
0.012
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
r /R
v
/
u
m
x/D = 2
x/D = 10
Main grid
x-shifted
Figure2.24. Dimensionlessradial velocityprolesat different axial locationsfor
laminar owinpipeswithRe=1,300.
0.0012
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0.001
0.0008
0.0006
0.0004
0.0002
0
r /R
v
/
u
m
Main grid
x-shifted
x/D = 20
x/D = 50
Figure2.25. Dimensionlessradial velocityat different axial locationsfor laminar
owinpipeswithRe=1,300.
Carvalho et al. [13] is showninFigure2.27. Theinlet velocity is prescribedas a
fullydevelopedprolefor laminar owbetweentwoparallel plates, namely,
u
i
,u
0
= 1.5
_
1
_
H 2y
H
_
2
_
(74)
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
20 30 40 50 60
x/D
p

p
0

(
N
/
m
2
)
Figure2.26. Centerline axial pressure prole in the laminar ow in pipes with
Re=1,300.
H

y
x
5H 15H
0.1H
0
.
7
5
H
Figure2.27. Geometryof owover afence.
whereu
i
andu
0
arethevelocityalongthex-axisatinletanditsmeanvalue, respec-
tively. Thedistancefromthelower plateisdenotedbyy, whilethevertical distance
betweenthetwoplatesisgivenasH. Intheaboveequation, y rangesbetween0.0and
H.Thevalueof heightH isequal to1.0cm, andu
0
isequal to0.175m/s.Theowing
gasisair at300K. TheinletReynoldsnumber (Re) isequal to82.5, whichisbased
onu
0
andthefenceheight S(=0.75H). Thethicknessof thefenceis0.1cm. The
inletowvelocityiscomputedfromequation(74), whilethetransversevelocity(:)
isequal tozero. Pressurecorrectionnormal gradients, u and:, areequal tozeroon
all solidsurfacesof theowdomain. Forthislaminarowproblemstwogridswere
used, namely, (100100) and(150150).Toobtainnumerical errorslessthan0.1
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
(a)
x/S
y
/
H
Experimental data
100 100 grid
150 150 grid
6.6 1.2 0 5.3
1.5
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1
(b)
x/S
y
/
H
Experimetnal data
100 100 grid
150 150 grid
6 4 2
1.5
Figure2.28. Comparisonbetweenpredictionsandmeasurementsof dimensionless
velocityalongx-axis(u/u
0
) [13] for owover fence, Re=82.5.
percent, 1,757and4,000iterationsareusedforthe(100100) andthe(150150)
grids, respectively.Thisshowsthatthenumberof iterationsforcompleteconversion
ismorethandoubledinthecaseof thener gridcomparedtothecourseone.
Thetransverseprolesof thedimensionlessvelocitycomponentalongthex-axis
aredepictedinFigure2.28for (x,S)=6.6, 5.3, 0.0, 1.2, 2.0, 4.0, and6.0. The
axial distanceismeasuredfromthefence. For (x,S)-0.0the(100100) andthe
(150150)gridsgaveperfectttotheexperimental data. However, for(x,S)-0.0
thener gridgaveexcellentagreementwiththeexperimental data. However, grids
ner than(150150) couldnot giveanyhigher accuracy. Figure2.28showsthat
theowdirectionisdownwardfor 0.0-(x,S)-4.0; thenthegasowsupwardly
for higher values of the distance along the x-axis. Recirculation zones are thus
creatednear thelower wall for (x,S)-4.0followedby recirculationzones at the
0
x/s
7
1
0.9
0.8
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.6
0.7
3 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 4 6 5
0.1
P

P
0
,

N
/
m
2
y/H = 0,150 150
y/H = 1,100 100
y/H = 1,150 150
y/H = 0,100 100
Figure2.29. Axial pressureproles near theupper and lower walls for theow
over afencewith100100and150150girds, Re=82.5.
upper wall for higher valuesof (x,S). Theradial pressureprolesalongthex-axis
areplottedinFigure2.29for the(100100) and(150150) grids. Theproles
arechosenat(y,H) equal toapproximately0.0and1.0, respectively, nearthelower
andupper walls. It canbeseenfromthisFigurethat suddenpressuredropoccurs
at thefence. However, it is smoother near theupper wall. Moreover, (100100)
gridpredictslower pressureat thefencewithrespect tothe(150150) grid. It is
interestingtonoticethesuddenincreaseinpressureastheowchangesitsdirection
inthevicinityof (x,H) rangingbetween4and5.
2.10 Application of the NIMO Higher-Order Scheme to the
Turbulent Flow in Pipes
For constant-density steady turbulent ow in pipes, the modeled time-mean
momentumequationcanbewrittenasfollows:
(u
i
u
j
)
x
i

x
i
_
(j
t
j)
u
j
x
i
_
=
p
x
j

x
i
_
(j
t
j)
u
i
x
j
2
3
k
ij
_
(75)
whereu
i
, u
j
, and p aretime-mean values. Theturbulent viscosity and turbulent
kinetic energy are denoted by j
t
and k; in addition to time-mean momentum
equations, thetime-meanmasscontinuitymust beincluded.
(u
i
)
x
i
= 0 (76)
The turbulent viscosity can be computed with the help of the two-equation
model of turbulencefor thekineticenergyof turbulence(k) anditsdissipationrate
(). Thegoverning equation for thekinetic energy of turbulenceand its dissipa-
tionratearewrittenheresuchthat they canbeappliedto thestandardk- model
(Launder & Spalding[14]) andits lowReynolds number versionof Launder and
Sharma[15].
x
i
(u
i
k)

x
i
_
j
e
k
k
x
i
_
= G ( D) (77)
x
i
(u
i
)

x
i
_
j
e
x
i
_
= (C
1
f
1
G C
2
f
2
)
k
E (78)
whereG
_
=j
t
u
j
x
i
_
u
j
x
i

u
i
x
j
__
istheturbulent kineticenergygenerationtermand
isgivenbyLaunder andSpalding[14]. Theturbulent viscosityj
t
isthusgivenas:
j
t
= C
j
f
j
k
2
, (79)
The high Reynolds number standard k- model is specied with the effec-
tive viscosity j
e
=j
t
, D=E =0.0, and f
1
=f
2
=f
j
=1.0. Moreover, the high
Reynolds number k- model logarithmic wall functions that prescribeat thewall
theshear stress, thegenerationterm(G), andthevalueof aregivenby Launder
andSpalding[14].
However, thelow Reynolds number k- model of Launder and Sharma [15]
takes thesolutionright to thepipewall. Thecommonconstants betweenthetwo
versions of the k- model are given by Launder and Sharma [15] as c
j
=0.09,
c
1
=1.44, c
2
=1.92,
k
=1.0, and
e
=1.3. Moreover, thelowReynoldsnumber
additional functionsaredenedasfollows[15]:
f
j
= exp[3.4,(1R
t
,50)
2
] (80)
f
1
= 1.0 (81)
f
2
= 10.3exp(R
2
t
) (82)
D = 2(j,)
_
(k)
1
2
r
_
2
(83)
E = 2(j,)(j
t
,)
_
2
u
r
2
_
2
(84)
wheretheturbulent Reynoldsnumber R
t
isdenedas[15]:
R
t
= k
2
,(j) (85)
Equations (83) and (84) aregiven specically for theturbulent owin pipes
wherer istheradial distanceandu istheaxial velocity.
InthelowReynoldsnumbermodel, j
e
isdenedasjj
t
andthewall bound-
ary conditionis denedas p
/
,r =u =: =k = =0.0. Theboundary condition
atthecenterlineisdenedas,r =: =0, where standsfor all dependentvari-
ablesexcept:. Attheexitsection, theaxial gradientsof all dependentvariablesare
equal tozero. At theinlet section, u =u
0
and: =p
/
,x =0, whereu
0
istheinlet
uniformaxial velocity.
Theassessment of theaccuracyof theresultsof theNIMOschemeisachieved
withthehelpof theexperimental dataof Laufer [16] atRe=500,000andthesemi-
empirical relationobtainedbySchlichting[17] for alargenumber of experimental
datafor thefullydevelopedturbulentpipeow. TheSchlichting1/7thpower lawis
givenas[17]:
u,u
CL
=
_
R r
R
_1
,
7
0- r - 0.96R (86)
whereu
CL
isthefullydevelopedcenterlineaxial velocity.
Thenumerical predictionsfor turbulent owinpipes, usingtheNIMOhigher-
order scheme, areshowninFigures 2.3034. Air at 1.0bar and300K enters the
pipeat auniformaxial velocity of 29m/s. Thepipediameter is 24.7cmand its
dimensionless length(L,D) is equal to30. For this ow, theReynolds number is
500,000. For thelowandhighReynoldsnumber turbulent models, a(100100)
gridis used. Thegridof thehighReynolds number model is uniform, whilethat
forthelowReynoldsnumbermodel conversestowardthepipewall. Forbothmodels
thenumber of iterationsapproximates1,000, givingerrorslessthan0.1percent in
thedifferenceequations.
The developing turbulent ow in pipes is depicted in Figure 2.30 for axial
distances(x,D)equal to2and5.Thedimensionlessaxial velocity(u,u
m
)numerical
resultsof themaingridareessentially indistinguishablefromthoseof thex-grid,
as canbeseenfromFigure2.30. Thenear-wall regionis showninFigure2.30b,
to facilitate the comparison of the wall effect as predicted by the low and high
Reynolds number models. The wall effect of the low Reynolds number model
propagates into thecoreof theturbulent owin pipes, whilethehigh Reynolds
number model has its wall effect restricted to (r,R)>0.95 for (x,D)-5. More
developing ow numerical results are shown in Figure 2.31 for (x,D) equal to
10 and 20. Thehigh Reynolds number k- model wall effect is still conned to
(r,R)>0.75, whilethelow Reynolds number counterpart has its wall effect all
over theturbulent owfor (x,D)=20. Thedimensionless radial velocity (:,u
m
)
proles aredepicted in Figure2.32, at (x,D)=5 and 20 and at theexit section.
ThelowReynoldsnumber model predictshigher absoluteradial velocities, while
bothmodelspredictavanishingradial velocityatthefullydevelopedownear the
exit sectionof (x,D)=30. Thefullydevelopedturbulent time-meanaxial velocity
radial prolesaredepictedinFigure2.33, for thehighandlowReynoldsnumber
models. On the same gure, the measured fully-developed dimensionless axial
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Main grid, x/D = 2, lowRe
x-shifted, x/D = 2, low Re
Main grid, x/D = 5, lowRe
Main grid, x/D = 2, high Re
x-shifted, x/D = 2, high Re
r /R
u
/
u
m
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95 1
r /R
u
/
u
m
Main grid, x/D = 2, low Re
(a)
(b)
Figure2.30. Dimensionless axial velocity (u,u
m
) at different axial locations
for turbulent owinpipes withRe=500,000. (a) r,R from0to 1.
(b) r,R from0.75to1.
velocity [16] andthesimilar prolethat canbecalculatedby thesemi-empirical
relationof Schlichting[17] arealsoplotted. TheNIMOschemepredictsexcellent
agreement withthefullydevelopedaxial velocityprolegivenbythe1/7thpower
lawof Schlichting[17] whenthelowReynoldsnumberk- model isused. However,
thepresent numerical results for u,u
CL
fall nicely betweentheexperimental data
of Laufer [16] andtheSchlichtings 1/7thpower law[17]. Ontheother hand, the
high Reynolds number model poorly predicts thefully developed turbulent pipe
owandhenceshouldnot beadoptedfor this typeof ow. Finally, thepressure
axial distributions, predictedusingthelowandhighReynoldsnumber k- models,
areshowninFigure2.34. Thisgureshowsclearlythattheabsoluteaxial pressure
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
r /R
u
/
u
mMain grid, x/D = 10, low Re
Figure2.31. Dimensionlessaxial velocityat different axial locationsfor turbulent
owinpipes, Re=500,000.
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
0.000
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
r/R
v
/
u
mMain grid, x/D = 5, low Re
Main grid, exit, low Re
x-shifted, exit, low Re
Main grid, exit, high Re
x-shifted, exit, high Re
Figure2.32. Dimensionlessradial velocityprolesat different axial locationsfor
turbulent pipeows, Re=500,000.
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
r/R
u
/
u
C
L
Numerical data, low Re
Numerical data, high Re
Power law
Experimental data
Figure2.33. Dimensionlesstime-meanaxial velocityforturbulentpipeowsusing
lowandhighReynoldsnumber models, Re=500,000.
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 10 20 30
x/D
P

P
0

(
N
/
m
2
)
Low Re
High Re
Figure2.34. Centerline axial pressure proles for turbulent ow in pipes,
Re=500,000.
gradientof thelowReynoldsnumbermodel isapproximatelyvetimeshigherthan
that of thehighReynoldsnumber model. Alternatively, thewall shear stressinthe
lowReynolds number model is vetimes that of thehighReynolds number k-
model.
2.11 Conclusions
This chapter describes a novel numerical procedurethe NIMO nite-difference
procedure. TheNIMOnumerical procedureisfreefromanyinterpolationsof con-
vectiveuxesthat normally producehighlevelsof falsediffusioninmost known
nite-differenceschemes. TheNIMOsysteminvolvesfour gridsin2Dows. The
four gridsarelocatedinspacesuchthateachgridisdisplacedmidwaywithrespect
to oneof theremaining grids. Themain grid and thexy-grid interconnect indi-
rectly throughthex- andy-gridsandviceversa. Similar interconnectionbetween
thefour NIMOgridsisvalidinthecylindrical-polar solutiondomain. Thepercent-
agesumof theabsoluteresidual errors of themain grid and xy-grid behaves in
thesamefashion, whichisdifferent fromthesimilar trendof theother twogrids.
TheNIMO schemeis applied to two test problems. Therst test problemis the
obliqueowintheCartesiancoordinates, whilethesecondtest problemisrepre-
sentedby arotatingradial owinanannular sector. TheNIMO nite-difference
schemecanproducenumerical prolesof that capturetheanalytical solutionof
thetest problemfor 45-degreeand30-degreeobliqueows for highPeclet num-
bers. Moreover, NIMO can essentially capturetheanalytical solution of thetwo
test problemsfor square, rectangular, andnonuniformgrids. Thesecondtest prob-
lemis also computed with avery high accuracy, which conrms thevalidity of
theNIMOschemetothecylindrical-polar coordinatesaswell astotheCartesian
coordinates. Most of thesingle-gridnumerical proceduresutilizingrectangular or
nonuniformgrids could not reach that level of accuracy due to false diffusion,
overshooting, or undershooting. Thiscouldbeconcludedfromthecomparisonof
thedataof theseschemes withthecorrespondingpresent numerical results. The
NIMOnite-differenceequations containconvectiveterms that slightly resemble
theupwindschemes. However, unliketheupwindscheme, theincomingconvective
uxestoaparticulargridaresuppliedbytwoof theremainingthreegridsof NIMO.
A newfeatureemergesthat allowstheoutgoinguxestoleavebehindpositiveor
negativetraces in aparticular grid control volume, which is completely ignored
intheupwindscheme. Theseoutgoingconvectiveuxes constitutetheincoming
convectiveuxestotwoof theremainingthreegridsof NIMO. Resultsobtainedfor
differentvaluesof thePecletnumbershowedthatthediagonal coreof thetestprob-
lemissurroundedby narrowstripsboundedby =0.99and10
2
. Thesenarrow
stripsbecomeessentiallynonexistentasthePecletnumberisincreasedto1,000.The
convergednumerical solutionsof thefour NIMOgridsfor apassivescalar variable
ataxedvalueof thePecletnumberareconsistentandidentical.TheNIMOhigher-
order schemehas further beentestedagainst laminar andturbulent owinpipes
aswell asrecirculatingowbehindafence. Thelaminar owinpipesispredicted
withaveryhighaccuracyfora(100100)grid. However, therecirculatinglaminar
owbehindafencecanbepredictedaccuratelywithaner (150150) grid. The
turbulentowinpipesiswell predictedwhenthelowReynoldsnumber k-emodel
isused.
Nomenclatures
A surfaceareaof control volume
a nite-difference coefcients
c convectivetransport rates
c, c modiedconvectivetransport rates
c
j
, c
1
, c
2
,
k
,
e
commoncoefcientsinhighandlowReynolds
number models
D, E, f
1
, f
2
, f
j
coefcientsinlowReynoldsnumber model
d diffusivetransport rate
k turbulent kineticenergy
n number of iterations
Pe Peclet number
p
/
pressurecorrection
R
t
turbulent Reynoldsnumber
S
u
, S
p
sourcetermcoefcientsinlinear form
u velocitycomponent alongx direction
u
CL
fullydevelopedcenterlineaxial velocity
u
k
uidvelocityalongcoordinatedirectionx
i
: velocitycomponent alongy direction
x
k
coordinatedirection
x distancebetweencentral nodeandneighboringnode
dissipationrateof turbulent kineticenergy
scalar variable
I
molecular diffusivityof
j
e
effectiveviscosity
j
t
turbulent viscosity
density
Superscript
E, W east andwest directions
p valueat center of control volume
S, N southandnorthdirections
t turbulent ow
i, j gridnodeindices
Superscript
x x-grid
y y-grid
xy xy-grid
* uncorrectedvalues
References
[1] Abou-Ellail, M. M. M., Gosman, A. D., Lockwood, F. C., and Megahed, I. E. A.
Descriptionandvalidationof athree-dimensional procedurefor combustionchamber
ows. AIAA Journal of Energy, 2, pp. 7180, 1978.
[2] Patankar, S. V. Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow. McGraw Hill: NewYork,
1980.
[3] Roache, P. J. Computational Fluid Dynamics. Hermosa: Albuquerque, NM, 1972.
[4] Prince, H. S., Varga, R. S., andWarren, J. E. Application of oscillation matrices to
diffusion-convectionequations. Journal of Mathematics and Physics, 45, pp. 301311,
1966.
[5] Leonard, B. P. A survey of nite differences of opinions on numerical modeling of
incomprehensibledefectiveconfusion equation. ASME Applied Mechanics Division,
34, pp. 5998, 1979.
[6] Leonard, B. P. Stableandaccurateconvectivemodelingprocedurebasedonquadratic
upstreaminterpolation. Computer Methods inApplied Mechanics and Engineering, 19,
pp. 5998, 1979.
[7] Leonard, B. P. A stable, accurate, economical and comprehendiblealgorithmfor the
NavierStokes and scalar transport equations. In: Numerical Methods in Laminar
and Turbulent Flow, C. Taylor and B. A. Schreer, eds., Proceedings of the Second
International Conference, pp. 543553. Venice, Italy, 1981.
[8] Song, B., Liu, G. R., Lam, K. Y., andAmano, R. S. Four-point interpolationschemes
for convectiveuxesapproximation. Numerical Heat Transfer, Part B, 35, pp. 2339,
1999.
[9] Song, B., Liu, G. R., Lam, K. Y., and Amano, R. S. On a higher-order bounded
discretizationscheme. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids, 32, pp.
881897, 2000.
[10] Song, B., Liu, G. R., andAmanoR. S. Applicationsof ahigher-order boundnumerical
schemetoturbulent ows. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids, 35,
pp. 371394, 2001.
[11] Raithby, G. D. Skewupstreamdifferencingschemesfor problemsinvolvinguidow.
Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 9, pp. 153164, 1976.
[12] Verma, A. K., andEswaran, V. Overlappingcontrol volumeapproachfor convection-
diffusion problems. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids, 23,
pp. 865882, 1996.
[13] Carvalho, G. M., Durst, F., andPereira, C. F. Predictionsandmeasurementsof laminar
owover two-dimensional obstacles. Applied Mathematical Modeling, 11, pp. 2334,
1987.
[14] Launder, B., andSpalding, D.Thenumerical computationof turbulentows. Computer
Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, 3, pp. 269289, 1974.
[15] Launder, B., andSharma, B.Applicationof theenergy-dissipationmodel of turbulence
tothecalculationof ownear aspinningdisc., Letters in Heat and Mass Transfer, 1,
pp. 131137, 1974.
[16] Laufer, J. Thestructureof turbulenceinfully developedpipeow. NACA Report no.
1174, 1954.
[17] Schlichting, H. Boundary-Layer Theory, Chapter 20, McGraw-Hill: NewYork, 1979.
Sunden ch003.tex 27/8/2010 18: 35 Page61
3 CFD for industrial turbomachinery
designs
C. XuandR. S. Amano
University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, USA
Abstract
Animplicit methodwas introducedto solvetheviscous turbulent owinatime-
efcient way. Thischapter presentshowtousethenumerical methodfor applying
theairfoil bladedesignimprovementsinturbomachinery. Thisstepincludesblade
aerodynamic design systemwith optimization approaches. The design method
developed by the authors are introduced that employs a discrete vortex method
tocalculatethebladepressuredistributionsafter theairfoil sectionwasdesigned,
andafast N-S solver developedinthisstudy wasusedtofurther check theblade
performance. Withtheapproachesdescribedinthischapter, thewholebladeaero-
dynamic designprocedurecanprovideafast way to designthebladeprolethat
meets thebladedesign requirements. Thepresent Navier-Stokes (N-S) codecan
well handlebothsubsonicandsupersonicows, whichcanbefurther connectedto
anoptimizationcodetoperformancethree-dimensional bladedesignoptimizations.
Keywords: CFD, Compressor, Finite-volumemethod, Implicit method,
Optimization, Turbomachinery
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Computational methods in turbomachinery
Flowsinturbomachinery areamongthemost complex owsencounteredinuid
dynamicpracticesasinmost cases, theyarethreedimensional, withall threeow
regimes (laminar, transition, andturbulent) withowseparations. Flows may be
incompressible, compressible, subsonic, transonic, or supersonic; someturboma-
chineryowsincludeall of theseowregimes. Equationsarestronglycoupledand
complex boundary conditions areoftenunavoidable. A largenumber of owand
thermal parameters areencountered: Reynolds number, Machnumber, rotational
speed, Prandtl number, andowincidence, withhighlycomplexgeometrical param-
eters. Thiscomplexowandgeometrical variablesdictatethenatureof governing
equationsandowsolverstobeused.
Full N-S
Physical approximation
Procedure
Coupled Uncoupled
Relaxation pressure based
Pseudocompressible method
Time marching
Elliptic for cross flow
Parabolic for steamwise
Gridfree method
Euler method
N-S method
Elliptic N-S
Parabolic N-S
Pressure
approximation
Velocity
split
RNS, TLNS,
PPNS
Figure3.1. Classicationsof governingequations.
With the rapid development of computer hardware, the use of computa-
tional uid dynamics (CFD) in turbomachinery design and analysis has been
ever increasing. Aerodynamic processesassociatedwiththeowof uidthrough
turbomachines pose one of the toughest challenges to the computational uid
dynamicists. Althoughwiththerecent development of computer performancesci-
entists andengineers canlook moreandmoreowphenomenainturbomachine
designs, applicationsof full three-dimensional multistagesimulationsintheaero-
dynamicdesignarestill achallengeandsois, thedesignof effectiveschemesthat
canbeusedfor turbinedesign[16].
There are several types of approximations in the numerical solution of gov-
erning equations for turbomachinery ow simulations. Governing equations are
approximated depending on the physics of oweld. Further approximations
are in numerical discretization and technique in solving these equations. The
classications for governing equations are shown in Figure 3.1. The numerical
procedures classiedaccordingtothephysical approximations madeareinviscid
ows, parabolized NavierStokes techniques, and thin-layer NavierStokes and
full NavierStokes solutions. According to the ow equations to be solved, the
numerical methodcanbecategorizedintothreetypes: i.e. grid-freevortexmethod
[714], incompressibleEulerequationandNavierStokessimulationmethod[26],
andcompressibleEuler equationandNavierStokes simulationmethod[1436].
Discussions of the numerical methods here are mainly on the NavierStokes
equations. Brief discussions of the grid-free vortex method and incompressible
simulationmethodarealsoprovided. Themainfocuswill beonthediscussionsof
thecompressiblesimulationmethodwithemphasisontheNavierStokesmethod,
whichisdirectlyrelatedtothepresent study.
CFD for industrial turbomachinery designs 63
3.1.2 Grid-free vortex method
Vortexmethodsarebasedonthefrequency-domainsource-doubletsandvortexpan-
elsthat canpredict steadyandunsteadyowsinturbomachines. Inthisapproach,
airfoilsof aturbomachinearediscretizedintwoseveral vortexpanelsandsource-
doubletstorepresentboundaries. Vortexmethodscanhandlenotonlysteadyows
but also unsteady ows [714]. Most of thesemethods arebasedontheinviscid
assumption. Thevortexmethodsarestill limitedinirrotational ow, andtheystill
havesomedifcultiesinhandlingheattransferproblem.A grid-freevortexmethod
canbeadaptedandextendedtouseaspartof bladedesignprocedure. Inthevortex
method, therotor/statorstageisdecoupledintotwoseparatebladerows. Eachblade
rowinteractsonlywiththeimmediatedownstreamor upstreamof abladerow. The
inuences fromother bladerows areassumedto bemuchsmaller thanthat from
thebladefromtheimmediateneighboringbladerows. Thewakeprolecanbean
analytical or measuredtimeor spatiallydependentvelocitydistribution. Theveloc-
itydistributionsaregenerallynot thesimpleharmonictype. Harmonicamplitudes
andrelatedphaseangles of this nonsimpleharmonic wake-eldcanbeobtained
throughaFourier decompositionof thevelocities. Thewakesof thebladesareusu-
ally calculatedbasedonsomeempirical wakemodels. Theunsteady responseon
thedownstreambladerowiscalculatedinatypical blade-wakeinteractionmanner.
Thismethodcanpredicttheinteractionsbetweenbladesandbladesaswell asblades
andwake. Thepanel methodcanpredict thepressuredistributionaccurately. The
computational timeusingthismethodismorethan100timesfaster thanatypical
NavierStokes solution. This methodcanbecoupledto aboundary layer codeto
predictviscouseffectsandlosses. Themainlimitationsof thismethodarebasedon
theassumptionthat owisirrotational andincompressible. Thethree-dimensional
turbineowsarealmostinvariablyrotational, andtheexistenceof potential owis
anexception.
Thedetailedformulationis describedinRefs. [710]. Theowaroundatur-
bineairfoil canberepresentedby vortex sheets and/or sourcesheets of unknown
strengthclothingthewholeairfoil. Thelocationof thesheetismeasuredclockwise
around the body perimeter fromthe trailing edge. The airfoil prole is divided
intoN planar elementsdenotedby(x
q
, y
q
) (whereq =1, 2, . . . , N) withelements1
andN beingadjacent tothetrailingedge. Thecalculationassumesthat auniform
vortex distributionof aninitially unknownvorticity is placedoneachelement q.
TheBiotSavartlawprovidesameansof calculatingthevelocitiesintheoweld.
Theboundary conditionontheairfoil surfaceissuchthat theresultingowmust
beparallel tothebodysurfaceat all control points.
Theconditionof azerointernal tangential velocityat thepthcollocationpoint
(wherep =1, 2, . . . , N) isgivenby
(Q Q)[
p
= 0 (1)
where Q is the velocity induced by each vortex element. While the free-stream
tangential velocity component can becalculated directly, it can bemoved to the
right-handsideof equation(1) andbegivenasfollows:
(Q)[
p
= (Q)[
p
= Ucos
p
Vsin
p
(2)
where U and V represent the two components of uniformstreamvelocity
parallel tothex- andy-axes, respectively.
p
istheslopeof thebodyproleandis
denedby
p
= tan
1
_
y
p
y
p1
x
p
x
p1
_
(3)
LetLl
q
bethelengthof theqthelement. Onusingtheboundarycondition, equation
(1) canbeexpressedasaset of linear equations
N
q=1
Kpq q = U
cos
p
V
sin
p
(4)
whereK
pq
denotesthecouplingcoefcientslinkingp andq andisgivenby
K
pq
=
Ll
q
2
[(y
p
y
q
)cos
p
(x
p
x
q
)sin
p
]
[(y
p
y
q
)
2
(x
p
x
q
)
2
]
(5)
After thevortex strength of each element is calculated, thevelocity vector eld
andvelocity potential eldcanbeobtained. Thecalculatedvelocity potential and
velocity canthenbeusedto obtainthepressureandtheisentropic Machnumber
distribution. To validatethecode, aNACA 0012airfoil with4-degreeincidence
wasused.
3.2 Numerical Methods for Incompressible Flow
Fromthenumerical methodpointof view, itisneededtopointoutthatthetechniques
typicallyusedfor thesolutionof Euler andNavierStokesequationsarethesame,
eventhoughtherearesomedifferencesinthebehavior of thetechniquewithand
withouttheviscousterms.ThetechniquestypicallyusedbybothEulerandNavier
Stokes equations arediscussedinthefollowingsections. To predict andimprove
theperformanceof turbomachine, it isimportant tounderstandtheowandheat
transfer throughtheturbinebladeandbladepassages fromthestandpoint of the
design of blade geometry. For the ow inside the turbine stages fromthe rst
stagetothelast one, theowcharacter maychangefromincompressiblepotential
owto compressibleow. Theincompressiblesolutionis also animportant part
of theturbomachinery owsimulations. Inmost of theearly studies[6,10], time-
averageincompressibleowequationswereconsidered. Inthosemethodstherst
and second derivativeterms did not contain cross-derivatives that can betreated
implicitly. Thehigh-order articial dissipationtermscanbeusedinthecalculation
inorder toincreasetheaccuracywhenthesolutionsmeetthestabilityrequirement.
Tocalculatethepressure, thoseschemesneedtoincorporatethepressurecorrection
equations.
Pressure-basedmethodsareoneof themajor methodsfor incompressibleow
analysis. Inthismethod, theassumedpressureisupdatedusinganauxiliaryequa-
tionfor pressure, andamultipass procedureis adaptedtohelpconvergeboththe
pressure and the velocity eld. Most of the pressure-based methods are exten-
sionsof thesingle-passpressurecorrectionmethods. Inthistechnique, aseparate
equation for pressurecorrection is developed for both thebulk pressurecorrec-
tion and the pressure correction in the transverse momentumequation, relating
thesourcetermin thePoisson equation to thepressurecorrection in theveloc-
ity eld through the continuity equation (10). The pressure correction requires
a staggered grid to eliminate oscillations in the solution of the pressure correc-
tion equation. Both nite-difference and nite-volume technique can be used
in these methods. Application of these techniques to turbomachinery ows and
subsequent modications to improve accuracy and efciency have been carried
out. Theauthor has modied and improved convergenceof thepressurecorrec-
tionmethod[10]. Thepressure-basedmethods areoneof themost sophisticated
methods. They arehighly recommendedfor incompressibleturbomachinery ow
simulation.
3.3 Numerical Methods for Compressible Flow
For thenumerical methodfor compressibleow, thetime-marchingtechniqueis
oneof themost important methods. Theprincipleof atime-marchingmethodisto
considerthesolutionof astationaryproblemasthesolutionafterasufcientlylong
calculationtimeof thetime-dependentequationsdescribingtheparticularproblem.
Theattractionof thetime-marchingmethodistheabilitytocomputemixedsubsonic
andsupersonic ows. Theequations may besolvedby either nite-differenceor
nite-volumeform. Intheformer, itisusual totransformthecomputational domain
intoauniformrectangulargridandtoexpressthederivativesof theowvariablesin
termsof valuesatthenodesof thisgrid. Inthenite-volumemethodtheequations
areregardedasthesefortheconservationof mass, energy, andmomentumappliedto
aset of interlockingcontrol volumesformedbyagridinthephysical plan. When
equations aresolved in this way, it is easier to ensureconservation of mass and
momentumthaninthedifferential approach, butnumerical schemesarenecessary
toensurestability.
Theadvantagesof thetime-marchingmethodsareasfollows: (a) thesamecode
canbeusedfor thesolutionof all owregimes: subsonictosupersonic, viscousor
inviscidequations; (b) thetechniqueiseasytoimplement andvectorizetotakean
advantageof supercomputingcapabilities. Theequations aresolvedas acoupled
system. Thescalar variables (pressure, velocities, density, enthalpy, entropy, and
temperature) aresolvedsimultaneously; (c) thecodeisexiblesothatitcanemploy
both external and internal owcalculations; (d) for complex owgeometry and
owelds, thetechniqueiscomparableinothermethods. Themajordisadvantages
areasfollows: (a) sincethetechniqueistimeiterativeandoftenrequiresverysmall
timesteps, thecomputational efciencyislow. Thisshortagestimulatestheauthor
todevelopanewkindof economical time-marchingalgorithm; (b) thetechnique
isnotsuitablefor incompressibleows. Thisalsostimulatestheauthor tosolvethe
eigenvaluestiffnessproblem.
Sincetheows in turbomachinery components contains both incompressible
andcompressibleparts, thedevelopment of themethodsthat canbeusedfor both
incompressibleandcompressibleowsisveryimportant.Thepressure-basedmeth-
ods solve a Poisson equation for pressure, and the momentumequations in an
uncoupled manner by iterating until adivergence-freeow eld is satised. On
theother hand, it isevident fromthematerial presentedintheearlier sectionthat
veryefcient andaccuratealgorithmshavebeendevelopedfor solvinghyperbolic
systemsgoverningcompressibleowusingtime-iterativemethods. Manyattempts
havebeen madeto combinethesetwo methods andhopeto formakindof new
methodthat canbeusedinbothimpressibleandcompressibleows.
Two methods havebeenproposed. Oneinvolves recastingtheincompressible
owequationashyperbolicsystems, whichiscalledpseudo-compressibilitytech-
nique. Therst methodis to premultiply thetimederivativeby asuitablematrix
andtheother is to useaperturbedformof theequations inwhichspecic terms
aredroppedsuchthat thephysical acousticwavesarereplacedbypseudo-acoustic
modes. Thistechniqueiscalledpreconditioningmethod[6].
Pseudo-compressibilitytechniqueisbasedonmakingthegoverningequations
behavelikeahyperbolic systemthroughaddingthetimederivativeof apressure
term. Inthesteadystate, theseequationsandsolutionsareexactlythoseof steady
incompressibleow, eventhoughthetemporal solutionsarenotaccurate.Theconti-
nuityequationaftermodicationintroducesspuriouspressurewavesof nitespeed
intotheoweldthroughthepseudo-compressibilityparameter. Most researchers
linearized theequations using atruncatedTaylor series and discretized themby
using a two-point central difference in the spatial directions. The most popular
solution techniques arethestandardimplicit approximatefactorization schemes.
Thepseudo-compressibilitytechniquehasbeenusedintheturbinebladeowcal-
culation. However, thepseudo-compressibilityparameter isdifcult todetermine.
It isstronglyinuencedbytheowstructure.
Thepreconditioningmethod, ontheotherhand, isbasedonmodifyingthetime-
dependent NavierStokesequations. Thepreconditioningmatrixwasaddedinthe
timederivativeterm. Thebasic ideaof thepreconditioning procedureis to start
withthetimederivativesexpressedintermsof theviscousdependentvariablesthat
appearinthediffusionterms.Theproceduresmodifytheeigenstructureof theinvis-
cidcomponentsof theset of theNavierStokesequationssuchthat thecondition
numberremainsboundedasthefreestreamMachnumberbecomessmall. Provided
thatthenumerical discretizationismodiedtoreecttheneweigensystem, theuse
of time-derivativepreconditioningcanallowasinglealgorithmtoprovideaccurate,
efcient solutionstotheNavierStokesequationsat all owspeeds.
Forobtainingthestablescheme, mostof theresearchersusedtheimplicitscheme
to yield a promising method for rapid calculations of fully coupled ows at all
speeds. However, theselectionof thepreconditioningmatrixisaccordingtoexpe-
rienceandtheowcharacteristics. Thelimitations of current methods encourage
ustoinvestigatethenewmethods. Authors[2and3] proposedatimingmatching
methodthroughmodifyingthegoverningequationstopreventeigenvaluestiffness
whenit usesinincompressibleowrange.
There are two classes of methods for solving the time-dependent equations:
explicit and implicit. Explicit methods, where spatial derivatives are evaluated
using the known conditions at the old time level, are simpler and more easily
vectorizable. Theimplementation of theboundary conditions is straightforward.
Thecodingcanbeeasily extendedtoincludeatime-dependent calculation. Their
major disadvantageslieintheconditional stabilitydictatedbycourant-Friedrichs-
lewy limit. The convergence is usually slower and requires more computational
timethananimplicitmethod. Forimplicitmethods, ontheotherhand, theunknown
variables arederivedfromasimultaneous solutionof aset of equations. Implicit
methodsusuallyallowlarger timestepsandfaster convergence, andareattractive
for bothsteadyandunsteadyows. Bothexplicit andimplicit schemesarewidely
employed in thecomputations of turbomachinery ows. However, both of these
methodsarestill under development.
The most widely used explicit methods in turbomachinery ow are Lax
Wendroff scheme, MacCormack scheme, and RungeKutta scheme [6]. The
RungeKuttaschemeallowslargertimestepthanthatwithotherschemes.Articial
dissipationmustbepurposefullyaddedtotheseschemes, usuallyaftereachstagein
theupdatingprocedure. All of theseschemesprovideinherentarticial dissipation
duetotruncationerror. Themost widelyusedimplicit techniquesinturbomachin-
ery owareapproximatefactorizationandupwindschemes. Theliteratureshows
that operational CFL number intheorder of 10for viscous turbomachinery ow
calculations provided thebest error damping properties although linear stability
analysis provided that theschemes areunconditionally stablein two dimensions
[13].Theimplicitschemeenableslargetimestepsbutmayintroducefactorization
error. Theresultsfor aturbinecascadeindicatethat all techniquesprovidenearly
identical pressuredistribution. Themajor differences lieintheCFL number and
CPU timefor convergence. Bothexplicit andimplicit techniquesarewidelyused,
with explicit techniques more commonly used in industry. Both techniques can
incorporatelocal timestepping. Themaximumtimestepfor afour-stageRunge
KuttamethodisCFL =2.8, andtypical CFL numbersfor theimplicit lower upper
schemeandalternatingdirectionimplicit schemearebetween5to10, [6]. There-
fore, thechoiceof explicit versus implicit techniqueand thetimeaccuracy of a
givenalgorithmmayhavelesstodowiththeaccuracyof thepredictedresultsthan
thenatureof anumerical dampingandanapplicationgrid.
Intheturbomachineryoweldsimulation, most researchers[2032] focused
on the ow eld analysis. In the ow and heat transfer analysis, the governing
equations may be solved in either nite-difference or nite-volume form. The
nite-differenceschemeusuallyprovidesagoodconvergentrate.Thenite-volume
schemeprovidesaverysimpleandautomaticconservationof massandmomentum
scheme, andit also has goodphysical properties becausetheschemeis obtained
fromworkinginaphysical grid. Theargument as to whether nite-differenceor
nite-volumeschemesarepreferableisnotresolved, andbothtypesarestill widely
used. Either schemeiswrittenintheformof nite-differencescheme. Thenite-
differenceequations useto simulateow and heat transfer must benumerically
stable, spatially and temporally accurateand efcient, conservativeso that ow
discontinuitiescanberemovedfromevery gridwithout any distortion, andeasily
applicableingeneralizedcoordinates.
AerodynamicdesignershavebeenusingtheCFDapproachasoneof thedesign
tools to generate engineering design data. The potential of CFD approaches to
revolutionizeaturbomachineryanalysisisexempliedbyimpressivecalculations
such as those of ows around turbine stators and rotors. A general method for
CFD in the design of turbomachinery, which would include turbulence viscous
effectswithminimumapproximationsandhighefciencies, couldprovideamajor
tool for bothresearchersanddesignengineerstoimproveturbineperformanceand
durability. Oneof themotivationsof thisparthasledtoamajoreffortindeveloping
cascadeowanalysisof variousdegreesof sophistication. Despitesignicantgains
in thecomputational speed of modern computers, most numerical schemes still
requireprohibitiveamountsof computational timetoobtainsolutionsof theNavier
Stokes equations. Despite the challenges of the three-dimensional complicated
owsimulation, atwo-dimensional owsimulationisstill aninterestingtopicof a
researchscientist [1,4].
Althoughconsiderableprogresshasbeenmadeinthepast20yearsinthenumer-
ical simulationof steady two-dimensional turbinecascadeows, thesenumerical
results werestill in general not reliableenough [1]. Further improvement is still
neededintheturbulencemodeling, gridgeneration, andefciencyof thenumerical
scheme. Thefact isthat turbulencemodelsthemselveshavenot alwaysperformed
well. Thechoiceof thenumerical method might also beacrucial factor for the
successful implementationof anumerical scheme. Thepresentstudydemonstrates
theefciencyof thenumerical schemeandpotential usageof thisschemetosolve
cascadeowandheat transfer problems.
Time-marchingalgorithms[2,14] havebeenusedprimarilyingasturbinecas-
cadeowandheattransferanalysis.Thebasicprincipleof atime-marchingmethod
istoconsider thesolutionof astationaryproblemasthesolutionafter sufciently
longcalculationtimeof thetime-dependantequations. Thecomputationstartswith
aroughperturbationthatdevelopsundercertainboundaryconditionsuntil itreaches
a convergent state. In this approach, the governing equations are replaced by a
robust time-differenceapproximationwithwhichsteady or time-dependent ows
of interest can besolved. At each timelevel, asystemof algebraic equations is
solved. Thetime-marchingalgorithmscanbecategorizedintotwotypes: explicit
andimplicit schemes. Anexplicit method, ingeneral, is easier toprogramandto
vectorize, allowingincorporationof boundaryconditionsandturbulencemodelsin
asimpler waythananimplicitmethod. A mainshortcomingof theexplicitmethod
isitssusceptibilitytonumerical stability, whichconstrainsthetime-stepsizerather
severely.Theimplicitscheme, ontheotherhand, isgenerallyunconditionallystable,
sothat arelativelylargetimestepcanbeadapted. Inadditiontothesealgorithms,
thereexistsafamilyof hybridalgorithms, whichiswidelyusedinthecascade-ow
simulations. Thehybridalgorithmspossessthepositivefeaturesof theexplicitand
implicit algorithms, providingarelatively rapidconvergenceprocess andhaving
a less restricted stability constraint. The essence of this algorithmis the use of
explicit andimplicit nite-differenceformulaeat alternativecomputational mesh
points. However, thenatureof thebasicformulaefor thehybridalgorithmremains
thesameasfor thetraditional implicit andexplicit schemes.
Inviscous calculations, dissipatingproperties always present dueto theexis-
tenceof diffusiveterms. Awayfromtheshear layer regions, however, thephysical
diffusion is generally not sufcient to prevent the numerical oscillation of the
schemes. Thus, the articial dissipation terms are usually used in order to sta-
bilizeandpermit ahigher CFL number inmost of theinteractiveschemesfor the
compressibleowcomputation. Asiscommonlyrecognized, thearticial dissipa-
tion will inuencetheaccuracy of thenumerical results. It has been shown that
essentiallygrid-convergedsolutionsfor thehigh-speedviscousowsover aerody-
namic shapes canbeobtainedif sufciently nemeshes for thecomputationare
provided. However, thecomputationbasedonnemeshesisverytimeconsuming,
making it difcult to assess thenumerical accuracy of grid-converged solutions.
Thetechniquestoproperlytreatdissipationtermsarestill animportanttopicof the
computational uid. Anattempt wasmadebyTurkel andVatsa[15] toimprovethe
accuracy of thesolutions onagivengridinorder to reducetherequirednumber
of gridpointsfor obtainingaspeciedlevel of accuracy. Theessential mechanism
usedintheirmethod[15] istoreducethelevel of thearticial viscositybyreplacing
thescalar formof thearticial viscositywithamatrixform. Ithasbeenshownthat
thenumerical accuracyof theNavierStokessolutionsisimprovedthroughtheuse
of thematrix-valueddissipationmodel. Inthischapter, thedissipationtermswere
not treatedthroughmodifyingconvectiveuxesasintraditional methods. Instead,
thedissipationtermswereincorporatedintothetime-derivativetermstoformanew
timediscretizationschemetoreducethelevel of articial viscosity.Andalsointhis
way, theeigenvalue-stiffnessproblemassociatedwiththetime-derivativetermcan
bepreventedwhenthecalculationsareperformedinalowMachnumber ow. This
characteristic can partly control theeffect of eigenvaluestiffness, which is well
knownontheconvergenceof bothexplicitandimplicitschemes. Furthermore, the
present schemeis ahybrid schemethat combines theadvantages of theimplicit
andexplicitschemes, andisasecond-order timeandspatial derivativeschemethat
allowsmoreaccuratecalculation. BecausethehigherCFL numbercanbeusedwith
thepresent method, it ismoreeconomicthantheordinaryimplicit scheme.
Theeffectof eigenvaluestiffnessontheconvergenceof bothexplicitandimplicit
schemes is well known, andnormally two distinct methods havebeensuggested
for controlling the eigenvalues to enhance convergence. There are two kinds of
methodsthatcansolvethisproblem. Oneof themethodstoovercomethisproblem
is to premultiply thetimederivativeby asuitablematrix, andtheother is to use
aperturbed formof theequations in which specic terms aredropped such that
thephysical acoustic waves arereplacedby pseudo-acoustic modes. Thepresent
methodfollowstherst ideaandincorporatesthematrix-valueddissipationterms
intime-derivativeterms.Thesetermspreventtheeigenvaluesof thetime-derivative
termsfrombecomingstiff whenthecalculationsareperformedintheowwhere
theMachnumberisrelativelysmall.Thischaracteristiccanpartlycontrol theeffect
of eigenvaluestiffnessthat iswell knownontheconvergenceof bothexplicit and
implicit schemes. Furthermore, the present scheme employs a hybrid algorithm
that combines the advantages of the implicit and explicit schemes. The present
schemealso processes aspectral radio techniqueto simplify thecalculation and
avoidtheapproximatefactorization, thusincreasingthestability. Thisnewmethod
isasecond-ordertimeandspatial derivativeschemepermittingahighCFL number.
3.4 Governing Equations for Two-Dimensional Flow
Thetwo-dimensional time-dependentReynolds-averagedNavierStokesequations
canbewrittenas:
Q
t
E
x
F
y
= R
x
S
y
(6)
where
Q =
_
_
_
_
u
:
e
_
_
, E =
_
_
_
_
u
p u
2
u:
(e p)u
_
_
, F =
_
_
_
_
:
u:
p :
2
(e p):
_
_
, R =
_
_
_
_
0
xx
xy
x
_
_
, S =
_
_
_
_
0
xy
yy
y
_
_
(7)
andwhere
xx
= 2ju
x
(u
x
:
y
)
xy
= j(u
x
:
y
)
yy
= 2ju
y
(u
x
:
y
)
x
= u
xx
:
xy
jP
1
r
e
x
y
= u
xy
:
yy
jP
1
r
e
y
e = p,[( 1)]
= 2j,3
j = j
t
j
l
Theequationof statefor aperfect gasis:
p = RT (8)
Andthedenitionof thestaticenthalpysupplementingtheequationsof motioncan
bewrittenas:
h = C
p
T (9)
Becausetheturbinecascadeowalwaysaccompanieshightemperature, theow
propertieschangewiththetemperaturevariation. Inthiscalculation, Sutherlands
Lawisusedtoexpresstherelationof molecular viscosityandtemperature:
j = j
0
_
_
T
T
0
_
1.5
T
0
S
T S
_
(10)
whereS =100K for air andthevariationof thermal conductivitywithtemperature
isdeterminedby:
k = k
0
_
_
T
T
0
_
1.5
T
0
S
/
T S
/
_
(11)
where S
/
=194K for air. Making the variable transformation for the governing
equationsfromphysical domain(x, y) tocomputational domain(, ), wehave
= (x, y) (12)
= (x, y) (13)
TheNavierStokesequationcanbewrittenas:
Q
t
E
= R
(14)
where
Q =
1
J
_
_
_
_
u
:
e
_
_
, E =
1
J
_
_
_
_
u
p
x
uu
p
y
u:
(e p)u
_
_
, F =
1
J
_
_
_
_
:
p
x
u:
p
y
::
(e p):
_
_
R =
1
J
_
_
_
_
0
xx
x

xy
xy
x

xy
x

y
y
_
_
, S =
1
J
_
_
_
_
0
xx
x

xy
xy
x

yy
x

y
y
_
_
wherethecontravariant velocitiesaregivenby:
u = u
x
:
y
: = u
x
:
y
Equation(14) canbewritteninthesimilar formtoequation(6) as:
Q
t
E
= R
(15)
A satisfactoryturbulencemodel shouldmeet therequirementsof accuracyand
compatibility [15]. Although the ow around the turbine cascade is extremely
complicated, the boundary layers comprise three regions: boundaries near the
suction side, thosenear thepressureside, and thewakeregion behind thetrail-
ing edge. In most of thebladeshapes thecurvatureof thesuction sideis fairly
low and the pressure and velocity gradients are not very large compared to the
boundary-layer thickness. Thiskindof turbulent boundary layer canbesimulated
usingzero-equationturbulencemodelsjustaswell aswithamorecomplicatedand
lessefcient one- or two-equationmodelsof turbulence. For thewakeregionnear
thetrailingedge, therearenowidely usedandsuccessful modelstosimulatethis
complexow. TheBaldwinLomaxmodel [32] isverycompatibleandhasseveral
goodfeatures, suchas its usefulness inseparatedows withsmall separation, its
relativelysmoothcontinuoustransitionof thelengthscaleof theboundarylayerinto
thelengthscaleof thefar wake, anditsabilitytoaccuratelypredict thewall effect
near thetrailingedge. For thisreason, theBaldwinLomaxturbulencemodel was
employedinthisstudytohandletheturbulentowaroundtheturbinecascadeows.
3.5 Decomposition of Flux Vector
3.5.1 Governing equations
Ingeneral, therearetwowaystosplittheux. Oneisthefaster convergentscheme
called theFlux Vector Splitting (FVS), and theother is amoreaccuratescheme
called the Flux Difference Splitting (FDS). Of these, FDS has been shown to
bethemoreaccurateone. One-fthto one-half as many points wererequiredto
resolveashear layer usinguxesinarst-order schemecomparedtousingother
uxes insecond- or eventhird-order schemes. However, intheFDS scheme, the
exact J acobianof theRoematrix isexpensivetocompute, whereasapproximated
J acobianshaveobservedtogivepoor convergencecomparedtoFVS.
Thebasic Roeschemecouldproduceentropy-violatingsolutions, andit hasa
slowerconvergencecomparedtoFVS. Inthepresentstudy, theFVSschemeisused
toevaluatetheJ acobiansinmatrixequations. Theuxvector canbedecomposed
into two subvectors according to thepositiveand negativeeigenvalues. Through
aforwardstraight manipulation, onecancomputetheJ acobians A=E,Q and
B=F,Q throughthefollowingexpressions:
E = AQ (16)
F = BQ (17)
Equation(15) canberewrittenas
Q
t
AQ
BQ
= R
(18)
Notethat E andF arehomogeneousfunctionsof degree1inQ. TheJ acobians
havethefollowingtransformationrelations:
P
1
AP = A
A
(19)
P
1
BP = A
B
(20)
whereA
A
andA
B
arethediagonal matricesandcanbeenwrittenas:
A
A
= diag[ u, u, u aL(), u aL()]
(21)
= diag[
E1
,
E2
,
E3
,
E4
]
A
B
= diag[ :, :, : aL(), : aL()]
(22)
= diag[
F1
,
F2
,
F3
,
F4
]
wheresaretheeigenvaluesof uxvectorsE andF, a denotesthespeedof sound
inthephysical domain, and
u = u,x :,y (23)
: = u,x :,y (24)
L() =
_
2
x

2
y
(25)
L() =
_
2
x

2
y
(26)
Accordingtothevector splittingmethod, theeigenvaluesof theuxvector canbe
expressedusingpositiveandnegativeforms inorder tosplit theux vectors into
twosubvectors, that is,
E = (A
)Q = E
(27)
F = (B
)Q = F
(28)
Thesubvectors E
, E
, F
, andF
canbeexpressedaccordingto thepositive
andnegativeeigenvaluesas:
E
=
J
2
_
_
_
_
_
_
2( 1)
E1
E3
E4
[2( 1)
E1
E3
E4
]u a(
E3
E4
)
x
,L()
[2( 1)
E1
E3
E4
]: a(
E3
E4
)
y
,L()
[2( 1)
E1
E3
E4
](u
2
:
2
),2a(
E3
E4
)[u
x
,L()
:
y
,L()] (
E3
E4
)a
2
,( 1)
_
_
(29)
F
=
J
2
_
_
_
_
_
_
2( 1)
F1
F3
F4
[2( 1)
F1
F3
F4
]u a(
F3
F4
)
x
,L()
[2( 1)
F1
F3
F4
]: a(
F3
F4
)
y
,L()
[2( 1)
F1
F3
F4
](u
2
:
2
),2a(
F3
F4
)[u
x
,L()
:
y
,L()] (
F3
F4
)a
2
,( 1)
_
_
(30)
TheFVSformof equation(7) canbewrittenas:
Q
t
E
= R
(31)
3.5.2 Special treatment of the articial dissipation terms and numerical
algorithm
In this section, thenew way to treat thearticial dissipation terms is proposed.
AccordingtotheideaproposedbyTurkel andVatsa[15], thedissipationtermscan
bewritten in thematrix-valued dissipation. However, in thepresent method, the
dissipation termwas not incorporated into theconvection ux termas proposed
byTurkel andVatsa. Theideatoovercometheeffect of eigenvaluestiffnessonthe
convergenceof acompressibleowcalculationwasincorporatedintothearticial
dissipationterms. Thedissipationtermswereincorporatedintothetime-derivative
terms.Thedissipationtermscanplayaroleinrelativelyenlargingtheeigenvalueof
thetime-derivativeterm. Thedissipationtermsthatrequiredstabilizingthescheme
is implemented in a convenient manner by modifying the convective uxes as
follows:
F
1,2,
= 0.5 (F
F
1,
) D
1,2,
(32)
E
1,2
= 0.5 (E
E
1
) D
,1,2
(33)
ThetermsD
1,2,
andD
1,2,
representthedissipativetermsin anddirections,
respectively.Twoformsof articial dissipationmodelscanbeused. Oneisthescalar
dissipationmodel andanother isthematrix-valueddissipationmodel.
Theconcept of thematrix-valueddissipationmodel wasadaptedandmodied
toformanewnumerical scheme. Thespectral radii for the directionis:
= [ u[ aL() (34)
To formthepresent schemeand optimizethedissipation model in thesense
that the same dissipation scaling is used for all the governing equations in a
givencoordinatedirection, thematrix-valueddissipationtermin directioncanbe
writtenas:
D
E
= A
E

Q
t
Lt (35)
Following thematrix-valued dissipation concept, matrix A in direction can be
writtenas:
AF =
3
I
_
2
2

3
_
_
1
a
2
E
1
E
2
L()
2
_
(36)
2
2aL()
[E
3
( 1)E
4
]
where
E
1
= [1, u, :, c
p
T]
T
[q
2
,2, u, :, 1]
E
2
= [0,
x
,
y
, u]
T
[ u,
x
,
y
, 0]
E
3
= [1, u, :, c
p
T]
T
[ u,
x
,
y
, 0]
E
4
= [0,
x
,
y
, u]
T
[q
2
,2, u, :, 1] (37)
whereq isthetotal velocitydenedas:
q
2
= u
2
:
2
(38)
and
1
= u aL()
2
= u aL() (39)
3
= u
However, in the calculation, we cannot choose
1
,
2
, and
3
according to
equation(39) becausenear thestagnationpoints,
3
approachzero, whereasnear
soniclines
1
and
2
approachzero. Forsolvingthisproblem, welimitthesevalues
inthefollowingmanner:
1
= max( u aL(), u,M
2
r
)
2
= max( u aL(), u,M
2
r
) (40)
3
= max( u, u,M
2
r
)
where
M
r
=
_
_
_
0.001
M
2
1
M 0.001
0.001- M 1
M > 1
(41)
andwhereM isthecalculatedMachnumber.
ThematrixA
E
canberepresentedintheformA
E
accordingtothepositiveor
negativevalueof
1
,
2
, and
3
, that is,
A
E
= (A
E
A
E
),2 (42)
Similar expressioncanbederivedfor D
F
byreplacingthecontravariant velocity u
by : and by inequations(35)(42). Byaddingthematrixformof thedissipative
termsinthegoverningequation(31), weobtain:
_
Lt
_
A
A
2
A
2
B
2
B
2
_
I
_
Q
t
E
= R
(43)
whereI representstheunit matrix, andA
A
, A
A
, A
B
, andA
B
denotethematrices
correspondingtotheeigenvaluesof theconvectionuxmatrices.
Byusingthesecond-order time-differencealgorithm, wehave
Q
n1
Q
n
Lt
=
1
2
_
_
Q
t
_
n1
_
Q
t
_
n
_
(44)
_
Lt
_
A
A
2
A
2
B
2
B
2
_
I
_
Q
n1
Q
n
Lt
=
_
E
_
n1
_
R
_
n
(45)
Recallingthat
_
E
_
n1
=
_
E
_
n

_
A
n
_
Q
n1
Q
n
__
(46)
_
F
_
n1
=
_
F
_
n

_
B
n
_
Q
n1
Q
n
__
(47)
Consideringthestability, theforwardandbackwardschemewereadoptedinthe
differenceof uxsplitting. Wecandenethat:
LQ
n1
i,j
= Lt
_
L
_
n
Lt
_
L
c
R
L
L
c
S
L
_
n
(48)
Q
n1
i,j
= Q
n1
i,j
Q
n
i,j
(49)
where the backward operator, for example in for the E term, can be written
as
E =0.5 (3E
4E
1
E
2
), whereas the forward operator L
E =0.5
(3E
4E
1
E
2
) andL
=0.5(R
1
R
1
).
Bysubstitutingequations(46) and(47) intoequation(45) andconsideringthe
denitioninequations(48)and(49), wecanobtainthefollowingdifferencescheme:
d
W
Q
n1
i1,j
d
S
Q
n1
i,j1
d
P
Q
n1
i,j
d
N
Q
n1
i,j1
d
E
Q
n1
i1,j
= LQ
n1
i,j
(50)
where
d
W
=
Lt
2L
(A
A
)
n
i1,j

Lt
2L
_
A
i1,j
_
n
d
S
=
Lt
2L
(A
B
)
n
i,j1
Lt
2L
_
B
i,j1
_
n
d
P
= 1
Lt
2L
(A
A
)
n
i,j

Lt
2L
(A
A
)
n
i,j

Lt
2L
(A
B
)
n
i,j

Lt
2L
(A
B
)
n
i,j
Lt
2L
_
A
i,j
_
n
Lt
2L
_
A
i,j
_
n
Lt
2L
_
B
i,j
_
n
Lt
2L
_
B
i,j
_
n
d
N
=
Lt
2L
(A
B
)
n
i,j1
Lt
2L
_
B
i,j1
_
n
d
E
=
Lt
2L
(A
B
)
n
i1,j

Lt
4L
_
A
i1,j
_
n
Intheaboveexpressions, d
W
, d
S
, d
P
, andd
E
arescalars, whichcanbecalculated
directlyfromuxvectors. Itisshownthatthepresentschememainlyincludesboth
implicitandexplicitparts. Equation(50) istheimplicitpartof thepresentscheme,
which can improvethenumerical stability when alargetimestep is used in the
calculation. Becauseof theapplicationof ux vectors, thecomputational efforts
canbegreatly reducedas comparedto other coefcient matrix implicit schemes
for any timestep[2]. Equation(48) is theexplicit part of thescheme. Wefound
that theimplicit part, equation(50), canbesolvedby usingatwo-sweepmethod,
whichissimilar tothehopscotch-sweepmethodbut alongi (i.e., ) andj (i.e., )
directions. Equation(50) canthenbewrittenintheformof thetwo-sweepformas
follows:
d
S
Q
n1
i,j1
d
P
Q
n1
i,j
d
N
Q
n1
i,j1
= LQ
n1
i,j
d
W
Q
n1
i1,j
d
E
Q
n
i1,j
(51)
Calculationstarts fromi =1toi
max
alongthei-direction. At eachstationi of
thetimestepn 1, thevariablesQ
i,j1
, Q
i,j
, andQ
i,j1
canbeobtainedalong
thej-direction. It is clearly shownthat thepresent schemeconsists of anexplicit
part of LQ
i,j
at anytimestepn andanimplicit Q
i,j
at timestepn 1.
3.6 Stability Analysis
Stability is oneof theimportant aspects in developing anumerical scheme, and
only a stable scheme can be used to simulate the differential equations. In this
section, thestability analysis of thepresent numerical schemeis addressed. One
of themost common methods of stability analysis is thevon Neumann stability
analysis. With this method, aniteFourier series expansion of thesolution to a
model equationismade, andthedecayor amplicationof eachmodel isseparately
considered to determine whether the method is stable or not. Analysis showed
thatthetypical stabilitylimitationfor theexplicitschemeequation(49) istheCFL
number restriction. Following thevon Neumann analysis, it was shown that the
present implicit schemeisunconditionallystable.
Nonetheless, the determination of stability condition for the present hybrid
schemeisquitedifcultduetothecomplicationof theequationsystemsemployed
for thecomputation. Tosimplifytheanalysis, let all derivativesinequation(47)
equal tozeroandall theeigenvaluesbegreater thanzerosothat in-directionwe
have[A
[ =0and[A
[ =[P
E
P
1
[. Inthestability analysis, only oneof thetwo
velocity components was performed. Thestability analysis of theother variables
isthesame. Theexperienceshowsthat, if eachvariableintheequationsystemis
stable, theentireequationsystemingeneral isstable. Supposethat
A
and
M
are,
respectively, thespectral radii of thematricesA andM, where
M =
R
_
Q
_ (52)
Thenumerical schemeof equations (48) and(49) canbewritteninthefollowing
scalar forms:
Lu
n1
i
= Lt
L
_
n
Lt
_
L
c
R
L
_
n
(53)
_
Lt
A
L
_
(u
n1
i1
u
n
i1
)
_
1
Lt
A
L
_
(u
n1
i
u
n
i
) = Lu
n1
i
(54)
Uponsubstitutionof theFourier componentof thesolutionintoequations(53) and
(54), wehave:
u
n1
i1
= V
n1
e
(i1)
1
(55)
Thefollowingamplicationfactor for equations(53) and(54) canbeobtained:
[G[
2
=
_
L
Lt
L

M
[22cos(mL)]
_
2
_
Lt
A
sin(mL)
_
2
_
L Lt
A
Lt
A
cos(mL)
_
2
_
Lt
A
sin(mL)
_
2
(56)
Thestabilityconditionof theschemeisthat theabsolutevalueof G islessthanor
equal tounityfor all wavenumbersm. Fromequation(56), thefollowingstability
conditioncanbeobtained:
Lt
A

2
M
L
(57)
Fromasimilar analysis, lettingall derivativesinequation(50) equal tozeroand
lettingall theeigenvaluesbegreater thanzero, wecanobtain:
Lt
B

2
N
L
(58)
where
B
and
N
represent thespectral radii of thematricesB andN, respectively,
andN isdenedas:
N =
S
_
Q
_ (59)
It isclearlyshownthat thestabilityconstraint of equations(57) and(58) isdueto
theexplicit part. Therefore, wecan concludethat thepresent implicit schemeis
unconditionallystable.
By solvingthespectral radii of theux J acobian matrices for theconvective
termsanddiffusionterms, wecanobtainthefollowingstabilityconditions:
Lt

L
[ u[ a
_
2
x

2
y

2
L
_
2
x

2
y
_ (60)
Lt

L
[ :[ a
_
2
x

2
y

2
L
_
2
x

2
y
_ (61)
where
= max(j, 2j, j,Pr)
Thestabilityanalysisshowsthat thestabilityrestraint arisesfromtheexplicit part
for thepresent scheme. Theimplicit part of theschemeisunconditionally stable.
However, fromthe calculation point of view, the explicit part must be treated
within acertain timestep. When thetimestep increases, theimplicit schemeis
activated. Fromthispoint of view, thepresent overall schemecanbejudgedtobe
unconditionally stable. Fromthepractical point of view, however, many factors
suchas smoothingof theimplicit calculation, local linearizationof thenonlinear
equations, andcomplex geometry, all will constrict thetimestep. Therefore, the
timestepmust beselectedaccordingtotheCFL number as:
Lt = min(Lt
, Lt
) (62)
where
Lt

CFL L
[ u[ a
_
2
x

2
y

2
L
_
2
x

2
y
_ (63)
Lt

CFL L
[ :[ a
_
2
x

2
y

2
L
_
2
x

2
y
_ (64)
Fromequations(63) and(64), it iseasily foundthat whenCFL 1, thetimestep
constrictionistherestrictionof thetypical explicitscheme. For thepresentscheme
theCFL number canbechosentobearound15. Anyhowitisclear thatthepresent
schemeismoreeconomical thanapureexplicit scheme.
3.7 Applications in Turbine Cascade
In apractical useof thecode, theconvergencecriterion is oneof theimportant
factorsof theCFDprogram.Thereareseveral differentkindsof convergencecriteria
tochecktheconvergentstateof thenumerical solutions. Inthiswork, twoconvergent
criteriaareusedtochecktheconvergenceof thecalculation. OneistheRMSresidue
of thefour independent variables and theother is themass ux error. They are
denedasfollows:
Error(RMS) =
100
_
(u)
2
(:)
2
()
2
(e)
2
Lt
(65)
Error(m
/
) = 100
m
/
0
m
/
EXIT
,m
/
EXIT
(66)
Theactual computational casestudiesaregiveninthefollowingsubsections.
3.7.1 C3X turbine cascade
Thepresentnumerical schemewastestedfor atwo-dimensional compressibleow
over a C3X turbine cascade [2,34] by using the algebraic H-mesh as shown in
Figure 3.2. The ow considered corresponds to the case 144 of the experiment
conductedby Hyltonet al. [34]. Thegeometric inlet andexit angles of theblade
are0degreesand72degrees, respectively. Theowconditionsattheinletaretotal
pressure P
To
=7.899kPa, total temperature T
To
=815K, and the inlet Reynolds
number basedonthetruechordRe=0.6310
6
. Theratio of exit static to inlet
total pressure is 0.59. The ow was assumed to be fully turbulent in the entire
computationdomain.
Theeffectsof themeshrenementstudyforcase144wereconductedpriortothe
computations.Thedifferentlevelsof themeshesbasedonthebasicsize4312are
showninFigure3.3.Thestudyshowedthatthemassuxresidual tendstoapproach
acertainlevel withtheincreaseinthemeshsize. It was suggestedthat themesh
sizeof 8624issufcientfor agrid-independentcondition. Inorder toassessthe
impact of thepresent scheme, thestudy of theinuenceof theCFL number was
investigated. Figure3.4showsthetypical convergent historieswithdifferent CFL
numbers(1, 5, 7, 9, and11) byusingameshdistributionof 8624. Theresearch
showsthat whentheCFL number increases, theconvergent rateisimproved. The
results also showthat whentheCFL number is greater than7, theimprovement
intheconvergent rateissmall. If theCFL =1, thecomputational performanceis
(b) Body-fitted H-mesh (a) Algebraic H-mesh
Figure3.2. Computational meshes.
2.0 1.5
Magnification factor for mesh size
1.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
|
(
m
i
n
m
o
u
t
)
/
m
o
u
t
|
%
0.5
0.6
0.7
2.5 3.0
Figure3.3. Meshrenestudy.
similar tothecaseof explicitscheme. Inthepresentcomputation, theCFL number
isselectedintherangebetween5to11. It isclear that thepresent schemeismore
effectivethantheexplicitscheme. Itiswell knownthatrenementof thehigh-grid
aspect ratioinuencestheconvergenceof thecalculation.
Figure3.5shows goodagreement of thepresent predictions for surfacestatic
pressuredistributionwiththeexperimental datameasuredbyHyltonetal. [34] and
NScomputationsbyKwon[35]. Figure3.6presentsthecomputedMachnumber
Time step
E
r
r
o
r

(
%
)
0
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
0
10
1
200 400 600 800
CFL = 1
CFL = 5
CFL = 7
CFL = 8
CFL = 11
Figure3.4. Computational convergent histories.
1.0
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0
x/c
Present (pressure side)
Present (suction side)
Kwon (pressure side)
Kwon ((suction side)
Experiment
p
/
p
1
1
Figure3.5. Bladesurfacestaticpressuredistributions.
0
.
1
2
0.23
0
.
4
1
0.87
0.87
0
.
8
7
Figure3.6. Contour of computedMach.
contours. The results show that the ow is entirely subsonic and the computed
maximumMachnumber isabout 0.87. Thewakesassociatedwiththeairfoilsare
clearlyseeninthegure. It isalsoshownthat thestagnationpoint occursnear the
noseof thebladesurface. Thesefeatures areconsistent withthoseexpectedina
cascadeow.
Next, the heat transfer coefcient was computed and compared with the
experimental data. It can be seen in Figure 3.7 that the computed heat transfer
coefcientisingoodagreementwiththeexperimental dataonthepressuresurface
except near theleadingedge. However, thecomputedheat transfer coefcient was
overpredicated in thedownstreamregion immediatevicinity of theleading edge
alongthesuctionsurface.Thisdiscrepancymaybecausedbytheheattransfereval-
uationthroughtheenergyequationthat iscoupledwiththemomentumequations.
Intheexperiments, theoweldstartsfromlaminar at theupper streamandthen
undergoes transition to becomefully turbulent. However, in thecalculation, the
owwas assumedtobefully turbulent resultingintheoverpredictionof theheat
transfer coefcient near theleadingedgeof thesuctionsurface.
Figure 3.8 shows the convergent history when using these two types of
H-meshes. There are slight differences appearing between the two mesh mod-
els. It seems that thealgebraic H-meshhas abetter convergent property thanthe
body-ttedH-mesh.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
H
/
H
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Experiment (suction side)
Experiment (pressure side)
x/c
0.8 1.0
Figure3.7. Heat transfer coefcient distributiononbladesurface.
Time step
E
r
r
o
r

(
%
)
0
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
0
H-mesh
Body fitted mesh
10
1
200 400 600 800
Figure3.8. Meshinuenceof theconvergent histories.
72
74
76
70
80
82
84
500 0 1000 1500
Time step
O
u
t
f
l
o
w

a
n
g
l
e
Present
Experiment
Denton
Figure3.9. Convergent historiesof theoutowangle.
3.7.2 VKI turbine cascade
Anothertestcaseof thepresentalgorithmistheowaroundtheVKI turbinecascade.
Inthecalculationa7721H-typemesh, whichissimilar tothat showninFigure
3.2a, wasusedwiththesamesurfacedenitionassuggestedbyXuandAmanoas
well as Kwon[2,35]. For comparisonwithother computational results, themesh
points werealso selected to bethesameas thosesuggested by Sieverding [38].
The ow conditions were the same as in his experiments. Figure 3.9 shows the
convergencehistoryfor theaverageoutowangle. Thepresentcomputationsshow
theangleeffectivelyreachingasteadyvalue, whichisingoodagreement withthe
experiment [37]. Further notedinthegureis theconvergent rateof thepresent
schemebeingslightlybetter thanthat inthemethodproposedbyDenton[37]. The
computedoutowanglewithdifferent isentropic exit Machnumbers is shownin
Figure3.10. Theisentropic Machnumbers werecalculatedusingtheBernoullis
equation with total pressureat theentranceand static pressureon thewall. The
results show that the present calculation agrees well with the experiment. The
calculatedexitanglewhentheexitisentropicMachnumberis1.2isalmostthesame
asthat of Denton. Figure3.11showsthecomputedbladesurfaceisentropicMach
number distributionscomparedwithboththeexperiment andcomputedresultsby
Denton[37]. It shows that thepresent computationagrees withtheexperimental
0.6
0.7 0.8 0.9 0.1 1.1 1.2
79.0
79.5
80.0
80.5
81.0
Denton
Experiment
Persent
M
IEXIT
O
u
t
f
l
o
w

a
n
g
l
e
Figure3.10. OutowanglewithMachnumber.
Pressure (Denton)
Suction (Denton)
Experiment
x/c
3.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
M
1
0
1.0
1.2
3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0
Figure3.11. IsentropicMachnumber distributionsonthebladesurface.
1
0
1
0
0 4
0 7
0 8
Figure3.12. Contour of computedMachnumber.
oneswhencomparedwiththoseby Denton. Figure3.12isMachnumber contour
betweenthecascadeblades.
Anefcientnumerical schemefor computationsof theowandheattransfer in
turbinecascadeowwasproposedandtested. Itwasdemonstratedthatux-vector
schemehasthefollowingadvantages:
Theux-vector schemeavoids thecoefcient matrix operation and omits any

iteration within thesametime-step calculation. Therefore, less computational
effort isneededinthecalculation.
Thepresentalgorithmpossessesthepositivefeaturesof theexplicitandimplicit
algorithms. Becausethepresentalgorithmdidnotuseapproximationfactor(AF)
inthetime-marchingprocess, theCFL number canbechosentobelargeenough
tosavecomputational time. Furthermore, sincethepresent schemeincludesan
implicit part, the method improves the convergence ability especially for the
largetime-stepcomputations.
Thecomputation shows that thepresent schemehas asimilar convergent rate

compared with the multigrid method developed by Denton [37]. The upwind
schemeisusedintheFVSschemeinorder toimprovethestabilityof theoverall
scheme.
Theux-vector methodhasseveral meritssuchasgoodconvergenceandoverall

accuracyinpredictingtheoweldandheattransferaroundtheturbinecascades.
This fact was supported by thevalidation test shown in good agreement with
experiments.
Inthepresent method, thedissipationterms wereincorporatedinto thetime-
derivativeterms. Thischaracter renderstheschememoreaccurateaswell asavoids
theeigenvaluestiffnesswhenthecalculationisperformedinalowMachnumber
rangeandacceleratestheconvergenceof thesimulation. Finally, itisshownthatthe
presentschemeismoreadvantageousthancommonimplicitandexplicitschemes.
Thepresent schemecanbeeasily extendedtofull three-dimensional turbineow
calculations.
3.8 Numerical Method for Three-Dimensional Flows
TheNavierStokesequationscanbewritteninabody-ttedcurvilinear coordinate
system(, , ) asfollows:
(J
1
U)
t

F
=
F
V
G
V
H
V
(67)
wheretheconvectivetermscanbewrittenas:
F
= A
U
(68)
G
= B
U
(69)
H
= C
U
(70)
ThedetailedexpressionsintheaboveequationscanbefoundinTurkel andVatsa
[15]. Followingtheprevioussection, adissipationmodel employedinthisstudyis
anonisotropicmodel, inwhichthedissipativetermsaregivenasafunctionof the
spectral radii of theJ acobianmatrices associatedwiththeappropriatecoordinate
directions. The dissipative terms in the three directions of the coordinates have
forms similar to that discussedin previous section andinTurkel andVatsa[15].
This method can overcometheeffect of eigenvaluestiffness on theconvergence
of an incompressible ow calculation by using the time-matching scheme. The
dissipationtermswereincorporatedintothetime-derivativeterms. Inthisway, the
dissipationtermscanenlargetheeigenvalueof thetime-derivativeterms, whichwill
benet theowsolver convergence, inparticular whenthecodeis usedto solve
thelow-speedowproblems. Thedissipationtermthat isrequiredtostabilizethe
schemeisimplementedinaconvenientmanner bymodifyingtheconvectiveuxes
asfollows:
F
1,2,,
= 0.5 (F
,,
F
1,,
) d
1,2,,
(71)
G
,1,2,
= 0.5 (G
,,
G
,1,
) d
,1,2,
(72)
H
,,1,2
= 0.5 (H
,,
H
,,1
) d
,,1,2
(73)
Thetermsd
1,2,,
, d
, 1,2,
, andd
,,1,2
representthedissipativetermsin,
, and directions, respectively, whichcanbefoundinXuandAmano[1,3].
Usingequations(2)(4), thetimederivativeof dissipativetermscanbewritteninto
amatrixformas:
D = [1, d
1,2,,
, ,u, d
,1,2,
,:, d
,,1,2
,w, 1]
T
(74)
By substitutingthedissipativetermsof equation(74) intoequations(71) through
(73) andincorporatingintoequation(67), weobtain:
_
I
D
LU
_
(J
1
U)
t

F
=
F
V
G
V
H
V
(75)
Thesecond-ordernumerical dissipationtermsweresetsothatthevariablesdecrease
exponentiallyasafunctionof time. Thistechniqueallowsacomputationtodamp
out high-frequency errors at the initial stage of iterations and, therefore, avoids
thesecond-order numerical dissipation terms to dissipatewhen thecomputation
approachesaconvergedstate. A nite-volumealgorithmbasedonaRungeKutta
time-steppingscheme[15] is usedto obtainthesteady-statesolutions by solving
theNavierStokesequations.Theturbulencemodel usedinthisstudyisaBaldwin
Lomax turbulencemodel [32]. Themeshes generatedinthis study arehexagonal
meshes; thegridlinesnear thesolidwall arealmost normal or parallel tothesolid
walls. Inorder tosimplify theprogrammingeffort, theturbulenceequationswere
appliedalonggridlinesrather thaninthedirectionnormal tothesolidboundaries.
This avoids ow calculations in all the normal directions to the solid wall and
the necessary interpolations of the ow variables. During the calculations, it is
difculttokeepall they
valueswithinasmall level, especiallyclosetothecorner

region. Therefore, thewall functionwasusedinthecalculation. Thestaticpressure
coefcient isdenedas:
C
ps
=
P P
01
p
01
p
s2
(76)
Thetotal pressurelossisdenedas:
C
p0
=
P
01
P
0
p
01
p
s2
(77)
wherep
s2
representsthemassaveragestaticpressureof thebladeexit plane.
3.9 Applications of Three-Dimensional Method
3.9.1 Analysis of pitch-width effects on the secondary
ows of turbine blades
The inlet and outlet boundary conditions used in the computations were taken
frommeasurement. Thetotal pressureat inlet wasequal tothetest [38] for all the
calculations. At theexit plane, oneof themost critical conditions was to specify
thestaticpressure. Theaverageexitpressureintheexperiment[38] wasusedinthe
calculations. Theasymptotic boundary conditions with second-order streamwise
derivativesof variablesweresettozero. Theoverall massconservationthroughthe
bladeowpassageisimposedbycorrectingtheoutletvelocitycomponentswiththe
calculatedvelocityprolesontheplanenexttotheoutletandinletowmassduring
iterations. Theno-slipwall boundaryconditionsareusedfor all thesolidwalls.
Grid-convergedsolutionsfor thehigh-speedviscousowsover aturbineblade
shouldbeobtainedwithsufcientlynemeshes. However, acomputationwithne
meshes is very timeconsuminganddifcult to assess thenumerical accuracy of
thesolution. Infact InoueandFurukawa[23] reportedthat it wasdifcult toopti-
mizethearticial dissipationcoefcientsbyusingacommonmethodthatimpaired
accuracy andreliability of theschemestopredict acascadeperformance. Topre-
dict a high Reynolds number turbulent ow, highly clustered grids arerequired
towardthewall. Thegridrenement study was conductedthroughthecomputa-
tional uncertainty study. The relationship between the calculated mass residual,
100[m
in
m
out
[/m
out
%, andvarious gridsizes was testedtoidentify thepoint
wherethemassresidual reachesitsasymptoticvalue. Inthisstudy, thesystematic
gridrenementstudiesareperformed. Thegridrenementstudywasconductedby
usingRichardsonextrapolationmethod[39]. Themassfactor, f =[1m
in
,m
out
[,
is used to evaluate the grid rene study. Using the ne grid calculation with a
magnication factor of 3, weobtain f
1
=0.1810
4
. Then wechangethegrid
withthemagnicationfactor to 2, andobtainf
2
=0.8510
4
. Inthis case, the
error is =100(f
2
f
1
),f
1
=0.67%. For agridincreaserate, IN=1.5, thene
grid value of the grid convergence index (GCI) for the present second order is
GCI =3/(IN
2
1)=1.61%. AlthoughthecondenceintheGCI aserror bandis
not justiable, it showsthecurrent gridstructuretobeconservative. It alsoshows
that theuncertainty inthecurrent calculationfor themass conservationis within
1.61%. Thedistanceof therst meshfromthesolidsurfacewaschosensothat a
maximumy
valuebecomeslessthan15, whichisconsideredtobeneenoughfor
thepresentcalculations. Themeshhas4541115nodepointsinthepitchwise,
spanwise, andstreamwisedirections, respectively, whichwasidentiedtoanopti-
mal situationasagrid-independentstate.Theblade-to-bladecomputational meshis
showninFigure3.13.Themeshisformedconsistingof threezones: upstreamof the
blade, insidetheblade, anddownstreamof thebladesections. For comparisonwith
thetestresults[38], theoutletof thecalculationplanewasselectedtobeperpendic-
ular tothex-direction(axial direction), whichcorrespondstothetestedexit plane.
Most CFD studies [4042] on turbomachines weremainly based on alinear
cascadeof high-turningturbinebladeswherethesecondaryowwasverystrong.
Inthisstudy, anannularturbinebladewasfocused, whichissimilartoactual turbine
statorvanes.Theairfoil model investigatedbySieverding[38], wherethebladetests
werecitedfromNACA TND-3751, isusedfor validationof thecode. Thetipand
rootradii are0.355and0.283m, respectively.Thestaggerangleis42.5degreeswith
respecttoaxial directionandthebladeaxial widthlength, C
a
=0.087m. Theblade
proleisconstantalongthebladeheightandisuntwisted.Threerootpitch-to-width
(a) Blade-to-blade mesh at middle span (45 x 117) (b) Meridional mesh (41 x 117)
Figure3.13. Calculationmeshes.
0
10
1
10
2
10
0
M
a
s
s

e
r
r
o
r
No. of steps
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Figure3.14. Convergencehistory.
ratios, b/C
a
=0.639, 0.973, and1.460, arestudiedhere. Theroot pitch-to-width
ratio, b/C
a
, wasvariedbyalteringthenumber of blades. Threebladenumberswere
usedinthecalculation: 26, 21, and14. Thesecalculationswerecomparedwiththe
experimental dataof theannular turbineblades[38].
The computations were assumed to be converged when the mass ow error
becameless than 0.1%of theinlet mass ow rate. Themesh used in this study
andtypical convergencehistoryareshowninFigure3.14. Theconvergencespeed
becameslowafter themassowerror becamecloseto0.1%. Inall theplotsshown
inthis section, theviewpoint is set to look inthedownstreamdirectionfromthe
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
B
e
t
a
40
50
60
70
80
90
Blade Height
Figure3.15. Averagespanwiseowangledistributionat x/C
a
=0.9(dot isexper-
imental results).
(a) b/Ca = 0.639 (left is leading
edge and top is casing).
(b) b/Ca = 0.986. (c) b/Ca = 1.460.
Figure3.16. Static pressurecoefcient distributionsonthesuctionsurfaceof the
blade.
upstreamlocation, withthepressuresurfaceontheleft-handsideandthesuction
surfaceontheright-handside.
Figure 3.15 shows the comparison of the experimental results [38] with the
present computations for theaveragespanwiseowangledistributionlocatedat
x/C
a
=0.9. Thecomputations areinagreement withtheexperiment. Figure3.16
showsthestaticpressurecoefcientdistributionsnear thesuctionsurfaceof blades
for different root pitch-to-widthrations, b/C
a
. Theinceptionandtransport of the
passage vortex and its impact on the surface boundary layers present different
b/C
a
= 0.639
b/C
a
= 0.973 b/C
a
= 1.460
Sa1
Sa2
Sa2
Sa1
Figure3.17. Velocityvectorsattheleadingedgeof thebladeat0.28%heightfrom
root.
characteristicsfor different b/C
a
. Thereisaregionnear thewall corner wherethe
chordwiseandspanwisepressuregradientsaresmall. It isalsoclear fromFigure
3.16thatthepossibleboundarylayer separationlinesoccur for casesb/C
a
=0.639
and 0.986, and they arelocated at thecorners of thehub and trailing edge. The
separationregionfor thecaseb/C
a
=1.460islocatedat 50%of C
a
position. The
separationlocationseemstomoveforwardasb/C
a
increases. Thisfeatureconrms
that the inception of the passage vortex developed near the airfoil leading edge
andgrewfast whenthepitchb/C
a
wasincreased. Figure3.16alsoshowsthat the
pressurecoefcientonthesuctionsurfaceislower for larger b/C
a
. Thisisbecause,
asb/C
a
increases, theowconstraintfromthebladebecomessmall, andtherefore,
theblades local curvatureplays an important role. For thecaseof b/C
a
=0.639
and0.986, avortexdevelopsfaster near thebladetipandmovestowardthecasing
becausethelocal pitchsizeatthetipismuchlarger thanthatatthehub. Inthecase
of b/C
a
=1.460, thecasingandthehubvortexhavesimilar characteristicsbecause
b/C
a
islargeenough, thuscausingtheblockagetobesmall enoughsothat it does
not restrict theow. Theowcharacteristicsaredominatedby local curvaturefor
b/C
a
larger than1.46.
Theexperimental data[43,44] indicatedthatoneof themostimportantfeatures
in aturbinebladeboundary layer is theoccurrenceof theseparation and saddle
point on theend wall near theleading edge. Thepredicted boundary layer ow
patterns for different b/C
a
near thehubleadingedgeat 0.28%height areshown
in Figure 3.17. The calculations show that there is a saddle point for all b/C
a
.
Twoattachment lines, Sa1andSa2, andtwoseparationlines, Ss1andSs2, canbe
identiedfromthevelocityvectors. Theseparationlinescorrespondtothetwolegs
of thehorseshoevortices formed near theleading edge. Theseparation lineSs2
ispushedaway fromtheleadingedge. Therst separationlineSs1movesaround
theleading edgeand moves against thefreestreamow direction and it merges
withtheowcomingfromtheupstreamdirectiontoformasuction-sidehorseshoe
vortex.TheseparationlineSs1isalsodevelopedalongthesuctionsideof theblade,
whichcanbeseenfromthestatic pressurecoefcient distributioninFigure3.17.
b/C
a
= 0.639 b/C
a
= 0.973 b/C
a
= 1.460
Figure3.18. Velocityvectorsinthemeridional surfacebeforetheleadingedge.
0.7 0.8
PS
0.9 1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
13
HUB
12
b/C
a
= 0.986 (experiment)
0.85
0.8
1.1
0.95
1.15
0.75
1.3
1.25
1.05
0.9
1.05
1.2
0.1
b/C
a
= 0.986
0.85
0.8
0.7
0.75
0.95
0.9
0.11.05
1.35
1.55
1.45
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.15
1.1
1.2 1.15
1.2
1.05
1.1
1.2
1.7
1.35
0.95
0.9
1.25
b/C
a
= 1.460
0.8
0.7
0.6 0.5
0.9
1.0
b/C
a
= 0.639
1.1
1.2
Figure3.19. Staticpressurecoefcient contour at x/C
a
=0.9.
Thelocations of thesaddlepoints arecloser to theleading edgefor larger pitch
sizes. This is why someof theowvisualization[42] didnot ndasaddlepoint
if theexperiment didnot extendsufciently far upstream. Thevelocity vectorsin
themeridional planeupstreamof theleadingedgeareshowninFigure3.18. The
vector distributions showthat thereis aseparationregionoccurringupstreamof
theleadingedge. Itisshownthattheregionof theseparationdependsonthepitch
widthratio, b/C
a
. A lower b/C
a
generatesarelativelylarger separationregion. This
characteristic determines thelocation of thesaddlepoints on theblade-to-blade
planedepending on thepitchwidth ratio b/C
a
. Thepresent computations show
that thereisasaddlepoint upstreamof theleadingedgeattributedtotheblockage
of theblades. Withincreasingblockage, thesecondarysaddlevorticesmovemore
forwardandtheseparationinthefront of thebladebecomessmaller. Thelocation
of thesaddlepoint dependsontheb/C
a
aswell asthelocal curvatureof theblade.
Figures 3.19, 20, and 21 show thecontours of thestatic pressurecoefcient
C
ps
distributions at 90%, 100%, and 110% chord positions, respectively, from
theleading edgefor different values of b/C
a
. Themeasurement results for C
ps
at 90%chord position is plotted for comparison with thecalculations. It should
bepointed out that themeasurement planein theexperiments [44] is dened to
0.80
0.7
0.65
1.0
1
1.1
0.95
0.85
0.85
0.8
1.15
1.05
1.20
1.05
1
1.1
1.15
0.85
0.9
0.95
650.7
0.75
1.35 1.3
0.4
1.25
1.05
0.95
0.85
0.8
0.75
0.7
0.65
0.75
0.8
0.95
0.85
0.9
1.1
1.35 1.4
1.3
1.25
1.05
1.15
1.85
0.9
0.7
0.65
0.8
0.95
1
.
8
1.0
1.2
b/C
a
= 0.639
(contour value from
1.15 to 0.6 with
increment 0.05)
b/C
a
= 0.973
(contour value from
1.3 to 0.6 with
increment 0.05)
b/C
a
= 1.460
(contour value from
1.6 to 0.6 with
increment 0.05)
0.75 0.7
0.65
a
=1.
1.1
1.35
1.3
1.25
1.15
1.05
1.9
0.85
0.8
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.70
0.7
0.75
1
1.05
1.95
0.85
0.9
0.8
0.75
0.65
0.7
0.65
1.1
1.45
b/C
a
= 0.639
(contour value from 1.1
to 0.65 with increment 0.05)
b/C
a
= 0.973
b/C
a
= 1.460
1.3
1.25
1.2
1.05
1.45
1.1
1.5
1.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.95
0.95
0.9
1
0.85
0.8
0.5
1.35
a
=1.1.
beperpendicular totheaxial directionwhilethecomputationsarealongthemesh
direction, which causes aslight discrepancy. Figure3.19 shows that thecompu-
tation and measurement are in good agreement with each other. The results for
differentb/C
a
showthatfor smaller b/C
a
, thelowestpressurebecomeshigher than
thosewithlarger pitchcases. Thecoreof thesecondaryvortexoccursat different
locations for all threecases. For thesmaller b/C
a
, thesecondary vortex appears
closer tothecorner of thehubonthesuctionside. For larger b/C
a
, thevortexcore
movesawayfromthesuction-sidetowardthepressureside. Whencomparedtothe
different axial location of C
ps
, it is shown that thevortex coreis developed and
moves away fromthesuction side, to themiddlepoint between thesuction and
pressure-side surfaces. As the uid moves out fromthe blade passage, the vor-
tices becomevery small. This is becausetheblade-to-bladepressuregradient is
reduced. This vortex coreis part of theleadingedgevortex. Initially, thevortex
occursveryclosetothesuction-sidewall andthenitdevelopstowardtheexitplane.
At thesametime, thehorseshoevortex at thepressure-sideleg, Ss2, mixes with
the secondary ow and rapidly decays. This phenomenon is in good agreement
with themeasurements for thepitchwidth inuencein thelinear cascade[40].
b/C
a
= 0.639 b/C
a
= 1.460 b/C
a
= 0.973 b/C
a
= 0.973
(experiment)
TIF
Figure3.22. Total pressurelosscontour at x/C
a
=0.9.
0
.
5
5
0
.
6
0
b/C
a
= 0.639 b/C
a
= 0.973 b/C
a
= 1.460
0.60 0.80
0
.
7
5
0
.
7
5
0
.
7
0
0
.
6
5
0
.
5
5
a
=1.0.
Thisgurealsoshowsthatthecornervortexatthetipof thebladeisnotverystrong
andcannot beclearlyobservedinthecomputations.
The total pressure losses C
po
in Figures. 19, 20, and 21 further conrmthe
aforementioned conclusions that corner vortices occur on both the hub and
the casing suction-side corners. The computations for the case of b/C
a
=0.973
arecompared with theexperiment [44] and areshown in Figure3.19. Themea-
suredC
po
valuesof therstlineintheexperimentarethesameasthecomputations.
Itisshownthatthecomputationsareinfairagreementwiththeexperiments, except
attipandhubregionswherethecomputationsshowalarger vortexregionthanthat
shownbytheexperiment.
The inuence of the losses due to the pitchwidth variation can be seen by
comparingFigures3.22, 23, and24fordifferentb/C
a
. Forthecasesof b/C
a
=0.973
and1.46, thehigh-lossregionsfrombothtipandhubcornersnear thesuctionside
aredeveloped. Theselossesarecausedduetothecorner vorticesandthesuction-
side pressure characteristics. The end wall boundary layer is very thin near the
pressuresidewithinthebladepassage. Thepressure-sideboundary layer andthe
suction-sideboundary layer meet after theowpasses thebladetrailingedge, as
showninFigure3. 20. It isalsoshownthat thetotal pressurelossesC
po
increases
withtheincreaseinb/C
a
.Thelosscontourshowsthatthesecondaryowisstronger
forlargerb/C
a
, anditdevelopsfaster.Thisisbecauseforlargeb/C
a
, theowcontrol
capacity becomeworsethanthat for small b/C
a
. Thesecondary vortex is easy to
b/C
a
= 0.639 b/C
a
= 0.973 b/C
a
= 1.460
a
=1.1.
b/C
a
= 0.639 b/C
a
= 1.460 b/C
a
= 0.973
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.11
0.11
0.12
0.12
0.01
0.03
0.02
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.02
0.08
0.06
0.05
0.05
0.03
0.07
0.07
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.06
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.05
0.01
0.01 0.03
0.03
0.08
0.08
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.04
0.1
0.1
+
4
0.2
0.05
0.07
0.07
0.04
0.04
Figure3.25. Blade-to-bladeMachnumber contour at 0.28%height.
developinthebladechannel. For thesmallestb/C
a
, thetwopassagevorticesoccur
intheupper andlower partsof thebladepassagecloser tothesuctionsideof the
bladewithout stronginteractions. Withtheincreaseintheb/C
a
, thetwo vortices
start interactingwitheachother. Owingtotheoccurrenceof thepassagevortices,
andtheir interactions for thelargeb/C
a
cases, thesecondary owis very strong.
Thestrong three-dimensional effects dominatethewholepassageow for large
b/C
a
. However, for smaller b/C
a
, it has beenfoundthat theowcongurationis
different fromthosefor larger b/C
a
cases. Thetwovorticesoccur fromlower and
upper partsof thesuctionside, andtheyaremoreconnedintheendwall region,
andthereremainsatwo-dimensional owpatternfor awidebladeheight range.
Theblade-to-bladeMachnumber contours for thehubboundary layer region
andthepitchandtipboundarylayer regionsareshowninFigures3.25, 26, and27,
respectively, wheretheMachnumber contourspresent different characteristicsfor
theboundaryregionandthemainowregion. Inthenear-hubboundaryregion, a
smaller b/C
a
doesnot showahighMachnumber regionnear thesuctionsurface.
Itseemsthattheowacceleratessmoothlyalongthesuctionsidefor smaller b/C
a
.
For thecases of b/C
a
=0.973and1.460, asmall regionof ahighMachnumber
zoneisobservedclosetothemiddleof thewidthinthesuctionsideof theblade.
It is shownthat aseparationzoneoccurs andexpands withtheincreaseinb/C
a
.
b/C
a
= 0.639 b/C
a
= 0.973 b/C
a
= 1.460
0.9
0.1
0.04
0.07
0.12
0.11
0.05
0.08
0.11
0.1
0.09
0.09
0.1 0.05
0.05
0.03
0.07
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.02
0.01
0.07
0.05
0.11
0.1
0.09
0.02
0.080.05
0.8
Figure3.26. Blade-to-bladeMachnumber contour at 50%height.
b/C
a
= 0.639 b/C
a
= 0.973 b/C
a
= 1.460
0.02
0.03
0.5 0.2
0.06
0.3
0.4
0.7
0.11
0.24
0.13
0.11
0.12
0.04
0.1
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.7
0.08
0.06
0.1 0.1
0.02
0.05
0.02
0.6
0.7
0.05
0.03
0.03
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.09
0.1
0.03
0.11
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.8
0.2
0.1
0.11
0.2
0.1
0.08
0.09
0.1
1
2
Figure3.27. Blade-to-bladeMachnumber contour at 99.72%height.
Theresultsshowthat theblade-to-bladeMachnumber gradient alongtheturbine
axial directionincreaseswiththeincreaseinb/C
a
.
Theblade-to-bladestaticpressurecoefcient contoursnear thehub, pitch, and
tip areshown in Figures 3.28, 29, and 30, respectively. It is shown that, dueto
thestrongsecondary-oweffect, theminimumpressureoccursinthepassageaway
fromthebladesurface.Alsonotethat, withtheincreaseinb/C
a
, theowaccelerates
faster intheleadingedgeregion. A clear low-pressurezoneoccursonthesuction
sideof thebladefor all thedifferentpitchwidthcaseswhenaowseparationzone
onthebladesuctionsurface.
Figures3.31, 32, and33showthecontoursof theblade-to-bladetotal pressure
coefcient distributions inthehubboundary (0.28%height), pitch(50%height),
and tip boundary (99.72%height) regions, respectively. Thelosses for different
b/C
a
, theplotsstartwiththesamelevel atthesamebladelocation.Thetotal pressure
lossesaremuchlarger inhubandtipboundaryregionsthaninthemidspanfor all
cases. Ingeneral, small b/C
a
hassmall lossesfor all owregions. For thesmaller
b/C
a
, asmall zoneof highlossextendingfromtrailingedgecanbeobservedonly
b/C
a
= 0.639 b/C
a
= 0.973 b/C
a
= 1.460
Figure3.28. Blade-to-bladestaticpressurecoefcient contour at 0.28%height.
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
1
0.8
0.8
0.1
1
1.1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6 0.5
0.2
0.3
0.4 0.7
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
1
0.1
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
1.4
1.5
1.4
1.7
1.5
11
11
1.1
1.7
1.4
1.2
1.3
1.1
1.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.4
0.7
0.6
1
1
0.09
0.9
1
0.8
0.08
0.5
0.3 1.8
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.1
0.1
1.2
1.2
b/C
a

= 0.639 b/C
a

= 0.973 b/C
a

= 1.460
Figure3.29. Blade-to-bladestaticpressurecoefcient contour at 50%height.
b/C
a
= 0.973
+
1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.9
0.8
0.9
0.8
0.8
+
0.7
1
1.1
1.1
1
b/C
a
= 0.639
0.4
0.1
0.6
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.2
0.1
0.5 0.4
0.3
b/C
a
= 1.46
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.1
0.8
0.1
0.6
0.8
0.7
0.9
0.8
+
4
1.1
1.9
1.8
1.6
1.5 1.7
1.1
1
1
1
1.3
1.5
1.1
1.6
1.9
1.9
Figure3.30. Blade-to-bladestaticpressurecoefcient contour at 97.72height.
1.4
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.3
1.5
1+7
1.4
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.4
1.7
1.6
1.1
1.3
1.6
1.6
1.6
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.5 0.6
0.9
0.3
.9
1.3
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.3
b/C
a
= 0.639
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.5
1.5
1.5 1
1.5
1.7
1.5
1.5
1.3
1.1
1.5
1.6
1.6
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.7
1.8
1.6
1.9
1.7
1.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
1.3
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.4
1
b/C
a
= 0.973
0.8
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2
2
2
1.5
1.8
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.4
1.4
1.4
1
2.4
2.5
2.3
2.2
2.2
2.5
2.4
2.7
1.5
1.1
1.3
1.3
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.4
1.5
1.7
1.9
0.9
0.9
1.8
1.4
1.1
1.1
b/C
a
= 1.460
Figure3.31. Blade-to-bladetotal pressurelossat 0.28%height.
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.1
1.4
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.6
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.1
0.8
0.9
0.8
0.9
0.9
0.6
1
0.9
0.6
0.9
0.6
0.9
0.8
0.7
1
1.2
1+8
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1.1
0.6
0.6
0.6
+
1
1
1
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.9
1+1
20.4
.4
3
2
2
9
3
1
1
1
1
1
2
9
1
2
1
1
1
2
2
22
3
3
1
1
1
0.8
0.8
0.2
2.2
3.5
b/C
a
= 0.639 b/C
a
= 0.973 b/C
a
= 1.460
Figure3.32. Blade-to-bladetotal pressurelossat 50%height.
b/C
a
= 0.639
b/C
a
= 0.973 b/C
a
= 1.460
1.7
1.1
1.1
2.2
1.3
1.9
1.6
1.8
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.1
1
1.3
2.2
1.9
1.7
2.4
1.2
1.3
2.4
2.4
2.4
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
.8
0.8
0.7
1.8
1.1
1.3
1.4 1.7
1.6
1.1
1.3
1.6
1.7
1.4
0.1
1.2
123
1.7
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.1
0.7
1.2
1.3
0.6
1.8
0.6
0.7 0.8
0.8
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.9
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.1
Figure3.33. Blade-to-bladetotal pressurelossat 99.72%height.
onthetipboundary. For alarger b/C
a
, thereappearsahigh-losszonestartingfrom
thetrailingedgeextendingtotheupstreamof thesuctionsideof theblade.
3.9.2 Flow around centrifuge compressors scroll tongue
Centrifugal compressorsutilizeradial changeacrosstheimpeller toraisegascom-
pressor. A centrifugal compressor allowsmorediffusionwithintheimpeller blades
to raisepressure; thus, centrifugal compressor can producehigher specic work
transfer withinonestagecomparedtoanaxial compressor. Althoughtheefciency
of centrifugal compressor islower thanthatof axial compressor atlargevolumetric
owrate, centrifugal compressor hasmany applicationsfor moderate- andsmall-
owgas compressions. A centrifugal compressor has ashorter axial lengthwith
wider operatingrangethanaxial compressorstoget thesamedischargepressure.
Anincreasedefciencyof centrifugal compressorshasbeenthetraditional empha-
sisof thecompressor design. However, anincreasingoperatingrangeandpartload
efciencyhavebecomemoreimportant. Manyeffortshavebeenmadeinresearch
eldtooptimizedifferent component of thecompressor stage[4551].
Anindustrial centrifugal compressor stageconsistsof threemaincomponents:
arotatingimpeller, vanedor vanelessdiffusers, andascroll or collector asshown
inFigure3.34. Theimpeller addsworktogasbyincreasingitsangular momentum.
Gasstaticpressureandvelocityincreaseafter passingthroughtheimpeller. Vaned
andvanelessdiffusersconvertkineticenergyintostaticpressurebydeceleratingthe
uid.A scroll isusedforcollectinggasfromdiffuseranddeliveringittoapplication
systemornextstage. Thescroll isthelastcomponentinthecompressionprocessin
asingle-stagecompressor. Gasleavesimpeller withlogarithmicspiral shapedueto
therotationof theimpeller. A scroll hastwofunctions: tocollect andtransport the
uidintodownstreamsystemandtoraisethestaticpressurebyconvertingkinetic
energy into potential energy (static pressure). A scroll designis complicateddue
to theeffect of thestrongthree-dimensional swirl ow. Typically, ascroll design
Diffuser
Impeller
Scroll
Figure3.34. Centrifugal compressor.
Sharp tongue
Leading edge
Scroll discharge
Leading edge
Scroll
(a) (b)
Figure3.35. (a) Sharptongue. (b) Scroll tonguestructures.
isbasedonthetwo-dimensional analysis. Traditionallytheemphasisonthescroll
designis mainly oncollectionandless ondiffusionfunction. Diffusioninsideof
scroll ismoreeffectiveforthekineticenergyassociatedwiththetangential velocity;
thisisaccomplishedby increasingcross-sectional areafromscroll tonguetoexit,
creatingaconical diffuser. But thereisanefciencylosscausedbytheinabilityof
thescroll to convert portionof thekinetic energy dueto theradial component of
uidvelocityout of thediffuser. Thiseffect iscompoundedwhenavaneddiffuser
is used, as vanes create a more radial ow at the vaned diffuser exit. Typically,
thereisatradeoff betweentheincreasedrecoveryof vaneddiffuserandthereduced
recovery of scroll; adifferent solidity vaneddiffuser isusedtomeet performance
andoperatingrangerequirements.
Atascroll tongueasshowninFigure3.35, theowencountersadividingplane,
so-calledtongue, abovewhichtheowexitsthecompressor andbelowwhichthe
owreentersthescroll.Thetongueof ascroll islocatedata360degreepoint, corre-
spondingtothejointof scroll smallestarea, largestarea, andexitcone. Theleading
edgeof thescroll tongueisanalogoustothatof anairfoil; asharpleadingedgehas
alessblockageeffectbutissensitivetotheangleof attackasshowninFigure3.35a,
whileawell-roundedleadingedgeisinsensitivetotheowincidencebuthasalarger
blockageeffect as showninFigure3.35b. A sharptongueis very sensitivetothe
owincidence, andcausesaowseparationatoff-designows.Themanufacturing
processisverydifcult for theconstructionof asharptongue. A roundedtongue,
however, has alarger blockageareathanasharptongue, whichmay reduceef-
ciencyatdesignpoint. Withtheunderstandingof theinuenceof thetongue, acom-
pressor withhigher efciency andwider stableoperatingregioncanbedesigned.
For obtaining a better off-design performance, the research on a scroll tongue
was designedwithalargecutback angleas showninFigure3.35b, whichallows
recirculationof about 25%of thestagedischargemassowinsideof thescroll.
Littleresearchhasbeendonetounderstandowsinsideof ascroll, especially
inthetonguearea[5254]. Recentresearch[5559] foundthatagoodscroll design
couldimprovethecompressor performanceandtheoperatingrange. Most scroll
Figure3.36. Calculationmeshes.
studies havebeen performedon existinggeometries andcan becategorizedinto
twogroups: scroll owstructureinvestigations[5255] andowinteractionstudies
betweenthescroll andtheimpeller [5559]. Largeportions of thescroll studies
wereperformedforpumps.Thereislittleinformationavailableforthescroll design
andthescroll parametricinuencesonthecompressor performance. Recentpump
scroll studies[59]showedthatthetongueshapeimpactshead, pressureuctuations,
andnoiseinacentrifugal pump. Irabuet al. [60] studiedthewater owpatterns
aroundapumptongueatsmall ows.Thestudyfoundthatowseparationsoccurred
fromboth upper andlower surfaces of thetongue, andfurther reportedtheow
eldinuenceduetodifferent tonguegeometriesandfocusedonthedetailedow
analysisbesidesperformancetest onalargecutbacktonguescroll.
Turbulencemodelingandturbulencemodel selectionsarecritical totheaccuracy
of theoweldsimulations. A larger number of CFDcodesfor aturbomachinery
analysisusethezeroequationturbulencemodel [1,2]. Mostcalculationsshowedthat
zeroequationturbulencemodelsgavereasonableresultsforowcalculations. Some
researchershavedemonstratedthatotherturbulencemodelscanalsobeusedtogain
reasonableresults[61,62]. Somecomparisonsfordifferentturbulencemodelshave
beenpresented[63]. Differentturbulencemodelsshoweddifferentadvantages. For
theowinsideof thecentrifugal compressorandscroll, differentturbulencemodels
alsohadbeenusedfor owcalculations. Therearevery limitedpublications that
addressthecomparisonsof different turbulencemodels.
Two types of tongues, a sharp tongue (r/b
2
=0) and arounded tongue
(r/b
2
=0.3), wereinvestigated. ThecalculationmeshesareshowninFigure3.36.
TheCFDstudiesforbothtongueshapeswereperformedbyusingthezero-equation
turbulencemodel for comparisonsof thetongueshapeimpacts. TheCFDanalysis
was also performedfor roundedshapetonguevoluteby usingthek- turbulence
model toinvestigatethemodel effectsof theturbulenceequationsintheCFDsimu-
lations. Inthecurrentstudy, sixowrateswerecalculatedforvoluteswithdifferent
tonguestoprovidetheperformanceinformation. Thecomputedperformancesfor
a round tongue with two different turbulence models are shown in Figure 3.37.
/
0
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Algebraic
Algebraic
Experiment
Experiment
K-E
K-E
Figure3.37. Comparisonof theperformancecurves.
Thecalculationsusingthedifferent turbulencemodelsdidnot producesignicant
differences in the results of performance. The results fromboth two turbulence
modelsareingoodagreement withtheexperimental data. Thecalculationsshow
that only at the ow coefcient near choke, more choke margin occurred than
the experimental data. The calculations also show that the two-equation turbu-
lencemodelsgiveslightlyhigher efciencyatdesignowpointcomparedwiththe
zero-equation turbulencemodel. Furthermore, thek- turbulenceequations pre-
dictedalower headcoefcient at alarger owandalower owcomparedwiththe
zero-equationturbulencemodel.
However, theroundedtonguehas less advantageover thesharptonguewhen
acompressor operates at adesign owrate. This is becausewhen acompressor
operates at aroundthedesignowcondition, theownear thesharptonguearea
haslittleincidenceandtheowpassesthesharptonguesmoothly. Therefore, the
sharptongueproducessmall blockage, whereastheroundedtongueproduceslarger
blockagewhenthecompressor operatesnear thedesignowcondition. Asaresult,
at thedesignowcondition, theroundedtonguehaslesspressurerecovery when
compared with thesharp tonguecase. However, when acompressor operates at
aowratelarger thanthedesignowrate, ascroll tongueencounters apositive
incidence. Becausearoundedtongueis not sensitiveto theowincidence, inci-
dencelosses for aroundedtonguearesmaller thanthosefor asharptongue. The
roundedtongueproducesbetter pressurerecoverythanthesharptongue. Whenthe
compressor operatesat alowowrate, theadvantagesof thesharptonguereduce
withdecreaseintheowrate. Becausethetonguenegativeincidenceincreaseswith
thedecreaseincompressor owrate, thesharptongueblockageincreases faster
thantheroundedtongueblockage. Figure3.40showsthenondimensional turbulent
1.040
1.045
1.050
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Circumferential angle (deg)
C
p
Cp volute inlet hub (experimental)
Cp volute inlet hub (Algebraic model)
Cp volute inlet hub (K-E model)
Figure3.38. Staticpressuredistributionalongvoluteinlet hubwall.
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
0.45
0.4
0.35
r/b
2
= 0.3
r/b
2
= 0.0
/
0
Figure3.39. Performancecharacteristic.
viscosity(j
T
/j) distributionsobtainedbyemployingthek- turbulenceequations.
It can be seen that, for a lower ow rate and design ow rate cases, the turbu-
lent viscosityisuniformlydistributedexceptednear thetonguearea. For thelower
owrate, wecanseeahigher turbulencelevel behindthediffuser vane. Therefore,
inaowratenearsurgeanddesign, thezero-equationturbulencemodel canprovide
areasonablepredictionof owcharacteristics.
/
0
= 0.75 /
0
= 1.07 /
0
= 1.25
Turbulence viscosity
100
65
2000
1525
1050
575
100
[Pa s]
60
55
50
45
75
50
25
0
[Pa s]
Figure3.40. Turbulent viscosity(j
/j) contoursat midplaneof volute.

(a) (b) (c)
Figure3.41. Velocity vector at =180 degrees (/
0
=1.07). (a) Sharp tongue
(zero-equation model) (b) Rounded tongue (zero-equation model)
(c) Roundedtongue(k- model).
(a) (b) (c)
Figure3.42. Velocityvectoratscroll exit( =360degrees(/
0
=1.07). (a)Sharp
tongue (zero-equation model); (b) Rounded tongue (zero-equation
model); (c) Roundedtongue(k- model).
Intheinvestigationof thetongueshapeinuenceof thecompressor, thesharp
tonguescroll model was analyzed by using thezero-equation turbulencemodel.
Figures3.41and42showsecondaryowvectorsatcrosssections =180and360
degreesforasharptongueandaroundedtonguescrollsatadesignowcondition. It
canbeseenthatthesecondaryowinthescroll sectionshasasinglevortexstructure
(a) (b)
Tongue
Tongue
Figure3.43. Velocity vectorsnear tongueintersectionat midplane(/
0
=1.07).
(a) Sharptongue. (b) Roundedtongue.
inbothtonguegeometries. It canalso beseenthat thetongueshapechanges the
secondaryowstructures. Thesecondaryowimpactedbythetongueoccursnot
onlynearthetongueareabutalsoinothersectionsof thescroll.Theroundedtongue
createsarelativelylargeblockagenearthetonguearea.Thelargeblockageforcesthe
secondaryowcenter awayfromthetonguearea. At both =180and360degree
locations, thesecondary owis stronger for therounded tonguecompared with
thesharptongue. Thesecondaryowcenter for sharptongueoccursintheregion
closertothetonguecomparedwiththatfortheroundedtongue.Ascanbeobserved
inthesegures, thedifferencebetweenthetwoturbulencemodelsisverysmall.
Theowstructuresnearthetonguesaresimilarforbothtonguesatadesignow
conditionseeninFigure3.43. Theowleaves thetongueleadingedgesmoothly
at adesignowratefor bothcases. Noseparationzoneis found. It is alsofound
thatthesharptonguehasasmallerblockagethantheroundedtongue(Figure3.43).
Theownear theleadingedgeof theroundedtongueisblockedbythetongueand
thenpushedawayfromthetongue.
Figures3.44and45showcomputedstaticpressurecontoursfor thescroll with
roundedtonguenear thedesignowrateat crosssections =180degreeand360
degreeatadesignconditionwithdifferentturbulencemodels. Figure3.46showsthe
exitplanetotal pressurecontoursatthedesigncondition. Itcanbeseenthatthek-
turbulencemodel predictedlowerstaticpressureandhighertotal pressure. However,
thedifferences of themass averagepressures areless than 1%, as indication in
Figure3.46. Thetotal pressuredistributionsareasymmetrical for bothcases, and
thesymmetrical total pressuredistributions arecaused by secondary ows. The
location of thehighest total pressurerangeis different for thetwo calculations.
It is attributedto theusageof thedifferent turbulencemodels, whichresultedin
different secondaryowpredictions.
Figure3.47showsthevelocityvectorsnearthetongueintersectionatamidplane
and thesecondary velocity vectors near thetonguetrailing edgenear thechoke
owrate/
0
=1.25. Itisobservedthattheowsseparatenear thetonguefor both
(a) (b)
350000
349786
349571
349357
349143
348929
348714
348500
348286
348071
347857
347643
347429
347214
347000
[Pa]
Pressure Pressure
350000
349786
349571
349357
349143
348929
348714
348500
348286
348071
347857
347643
347429
347214
347000
[Pa]
Figure3.44. Static pressure contour at =180 degree (/
0
=1.07). (a) Zero-
equationmodel. (b) k- model.
349,000
348,786
348,571
348,357
348,143
347,929
347,714
347,500
347,286
347,071
346,857
346,643
346,429
346,214
346,000
[Pa]
Pressure
(a) (b)
349,000
348,786
348,571
348,357
348,143
347,929
347,714
347,500
347,286
347,071
346,857
346,643
346,429
346,214
346,000
[Pa]
Pressure
Figure3.45. Static pressurecontour at scroll exit ( =360degree(/
0
=1.07).
(a) Zero-equationmodel. (b) k- model.
Total pressure
(a) (b)
Total pressure
350,300
350,200
350,150
350,100
350,050
350,000
359,950
359,900
359,850
359,800
359,750
359,700
359,650
359,500
350,250
350,300
350,230
350,160
350,090
350,020
349,950
349,880
349,810
349,740
349,670
349,600
Figure3.46. Total pressure contour at discharge of the exit cone (/
0
=1.07).
(a) (b)
Figure3.47. Velocity vectorsnear tongueintersectionat midplane(/
0
=1.25).
Total pressure
(a) (b)
[Pa]
250,000
249,444
248,889
248,333
247,778
247,222
246,667
246,111
245,556
245,000
Total pressure
[Pa]
250,000
249,444
248,889
248,333
247,778
247,222
246,667
246,111
245,556
245,000
Figure3.48. Total pressure contours near tongue intersection at midplane
(/
0
=1.25). (a) Zero-equationmodel. (b) k- model.
cases. Thescroll tongueencountersalargeincidencebecausehighowrateresults
inlargeowanglesfromthetangential direction. A largeincidenceresultsinow
separations fromnear theleadingedgeof thetongue. Thek- turbulencemodel
predicts a recirculation zone near the inlet of the volute, and the zero-equation
turbulencemodel predictsalarger recirculationzone. Total pressurecontoursnear
thetongueintersectionat midplaneareshowninFigure3.48.
Total pressuredistributionsnear thetonguearedifferent betweentwodifferent
turbulencemodel predictions. Thezero-equation model predicts thelowest total
pressure zone near the tongue. However, the k- turbulence model predicts the
lowesttotal pressureintheregion, whichislocatednearthevoluteinlettonguearea.
Pressure
[Pa]
145,000
144,786
144,571
144,357
144,143
143,929
143,714
143,500
143,286
143,071
142,857
142,643
142,429
142,214
142,000
Pressure
(a) (b)
[Pa]
145,000
144,786
144,571
144,357
144,143
143,929
143,714
143,500
143,286
143,071
142,857
142,643
142,429
142,214
142,000
Figure3.49. Static pressure at choke ow at =180 degrees (/
0
=1.25).
Pressure Pressure
140,000
139,786
139,571
139,357
139,143
138,929
138,714
138,500
138,286
138,071
137,857
137,643
137,429
137,214
137,000
140,000
139,786
139,571
139,357
139,143
138,929
138,714
138,500
138,286
138,071
137,857
137,643
137,429
137,214
137,000
[Pa] [Pa]
(a) (b)
Figure3.50. Static pressure at choke ow at =360 degree (/
0
=1.25).
Thecomputedstatic pressurecontours near thechokeowrateat cross sections
=180and360degreesareshowninFigures3.49and50. It canbeseenthat the
k- model predictedhigher staticpressurelevel thanthezero-equationmodel. The
total pressuredistributions at thescroll exit areshown in Figure3.51. Thetotal
pressure level predicted using the k- model is higher than that using the zero-
equationmodel. Thelowest total pressurezonelocationappearstobedifferent for
thetwocomputational cases. Thisisbecausethesetwoturbulencemodelsresultin
different strengthsof thesecondaryow. Thetotal pressuredistributionspredicted
using thek- model showed theboundary-layer effects; that is, thereis alower
total pressure zone around the discharge pipe wall. Figure 3.52 shows velocity
vectorsnearthetongueintersectionatmidplanenearthesurgeowrate/
0
=0.75.
Flowvectorsnearthetongueindicateacontinuousowpassingthroughthetongue
andintotheexit duct. Flowvectorsalsoindicatethat duetothelargerecirculation
ow, the pressure side of the tongue does not show signicant ow separation.
Thelargecutbacktonguewithsignicantowcirculationinsidethescroll partcan
delay theowseparationnear scroll tongueat asmall owrate. Twotypesof the
Total pressure
(a) (b)
[Pa]
145,300
144,893
144,486
144,079
143,671
143,264
142,857
142,450
142,043
141,636
141,229
140,821
140,414
140,007
139,600
Total pressure
[Pa]
145,300
144,893
144,486
144,079
143,671
143,264
142,857
142,450
142,043
141,636
141,229
140,821
140,414
140,007
139,600
Figure3.51. Total pressure discharge of exit cone at choke ow (/
0
=1.25).
(a) (b)
Figure3.52. Velocity vectorsnear intersect diffuser andtonguenear surgecondi-
tion(/
0
turbulencemodel provided very similar results. Total pressuredistributions near
the scroll tongue at the midplane area are shown in Figure 3.53. Total pressure
distributionsshowthat thek- model predictedaslightly higher level of thetotal
pressure. Theperformancetestalsoconrmsthis. Staticpressurecontoursatcross
sections =180and360degrees areshowninFigures 3.54and55. It is shown
that thek- model predictedalower level of staticpressurethanthezero-equation
turbulencemodel. Total pressuredistributionsasshowninFigure3.56indicatethat
thek- model predictedhigher total pressurelevelsthanthezero-equationmodel.
However, thedifferencesbetweentwocalculationsareinsignicantlysmall.Again,
theboundary-layer effectscanbeseeninthek- turbulencemodel calculations.
Thecalculationsshowedthat, byusingdifferent turbulencemodels, theperfor-
mancepredictionresultsdidnot makesignicant difference. Inthesecalculations,
theimpeller andthevaneddiffuser as well as scroll tonguehaverelatively sharp
(a) (b)
Figure3.53. Total pressure contours near tongue intersection at midplane
(/
0
[Pa]
[Pa]
Pressure
(a) (b)
Pressure (ps180)
405,000
404,786
404,571
404,357
404,143
403,929
403,714
403,500
403,286
403,071
402,857
402,643
402,429
402,214
402,000
405,000
404,786
404,571
404,357
404,143
403,929
403,714
403,500
403,286
403,071
402,857
402,643
402,429
402,214
402,000
Figure3.54. Static pressureat surgecondition at =180degrees (/
0
=0.75).
[Pa]
Pressure
405,000
404,786
404,571
404,357
404,143
403,929
403,714
403,500
403,286
403,071
402,857
402,643
402,429
402,214
402,000
[Pa]
Pressure (ps360)
3.490e+05
3.487e+05
3.484e+05
3.481e+05
3.478e+05
3.475e+05
3.472e+05
3.469e+05
3.466e+05
3.463e+05
3.460e+05
(a) (b)
Figure3.55. Static pressure at surge ow at =360 degrees (/
0
=0.75).
[Pa]
Total pressure
(a) (b)
405,800
405,814
405,829
405,843
405,857
405,871
405,886
405,900
405,914
405,929
405,943
405,957
405,971
405,986
406,000
[Pa]
Total pressure
405,800
405,814
405,829
405,843
405,857
405,871
405,886
405,900
405,914
405,929
405,943
405,957
405,971
405,986
406,000
Figure3.56. Total pressure discharge of exit cone at surge ow (/
0
=0.75).
leading edges. The ow losses may mainly be dependent on the ow angle
separations; thistypeof owseparationisnot sensitivetotheturbulencemodels.
3.10 CFDApplications in Turbomachine Design
Withthedevelopment of thecomputer hardware, theCFDhasbeenimplemented
intheturbomachinedesignprocess. Enormouseffortsaredevotedtoimprovingthe
efciencyof thegasturbinecomponents. Thedesignsfor turbineandcompressor
airfoilsplayoneof themost important rolesinincreasingtheturbineefciency. In
theairfoil design, therearetwotypesof implementationstheaerodynamicdesign
engineeroftenconsiders. Oneistodesignandemploycustom-designbladeproles
withminimumlossesandcontrolledbladeboundary-layers. Thesecondandeven
morecomplexpart istominimizelossesresultingfromsecondaryowsnear hub
andcasing. Recentlythree-dimensional bladedesignconceptsthat helptocontrol
secondaryowswereproposed[1]. However, thecomplexowisdifcultevenwith
fullythree-dimensional NavierStokesowsolvers. Andthevalidationof theNS
solversneedtotakelargenumbersof experimental data, whichistimeconsuming
andexpensive.Therefore, almostall theaerodynamicdesignsarebasedonthetwo-
dimensional design. Theinviscousanalysesof thetwo-dimensional airfoil sections
still playanimportant roleinthedesignprocess.
It isknownthat for abladerowinanannulus, thestreamsurfacebetweentwo
annular walls is twisted for most cases. Thesetwists areinduced by either shed
vorticityor Secondaryowarisingfrom. Streamsurfacetwist canariseinanirro-
tational owowingto either spanwisecomponents of velocity or spanwiseblade
forces. Many efforts havebeen taken to reducethestreamsurfacetwist and the
secondaryowlosses, suchassweep, lean, bow, andtwist thebladesor designan
asymmetricendwall. However, thereislittleinformationavailableintheliterature
for using three-dimensional design and almost no information availableto show
howtointegratethethree-dimensional featuresintothedesignprocess. Mostof the
turbomachinery designsysteminvestigations werestill ontheacademic research
andwerebasedontheparticular machinesor blades. Moreover, mostof thestudies
werebasedontheparticular bladeandowsituations. For example, Singhet al.
[14] arguedthatclosingthebladethroatnear theendwallscouldobtainsignicant
efciency improvements, andWallis andDenton[20] also obtainedanefciency
increasefromalmost theoppositetypeof bladetwist near theendwall. For dif-
ferent machines anddifferent designs, many different techniques shouldbeused
accordingto theoweldnatureof thedesigns. It is very important to designa
bladedesignprocedureandoptimizethedesign.
Theincreaseduseof CFD tools has beendrivenmainly by two factors. First,
fromperformancestandardpoint of view, efciency has steadily increased. Sec-
ond, theturbomachineryindustryasawholehasbeenpushedtowardreducedcost
designs. Thecost reductionisintermsof development, modication, production,
andoperatingcosts. Thecostreductiondrivesaturbomachinetowardhighloading
inorder to reducestagecount, whilemaintainingor exceedingpast performance
goals. Thecurrent designof thenewstagealready is outsideof thestandardair-
foil database. Most of theairfoil needs to bedesigned. And thedevelopment of
thedesigntoolstomeetthisrequirementbecomescritical. Theapplicationof CFD
methodologytoimprovetheturbomachinerydesignisbecomingestablishedwithin
theturbomachinerycommunity. However, still onlylimitednumberof publications
suggesthowtouseCFDtohelpdesignandmodifyprocessesespeciallyduringthe
bladedesign. Thischapter servestopresent adesignprocessthat containsanovel
two- andthree-dimensional viscousturbulent codeandoptimizationprocess.
Expensive manpower is invested in order to nd congurations that are sta-
bleandefcient inthework rangeintheturbineandcompressor designs. Oneof
themost important methods is inversedesignor calledstreamlinedesignwhere
two-dimensional bladeprolesaretobefoundtoinsurethedesiredworkingrange
stabilityandefciency. Duringthedesign, theconstraintsarisingfromaerodynam-
ics, aeromechanical, mechanical, heat transfer, andmanufacturingconsiderations
havetobesatised.
Thedesignof turbineandcompressor bladehadmadeagreat progress. Many
advanceddesignmethods andCFD tools havebeenincorporatedinto thedesign
procedure. However, most of thedesign procedures focus only on theow pre-
diction, and therearefew papers that describetheoverall design processes and
design implements. For example, Wellborn and Delaney [5] described a com-
pressor designsysteminRolls-Royce, whichcomprisesthreetools: through-ow,
three-dimensional isolated blade, and three-dimensional multistage predication.
Theturbomachinery designis anintegratedprocess that contains aprocess from
meanline, through-ow, airfoil design, andanalysis. Thispaper developedadesign
processthat canbeeasilyadaptedbytheindustry.
Theaerodynamicdesignproceduresforturbomachineryairfoil usedinthisstudy
is shown in Figure 3.57. A design systemincludes meanline analysis, through-
owanalysis, airfoil sectiondesign, airfoil stackup, three-dimensional bladerow,
and multistage ow analysis. For obtaining the highest design efciency, the
optimizer was used to do the section optimization. The three-dimensional CFD
2D axisymmetric through-flow
analysis
Meanline analysis
3D blade row calculation
3D multistage calculation
Optimizer
Optimizer
Airfoil section design
Section viscous analysis
Airfoil stackup
Figure3.57. Bladedesignandoptimizationprocedure.
code was used for blade stackup optimization. The optimizer may be used for
three-dimensional bladingalthoughauthorsdonot encouragetheuseof optimizer
for three-dimensional optimization.
Meanline analysis determines the loading of the stage and annular area. It
plays an important role in the turbomachinery design. The meanline design for
therst-stagecompressor andthelast-stageturbineis critical. Theenthalpy rise
for compressor anddropfor turbinearexedbythemeanlineanalysis. Theoverall
machine character is determined by the meanline analysis. The compressor and
turbineefciencyisstronglyinuencedbymeanlinedesign.
Through-owanalysisisoneof thepreliminary designmodules. Theaxisym-
metric streamline curvature calculations can be used to optimize the overall
parameters of amultistageturbomachine. This moduleestablishes thedenitions
of theowpathandworkdistributionsinradiodirection. Thevelocitydiagramsat
designpointfor differentbladerowsanddifferentstreamlinesaredetermined. The
optimizationcodecanbeusedtodotheoptimizationfor selectingthebest design
parameters, for example, stageloadingandstageenthalpychange.
Theairfoil sectiondesignisaveryimportant stepfor theaerodynamicdesign.
All theairfoilsaredesignedbythesectiondesignandreasonablestackup. A three-
dimensional blademethod was developed in this study as shown in Figure3.57.
ItcanbeseenthatCFDcodefor bothsectionanalysisandthree-dimensional blade
rowanalysis is very important. Thedevelopment of theefcient andwide-range
applicationof CFD codes is very important. Inthis study, aneffectivenumerical
methodwasdevelopedfor bothtwo-dimensional andthree-dimensional codes. In
this chapter, a brief introduction for the numerical method developed for two-
dimensional incompressibleandcompressibleowswasprovided.
3.10.1 Flow solver for section analysis
A time-marching algorithmwas used in the present cascade ow computations
[2,20,22,23,29]. Thecomputationstartswitharoughperturbation, whichdevelops
under certainboundary conditions. Inthis approach, thegoverningequations are
replacedbyatime-differenceapproximationwithwhichsteadyor time-dependent
owsof interestcanbesolvedateachtimelevel. Thedetailsof thegoverningequa-
tionsandthemethodof solvingtheequationsarediscussedinprevioussections.
Thediscussionhasbeenextendedfor many yearsfor theoptimumtypeof the
meshthat shouldbeusedfor turbineor compressor bladeowcalculation[15,16].
The more orthogonal the grid, the smaller will be the numerical errors due to
thediscretization. However, no onetypeof grid is ideal for blade-to-bladeow
calculation. Inthisstudy, theH-typemeshisused. Another problemfor theblade-
to-blademeshisthetrailingedgemeshandthetrailingedgeKuttacondition[7].
Theauthors havenoticed that thenumber of mesh points near thetrailing edge
pointsstronglyinuencethelosscalculation. Here, arealisticmethodisproposed;
thatis, whenthemeshonthetrailingedgecircleismorethan10points, anexplicit
viscous Kuttacondition [17] is applied on thetraining edgecirclewhich allows
owleavingthebladesmoothly.
Themeshrenement study wasconductedprior tothecalculations[2,3]. It is
shownthatthemeshsizeof 11045with80pointsonthebladesurfaceintheblade-
to-bladesectionissufcient. TheH-mesh[2,3] wasusedinall thecomputations.
Thecomputational mesh is shown in Figure3.58. A typical convergencehistory
of thecalculationisshowninFigure3.59. It isdemonstratedthat thepresent code
hasagoodconvergence. Inthisstudy, thiscodewasusedinthetwo-dimensional
airfoil sectionanalysisandoptimization.
3.10.2 Optimization
Turbineandcompressor designsfacedthechallengeof highefciencyandreliable
bladedesign. Designtechniquesaretypicallybasedontheengineeringexperience
andmayinvolvemuchtrial anderrorbeforeanaccepteddesignisfound.Theability
of thethree-dimensional codesandtheabilitytoperformathree-dimensional ow
calculation are difcult to improve the design. The three-dimensional approach
is away to help designers do someparameter study and comparethenumerical
Figure3.58. Computational mesh.
Number of steps
E
r
r
o
r

x

1
0
0
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
Figure3.59. Typical convergencehistory.
studywithtestinginorder toimprovethedesign. Thethree-dimensional methodis
usedfor parameter studies, likelean, bow, andsweepeffects. Thetwo-dimensional
analysisdevelopedinthestudyisusedtooptimizebladesectionairfoil.
The blade design often starts with two-dimensional airfoil section. Some of
thedesignparametersareobtainedbythrough-owoptimizationandvibrationand
heattransfer analysis, for example, thesolidityandnumber of blades. Andmostof
theparametersareoptimizedthroughthesectional design. For example, leading-
andtrailing-edgeradii, stagger angle, andmaximal thickness position. Thenal
three-dimensional analysesareusedtomakelean, bowed, andsweepmodication
of theblades.
Theoptimizationprocessusedinthisstudywasbasedontheconstrainedopti-
mization method [26]. If the objective function to be minimized is F(X) and
constraint functions is g
j
(X), theoptimizationproblemcanbeformulatedby the
objectiveandconstraint functionsas:
F(X)
j
g
j
(X) = 0 (78)
where
j
aretheLagrangemultipliers and X is thevector of theobjective. The
nitedifferencingmethodcanbeusedtoobtainthegradientsof objectiveandcon-
straintfunctionswithrespecttodesignvariablesandconstraints. Manycommercial
optimizationpackagesareavailableasanoptimizer todesignproblems[26].
Theobjectivefunction of this study is adiabatic efciency. Theoptimization
objective is to obtain the highest efciency under given constraints. Foe more
convenience, thetotal pressureloss is used as an objectivevariableto judgethe
design. Thedenitionof thetotal pressurelossinthisstudyis:
=
(p
in
p
out
)
LH
(79)
whereLH istheoutlet dynamicheadof theexit plane.
Two-dimensional section optimization
Inthis study, acompressor stator bladeoriginally stackedupby usingNACA 65
was redesignedandoptimized. Inthis design, thethickness of theairfoil, chord,
stagger angle, andinlet andoutlet owparameterswerexed. Thedesignedblade
was used to replace the old blade. The section design optimization was mainly
achievedthroughadjustingthesectionmaximumthicknesslocation. It wasfound
thatthemaximumthicknesslocationsinuencethelossesandperformance. Inthis
study, vesections wereselectedas designsection. All sectiondesigns usedthe
similar methodandprocedure. As anexample, theresults presentedherearethe
designinformationfor 50%spansection.
Figures 3.60 through 62 show the Mach number distributions of the design
bladeswithdifferentmaximumthicknesslocations. Figure3.63showstherelation-
shipbetweentotal pressurelossesandlocationof themaximumthickness. It was
shownthat theMachnumber distributionschangedwiththemaximumthickness.
Thechangein theMach number distributions will inuencetheboundary-layer
developmentandinuencethelossesof thesection. Itwasfoundthatthereisanopti-
mumlocationof themaximumthickness. Studieshavealsoshownthatthislocation
changeswithowconditionsandstaggerof theairfoil.Afteroptimizationstudy, the
airfoil sectionwithhighestefciencywasselected.Theairfoil wasstackedupusing
asmoothleadingedgecurvemethod. Beforetheairfoil was selectedas thenal
blade, thethree-dimensional analysiswasperformedtoinvestigatethebenetsof
thethree-dimensional bladefeatures. Three-dimensional analysisshowedthatafter
sectionoptimizationtheairfoil performancewasimproved, asshowninFigure3.64.
However, theendwall regiondidnot showsignicant improvement. Somethree-
dimensional featureswereusedtoreducethelossesandincreasetheefciency.
Three-dimensional blading
Three-dimensional CFD analysis codes wereusedtoguidethethree-dimensional
nal modicationof thetwo-dimensional sectionstackup. Someparameterswere
0
.
6
5
0
.7
5
0
.
7
5
0
.
3
0
.
6
5
0
.
1
5
0
.
0
5
0
.
3
5
0
.
6
5
0
.
8
5
0
.
4
5
0
.
3
5
0
.
5
5
0
.
0
5
0
.
5
5
0
.
2
5
0
.
5
5
0
.
5
5
0
.
4
5
Figure3.60. Machnumber distributionsfor maximumthicknessat 15%chord.
0
.
6
5
0
.
5
5
0
.
3
5
0
.
5
5
0
.
6
5
0
.
4
5
0
.
7
5
0
.
3
5
0
.
2
5
0
.
6
5
0
.
4
5
0
.
1
5
0
.
2
5
0
.
0
5
0.55
0
.
2
5
0
.
0
5
0
.
3
5
0
.
6
5
0
.
5
5
0
.
1
5
0
.
2
5
0
.
4
5
Figure3.61. Machnumber distributionsat maximumthicknessat 25%chord.
Figure3.62. Machnumber distributionsat maximumthicknessat 45%chord.
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
15 25 35 45
Maximum thickness position (%)
T
o
t
a
l

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

l
o
s
s

(
%
)
Figure3.63. Total pressurelossesVsmaximumthicknesslocation.
selected to do thestudy based on design experience. In this redesign, thethree-
dimensional feature-bowed blade was used to reduce the secondary losses. In
the three-dimensional blading, the optimizer will not be used in this study,
becauseoptimizationwithoptimizer likethethree-dimensional codeisvery time
consuming. Althoughthemeshsizes, turbulencemodelsandmixingbetweenthe
bladerows strongly inuencetheoptimization results, theprocess proposehere
provide a way to drive a better design. In the current study, three-dimensional
optimizationwasobtainedthroughparameter study.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 3 6 9 12 15
Total pressure loss (%)
R
a
d
i
a
l

h
e
i
g
h
t

(
%
)
After optimization
After redesign sections
NACA 65 sections
Figure3.64. Total pressurelossesalongwithbladespan.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure3.65. Staticpressuredistributiononthesuctionsurface. (a) Original NACA
sectionblade. (b) Before3Doptimization. (c)After 3Doptimization.
Inthisstudy, only bowfeatureisapplied. Thebowlocationanddegreeof the
bowwereselectedasstudyparameters. Itwasfoundthatthe15degreebowlocated
at30%of thespancaneliminateseparationandgetbetter performance. Thethree-
dimensional analysisshowedthat after two-dimensional sectionoptimizeddesign,
theow in most of thespanwiselocations remained attached and well behaved
althoughit hadasmall regionof endwall separationonthesectionside, asshown
in Figures 3.65 through 68. After the bow was introduced the ow around the
airfoil onbothtipandroot endwall was attached. Thetotal pressurelosses were
reduced, asshowninFigure3.64.Thisstudyshowedthatthetotal sectionefciency
increasedbyabout3%ascomparedwiththeoriginal blade. Bothtwo-dimensional
(a) (b) (c)
Figure3.66. Axial velocitycontour near bladesuctionsurface. (a) Original NACA
sectionblade. (b) Before3Doptimization. (c)After 3Doptimization.
(a) (b)
Figure3.67. Velocity vector near the root section near the trailing edge suction
surface. (a) Before3Doptimization. (b) After 3Doptimization.
section design and three-dimensional optimization increased the efciency with
similar percentage. It has been shown that both two-dimensional optimization
and three-dimensional study areimportant. However, three-dimensional blading
dependsmoreontheexperienceof thedesigner.
It is important to point out that, based on the design experience, the three-
dimensional analysisresultsnormallyarenotacceptedasnal shape. Theselection
of thenal congurationwasacceptedthroughsmall adjustmentsbasedonexpe-
riencetoobtainhighperformanceandstability. After three-dimensional analysis,
somesmall adjustmentsweremadebasedonthepossiblemanufacturinguncertain-
tiesandapplications. For example, thecompressor stator designinthisstudy was
recamberedtoincreaseexit anglebyabout 1.5degreestoincreasethecompressor
surgemargin.
(a) (b)
Figure3.68. Velocity vector near the tip section near the trailing edge suction
surface. (a) Before3Doptimization. (b) After 3Doptimization.
The ow eld around turbine and compressor blades exhibits very complex
owfeatures. Theoweldinvolvesvarioustypesof lossphenomena, andhence
high-level owphysicsisrequiredtoproducereliableowpredications. Theblade
designprocess is avery timeconsumingprocess andtheoptimizationprocess is
very complicated. Themethoddevelopedinthis study for theairfoil sectionand
bladedesignandoptimizationisonesuccessful processandveryeasyfor adapting
in the aerodynamic design. In this study, a two-dimensional code was used for
sectiondesigninsteadof three-dimensional code, whichprovidesaneconomicway
for design and optimization. Thethree-dimensional blades wereoptimized after
stackingupthetwo-dimensional sections. Thelean, bowed, andswept featuresof
thethree-dimensional bladewerecreatedduringthree-dimensional optimization.
It was shown that both two- andthree-dimensional design andanalysis werethe
backbonesof thebladeaerodynamicdesigns. Theresultsshowthatboththeairfoil
shapeoptimizationandthethree-dimensional optimizationcanbeusedtoimprove
theperformanceof compressor andturbineblade.
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II. Finite Element Method
4 The nite element method: discretization
and application to heat convection problems
AlessandroMauro
1,2
, Perumal Nithiarasu
1
, NicolaMassarotti
2
,
andFaustoArpino
3
1
Civil and Computational Engineering Centre, School of Engineering,
Swansea University, Swansea, U.K.
2
Dipartimento per le Tecnologie, Universit degli Studi di Napoli
Parthenope, Napoli, Italy.
3
Dipartimento di Meccanica, Structture, Ambiente e Territorio,
Universit di Cassino, Cassino, Italy.
Abstract
Inthischapter, wegiveanoverviewof theniteelementmethodanditsapplications
toheat anduidowproblems. Anintroductiontoweightedresidual approxima-
tion and nite element method for heat and uid ow equations are presented.
Thecharacteristicbased split (CBS) algorithmis also presented for solving the
incompressiblethermal owequations. Thealgorithmisbasedonthetemporal dis-
cretizationalongthecharacteristics, andthehigh-order stabilizationtermsappear
naturallyfromthiskindof discretization.Thearticial compressibility(AC)andthe
semi-implicit (SI) versions of theCBS schemearepresentedandsomeexamples
arealsogiventodemonstratethemainfeaturesof boththeschemes.
Keywords: Characteristic-basedsplit, Finiteelements, Porousmedia
4.1 Governing Equations
4.1.1 Non-dimensional form of uid ow equations
In many heat transfer applications, it is often easy to generate data by non-
dimensionalizing the equations, using appropriate non-dimensional scales. To
obtainaset of non-dimensional equations, let us consider vedifferent cases of
convection heat transfer. We start with the mixed convection problemfollowed
bythenatural andforcedconvectionproblems. Theturbulent owandconvective
owthroughporousmediaarealsopresented. For eachcase, wediscussonesetof
non-dimensional scales.
Mixed convection
Mixedconvectioninvolves features frombothforcedandnatural owconditions
thataretwolimitingcasesof mixedconvectionow. Thebuoyancyeffectsbecome
comparableto theforced oweffects at small and moderateReynolds numbers.
Sincetheowispartlyforced, areferencevelocityvalueisnormallyknown(exam-
ple: velocityattheinletof achannel). However, inmixedconvectionproblems, the
buoyancytermneedstobeaddedtotheappropriatecomponent of themomentum
equation.
In incompressible mixed convection ow problems, the following non-
dimensional scalesarenormallyemployed:
x
i
=
x
i
L
, u
i
=
u
i
u
ref
, t
=
t u
ref
L
2
,
(1)
p
=
p
u
2
ref
, T
=
T T
ref
T
w
T
ref
where* indicatesanon-dimensional quantity, L isacharacteristic dimension, the
subscript ref indicates aconstant referencevalueand T
w
is aconstant reference
temperature, for example, wall temperature. Thedensity andviscosity j of the
uidareassumedtobeconstant everywhereandequal totheinlet value.
Usingtheabovescales, thenon-dimensional formof theincompressiblemixed
convectionequations, inindicial notation, arewrittenas:
Continuity equation
u
i
x
i
= 0 (2)
Momentum equation
u
i
t
j
u
i
x
j
=
p
1
Re

x
j
_
u
i
x
j
_
Gr
Re
2
T
i
(3)
where
i
isaunit vector inthegravitydirection.
Energy equation
T
i
T
i
=
1
RePr

x
i
_
T
x
i
_
(4)
whereReistheReynoldsnumber denedas:
Re=
u
ref
L
(5)
Pr isthePrandtl number givenas:
Pr =

(6)
Applications of nite element method to heat convection problems 131
Fluid circulation
Hot, vertical plate
g
x
2
x
1
Figure4.1. Natural convectiveownear ahot vertical plate.
andGr istheGrashof number givenas:
Gr =
gLTL
3
2
(7)
where =j/ isthekinematicviscosity. Appropriatechangeswill benecessaryif
anappreciablevariationinthesequantitiesoccursinaoweld.
Notethatsometimes, anon-dimensional parameterreferredtoastheRichardson
number (Gr,Re
2
) isalsousedintheliterature.
Natural convection
Natural convectionis alimitingcaseof themoregeneral caseof mixedconvec-
tion. Natural convectionisgeneratedonlybythedensitydifferenceinducedbythe
temperaturedifferences within auidsystem(Figure4.1). Becauseof thesmall
density variations present in thesetypes of ows, ageneral incompressibleow
approximationis adopted. Inmost buoyancy-drivenconvectionproblems, owis
generatedeither by atemperaturevariationor by aconcentrationvariationinthe
uidsystem, whichleadstolocal densitydifferences.
In practice, the following non-dimensional scales are adopted for natural
convectionintheabsenceof areal referencevelocityvalue:
x
i
=
x
i
L
, u
i
=
u
i
L
, t
=
t
L
2
,
(8)
p
=
pL
2
2
, T
=
T T
ref
T
w
T
ref
Uponintroducingtheabovenon-dimensional scales into thegoverningequa-
tions, and replacing Re with 1/Pr in the non-dimensional mixed convection
equations of the previous subsection, we obtain the non-dimensional equations
for natural convectionows.
Often, another non-dimensional number calledtheRayleigh number isusedin
thecalculations. Thisisgivenas:
Ra= Gr Pr =
gLTL
3
(9)
Forced convection
Forcedconvectionisanother limitingcaseof mixedconvection. Inforcedconvec-
tionowproblems, thenon-dimensional scalesarethesameasthemixedconvection
problem. Thenon-dimensional formof theforcedconvectiongoverningequations
isobtainedfromthat of mixedconvectionbyneglectingthebuoyancytermonthe
right handsideof themomentumequation.
Another non-dimensional number, whichis oftenemployedinforcedconvec-
tion heat transfer calculations is thePeclet number and is given as Pe=RePr=
u
ref
L/.
Some examples
Thefollowingresultsareobtainedsolvingtheaboveequationsfor forced, natural
andmixedconvectiveowsbyusinganarticial compressibility(AC) versionand
asemi-implicit (SI) versionof thecharacteristic-basedsplit (CBS) algorithmand
niteelement discretizationtechniquethat will beexplainedlater.
Therstproblemconsideredisthebackward-facingstep, thatisatestcasecom-
monly usedto validatenumerical solutions of theincompressibleNavierStokes
equations. Infact, several dataareavailableinliteraturefor thisproblem(Denham
andPatrik[1], Aung[2], Ichinoseet al. [3], deSampaioet al. [4], Massarotti et al.
[5]). The computational domain and the boundary conditions used in this work
arepresentedinFigure4.2a. Inparticular, thevelocity proleat theinlet ismea-
suredexperimental prole(DenhamandPatrik [1]). Themeasurement sectionin
theexperiments, asinthepresentcalculations, wasplaced1.3timesthestepheight
upstreamof thestep. All thehorizontal wallsandthestephavebeenimposedwith
no-slipvelocityboundaryconditions.
For non-isothermal cases, inadditiontotheaboveboundaryconditions(Aung
[2]), anon-dimensional temperatureequal tooneisimposedalongthebottomwall,
whilethetemperatureof theinletowisassumedtobeequal tozero.All otherwalls
areassumedto beadiabatic. Figure4.2shows somedetails of thecomputational
gridsusedfor thisproblem.
Figure 4.3 shows the horizontal velocity distribution along different vertical
sectionsof thechannel, obtainedby usingtheAC andtheSI versionsof theCBS
algorithm.
Thetemperatureprolesat twodifferent vertical crosssectionsdownstreamof
thesteparepresentedinFigure4.4forthecaseof afullydevelopedinletprolewith
p = 0
q = 0
T = 1 v = 0, u = 0,
v = 0,
v = 0, q = 0,
u = 0,
u = 0,
10h 8h 6h 4h 2h 0.8h 0 1.3h
y
x
h
2
h
4h
u = u(y)
v = 0
T = 0
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure4.2. Backward-facingstep: (a) computational domainandboundarycondi-
tions; (b) unstructuredmesh(955nodesand1,704elements); (c) detail
of thestructuredmeshnear thestep(4,183nodes, 8,092elements).
v
0 2 4 6 8
SI-CBS
y
1.3
AC-CBS Denham and Patrik [26]
Figure4.3. Backward-facingstep. Comparisonof thehorizontal velocityproles,
Re=229.
T
y
/
t
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
T
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
AC-CBS
SI-CBS
Aung [2]
AC-CBS
SI-CBS
Aung [2]
x/Xr = 0.482 x/Xr = 0.946
y
/
t
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Figure4.4. Backward-facing step. Temperatureproles at two different sections
downstreamof thestep(Re=233).
u
1
= u
2
= 0
u
1
= u
2
= 0
T = 1 T = 0
Insulated
Insulated
u
1

=

u
2

=

0
u
1

=

u
2

=

0
Figure4.5. Natural convection in a square cavity. Computational domain and
boundaryconditions.
Re=233. Theprolesarepracticallythesamefor boththeschemesandtheyshow
averygoodagreement withtheexperimental dataavailablefromtheliteraturefor
thisproblem(Aung[2]). It shouldbeobservedthat thepositionalongthevertical
sectionisrelatedtothethicknessof thethermal boundarylayer inthechannel.
Anotherbenchmarkproblemthatiscommonlyemployedforcodevalidationisa
well knownnatural convectionprobleminwhichtheuid-lledsquarecavitywith
thevertical walls subjectedto different temperatures is used. Thetwo horizontal
wallsareassumedtobeadiabaticasshowninFigure4.5. No-slipvelocityconditions
areappliedonall walls. Theowis drivenby thebuoyancy forces actinginthe
vertical direction, causedbythetemperaturedifferencesinducedintheuid. Both
structuredandunstructuredmeshesareused(Figure4.6).
Figures4.74.9showthetemperaturecontoursandstreamlinesobtainedwith
theAC-CBSalgorithmat different Rayleighnumbers.
Thetransient owover acircular cylinder isapopular test casefor validating
temporal discretization of numerical schemes. Theinlet owis uniformand the
cylinder is placed at acentrelinebetween two slip walls. Thedistancefromthe
inlet to thecentreof thecylinder is 4D, whereD is thediameter of thecylinder.
Total length of thedomain is 16D. No slip condition is applied on thecylinder
surface. Theproblemhas beensolvedbothontwo andthreedimensions. Figure
4.10 shows the mesh used for two-dimension case. As seen, the mesh close to
the cylinder is very ne in order to capture the boundary layer and separation.
Figure4.11showsthecontoursof thehorizontal andvertical velocitycomponents
at areal non-dimensional timeof 98.02. Thetimehistory of thevertical velocity
component at anexit central point isplottedwithrespect totimeandisshownin
Figure4.12.
In order to show that the method works also on three dimensions, a coarse
meshwith17,382nodes and69,948tetrahedral elements was usedto recompute
thesolution.ThismeshwasgeneratedusingthePSUEsoftwareavailablewithinthe
(a) (b)
(d) (c)
Figure4.6. Natural convectioninasquarecavity. (a)Mesh1: 1,251nodesand2,888
elements; (b) Mesh2: 2,601nodes and5,000elements; (c) Mesh3:
1,338nodesand2,474elements; (d) Mesh4: 5,515nodesand10,596
elements.
Figure4.7. Natural convection in a square cavity. Streamlines and isotherms at
Ra=10
5
.
School of Engineering, SwanseaUniversity(Morganet al. [6]). Theniteelement
meshandthecontoursof velocitycomponentsareshowninFigures4.13and4.14,
respectively, atareal non-dimensional timeof 83.33.Asseen, thesolutionobtained
isverysimilar totheoneshowninFigure4.11for atwo-dimensional case.
Ra=10
6
.
Ra=10
7
.
Figure4.10. Flowpast acircular cylinder. Finiteelement mesh, 7,129nodes and
13,990elements.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure4.11. Flow past a circular cylinder, Re=100. (a) Horizontal velocity
contours; (b) vertical velocitycontours; (c) temperaturecontours.
Adimensional time
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 15 30 45 60
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
AC-CBS
de Sampaio et al. [4]
Figure4.12. Flowpast acircular cylinder. Thevertical velocity distributionat an
exit point of thedomainwithrespect toreal time. Comparisonwith
deSampaioet al. [4].
Figure4.13. Three-dimensional owpastacircular cylinder. Finiteelementmesh:
17,382nodes, 69,948elements.
Figure4.14. Three-dimensional owpastacircularcylinder, Re=100; u
1
velocity
contours(left); u
3
velocitycontours(right).
4.1.2 Non-dimensional form of turbulent ow equations
For turbulent owcomputations, Reynolds averagedNavierStokes equations of
motionarewritteninconservationformasfollows:
Mean continuity equation
1
2
p
t

(u
i
)
x
i
= 0 (10)
Mean momentum equation
u
i
t

x
j
(u
j
u
i
) =
p
x
i

ij
x
j

R
ij
x
j
(11)
where isanACparameter, whichwill bewell explainedinSection2.6, u
i
arethe
meanvelocitycomponents, p isthepressure, isthedensityand
ij
isthelaminar
shear stresstensor givenas:
ij
=
1
Re
_
u
i
x
j
u
j
x
i
2
3
u
k
x
k
ij
_
(12)
TheReynoldsstresstensor,
R
ij
, isintroducedbyBoussinesqassumptionas:
R
ij
=

T
Re
_
u
i
x
j
u
j
x
i
2
3
u
k
x
k
ij
_
2
3
k
ij
(13)
Intheaboveequations, isthekinematicviscosityof theuid,
T
istheturbulent
eddyviscosityand
ij
istheKroneker delta. Thefollowingnon-dimensional scales
areusedtoderivetheaboveequations:
x
i
=
x
i
L
, u
i
=
u
i
u
ref
, t
=
t u
ref
L
2
,p
=
p
u
2
ref
,
k
=
k
u
2
ref
,
=
L
u
3
ref
, :
T
=
:
T
:
ref
, :
=
:
u
ref
(14)
whereL is acharacteristic dimension and thesubscript ref indicates areference
value. Theturbulent owsolutionis obtainedby solvingequations (10) and(11)
with appropriate boundary conditions and a turbulence model, as the Spalart
Allmarasmodel (SpalartandAllmaras[7], NithiarasuandLiu[8], Nithiarasuetal.
[9]). TheSpalartAllmaras (SA) model was rst introducedfor aerospaceappli-
cationsandcurrentlybeingadoptedfor incompressibleowcalculations. TheSA
model isanother one-equationmodel, whichemploysasinglescalar equationand
several constantstomodel turbulence. Thescalar equationis:
:
t

( u
j
:)
x
j
= c
b1
S :
1
Re
_

x
i
_
(1 :)
:
x
i
_
c
b2
_
:
x
i
_
2
_
c
w1
f
w
Re
_
:
y
_
2
(15)
where
S = S
1
Re
( :,k
2
y
2
)f
:2
(16)
and
f
:2
= 1X,(1Xf
:1
) (17)
In equation (16) S is the magnitude of vorticity. The eddy viscosity is
calculatedas:
:
T
= :f
:1
(18)
where
f
v1
= X
3
,(X
3
c
3
:1
) (19)
and
X = :,: (20)
Theparameter f
w
isgivenas:
f
w
= g
_
1c
6
w3
g
6
c
6
w3
_
1,6
(21)
where
g = r c
w2
(r
6
r) (22)
and
r =
1
Re
:
Sk
2
y
2
(23)
The constants are c
b1
=0.1355, =2/3, c
b2
=0.622, k =0.41, c
w1
=c
b1
,k
2
(1c
b2
)/, c
w2
=0.3, c
w3
=2andc
v1
=7.1. Fromtheaboveequationsit isclear
thattheturbulentkineticenergyisnotcalculatedhere.Thus, thelasttermof equation
(13) isdroppedwhenSA model isemployed.
Some examples
ThefollowingresultsareobtainedbysolvingtheaboveequationsusinganACCBS
algorithmandniteelementdiscretizationtechniquethatwill bedescribedlater in
thischapter.
A standard test case commonly employed for turbulent incompressible ow
models at moderateReynolds number is therecirculating owpast abackward-
facingstep.Thedenitionof theproblemisshowninFigure4.15.Thecharacteristic
dimensionof theproblemisthestepheight. All other dimensionsaredenedwith
respect to thecharacteristic dimension. Thestep is located at adistanceof four
timesthestepheight fromthestep. Theinlet channel height istwotimesthestep
height. Thetotal lengthof thechannel is40timesthestepheight. Theinletvelocity
proleisobtainedfromtheexperimental datareportedbyDenhamet al. [10]. No
slipconditionsapplyonthesolidwalls.A xedvalueof 0.05fortheturbulentscalar
variableof theSA model at inlet wasprescribed. Thescalar variablewasassumed
tobezeroonthewalls. Bothstructuredandunstructuredmeshes wereemployed
inthecalculation(Figures4.16and4.17).
Parabolic u
1
and u
2
= 0
2L
4L 36L
p = 0
L
u
1
= u
2
= 0
Figure4.15. Turbulentowpastatwo-dimensional backward-facingstep. Problem
denition.
Figure4.16. Detail of thestructuredmesh(8,092elementsand4,183nodes) near
thestep.
Figure4.17. Detail of the unstructured mesh (8,662 elements and 4,656 nodes)
near thestep.
Figure4.18showsthecomparisonof velocityprolesagainsttheexperimental
data of Denhamet al. [10]. The SA model predicts accurately the recirculation
region.
Theotherturbulenceproblemconsideredisacomplexthree-dimensional model
of owthroughanupper humanairway (NithiarasuandLiu[8], Nithiarasuet al.
[9]). Thegeometry usedis areconstructionof anupper humanairway employed
inthespraydynamicsstudies(Gemci et al. [11]). It isapparent fromtheavailable
studies on particle movement in the upper human airways that this problemis
important (Li et al. [9, 10], Martonenet al. [11]). To understandthemechanism
behindmanyupper humanairway-relatedproblemsincludingsleepapnoea and
vocal cord-related problems. Most of thereported studies on upper airway uid
dynamicsuseeitherstructuredorsemi-structuredmeshesinthecalculations. Here,
theresults obtained with an unstructured mesh arepresented. Thesurfacemesh
of thegridusedinthepresent study is showninFigure4.19. This meshcontains
just under amilliontetrahedral elements. Themeshis generatedusingthePSUE
code(Morganet al. [6]). TheReynoldsnumber of theowisdenedbasedonthe
Exp.
SA model
Re = 3,025
3
2.5
1.5
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
Horizontal velocity
0.5
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
2
Figure4.18. Incompressibleturbulent owpast abackward-facingstep. Velocity
prolesat variousdownstreamsectionsat Re=3,025.
Figure4.19. Incompressibleturbulent owthroughamodel upper humanairway.
Surfacemesh.
diameter of thenarrowportioncloseto theepiglottis. Thetotal non-dimensional
lengthof thedomaininthehorizontal directionis29.68, andinthevertical direction
it is23.05. Thediameter at theinlet of thegeometry(at thetop) is4.91.
A uniformvelocity is assumed at the inlet of the geometry in the negative
direction perpendicular to the inlet surface in the downward direction. No slip
conditionsareassumedonthesolidwalls. Theturbulentscalar variablevalueatthe
inlet isxedat 0.05andassumedtobeequal tozeroonthewalls.
Figure4.20shows thecontours of velocity components andpressurewithina
sectionalongtheaxisinthemiddleof thegeometry. Itisapparentthatthemajority
of theactivitiesaretakingplacenear thenarrowportionclosetotheepiglottisof
theupper humanairway. Theowis acceleratedas it passes throughthenarrow
portion of the airway. As seen, the pressure contours are clustered close to the
narrow portion representing a very high gradient region. Figure4.21 shows the
velocityvectorswithinthesection. Thevelocityvectorsclosetothenarrowportion
arealsoshowninthisgure. Asseen, therecirculationregionisclearly predicted
bytheAC-CBSmethod.
(a) (b)
(c)
(a) u
1
contours, (b) u
3
contours, (c) pressurecontours.
(a) (b)
(a) Velocityvectorsand(b) velocityvectorsnear thenarrowportion.
4.1.3 Porous media ow: the generalized model equations
Thegeneral formof theequationsforaporousmediumcanbederivedbyaveraging
theNavierStokesequationsoverarepresentativeelementaryvolume(REV; Figure
4.22), usingthewell-knownvolumeaveragingprocedure(Whitaker[15],Vafai and
Tien[16], HsuandCheng[17]).
Fluid
REV
Figure4.22. Representativeelementaryvolume.
Thenon-dimensional formof thegeneralizedmodel for thedescriptionof ow
throughauid-saturatedporousmediumcanbewrittenas:
Continuity equation
u
i
x
i
= 0 (24)
Momentum equation
1
i
t
2
u
j
u
i
x
j
=
p
f
x
J
Re

x
j
_
u
i
x
j
_
(25)
1
ReDa
u
i

F
Da
[u
[u
i

Ra
Pr Re
2
T
i
Energy equation
i
T
i
=

Pr Re

x
i
_
T
i
_
(26)
whereDaistheDarcynumber andF istheForchheimer coefcient. Thebuoyancy
effectsareincorporatedbyinvokingtheBoussinesqapproximation:
g(
f

ref
) =
ref
g(T
ref
T) (27)
wherethesubscriptf referstotheuidthatsaturatestheporousmedium.Thescales
andtheparametersusedtoderivetheabovenon-dimensional equationsfor mixed
convectionthroughasaturatedporousmediumarethesameasthoseshownat the
beginningof thechapter. Thenewparametersintroducedhereare:
J =
j
eff
j
f
, =
(c
p
)
f
(1)(c
p
)
s
(c
p
)
f
,
=

eff
f
, Da=

L
2
(28)
where J istheratiobetweentheeffectiveandtheuidviscosity, istheheatcapac-
ityratio, * istheratiobetweentheeffectiveandtheuidthermal conductivity, Dais
v = parab.
v = 0
u = 0
q = 1
v = 0
u = 0
q = 1
x
y
u = 0
T = 0
p = 0
2
(a) (b)
Figure4.23. Mixed convection in porous vertical channel. (a) Computational
domain and boundary conditions; (b) detail of thestructured com-
putational gridnear theentrance(8,601nodesand16,800elements).
theDarcynumber, and arethepermeabilityandporosityof themedium, respec-
tively, thesubscriptspandeff refertotheporousmediumandtotheeffectivevalues,
respectively. Asmentioned, equations(24)(26) arederivedfor mixedconvection
problems, thereforethisset of PDEsdescribesbothnatural andforcedconvection.
Whenforcedconvectiondominatestheproblem(Ra/PrRe
2
-1), thebuoyancyterm
ontheright handsideof themomentumconservationcanbeneglected.
Thegeneralizedmodel equationsintroducedabovereducetotheNavierStokes
equations when thesolid matrix in theporous mediumdisappears, that is when
1andDa, while, astheporosity 0andDa0, theequationsrep-
resent asolid. Therefore, theprocedurecanbeusedtodescribeinterfaceproblems
inwhichasaturatedporous mediuminteracts withasingle-phaseuid. Inthese
cases, it ispossibletouseasingledomainapproach, by changingtheproperty of
themediumaccordingly.
Some examples
Thefollowingresultsareobtainedby solvingtheaboveequationsfor mixedcon-
vection ows by using anAC version of the CBS algorithmand nite element
discretizationtechniquethat will beexplainedlater.
Theexampleshowedhereisthefully developedmixedconvectioninaregion
lledwithauid-saturatedporousmedium, connedbetweentwovertical walls.
Thecomputational domainandtheboundaryconditionsareshowninFigure4.23a.
x
u
/
u
m
e
a
n
1 0 1
0
1
2
Chen et al. [18]
PresentAC-CBS
Ra = 0
Ra = 10
4
Ra = 2x10
4
Ra = 5x10
4
Figure4.24. Mixed convection in porous vertical channel. Non-dimensional
vertical velocityat different Rafor aidingow, at Da=10
4
.
The ow enters the domain fromthe bottomat a non-dimensional temperature
of T =0withafully developedparabolic velocity prole. Theuniformheat ux
conditionissymmetricallyimposedonbothwalls. Figure4.23bshowsthedetails
of thecomputational gridnear theentrance. Themeshemployedhas8,601nodes
and16,800elementsandit isrenednear thewallsandat theinlet region.
Figure4.24showsthedimensionlessvertical velocityproleataDarcynumber
equal to10
4
andfourdifferentRayleighnumbers.Thepresentresultsarecompared
withthenumerical resultsof Chenetal. [18]. For pureforcedconvection(Ra=0),
the velocity prole is at in the central part of the domain and sharply goes to
zeroat thewallsof thechannel. Inthecaseof aidingow, if theRayleighnumber
increases, thebuoyancy forces result inanincreaseintheuidvelocity near the
walls. Astheowrateenteringthechannel isthesamefor anyRayleighnumbers
considered, theincreaseinuidvelocity inthenear-wall regions will result ina
decreasedvelocity at thecentreregionof thechannel. WhenRayleighnumber is
increasedto510
4
, themaximumvelocityinthenear-wall regionissignicantly
higher thantheuidvelocityat thecentreof thechannel.
4.2 The Finite Element Method
We provide here an introduction to weighted residual approximation and nite
element methodfor self-adjoint equationsandfor convectiondiffusionequations.
4.2.1 Strong and weak forms
TheLaplaceequationisaveryconvenientexampleforthestartof numerical approx-
imations. Weshall generalizeslightlyanddiscussinsomedetail thequasi-harmonic
(Poisson) equation:

x
i
_
k

x
i
_
Q = 0 (29)
wherek andQ arespeciedfunctions. Theseequationstogether withappropriate
boundaryconditionsdenetheproblemuniquely. Theboundaryconditionscanbe
of Dirichlet type:
= , on I
(30)
or that of Neumanntype:
q
n
= k
n
= q
n
, on I
q
(31)
wherea bar denotes a specied quantity. Equations (29)(31) areknown as the
strong form of theproblem.
Wenotethatdirectuseof equation(29) requirescomputationof secondderiva-
tives to solveaproblemusingapproximatetechniques. This requirement may be
weakenedbyconsideringanintegral expressionfor equation(29) writtenas:
_
O
:
_

x
i
_
k

x
i
_
Q
_
dO = 0 (32)
inwhich: isanarbitraryfunction.
If weassumeequation(29) isnotzeroatsomepointx
i
inOthenwecanalsolet
: beapositiveparameter timesthesamevalueresultinginapositiveresult for the
integral equation(32). Sincethis violates theequality weconcludethat equation
(29) must bezerofor everyx
i
inO, henceprovingitsequalitywithequation(32).
Wemayintegratebypartsthesecondderivativetermsinequation(32) toobtain:
_
O
:
x
i
_
k

x
i
_
dO
_
O
:QdO
_
I
:n
i
_
k

x
i
_
dI = 0 (33)
Wenowsplit theboundary intotwoparts, I
andI
q
, withI=I
I
q
, and
useequation(31) inequation(33) togive:
_
O
:
x
i
_
k

x
i
_
dO
_
O
:QdO
_
I
q
:q
n
dI = 0 (34)
whichisvalidonly if : vanishesonI
. Hencewemust imposeequation(30) for

equivalence.
Equation(34) isknownastheweak form of theproblemsinceonlyrstderiva-
tivesarenecessaryinconstructingasolution. Suchformsarethebasisforobtaining
theniteelement solutions.
4.2.2 Weighted residual approximation
Inaweightedresidual scheme, anapproximationtotheindependent variable is
written as asumof known trial functions (basis functions) N
a
(x
i
) and unknown
parameters
a
. Thuswecanalwayswrite:

= N
1
(x
i
)
1
N
2
(x
i
)
2
. . .
(35)
=
n
a=1
N
a
(x
i
)
a
= N(x
i
)
where
N = [N
1
, N
2
, . . . N
n
] (36)
and
= [
1
,
2
, . . . ,
n
]
T
(37)
Inasimilar waywecanexpressthearbitraryvariable: as:
: : = W
1
(x
i
) :
1
W
2
(x
i
) :
2
. . .
=
n
a=1
W
a
(x
i
) :
a
= W(x
i
) v (38)
in which W
a
are test functions and :
a
arbitrary parameters. Using this formof
approximationwill convert equation(34) toaset of algebraicequations.
Intheniteelement methodandindeedinall other numerical procedures for
which a computer-based solution can be used, the test and trial functions will
generally be dened in a local manner. It is convenient to consider each of the
testsandbasisfunctionstobedenedinpartitionsO
e
of thetotal domainO. This
divisionisdenotedby:
O O
h
=
_
O
e
(39)
andinaniteelement methodO
e
areknownaselements. Thevery simplest uses
linesinonedimension, trianglesintwodimensionsandtetrahedrainthreedimen-
sionsinwhichthebasisfunctionsareusually linear polynomialsineachelement
andtheunknownparametersarenodal values of . InFigure4.25weshowatypical
set of suchlinear functionsdenedintwodimensions.
In aweighted residual procedure, werst insert theapproximatefunction

intothegoverningdifferential equationcreatingaresidual, R(x

i
), whichof course
should bezero at theexact solution. In thepresent casefor thequasi-harmonic
equationweobtain:
R =

x
i
_
k
a
N
a
x
i
a
_
Q (40)
a
y
x
N
a
Figure4.25. Basisfunctioninlinearpolynomialsforapatchof triangularelements.

andwenowseekthebest valuesof theparameter set

a
, whichensuresthat:
_
O
W
b
RdO = 0, b = 1, 2, . . . , n (41)
Note that this is the termmultiplying the arbitrary parameter :
b
. As noted
previously, integrationbypartsisusedtoavoidhigher-order derivatives(i.e. those
greater thanor equal totwo) andthereforereducetheconstraintsonchoosingthe
basisfunctionstopermit integrationover individual elementsusingequation(39).
In thepresent case, for instance, theweighted residual after integration by parts
andintroducingthenatural boundaryconditionbecomes:
_
O
W
b
x
i
_
k
a
N
a
x
i
_
dO
_
O
W
b
QdO
_
I
q
W
b
q
n
dI = 0 (42)
4.2.3 The Galerkin, nite element, method
IntheGalerkinmethodwesimplytakeW
b
=N
b
, whichgivestheassembledsystem
of equations:
n
a=1
K
ba
a
f
b
= 0, b = 1, 2, . . . , n r (43)
where r is the number of nodes appearing in the approximation to the Dirich-
let boundary condition (i.e., equation (30)) and K
ba
is assembled fromelement
contributionsK
e
ba
with:
K
e
ba
=
_
O
e
N
b
x
i
k
N
a
x
i
dO (44)
Similarly, f
b
iscomputedfromtheelement as:
f
e
b
=
_
O
e
N
b
QdO
_
I
eq
N
b
q
n
dI (45)
To impose the Dirichlet boundary condition we replace

a
by
a
for the r
boundarynodes.
ItisevidentinthisexamplethattheGalerkinmethodresultsinasymmetricsetof
algebraicequations(e.g. K
ba
=K
ab
). However, thisonlyhappensif thedifferential
equations are self-adjoint. Indeed theexistenceof symmetry provides a test for
self-adjointnessandalsofor existenceof avariational principlewhosestationarity
issought.
It is necessary to remark herethat if wewereconsidering apureconvection
equation:
u
i
x
i
Q = 0 (46)
symmetry would not exist and such equations can often become unstable if the
Galerkinmethodisused.
4.2.4 Characteristic Galerkin scheme for convectiondiffusion equation
Unlikeasimpleconductionequation(astheLaplaceequation), anumerical solution
for theconvectionequationhas todeal withtheconvectionpart of thegoverning
equationinadditiontodiffusion. For mostconductionequations, theniteelement
solutionis straightforward. However, if aGalerkintypeapproximationwas used
inthesolutionof convectionequations, theresults will bemarkedwithspurious
oscillations inspaceif certainparameters exceedacritical value(element Peclet
number). This problemis not unique to nite elements as all other spatial dis-
cretizationtechniqueshavethesamedifculties. A verywell-knownmethodused
inniteelementsapproximationtoreducetheseoscillationsistheCharacteristic
Galerkin (CG) scheme (Lewiset al. [19], Zienkiewiczet al. [20]). Here, wefollow
theCharacteristic Galerkin(CG) approachtodeal withspatial oscillationsdueto
thediscretizationof theconvectiontransport terms.
Inorder todemonstratetheCGmethod, let usconsider thesimpleconvection
diffusionequationinonedimension, namely:
t
u
1
x
1

x
1
_
k

x
1
_
= 0 (47)
Letusconsider acharacteristicof theowasshowninFigure4.26inthetime
spacedomain. Theincremental timeperiodcoveredbytheowisLt fromthenth
timelevel tothen 1thtimelevel andtheincremental distancecoveredduringthis
Characteristic
n + 1
n
x
1
n + 1
x
1
n
t
x
1
x
1
x
1
x
1
x
1
x
1
n
Figure4.26. Characteristicinaspacetimedomain.
timeperiodisLx
1
, thatis, from(x
1
Lx
1
) tox
1
. If amovingcoordinateisassumed
alongthepathof thecharacteristic wavewithaspeedof u
1
, theconvectionterms
of equation(47) disappear (asinaLagrangianuiddynamicsapproach). Although
this approach eliminates the convection termresponsible for spatial oscillation
whendiscretizedinspace, thecomplicationof amovingcoordinatesystemx
/
1
is
introduced, that is, equation(47) becomes:
t
(x
/
1
, t)

x
/
1
_
k

x
/
1
_
= 0 (48)
Thesemi-discreteformof theaboveequationcanbewrittenas:
n1
[x
1

n
[x
1
Lx
1
Lt

x
/
1
_
k

x
/
1
_
n
[x
1
Lx
1
= 0 (49)
Notethatthediffusiontermistreatedexplicitly. Itispossibletosolvetheabove
equationbyadaptingamovingcoordinatestrategy. However, asimplespatial Taylor
seriesexpansioninspaceavoidssuchamovingcoordinateapproach.Withreference
toFigure4.26, wecanwriteusingaTaylor seriesexpansion:
n
[x
1
Lx
1
=
n
[x
1

n
x
1
Lx
1
1'

2
n
x
2
1
Lx
2
1
2'
. . . (50)
Similarly, thediffusiontermisexpandedas:
x
/
1
_
k

x
/
1
_
n
[x
1
Lx
1
=

x
1
_
k

x
1
_
n
[x
1

x
1
_

x
1
_
k

x
1
_
n
_
Lx (51)
j i
l
Figure4.27. One-dimensional linear element.
Onsubstitutingequations(50) and(51) intoequation(49), weobtain(higher-
order termsbeingneglected) thefollowingexpression:
n1
n
Lt
=
Lx
Lt
x
1
n
Lx
2
2Lt
x
2
1
n

x
1
_
k

x
1
_
n
(52)
Inthiscase, all thetermsareevaluatedat positionx
1
, andnot at twopositions
asinequation(49). If theowvelocityisu
1
, wecanwriteLx =u
1
Lt. Substituting
intoequation(52), weobtainthesemi-discreteformas:
n1
n
Lt
= u
1
x
1
n
u
2
1
Lt
2

2
x
2
1
n

x
1
_
k

x
1
_
n
(53)
By carryingout aTaylor series expansion(Figure4.26), theconvectionterm
reappearsintheequationalongwithanadditional second-order term. Thissecond-
order termactsasasmoothingoperator that reducestheoscillationsarisingfrom
thespatial discretization of theconvection terms. Theequation is nowready for
spatial approximation.
Thefollowinglinear spatial approximationof thescalar variable inspaceis
usedtoapproximateequation(53):
= N
i
i
N
j
j
= [N]{] (54)
where[N] aretheshapefunctions and subscripts i and j indicatethenodes of a
linear element asshowninFigure4.27.
OnemployingtheGalerkinweightingtoequation(53), weobtain:
_
O
[N]
T

n1
n
Lt
dO
_
O
[N]
T
u
1
x
1
n
dO
(55)
Lt
2
_
O
[N]
T
u
2
1
x
2
1
n
dO
_
O
[N]
T

x
1
_
k

x
1
_
n
= 0
Theaboveequation is equal to zero only if all theelement contributions are
assembled. For adomainwithonlyoneelement, wecansubstitute:
[N]
T
=
_
N
i
N
j
_
(56)
Onsubstitutingalinear spatial approximationfor thevariable, over elements
astypiedinFigure4.27, intoequation(55), weget:
_
O
[N]
T
[N]
{
n1
n
]
Lt
dO = u
1
_
O
[N]
T

x
1
([N]{])
n
dO
(57)
Lt
2
u
2
1
_
O
[N]
T

2
x
2
1
([N]{])
n
dO
_
O
[N]
T
k

2
x
2
1
([N]{])
n
dO
Beforeutilizingthelinear integrationformulae, weapplyGreenslemmatothe
second-order termsof equation(57), weobtain:
_
O
[N]
T
[N]
{
n1
n
]
Lt
dO = u
1
_
O
[N]
T
[N]
x
1
{]
n
dO
Lt
2
u
2
1
_
O
[N]
T
x
1
[N]
x
1
{]
n
dO
Lt
2
u
2
1
_
I
[N]
T
[N]
x
1
{]
n
n
1
dI (58)
_
O
[N]
T
x
1
k
[N]
x
1
{]
n
dO
_
I
[N]
T
k
[N]
x
1
{]
n
n
1
dI
wheren
1
andn
2
arethedirectioncosinesof theoutwardnormal n, Oisthedomain
andI is thedomainboundary. Therst-order convectiontermcanbeintegrated
eitherdirectlyorviaGreenslemma. Here, theconvectiontermisintegrateddirectly
without applyingGreens lemma. However, integrationof therst derivatives by
partsisuseful forproblemsinwhichthetractionisprescribed. Usingtheintegration
formulae(Lewiset al. [19]), it ispossibletoderivetheelement matricesfor all the
termsinequation(58). Thetermontheleft-handsidefor asingleelement is:
_
O
[N]
T
[N]
{
n1
n
]
Lt
dO =
l
6
_
2 1
1 2
_
_
_
_
n1
i

n
i
Lt
n1
j

n
j
Lt
_
_
_
= [M
e
]
L{]
Lt
(59)
where[M
e
] isthemassmatrix for asingleelement. Theabovemassmatrix for a
singleelementwill havetobeutilizedinanassemblyprocedurefor auiddomain
containingmanyelements.
In a similar fashion, all other terms can be integrated; for example, the
convectiontermisgivenby:
u
1
_
O
[N]
T
[N]
x
1
{]
n
dO =
u
1
2
_
1 1
1 1
__
j
_
n
= [C
e
]{]
n
(60)
where[C
e
] istheelemental convectionmatrix. Thevaluesof thederivativesof the
shapefunctionsaresubstitutedinorder toderivetheabovematrix.
Thediffusiontermwithinthedomainisintegratedas:
_
O
[N]
T
x
1
k
[N]
x
1
{]
n
dO =
k
l
_
1 1
1 1
__
j
_
n
= [K
e
]{]
n
(61)
where [K
e
] is the elemental diffusion matrix. The characteristic Galerkin term
withinthedomainisintegratedas:
Lt
2
u
2
1
_
O
[N]
T
x
1
[N]
x
1
{]
n
dO = u
2
1
Lt
2
1
l
_
1 1
1 1
__
j
_
n
= [K
se
]{]
n
(62)
where[K
se
] istheelemental stabilizationmatrix.
Theboundarytermfromthediffusionoperator isintegratedbyassumingthat i
isaboundarynode, asfollows:
_
I
[N]
T
k
[N]
x
1
{]
n
n
1
dI = k
_
_
_
i
l

j
l
0
_
_
_
n
n
1
= [f
e
] (63)
where{f
e
}istheforcingvector duetothediffusionterm.
Theboundaryintegral fromthecharacteristicGalerkintermisintegrated, again
byassumingthat i isaboundarynode, as:
Lt
2
u
2
1
_
I
[N]
T
[N]
x
1
{]
n
n
1
dI =
Lt
2
u
2
1
_
_
_
i
l

j
l
0
_
_
_
n
n
1
= [f
se
] (64)
where{f
se
}istheforcingvector duetothestabilizationterm.
Foraone-dimensional domainwithmorethanoneelement, all thematricesand
vectorsneedtobeassembledinordertoobtaintheglobal matrices. Onceassembled,
thediscretizedone-dimensional equationbecomes:
[M]
L{]
Lt
= [C]{]
n
[K]{]
n
[K
s
]{]
n
{f ]
n
{f
s
]
n
(65)
Letusnowconsider asimpleone-dimensional convectionproblem, asgivenin
Figure4.28, todemonstratetheeffect of adiscretizationwithandwithout theCG
scheme.
Thescalar variablevalueat theinlet is =0, andat theexit itsvalueis1. This
scalar variableis transported in thedirection of thevelocity as shown in Figure
4.28. Notethat theconvectionvelocityu
1
isconstant. Theelement Peclet number
for thisproblemisdenedas:
Pe=
u
1
h
2k
(66)
whereh is theelement sizeintheowdirection, which, inonedimensionis the
local element length. Figure4.29shows thecomparisonbetweenasolutionwith
L
= 0
Inlet
u
1
= constant
= 1
Exit
Figure4.28. One-dimensional convectiondiffusionproblems.
0.8
1
0.6
F
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4
Horizontal distance
(a) Pe = 1.0
0.6 0.8 1
0.8
1
0.6
F
u
n
c
t
i
o
n
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4
Horizontal distance
(b) Pe = 1.5
0.6 0.8
Standard Galerkin
Characteristic Galerkin
Exact solution
1
Standard Galerkin
Characteristic Galerkin
Exact solution
Figure4.29. Spatial variation of a function, , in one-dimensional space for
different element Peclet numbers.
the CG discretization scheme and one without it. Only two Peclet numbers are
shown in thesediagrams to demonstratethespatial oscillations without theCG
discretization. As seen, both discretizations give no spatial oscillations at a Pe
valueof unity. However, at aPevalueof 1.5, theCGdiscretizationisaccurateand
stable, whilethediscretizationwithouttheCGtermbecomesoscillatory. Theexact
solutiontothisproblemisgivenasfollows(BrooksandHughes[21]):
=
1e
u
1
x
1
k
1e
u
1
L
k
(67)
Inthisequation, L isthetotal lengthof thedomainandx
1
isthelocal lengthof
thedomain.
The extension of the characteristic Galerkin scheme to a multi-dimensional
scalar convectiondiffusion equation is straightforward and follows theprevious
procedureasdiscussedfor aone-dimensional case.
4.2.5 Stability conditions
The stability conditions for a given time discretization may be derived using
a Von Neumann or Fourier analysis for either the convection equation or the
convectiondiffusion equations. However, for more complicated equations such
A
3
l
3
l
2
l
1
l
4
l
5
Node
A
2
A
1
A
4
A
5
Figure4.30. Two-dimensional linear triangular element.
astheNavierStokesequations, thederivationof thestabilitylimit isnot straight-
forward. A detailed discussion on stability criteriais not given hereand readers
areasked to refer to therelevant text books and papers for details (Hirsch [22],
Zienkiewicz andCodina[23]). A stability analysis will givesomeideaabout the
time-steprestrictionsof anynumerical scheme. Ingeneral, foruiddynamicsprob-
lems, thetime-stepmagnitudeis controlledby two wavespeeds. Therst oneis
duetotheconvectionvelocityandthesecondduetothereal diffusionintroduced
by theequations. In thecaseof aconvectiondiffusion equation, theconvection
velocityis
u
i
u
i
, whichis, intwodimensional problems,
_
u
2
1
u
2
2
=[u[. Thedif-
fusionvelocityis2k,h whereh isthelocal elementsize. Thetime-steprestrictions
arecalculatedastheratioof thelocal element sizeandthelocal wavespeed. It is
thereforecorrect towritethat thetimestepiscalculatedas:
Lt = min(Lt
c
, Lt
d
) (68)
whereLt
c
andLt
d
aretheconvectionanddiffusiontime-steplimits, respectively,
whichare:
Lt
c
=
h
[u[
, Lt
d
=
h
2
2k
(69)
Often, it may benecessary tomultiply thetime-stepLt by asafety factor due
todifferent methodsof element sizecalculations. A simpleproceduretocalculate
theelement sizeintwodimensionsis:
h = min
_
2Area
i
l
i
_
, i = 1, number of elementsconnectedtothenode (70)
whereArea
i
aretheareaof theelementsconnectedtothenodeandl
i
arethelength
of theoppositesidesasshowninFigure4.30. For thenodeshowninthisgure, the
local element sizeiscalculatedas:
h = min(A
1
,l
1
, A
2
,l
2
, A
3
,l
3
, A
4
,l
4
, A
5
,l
5
) (71)
Inthreedimensions, theterm2Area
i
isreplacedby3Volume
i
andl
i
isreplaced
bytheareaoppositethenodeinquestion.
4.2.6 Characteristic-based split scheme
It is essential to understand the characteristic Galerkin procedure, discussed in
Section2.4for theconvectiondiffusionequation, inorder toapplytheconcept to
solvethereal convectionequations. Unliketheconvectiondiffusionequation, the
momentumequation, whichispartof asetof heatconvectionequations, isavector
equation. A direct extensionof theCG schemeto solvethemomentumequation
is difcult. In order to apply theCG approach to themomentumequations, we
havetointroducetwosteps. Intherststep, thepressuretermfromthemomentum
equation will be dropped and an intermediate velocity eld will be calculated.
In the second step, the intermediate velocities will be corrected. This two-step
procedurefor thetreatment of themomentumequationshastwoadvantages. The
rstadvantageisthatwithoutthepressureterms, eachcomponentof themomentum
equationissimilartothatof aconvectiondiffusionequationandtheCGprocedure
canbereadily applied. Thesecondadvantageis that removingthepressureterm
fromthemomentumequationsenhancesthepressurestability andallowstheuse
of arbitraryinterpolationfunctionsfor bothvelocityandpressure. Inother words,
thewell-knownBabuskaBrezzi conditionis satised(Babuska[24], Brezzi and
Fortin[25], Chung[26]). Owingtothesplitintroducedintheequations, themethod
isreferredtoastheCBSscheme.
TheCG proceduremay beapplied to theindividual momentumcomponents
without removing the pressure term, provided the pressure termis treated as a
source term. However, such a procedure will lose the advantages mentioned in
thepreviousparagraph. For moremathematical details, pleaserefer toZienkiewicz
etal. [20], ZienkiewiczandCodina[23], Nithiarasu[27]andZienkiewiczetal.[28].
InordertoapplytheCGprocedure, wecanrefertothegeneral caseof governing
generalizedporous mediumowandheat transfer equations innon-dimensional
formand indicial notation, for mixed convection, that have been presented in
Section1.3(seeequations(24)(26)).
Fromthe governing equations, it is obvious that the application of the CG
schemeisnotstraightforward. However, byimplementingthefollowingprocedure,
it is possibleto obtain asolution to theconvection heat transfer porous medium
equations. Thesolutionof thefreeuidowequationsisobtainedbyapplyingthe
sameprocedure.
Temporal discretization
For thesakeof simplicity, theasterisksareomittedandtheDarcyandForchheimer
termsinequation(25) aregroupedasaporous termtoobtain:
P =
_
1
ReDa
Da
[u[
_
(72)
Temporal discretizationalongthecharacteristicsof continuity, momentumand
energyconservationequationsresultsinthefollowingset of equations:
u
n
1
i
x
i
= 0 (73)
u
n1
i
(1LtP
3
) u
n
i
(1LtP(1
3
))
= Lt
_
2
p
n1
f
x
i
(1
2
)
p
n
f
x
i
_
_
Lt
u
j
u
i
x
j
_
n
_
Lt
J
Re
2
u
i
x
2
i
_
n
Lt
2
2
_
1
2
u
k
x
k
_
u
j
u
i
x
j
_
u
k
x
k
p
f
x
i
_
n
Lt
Ra
Pr Re
2
T
n
i
(74)
T
n1
T
n
Lt
=
_
u
i
T
x
i
_
n
_
1
RePr
2
T
x
2
i
_
n
Lt
2
_
u
k
x
k
_
u
i
T
x
i
__
n
(75)
Inequations(74) and(75), additional stabilizationtermsappear naturallyfrom
thediscretizationalongthecharacteristics(Zienkiewiczetal. [20]), whilethechar-
acteristicparameters
1
,
2
and
3
(0.5
1
1and0
i
1, withi =2, 3) are
denedaccordingtothefollowing:
u
n
1
i
x
i
=
1
u
n1
i
x
i
(1
1
)
u
n
i
x
i
,
p
n
2
f
x
i
=
2
p
n1
f
x
i
(1
2
)
p
n
f
x
i
, (76)
[Pu
i
]
n
3
=
3
[Pu
i
]
n1
(1
3
)[Pu
i
]
n
.
Different versionsof theCBSschemecanbeobtaineddependingonthevalue
of theaboveparameters. Inparticular anSI andanAC versionof theCBSscheme
canbeobtainedbyvaryingtheparameter
2
. For
2
between0.5and1, theSI-CBS
isobtained, whilefor
2
equal to0, theAC-CBSschemeisderived. Moreover, for
3
between0.5and1, animplicit treatment for theporoustermisobtained, while
for
3
equal to0, anexplicit oneisderived.
ThesplittingintheCBS schemeconsists of solvingtheaboveequations ina
number of subsequent steps. Intherst step, thepressuretermis removedfrom
equation(74) andtheintermediatevelocitycomponents u
i
areobtainedfrom:
Step 1: Intermediate velocity calculation
u
i
(1LtP
3
) u
n
i
(1LtP (
3
1)) =
_
Lt
u
j
u
i
x
j
_
n
_
Lt
J
Re
2
u
i
x
2
i
_
n
Lt
2
2
_
1
2
u
k
x
k
_
u
j
u
i
x
j
__
n
Lt
Ra
Pr Re
2
T
n
i
(77)
Removingthepressuretermfromthemomentumequation, thepressurestability
is enhancedandtheuseof arbitrary interpolationfunctions for bothvelocity and
pressureisallowed. Inother words, thewell-knownBabuskaBrezzi conditionis
satised(Babuska[24], Brezzi andFortin[25], Chung[26]). Thecorrectvelocities
canbedetermined, oncethepressureeldisknown, usingtheequation:
Step 3: Velocity correction
u
n1
i
u
i
=
1
_
1
Lt
P
3
_
_
2
p
n1
f
x
i
(1
2
)
p
it
art
x
i
_
Lt
2
u
k
x
k
p
f
x
i
_
n
_
(78)
Thesolutionof equation(78) isthethirdstepof thealgorithm.
Thesecondstepconsistsinthepressurecalculationthroughthecontinuityequa-
tion. This second step is wheretheSI andAC versions of theschemediffer. In
particular, thissecondstepisobtainedintheSI versionof theschemebyderiving
equation(78) withrespecttox
i
andimposingequation(73), obtainingthefollowing
Poissontypeof equation:
Step 2 SI-CBS: Pressure calculation
0= Lt
1
1
u
i
x
i
(1
1
)
u
n
i
x
i
_
Lt
2
2
p
n1
f
x
2
i
(79)
Therefore, inthiscase, theincompressibilityconstraint issatisedat eachiter-
ation, and the pressure, evaluated through equation (79), represents the actual
pressure. However, thesolutionof equation(79) needsamatrixinversion. Further-
more, theSI versionof theschemeusesaglobal timestep, whichistheminimum
valueof thetimesteplimit over theentiredomain.
Alternatively, theAC schemecanbederivedwhentheleft handsideof equa-
tion (79) is obtained froma mass conservation equation retaining the transient
densityterm:
f
t

1
(
f
u
i
)
x
i
= 0 (80)
Ingeneral, it ispossibletorelatethedensitytimevariationtothepressuretime
variation, throughthespeedof sound, asfollows:
f
t
=
1
c
2
p
f
t
(81)
wherethereal compressibilityparameter, c (compressiblewavespeed), approaches
innityfor manyincompressibleowproblemsandthesolutionschemebecomes
stiff and imposes severe time step restrictions. However, this parameter can be
replacedlocallybyanappropriatearticial value, , of nitevalue, employingthe
AC method, that was rst introduced by Chorin [29] and then further developed
[3042]:
f
t
=
1
2
p
art
t

1
2
p
it1
art
p
it
art
Lt
=
u
it
1
i
x
i
(82)
Inequation(82), thepressureisanarticial pressure, becausetheincompressibility
constraintisnotachievedateachtimestep, butonlywhensteady-stateconvergence
isreached. Thesuperscriptsit +1andit arereferredtotheiterativeprocedureand
donot refer toreal timelevels. Thesecondstepof theACschemeiscarriedout by
imposingtheequation(82) as:
Step 2 AC-CBS: Pressure calculation
1
2
(p
it1
art
p
it
art
) = Lt
1
1
u
i
x
i
(1
1
)
u
it
i
x
i
_
Lt
2
2
p
it
art
x
2
i
(83)
Thelocal valueof iscalculatedthroughthefollowingprocedure:
= max(0.5, u
conv
, u
diff
, u
ther
) (84)
Thelocal convective, diffusiveandthermal velocitiescanbecalculatedthrough
thefollowingnon-dimensional relations:
u
conv
=

u
i
u
i
, u
diff
=
2
hRe
, u
ther
=
2
hRePr
. (85)
Thediffusivetimesteplimitationfor theACmethodmaybewrittenash
2
/Re/2,
whiletheconvectivetimesteplimitationmaybewrittenas:
Lt
conv
=
h
[u[
(86)
Theaboverelationincludestheviscouseffect viathearticial parameter.
Dependingontheproblemof interest, it ispossibletoconsider other equations
coupledtotheaboveset, suchasspeciesconcentrationfor multi-componentows.
Thefourthstep, for non-isothermal problems, isrepresentedbytheenergycon-
servationequation(75) thatallowscalculatingthetemperatureateveryiterationfor
problemswithacouplingbetweenmomentumandenergyconservationequations
occurs.
Spatial discretization and solution methodology
Thespatial discretizationof thegoverningequationsisobtainedthroughGalerkin
niteelementprocedureandtriangular elements. Withinanelement, eachvariable
iscalculatedthroughlinear approximationonthebasisof nodal values, according
tothefollowingequation:
=
3
n=1
N
n
n
(87)
whereN
n
istheshapefunctionatnoden and
n
isthevalueof thegenericvariable
at node n. Applying the standard Galerkin procedure to the set of equations
presentedintheprevious section, thefollowingfour steps, expressedinamatrix
form, areobtained:
Step 1: Intermediate velocity calculation
M u
i
= (1LtP)Mu
n
i

Lt
[Cu
i
]
n
Lt
J
Re
[K
d
u
i
]
n
1
2
Lt
2
[K
u
u
i
]
n
(88)
Lt
_
Ra
Pr Re
2
MT
i
_
n
Lt
J
Re
[f
d
]
n
1
2
Lt
2
[f
u
]
n
Step 2 SI-CBS: Pressure calculation
[K
p
p
f
]
n1
=
1
Lt
[D u
i
] (89)
Step 2 AC-CBS: Pressure calculation
1
2
M(p
it1
art
p
it
art
) =
Lt
[D u
i
] Lt
2
[K
p
p
art
]
it
(90)
Step 3: Velocity correction
M(u
n1
i
u
i
) = Lt
_
2
Dp
n1
f
(1
2
)Dp
it
art
Lt
2
K
u
p
n
f
_
(91)
Step 4: Temperature calculation
MT
n1
= MT
n
Lt[CT]
n
Lt
RePr R
k
[K
d
T]
n
(92)
Lt
2
2R
k
[K
u
T]
n
Lt
RePr R
k
[f
t
]
n
Lt
2
2R
k
[f
ut
]
n
whereMisthemassmatrix, Cistheconvectionmatrix, K
d
isthediffusionmatrix,
K
u
isthestabilizationmatrix obtainedfromhigher-order terms, f
d
andf
u
arethe
boundaryvectorsfromthemomentumequation, K
p
isthestiffnessmatrix, Disthe
gradientmatrix, f
t
andf
ut
aretheboundaryvectorsfromthetemperatureequation.
Detailsof all thetermspresentedinequations(88)(92) aregiveninLewiset al.
[19] andZienkiewicz et al. [20].
In the present procedure, the mass matrix is lumped using a standard row-
summing approach, inverted and stored in an array during the pre-processing.
Therefore, intheAC formulation, thecalculationof thearticial pressureat it 1
iteration, throughequation(90), doesnot needamatrixinversionandtheresult is
amatrix inversion-freeprocedure. Ontheother hand, inthesecondstepof theSI
solutionprocedure, thestiffnessmatrixneedstobeinvertedat eachiteration.
u = 0, v = 0, q = 1
u = 0, v = 0, q = 1
u = 1
T = 0
y
x
(b)
(a)
Figure4.31. Forcedconvectioninaporouschannel. (a)Computational domainand
boundarycondition; (b) structuredcomputational grid(3,321nodes,
6,400elements).
Some examples
Boththeschemespresentedabovecanbeusedtosolvemanyengineeringproblems,
suchas mixed, natural or forcedconvectionbothinuid-saturatedporous media
andinpartlyporousdomains, or simplyinfreeuidowcases.
As mentioned before, changing theproperties such as porosity and thus per-
meability, it ispossibletohandleporousmedium-freeuidinterfaceproblemsas
asingleproblemwith different properties. Thefollowing limits areused for the
porousmediumpart andfor thefreeuidpart:
- 1
Da= nite
porousmedium
= 1
Da
freeuid (93)
A suitableset of matchingconditions, to connect theporous mediumandthe
freeuiddomains, isneeded(Massarotti et al. [43]).
Therstexampleistheforcedconvectionheattransfer insideauniformporous
channel withconstant wall heat ux. Thecomputational domain, together withthe
boundary conditions employed, is sketched in Figure 4.31a, while Figure 4.31b
showsthecomputational gridemployed. Theowentersthedomainfromtheleft
withaconstant velocityandat anon-dimensional temperatureT =0. Thechannel
wallsareheatedbyaconstant heat ux. Thenumerical resultshavebeenobtained
usinganon-uniformgridwith6,400elementsand3,321nodes.
Figure4.32shows thenon-dimensional velocity andtemperatureproles, for
different Darcy numbers, varying from10
4
to 1.0 at asection, wheretheow
andthethermal eldarehydrodynamically andthermally developed. Theresults
havebeencomparedwiththeanalytical solutionspresentedbyNieldetal. [44] and
Lauriat andVafai [45]. Thedimensionlesstemperatureisevaluatedusing:
T
mix
=
1
u
mean
S
x
_
S
x
u
i
T
i
dS (94)
y
u
/
u
m
e
a
n
1 0.5 0
(a) (b)
0.5 1
0
0.5
1
1.5
Analytical Nield
et al. [44]
AC-CBS
SI-CBS
Da = 10
4
Da = 10
2
Da = 5x10
2
Da =10
1
Da = 1
y
T
T
w
a
l
l
/
T
m
i
x
T
w
a
l
l
1 0.5 0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
1.5
Analytical Lauriat
and Vafai [45]
AC-CBS
SI-CBS
Da = 10
3
Da = 10
1
Da = 1
Da = 10
4
Figure4.32. Forcedconvectioninaporouschannel: (a) non-dimensional velocity
as functionof transversedistance; (b) non-dimensional temperature
asfunctionof transversedistance.
whereu
mean
isthemeanvelocityinthesectionconsideredS
x
.
For asmall Darcynumber (10
4
), thevelocityproleisnearlyindependent of
thetransversedistanceandslipowoccursat thewalls(Figure4.32). Anincrease
inDarcynumber leadstoanon-linear distributionof thevelocity. WhentheDarcy
number isequal tounity, thevelocityproleapproachesaprolesimilar tothat of
freeuidow.
Thenon-dimensional temperatureincreasesastheDarcynumber decreases, as
showninFigure4.32. A decreaseintheDarcy number correspondstoadecrease
intheuidvelocityinthemiddleof thechannel andthereforetheconductionheat
transfer isdominatingover theeffect of convection.
Figure4.33showstheconvergencehistoriestosteadystatefortheAC-CBSand
SI-CBSschemesobtainedbyusingthefollowingL
2
normfor velocities:
Velocity residual =
_
nodes
i=1
_
[u
i
[
n1
[u
i
[
n
Lt
i
_
2
_
nodes
i=1
_
[u
i
[
n1
Lt
i
_
2
(95)
ThisgureshowsthattheSI versionof theschemeconvergesfasterastheDarcy
numberdecreases. Instead, theACversionof theschemehasanoppositebehaviour.
Table4.1reportstheCPUtimeneededbyboththeprocedurestoreachsteadystate
solution, onamachinewith4Gbof RAM and2.4GHz CPU speed. Theseresults
conrmthebehaviour shown in Figure4.33. In particular, Table4.1 shows that
theAC-CBSschemeconvergesfaster thantheSI-CBSschemewhenDa10
2
. It
wasnoticedthattheSI-CBSschemeneedsmoretimethantheAC-CBSschemeper
timeiteration. Incorrespondenceof smaller Darcynumbers(Da10
3
), theAC-
CBSschemetakesmoretimetoreachthesteadystate. Thisisduetothetimestep
Iterations
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

r
e
s
i
d
u
a
l
10
0
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
AC-CBS
SI-CBS
(a)
Iterations
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

r
e
s
i
d
u
a
l
10
0
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
AC-CBS
SI-CBS
(b)
Figure4.33. Convergence histories for SI and AC scheme. (a) Da=1;
(b) Da=10
4
.
Table4.1. CPUtime(s)forforcedconvectioninaporouschannel atdifferentDarcy
numbers
Da 1 10
1
510
2
10
2
10
3
10
4
AC-CBS 35 87 137 491 4,341 6,400
SI-CBS 14,730 10,250 8,055 3,357 1,107 250
calculationprocedureused. Essentially, theACschemebecomesslowerinreaching
thesteady statewhendiffusionisoverridingtheeffect of convection(Da10
3
)
and thelocal timestep approaches theglobal timestep, losing theadvantageof
usingahigher timestepintheconvectivezones.
Thesecondexampleisthenatural convectioninacavityheateduniformlyfrom
thebottomside. Thecomputational domain, together withtheboundaryconditions
employed, issketchedinFigure4.34a, whileFigure4.34bshowsthecomputational
gridemployed, composedof 7,200triangular elementsand3,721nodes.
Figure4.35showsthedimensionlesstemperaturecontoursforaPrandtl number
equal to0.71, andfor twodifferent Rayleighnumbers (10
6
and710
4
) andtwo
differentDarcynumbers(10
3
and10
4
).Theresultsobtainedhavebeencompared
withthenumerical solutionpresentedbyBasaket al. [46].
In general, the uid circulation is strongly dependent on the Darcy number.
In fact, when smaller Rayleigh and Darcy numbers are considered, the ow is
very weak and the temperature distribution is similar to that of stationary uid
(Figure4.35a). As theDarcy number increases, theroleof convection becomes
1
(a) (b)
u=v=0
T=0
u=v=0, T=0
u=v=0
y
x
T=0
u=v=0, =0
T
y
Figure4.34. Natural convectioninaporous cavity heatedfromthebottomside:
(a) computational domain and boundary conditions; (b) structured
computational grid(3,721nodes, 7,200elements).
0
.
4
0
.
1
0
.
4
0
.
3
0
.
1
0
.
3
0
.
1
0
.
1
0
.8
0
.7
0
.
5
0
.
4
0
.
1
0
.
3
0
.
2
0.9
0
.8
0.7
0.5
0
.4
0
.6
0.3
0
.
1
0
.
1
0
.
1
0
.
4
0
.
2
0
.
3
0
.
5
0
.
1
0
.
4
0
.
3
0
.
2
0
.
1
0
.4
0.9
0
.2
0
.
2
0
.
1
0
.
6
0.7
0
.2
0.6
0.5
0.8
0
.v
0.6
0.8 0.7
0
.
2
0
.3
0
.
4 0
.
5
0
.
7
0
.
6
0
.
4
0
.
5
0
.
5
0
.
5
0
.
4
0
.
3
0
.
3
0
.
4
0
.
3
0.9
0
.
5
0
.
2
0
.
2
0
.5
0
.
2
(a) (b)
Figure4.35. Temperaturecontoursfornatural convectioninaporouscavityheated
fromthebottomside. (a) Ra=710
4
andDa=10
4
; (b) Ra=10
6
andDa=10
3
.
more signicant and the uid rises up strongly fromthe middle portion of the
bottomwall, asdepictedinFigure4.35b.
Figure4.36showsthesteady-stateconvergencehistoriesfor theAC-CBS and
theSI-CBSschemes. Thisgureshowsadifferent behaviour fromthat of thecase
of forcedconvectionowproblem. Whennatural convectionoccurs, theAC-CBS
schemeconvergesfasterthantheSI-CBSschemeforanyRayleighorDarcynumber,
bothintermsof numberof iterations(Figure4.36)andCPUtimetoreachthesteady
state(Table4.2).
TheSI-CBSalgorithmtakesmoretimetoreachthesteadystatebecauseof the
couplingbetweenmomentumandenergyconservationequationspresentinnatural
convectionproblems. Thecouplingisduetothepresenceof agenerationtermon
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

r
e
s
i
d
u
a
l
10
6
10
5
10
5
10
4
10
2
10
3
10
3
10
1
10
1
10
0
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

r
e
s
i
d
u
a
l
10
6
10
5
10
4
10
4
10
2
10
2
10
3
10
1
10
0
10
0
Iterations
10
5
10
3
10
1
10
4
10
2
10
0
Iterations
AC-CBS
SI-CBS
AC-CBS
SI-CBS
(a) (b)
Figure4.36. ConvergencehistoriesforSI andAC.(a)Ra=710
4
andDa=10
4
;
(b) Ra=10
6
andDa=10
3
.
Table4.2. CPU time(s) for natural convectioninaporouscavityheatedfromthe
bottomat different RayleighandDarcynumbers
Ra 10
6
710
4
Da 10
3
10
4
10
3
10
4
AC-CBS 180 930 290 700
SI-CBS 63,270 48,230 53,400 47,560
theright hand sideof themomentumconservation equation in gravity direction
that must beevaluatedat eachtimestep. Thistermcanbecalculatedonlyafter the
resolutionof theenergyequation(step4of theCBSalgorithm), duetothefactthat
thenodal temperaturevaluesareunknown. Thiscoupledsystembecomesstiff and
causesarestrictionontheglobal timestepvalueusedintheSI procedureandthus
thesolutiontothesimultaneousequationsatthesecondstepof thealgorithmneeds
moretime.
Moreover, theSI schemeexperiences difculties in reaching thesteady state
whenveryrenedmeshesareused(Massarotti et al. [47]). Ontheother hand, the
AC-CBS schemedoes not showany problemin reaching theconvergencewhen
natural convectionowoccurs. Thereasonfor thisistherobustlocal timestepping
procedureusedbytheAC-CBSscheme.
Thelast exampleisthedevelopingmixedconvectioninaregionpartiallylled
with a uid-saturated porous medium, conned between two vertical hot walls.
Inparticular, becauseof thegeometrical symmetry, half domainhasbeenstudied.
Figure4.37showsthecomputational domainandtheboundaryconditionsemployed
andthedetailsof thecomputational gridneartheentrance. Themeshemployedhas
u=v=0
(a) (b)
T =1
v =1, T =0
L
y
x
u=v=0
T =1
Figure4.37. Mixed convection in a vertical channel partially lled with a
porousmedium. (a) Computational domainandboundaryconditions;
(b)detail of thestructuredcomputational gridneartheentrance(8,591
nodesand16,800elements).
x
0 1
0
1
2
v
/
v
0
y=3
y=32
y =0.5
Chang [48]
AC-CBS
1.5
0.5
0.5
Figure4.38. Mixedconvectioninavertical parallel platechannel partially lled
withaporousmedium. Non-dimensional vertical velocityatdifferent
heightsof thechannel andat Da=10
5
.
8,591nodesand16,800elementsandisrenednear thewall, near theinlet region
andat theinterface.
Figure4.38showsthedimensionlessvertical velocityproleatdifferentheights
of thechannel (y) foraDarcynumberequal to10
5
, obtainedbyusingtheAC-CBS
scheme. Thepresent resultsarecomparedwiththenumerical resultsof Changand
Chang[48]. Theparametersusedfor thepresentinvestigationareRa=0.7210
3
,
Pr=0.72, Re=50, =2.8intheporousregionand =1inthefreeuidregion,
=0.8. Wheny issmall, thereisalargevelocitydifferenceat theinterfaceof the
compositesystem(Figure4.38). Wheny increases, theowdischargeintheporous
layer decreases, andthepeak of theuidvelocityprolemovestothecentral axis
of thevertical parallel-platechannel.
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5 Equal-order segregated nite-element
method for uid ow and heat transfer
simulation
J ianhui Xie
MFG-Engineering Design & Simulation, Autodesk, Inc.,
San Rafael, CA, USA
Abstract
This chapter introduces nite elementbased equal-order mixed-GLS (Galerkin
LeastSquares) segregatedformulationforuidowandheattransfer. Thisscheme
followstheideausedinnite-volumemethod, whichdecouplestheuidpressure
calculationandvelocitycalculationbytakingthedivergenceof thevector momen-
tumequationandapplyingsomeclear insightsregardingincompressibleow. The
inherent velocity correction step in segregated scheme makes it attractive for
solutionrobustness andmuchfaster comparedto original uidvelocitypressure
couplingschemebecausemixed-GLS nite-element formulationdoes not assure
themassconservationbetweentheinterfaceof theelementsincomparisontonite-
volumemethod. With theseadvantages, this formulation has prevailed in recent
years in major niteelementbased commercial codes used in theindustry sim-
ulation models that usually import geometry fromCAD and havelargescaleof
degreeof freedoms to solve. Takingexampleof uidthermal couplingproblem,
thischapteralsodiscussesthestrategiesusedtosolvemultiphysicsprobleminnon-
linear iterationlevel andtheblock I/O techniquethat uses nite-element method
for handling massivedata. Finally, this chapter illustrates sometypical industry
conjugateheat transfer problemswherebothsolidanduidpartsareinvolved.
Keywords: Finiteelements, Fluidow, Heat transfer, Segregatedformulation
5.1 Introduction
The quest for robust and efcient strategies to solve large, sparse matrix sys-
tems has beenanactiveareaof researchanddevelopment for decades. Galerkin
nite-element methods, with theadvantages of handling irregular geometry and
multiphysicscoupling, haveplayedanimportantroleincomputational uiddynam-
icsarea, but itscomputational difcultiesandperceivedshortcomingshaveledto
thedevelopment of alternativenite-element models.
Theoretically, theefforts havebeento avoidthetwo major problems encoun-
tered. The rst problemis the wiggles velocity eld problemrelated to the
node-to-nodeoscillationof velocitycomponentsemanatingfromboundarieswith
largevelocitygradient. Thisproblemismostlypronouncedunder theconditionof
highReynoldsnumbersandcoarsecomputational mesh, andthereforetheinabil-
ityof thenite-element meshtohandlethesteepgradient resultsinanimbalance
between advective and diffusive contribution. With getting best t to the prob-
lem, theweighted residual formulation produces aeld that oscillates about the
true solution (wiggle pattern). The second problemis the saddle-point prob-
lemoriginated by mixed Galerkin nite-element formulation. It is difcult to
solveespeciallyinthree-dimensional large-scaleindustrymodel becausetheLBB
(LadyzhenskayaBabuskaBrezzi) stabilityconditionassociatedwiththeGalerkin
nite-element limits element choice with respect to the velocity and pressure
interpolation.
Inpractical aspect, solutionschemes/solversandalgorithmshavebeenexplored
for better CFDprocessor efciencyandrobustness, whicharemostlyaddressedby
commercial codes.
In this chapter, the equal-order mixed-GLS (Galerkin Least Squares) stabi-
lized formulation is presented rst. It is termed as a residual method because
the added least-squares terms are weighted residuals of the momentumequa-
tion, and this form of the least-squares terms implies the consistency of the
method since the momentumresidual is employed. And this method is a gen-
eralization of SUPG (streamline-upwind/PetrovGalerkin) and PSPG (pressure
stabilizing/PetrovGalerkin) methods, which were developed to target the wig-
gle stabilization. Since this method plays a signicant stabilization role for the
coarsemeshandhybridmesh, theequal-order velocity andpressureinterpolation
isviable, andtheLBBconditionisnotnecessaryanymore, theconvenientbilinear
elementinterpolationbecomespractical approximationalthoughitwasunstablein
theGalerkinnite-element context.
The second emphasis in this chapter is on the practical view: The numer-
ical strategies for the solution of large systems of equations arising fromthe
nite-element discretizationof theaboveformulationsarediscussed. Tosolvethe
nonlinearuidowandheattransferproblem, particularemphasisisplacedonseg-
regatedscheme(whichusesSIMPLE algorithmfromthenite-volumemethod) in
nonlinear level and iterativemethods in linear level. Thevelocitypressurecou-
plingformulationnotonlyresultsinalargedimensionedsystembutalsogenerates
astiffnessmatrixradicallydifferent fromthenarrowbandtypeof matrix, whichis
inefcient tobesolved. Segregatedschemewasproposedwiththeideaof decou-
pling the pressure calculation and velocity calculation by taking the divergence
of the vector momentumequation and applying some clear insights regarding
incompressibleow. Theinherent velocitycorrectionstepinsegregatedscheme
makesitattractiveforsolutionrobustnessandfastercomparedtovelocitypressure
couplingschemebecausemixed-GLS nite-element formulationdoes not assure
the mass conservation between the interface of the elements in comparison to
nite-volumemethod.
Equal-order segregated nite-element method 173
Accordingtohowtheprimitivevariablesof velocitypressurearetreated, nite-
elementmethodsforsolvingNavierStokesequationscanbecategorizedintothree
groups: (a) thevelocitypressureintegratedmethod; (b) thepenalty method; and
(c) the segregated velocitypressure method. The velocitypressure integrated
method in which thegoverning equations aretreated simultaneously needs rela-
tivelysmall number of iterationstoachieveconvergence, but alargememoryand
computingtime.Thepenaltymethodrequireslessmemoryandlesscomputingtime
thantherstmethod, butitneedsanadditional postprocessortoobtainpressureeld
andsatisesthecontinuityequationonlyapproximately. Recently, muchattention
hasbeenpaidtothesegregatedvelocitypressuremethod, wherevelocity andthe
correspondingpressureeldarecomputedalternatively inaniterativesequence.
Thismethodtakesadvantageof SIMPLE algorithmideafromnite-volumeworld
andusesit inthenite-element world. WiththeSIMPLE algorithmidea, it needs
muchlessmemoryandexecutiontime, andwiththevelocitycorrectionstepusing
continuity equation, it even satises thecontinuity equation better than therst
method.
Thesecond categorization of nite-element methods can bemadeaccording
to the orders of interpolation functions for the velocity and pressure. They are
mixed-order interpolationandequal-order interpolation. Themixed-order scheme
attemptstoeliminatethetendencytoproducecheckerboardpressuredistributions
by satisfying LBB condition. In this method thevelocity is interpolated linearly
whereas thepressureis assumed to beconstant within theelement. Equal-order
interpolation was proposed by Rice and Schnipke [6]. They showed that equal-
orderschemeperformedbetterforthatpurposewithoutexhibitingspuriouspressure
modes.
A third categorization of the nite-element method for uid dynamics is
related to weight functions. Galerkin method has been widely used in discretiz-
ing the momentumequation. Brook and Hughes demonstrated the accuracy of
thestreamline-upwind/PetrovGalerkinmethodfor thelinear advection-diffusion
equation; Rice and Schnipke [5] adopted a monotone streamline-upwind nite-
element method, where they discretized the momentumequation by using con-
vectional Galerkinmethodwiththeexceptionof theadvectionitems, whichwere
treatedbythemonotonestreamline-upwindapproach.
Followed by thesuccess of thenite-volumemethods, several nite-element
segregatedsolutionschemeshavebeenproposed. RiceandSchnipke[6] employed
equal-order interpolation for all variables and solved pressuredirectly; however,
their original formulation used a streamlineunwinding schemethat may not be
straightforward enough to extend to three-dimensional ows. Early equal-order
methodswereingeneral of transientkindandtheequationshadtobeintegratedon
timetoreachasteadystate.VanZijl [11]adaptedtheformulationbyapplyingSUPG
weightingfunctions to theconvectiveterms; helater adaptedtheschemefurther
by implementing SIMPLEST algorithm. Shaw [7] demonstrated the way to use
element matrix construction for equal-order interpolation in segregated scheme.
Haroutunian et al. [2] have shown that the implementation of iterative solvers
can result in a substantial reduction in the storage requirements and execution
time. DuToit [10] triedconjugategradient solver; Wang[13,14] demonstrateda
consistentequal-order discretizationmethodbyintroducingelement-basednode
velocity to satisfy mass conservation, whilekeeping conventional nodevelocity
and temperature to satisfy momentumand energy equations. Wansophark [15]
evaluatedsegregatedschemesbycombiningmonotonestreamline-upwindmethod
and adaptivemeshing technique. However, relaxation factors, which need users
interpretation, haveremainedanissuethat affectstheusers.
The classical mixed velocitypressure interpolation Galerkin nite-element
method, often referred to as mixed vp form, was the workhorse of incom-
pressibleowsolvers inthe1970s to1990s andhas provedhighly successful for
two-dimensional and small three-dimensional problems, offering high order of
accuracy andstrongconvergencerates [5]. Thehighmark of this approachis the
discretization of thecontinuity equation in amanner adherent to certain mathe-
matical constraints, andtheability to simultaneously solvetheequationwiththe
discretizedmomentumequationsineither aPicardor aNewtonRaphsoniterative
scheme. Thediscretizedcontinuityequationistheknowncauseof indeniteness
intheresultingJ acobianmatrix, leadingtounboundedlargeandnegativeeigenval-
ues. Despitethis poor matrix conditioning, most two-dimensional problems with
small bandwidth areamenableto efcient solution with optimized variations of
classical Gaussianelimination. For example, skylinemethodallowsfor memory-
efcient solutionandinfact isstill usedtoday. But eventremendoustechnological
advances incomputer processor speedandrandomaccess memory capacity will
never makedirect methods aviablealternativefor largethree-dimensional prob-
lems. This is one reason why many researchers have abandoned the traditional
mixed-interpolationapproachinfavorof alternativesthatallowthereadyuseof iter-
ativesolvers. Thesealternativeformulations, includingpenaltymethods, pressure
stabilizationmethods, andpressureprojectionmethods[2], bringdenitenessto
thematrixsystem.
Transientanalysisisatraditional waytoovercomepoorperformanceof iterative
solvers[9]; theideaistotakeadvantageof iterativesolversthat thriveonagood
initial guess whichtransientanalysiswithsmall-enoughtimeincrementdeliversat
eachtimestep. Furthermore, thesmallerthetimestepthemorediagonallydominant
thematrix system, becausethetimederivativesoccur onor near thediagonals. It
is noticed that the transient analysis is inefcient for a broad class of problems
that want steady solution; hence, theresult fromintegratingintimeis not really
practical as anend-all cure, insteadtransient termlikeinertial relaxationis more
effectiveinsteadyanalysis.
Ingeneral, nite-element methodbasedsimulationhasfollowingbasicsteps:
Preprocessor phase: Thepreprocessor phasepreparesall therequireddatafor the
coreprocessor computation; it includes CAD input, meshgeneration, andgeom-
etry decoder. After three-dimensional modeling fromCAD packages, themodel
geometryandpart/assemblyrelationsareestablishedinparameter control.
TheCADinput modulereadsandtransferstheCADdataintothemeshready
geometrydatawiththeorderedhierarchyof assembly/part/surfacerelations.
Mesh generation, which is responsible for generating valid nite-element
meshesandpossiblespecial meshes(e.g., boundarymeshfor uidow), andmesh
renement.
Decoder doesthejobof producingnal workingnite-elementnodes, element
connectivity, nodemergeamongparts, meshcleanup, contact, andsettinguppart,
surface, node-basedloadingswithpriorityrules.
Processorphase: Processorphaseisthekernel partof thenite-elementapplication;
it targetsonsolvingreal physical problemswhichareindiscretizedpartial differ-
ential equation(PDE) formsandnonlinear formulations. Theprocessor takescare
of several levelsof iterations, whichincludestimeiterationfor transientproblems;
nonlinear iterationinasingletimestephandlesthecouplingamongmultiphysics
variables like velocity, pressure, temperature, turbulence, and multiphase; the
iterativesolver for linear equationsrequiresiterationfor theconvergedsolution.
Intheinnerlevel, elementmatricesarebuiltupviashapefunctionof thespecic
element typeandsystemmatrix is assembledfromtheelement-level matrix and
theneventuallyglobal linear algebraicequationsaresolvedtoproducetheprimary
result.
Theelement-basedandnode-basedresults aretheoutput fromtheprocessor;
typical variablesarevelocity, pressure, temperature, turbulencekineticenergyand
dissipationrate, phasefraction, etc.
Theprocessor phaseis usually thebiggest user of systemmemory and CPU
timefor nite-element-basedsimulation.
Postprocessor phase: Postprocessor also refers to result environment, which
provides interactive graphics environment to visually interpret the node- and
element-based simulation results fromprocessor phase. Some typical operation
includessliceplane, streamline, isolineandisosurface, makeanimation, annotation,
deriveddatecalculation, inquiredata, curveplot andreport production.
5.2 Finite-Element Description
A nite-element simulationprogramshouldselect particular elementstoformthe
baseelement library. Elementsfor uidowandheat transfer analysesareusually
categorized by thecombination of velocity and pressureapproximations used in
theelement.
In nite elementbased uid ow and thermal problems, which is basically
advectiondiffusionanalysis, followingelementsareusedfortwo-dimensional and
three-dimensional models.
5.2.1 Two-dimensional elements
Quadrilateral element
Thefour-nodequadrilateral element canbeusedtomodel either two-dimensional
Cartesianor axisymmetricgeometries. Eachnodehasfour degreesof freedomfor
r
s
4
3
1
2
s 1
s 1
r 1
r 1
Figure5.1. Two-dimensional quadrilateral element.
laminar ow: U, V, P, T and six degrees of freedomfor turbulent ows: U, V, P,
T, K, . Quadrilateral element shouldhaveninenodes if midsidenodes areused
(Figure5.1).
Takethiselement asanexamplefor usingshapefunctionandJ acobianmatrix,
thevelocity component u
i
andtemperatureT areapproximatedby usingbilinear
interpolationfunction,
= =
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
4
(1r)(1s)
1
4
(1r)(1s)
1
4
(1r)(1s)
1
4
(1r)(1s)
_
_
(1)
Twopressurediscretizationsarepossibleinthiskindof element: abilinear con-
tinuousapproximation, Q
1
, withthepressuredegreesof freedomlocatedatthe
four corner nodes, or apiecewiseconstant discontinuouspressureapproximation,
=1Q
0
, withthepressuredegreesof freedomassociatedwithelementcentroid.
The construction of the nite-element matrices requires the computation of
various derivatives and integrals of thebilinear interpolation function. Sincethe
basis functions aregiveninterms of thenormalizedcoordinates r ands andthe
derivativesandintegralsareintermsof thephysical x, y coordinates, thefollowing
relationsneedtobedened:
_
_
_
_
s
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
x
r
y
r
x
s
y
s
_
_
_
_
_
_
y
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
N
T
r
x
N
T
s
y
N
T
s
x
N
T
s
y
_
_
_
_
_
_
y
_
_
= J
_
_
_
_
y
_
_
(2)
whereJ istheJ acobianmatrix; byinvertingit, equation(2) providesthenecessary
relationfor thederivativesof thebasisfunctionasbelow:
_
_
_
_
y
_
_
= J
1
_
_
_
_
s
_
_
(3)
Inthecaseof integral evaluation, tocompletethetransformationfromphysical
coordinatetonormalizedcoordinates, anelemental areafor quadrilateral element
couldbeevaluatedasfollows:
dx dy = [J[dr ds (4)
where[J[ =Determineof J.
Equations(3) and(4) allowanyintegral of functionsof x andy tobeexpressed
asintegralsof rational functionsinther ands coordinatesystem. Thisisextremely
important inevaluatingelement matrices, whichisthebasicstepinnite-element
method.
Thedetailsfor other elementsareignoredinthischapter.
Triangular element
Thethree-nodetriangular element can beused to model either two-dimensional
Cartesian or axisymmetric geometries. Each node has four degrees of freedom
for laminar ow: U, V, P, T andsix degrees of freedomfor turbulent ows: U, V,
P, T, K, .
Triangular element shouldhavesixnodesif midsidenodesareused.
5.2.2 Three-dimensional elements
Brick (hexahedral) element
Theeight-nodebrickelementisusedtomodel three-dimensional geometriesasthe
general base. Eachnodehasvedegreesof freedomfor laminar ow, i.e., V, W, P,
T andsixdegreesof freedomfor turbulent ows, i.e., V, W, P, T, K, .
Brickelement hastotal 21nodesif midsidenodesareused; thisisalsousedas
thebaseelement for other degeneratedelementswithmidsidenodes.
Tetrahedral element
Thefour-nodetetrahedral elementcanbeusedtomodel three-dimensional geome-
tries as adegenerated formfromthree-dimensional brick element; themapping
relationis listedinTable5.1. Eachnodehas vedegrees of freedomfor laminar
ow, i.e., U, V, W, P, T andsevendegreesof freedomfor turbulent ows, i.e., U, V,
W, P, T, K, .
Tetrahedral element has10nodesif midsidenodesareused.
Pyramid element
Theve-nodepyramidelementcanbeusedtomodel three-dimensional geometries
asadegeneratedformfromthree-dimensional brickelement; themappingrelation
islistedinTable5.1. Eachnodehasvedegreesof freedomforlaminarow, i.e., U,
V, W, P, T andsevendegreesof freedomfor turbulentows, i.e., U, V, W, P, T, K, .
Pyramidelement has13nodesif midsidenodesareused.
Table5.1. Mappingfromdegeneratedthree-dimensional elements
tocomputational nodal conguration
3
1
2
4
5
1
2
3 3
4 5
6 6
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4 5
6
1
2
3 3
4 5
6 6
1
2
3 3
4 5
3 3
Degenerated elements Computational nodal configuration
3D tetrahedral element
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2 3 3 4 4 3 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2 3 3 4 5 3 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 2 3 3 4 5 3 3
3D pyramid element
3D wedge element
Wedge element
The six-node wedge (prism) element can be used to model three-dimensional
geometriesasadegeneratedformfromthree-dimensional brickelement; themap-
pingrelationislistedinTable5.1. Eachnodehasvedegreesof freedomforlaminar
ow, i.e., U, V, W, P, T andsevendegreesof freedomfor turbulent ows, i.e., U, V,
W, P, T, K, .
Wedgeelement has15nodesif midsidenodesareused.
5.2.3 Degenerated elements
In general nite-element code development, the three-dimensional six-node
wedges, ve-nodepyramids, and four-nodetetrahedral areconsidered as degen-
erateformof eight-nodebrick element by collapsingnodes. Table5.1attemptsto
demonstratehowdegenerateelements areformedby collapsingnodes if midside
nodesarenotused. TherstrowisnodeIDinbrickelementandthesecondrowis
fordegeneratednodes; thetworowsmakeamappingbetweendegeneratedelement
nodes andbrick element nodes. Thehigh-order elements withmidsidenodes are
notcommonlyusedfor niteelementbaseduidowandheattransfer codes, and
thisisdiscussedinlater sectionsof thischapter.
Intwo-dimensional case, thethree-nodetriangleelement is degeneratedfrom
four-nodequadrilateral element inasimilar manner.
5.2.4 Special elements (rod and shell)
In heat transfer of some nite-element codes, arbitrary thickness rod and shell
elementsmaybedenedasthosewhichallowheat conductionalongtherodor in
theshell of theelement, but offer noresistancetoheat owacrosstheelement.
Rodelements haveonly lengthandmay beusedineither two-dimensional or
three-dimensional simulations. Shell elementshavebothlengthandwidthandmay
onlybeusedinthree-dimensional simulations.
5.3 Governing Equations for Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer
Problems
The numerical modeling process begins with a physical model that is based on
anumber of simplifying physical assumptions. Theseassumptions can bemade
inlight of theunderstandingof thephysical processes that areinvolved. A math-
ematical model is built fromthe physical model and then a series of PDEs are
developed.
For most of the practical physical processes, these PDEs cannot be solved
analytically but must besolved numerically. Analytic solutions havebeen found
only for a small subset of all possible uid ow problems. Nonlinear nature of
thegoverningequations canproduceextremely complex owelds andmultiple
time-dependent solutions, even for simplest geometries. Normally, thenatureof
themathematical model woulddictatethetypeof numerical model employedanda
reviewof thecurrentliteraturewouldsuggestthemostappropriatenumerical model
to use. A combination of themathematical model and numerical model leads to
a set of governing equations. Before these governing equations can be solved,
asolutionalgorithmshouldbedevelopedthatcansolvetheequationscorrectlyand
efciently.
In this section, the governing equations and auxiliary equations are focused
uponfortheuidowandheattransferphenomenaanddynamicmovingboundary
problems. Thedetailsarediscussedasfollowingaspects:
(a) Formation of the set of nonlinear coupled PDEs for mass and momentum
balancesandvarioustypesof boundaryconditions.
(b) Handlingmethodfor four typesof termsinthegoverningequations, including
transient, advection, diffusion, andsource.
(c) Uniform stabilized GLS formulation, including SUPG method and PSPG
method, which demonstrates viable equal-order velocity and pressure inter-
polations.
5.3.1 General form of governing equations
Inthissection, thestrongformof theuidowproblemispresentedusingalinear
constitutiverelationship, leadingtoaset of nonlinear coupledPDEsfor massand
momentumbalances. Varioustypesof boundaryconditionsarealsointroduced.
Let O and(0,T) denotethespatial andtemporal domains, withx andt repre-
sentingthecoordinatesassociatedwithOand(0,T).TheboundaryI of thedomain
O mayinvolveseveral internal boundaries.
Conservation of mass
In solving uid ow problems, it is important that themass is conserved in the
system. Thecontinuityequationmaybewrittenas
t
(
V) = 0 (5)
wheretheterm,t standsfor thechangeindensity over time; it alsodescribes
theshrinkage-inducedowinheat transfer solidication.
Conservation of momentum
The differential equation governing the conservation of momentumin a given
directionfor aNewtonianuidcanbewrittenas
(
V)
t
(
V

V) = (j
V) P

B S
m
(6)
wherej is thedynamic viscosity, P is thepressure,

B is thebody forceper unit
volume, andS
m
ismomentumsourceterm.
Thecomponent formof equation(6) in3Dis
_
u
1
t
u
1
u
1
x
1
u
2
u
1
x
2
u
3
u
1
x
3
_
j
_
2
u
1
x
2
1

2
u
1
x
2
2

2
u
1
x
2
3
_
p
x
1
f
1
= 0
(7)
_
u
2
t
u
1
u
2
x
1
u
2
u
2
x
2
u
3
u
2
x
3
_
j
_
2
u
2
x
2
1

2
u
2
x
2
2

2
u
2
x
2
3
_
p
x
2
f
2
= 0
(8)
_
u
3
t
u
1
u
3
x
1
u
2
u
3
x
2
u
3
u
3
x
3
_
j
_
2
u
3
x
2
1

2
u
3
x
2
2

2
u
3
x
2
3
_
p
x
3
f
3
= 0
(9)
If theowis turbulent, thetime-averagedNS equations havethesameform
asequation(6), except that theuidviscosityisreplacedbyaneffectiveviscosity,
j
eff
, whichisdenedas
j
eff
= j j
t
(10)
Herej isstill theuiddynamicviscositywhilej
t
istheturbulenceviscosity.
Conservation of energy
The equation governing the conservation of energy in terms of enthalpy can be
writteningeneral as
(H)
t
(
VH) = (kT) S
h
(11)
whereH isthespecicenthalpy, k isthethermal conductivity, T isthetemperature,
andS
h
is thevolumetric rateof heat generation. Therst termontheright-hand
sideof equation(11) representstheinuenceof conductionheattransfer withinthe
uid, accordingtotheFourierslawof conduction.
Theenergyequationcouldalsobewrittenintermsof statictemperature; how-
ever, the enthalpy formof energy equation generally considers the multiphase
owsuchassteam/water, moist gasow, andphasechangelikesolidicationand
melting.
Transport equations
Thegeneral transport equationfor advectiondiffusionisdescribedas
t
() (
V ) = (I ) S (12)
Here, isthephasequantityingeneral expression, Iisthediffusioncoefcient
ingeneral expression, therst left-handtermisthetemporal term, andthesecond
left-handtermistheconvectiveterm. Therstright-handtermisthediffusiveterm
andthesecondright-handtermisthesourceterm.
Boundary conditions
Different typesof boundaryconditionscanbeencounteredinuidowproblems.
Thesimplest onecouldbetheDirichlet boundarycondition, whichisgivenby
u = u
g
(13)
Another boundaryconditionistraction-freeboundarycondition, whichisoften
appliedfor thefar downstreamboundaryof theowdomainandisgivenby
n = 0 (14)
For some special cases, traction force can also be applied as boundary
conditions.
For solidboundaries or symmetric planes, thenormal component of velocity
must bespeciedasnopenetration condition, i.e.,
u n = u
n
= 0 (15)
Theshearstressatthesymmetricplanesmustbespeciedasanatural boundary
conditionasfollows:
j
u
n
= 0 (16)
To bemorespecic, for aNewtonianuidandastraight edge, equation(16)
canberewrittenintermsof itsnormal andtangential components:
n
= (n ) n = p 2j
u
n
n
(17)
= (n ) = j
_
u
n

u
n
_
(18)
If thesymmetry lineis alignedwithaCartesianaxis, equation(15) becomes
aDirichlet boundary conditionwhileequation(16) is satisedby setting
=0.
Thus, asymmetrylineinvolvesbothDirichlet andNeumanntypeof boundaries.
5.3.2 Discretized equations and solution algorithm
ThissectionisusedtoreducethegoverningPDEstoasetof algebraicequations. In
thismethod, thedependentvariablesarerepresentedbypolynomial shapefunctions
over asmall areaor volume(element innite-element method). Theserepresen-
tations aresubstitutedintothegoverningPDEs andthentheweightedintegral of
theseequations over theelement is takenwheretheweight functionis chosento
bethesameastheshapefunction. Theresult isaset of algebraicequationsfor the
dependent variableat discretepointsor nodesoneveryelement.
General form of discretization equations
Themomentum, energy, temperature, andturbulent equationsall havetheformof
ascalar transportequation. Therearefour typesof termsintheequation, transient,
advection, diffusion, andsource. For thepurposeof describingthediscretization
Table5.2. General meaningof transportationrepresentation
Meaning C
u X velocity 1 j
e
g
x

p
x
Rx
: X velocity 1 j
e
g
x

p
x
Rx
w X velocity 1 j
e
g
x

p
x
Rx
T Temperature C
p
K Q
:
E
k
W
:
j+p,t
k Turbulencekinetic 1 j
t
,
k
j
t
+,j C
4
g
i
_
T
x
i
_
,
t
energy
Turbulencedissipation 1 j
t
,
e
C
1
j
t
+,k C
2
2
,k
rate
C
1
C
j
C
3
kg
i
_
T
x
i
_
,
t
methods, the variable is referred to as . Then the formof the scalar transport
equationis
t
(C
)

t
(uC
)

t
(:C
t
(wC
)
(19)
=

x
_
I
x
_

y
_
I
y
_

z
_
I
z
_
S
where
C
is the transient and advection coefcient, I
is the diffusion coefcient,

andS
aresourceterms.
Thepressureequationcanbederivedfromcontinuity equationby segregated
solutionscheme, whichisdiscussedinthenext chapter. Equation(19) isageneral
formof velocity, temperature, turbulent variablesk, , andspecies. Table5.2lists
thecorrespondingequationrepresentationfor C
, I
, andS
.
Thediscretizationprocess, therefore, consistsof derivingtheelement matrices
toput together thematrixequationinsimpliedmatrixformasfollows:
([A
Transient
e
] [A
Advection
e
] [A
Diffusion
e
]){
e
] = {S
e
] (20)
Galerkinmethodof weightedresiduals is usedto formtheelement integrals,
denoted by N
e
the weighting function for the element, which is also the shape
function.
Temporal term
For transientanalyses, thetransienttermsarediscretizedusinganimplicitor back-
warddifferencemethod. Usingthematrix algebranotation, atypical steady-state
scalar transport equationwithmomentum, energy, andturbulencevariablescanbe
written:
A
ij
u
j
= F
i
where A
ij
contains the discretized advection and diffusion terms fromthe gov-
erning equations, u
j
is the solution vector or values of the dependent variable
(u, :, w, T, K, . . . .) andF
j
containsthesourceterms.
Thetransient terms in thegoverning equations took theform,t, where
representsthedependent variable(u, :, w, . . . .). Thistermisdiscretizedusinga
backwarddifferencemethod:
t
=

new
old
Lt
(21)
Addthistermtothematrixequationabove
(A
ij
B
ij
)u
new
j
= F
i
B
ii
u
old
j
(22)
whereB
ij
isadiagonal matrixcomposedof termslike:
B
ii
=
1
Lt
_
N
i
dO
e
(23)
This discretizedtransient equationmust besolvediteratively at eachtimestepto
determineall of thenewvariables(variablevaluesat thelatest time).
Advection term
Therearetwoapproachestodiscretizethismost challengeableterminuidow:
themonotonestreamline-upwind(MSU) approachis therst-order accurateand
producessmoothandmonotonesolutions, andtheSUPGapproachisthesecond-
order accurate.
Monotone streamline upwind (MSU) approach. IntheMSUmethod, theadvec-
tiontermishandledthroughamonotonestreamlineapproachbasedontheideathat
advectiontransportisalongcharacteristiclines. Itisuseful tothinkof theadvection
transport formulationintermsof aquantitybeingtransportedinaknownvelocity
eld.Thevelocityelditself couldbeenvisionedasasetof streamlineseverywhere
tangent tothevelocity vectors. Theadvectiontermscanbeexpressedintermsof
thestreamlinevelocities.
In advection-dominated transport phenomena, one assumes that no trans-
port occurs across characteristic lines, i.e., all transfer occurs along streamlines.
Therefore, if one assumes that the advection term is expressed in streamline
direction:
(c
:
x
)
x

(c
:
y
)
y

(c
:
z
)
z
=
(c
:
s
)
s
(24)
thentheadvectiontermisconstant throughout anelement:
[A
advection
e
] =
(c
:
s
)
s
_
NdO
e
(25)
Figure5.2 illustrates thestreamlineacross abrick element; this formulation
could be used for every element, each of which will have one node which gets
contributions frominsidetheelement; thederivativeis calculatedusingasimple
differenceasfollows:
(c
:
s
)
s
=
(c
:
s
)
up
(c
:
s
)
down
Ls
(26)
where
down=Subscript for valueat downstreamnode
up=Subscript for valuetakenat thelocationat whichthestreamlinethroughthe
streamlinethroughtheupwindnodeenterstheelement. Thevalueisinterpolated
intermsof thenodesinbetween.
Ls =Distancefromtheupstreampoint tothedownstreamnode.
Thewholeprocessgoesthroughall theelementsandidentiesthedownwind
nodes. Thecalculationismadebasedonthevelocitiestondwherethestreamline
throughthedownwindnodecamefrom. Weightfactorsarecalculatedbasedonthe
proximityof theupwindlocationtotheneighboringnodes.
Streamline-upwind/PetrovGalerkin (SUPG) approach. This method is used
todiscretizetheadvectiontermandanadditional diffusion-likeperturbationterm,
whichactsonlyintheadvectiondirection.
Forthree-dimensional problem, theperturbedinterpolationfunctionisgivenby
W
i
= N
i

_

h
2[
V[
_
_
u
N
i
x
:
N
i
y
w
N
i
z
_
(27)
Here,

V =(u, :, w) is thevelocity eldinthree-dimensional domain, h is the
averagedsizeof anelement, which, for eight-nodebrick element showninFigure
5.2, canbecalculatedas
h =
1
[
V[
([h
1
[ [h
2
[ [h
3
[) (28)
1
2
8
7
6
5
4
3
Streamline
f
down
x
z
y
f
up
D
S
Figure5.2. Streamlineupwindapproachfor 3Dbrickelement.
where
h
1
= a

V, h
2
=

b

V, h
3
= c

V (29)
Takinganexampleof aeight-nodebrickelement, theelementdirectionvectors,
a =(a
x
, a
y
, a
z
),

b =(b
x
, b
y
, b
z
), and c =(c
x
, c
y
, c
z
) arecalculated using thebrick
element nodal coordinatesasshowninFigure5.2.
a
x
=
1
2
(x
2
x
3
x
6
x
7
x
1
x
4
x
5
x
8
)
a
y
=
1
2
(y
2
y
3
y
6
y
7
y
1
y
4
y
5
y
8
)
a
z
=
1
2
(z
2
z
3
z
6
z
7
z
1
z
4
z
5
z
8
)
b
x
=
1
2
(x
5
x
6
x
7
x
8
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
)
b
y
=
1
2
(y
5
y
6
y
7
y
8
y
1
y
2
y
3
y
4
)
b
z
=
1
2
(z
5
z
6
z
7
z
8
z
1
z
2
z
3
z
4
)
c
x
=
1
2
(x
1
x
2
x
5
x
6
x
3
x
4
x
7
x
8
)
c
y
=
1
2
(y
1
y
2
y
5
y
6
y
3
y
4
y
7
y
8
)
c
z
=
1
2
(z
1
z
2
z
5
z
6
z
3
z
4
z
7
z
8
)
Diffusion term
Thediffusiontermis obtainedby integrationover theproblemdomainafter it is
multipliedbytheweightingfunction.
[A
diffusion
e
] =
_
N

x
_
I
x
_
dO
e
_
N

y
_
I
y
_
dO
e
_
N

z
_
I
z
_
dO
e
(30)
Once the derivative of is replaced by the nodal values and the derivatives
of the weighting function, the nodal values will be removed fromthe integrals,
x
=
N
i
x
, for momentumequations, the diffusion terms in x, y, z direction are
treatedinsimilar fashion, atypical diffusioniteminmomentumequationwill be
K
ij
=
_
O
e
j
N
m
x
j
N
n
x
i
dO
e
.
Source term
Source termconsists of merely multiplying the source terms by the weighting
functionandintegratingover thevolumeasfollows:
S
e
=
_
N
i
S
dO
e
(31)
5.3.3 Stabilized method
Thedifcultiesmostlyencounteredinnite-elementmethodarefromthemeshthat
isgeneratedbygeneral automaticmeshengine. Givenathree-dimensional compli-
catedgeometry, whichisusuallyfromCADpackage, e.g., theamount of elements
for automaticgeneratedpurelybrick couldbehugeandmakesthemodel analysis
impractical. Sohybridmeshesarepractically used, but thisapproachinvolveslot
of nonbrick elementssuchastetrahedron, wedge, andpyramid. Thisalsohappens
intwo-dimensional hybridelement withquadrilateral andtriangleelements.
However, sinceall thetwo-dimensional andthree-dimensional degeneratedele-
mentsdonotsatisfytheLBBcondition, theuidowvelocityandpressuresolution
getslocked. TheLBB conditionrestrictsthetypeof element that canbeusedfor
theGalerkinFEMformulation. Bothtwo-dimensional lineartriangularelementand
three-dimensional lineartetrahedral, wedge, andpyramidelementdonotsatisfythis
condition.
Approaches to handle LBB condition
Therearetwoapproachestoovercometheabovedifculties: oneistousehigh-order
elementsandtheother tousestabilizedFEM basedonmixedformulation.
Approach one: high-order elements. High-order elementsusemidsidenodesto
performquadraticinterpolationover elements, but thebigdisadvantageisthat the
total unknowns will increase greatly due to the extra mid-nodes at the element
edges, makingthemodel sizelimitationtobemorerestricted for thisreason, the
high-order element israrelyusedincommercial nite-element codes.
Approach two: stabilized mixed FEM formulation. Although the mixed for-
mulationrequirestheelementstobeLBB type, therearelot of researchwork and
effortstodevelopnewtechniquesthatcircumventthisrestriction.Thesetechniques
includebubblefunctionmethod, two-level meshmethod, andtheGLSformulations.
Thesetechniquesallowtheusageof thosetypesof elementsthat donot satisfythe
LBB condition, suchastwo-dimensional triangular element (linear velocity/linear
pressure) and three-dimensional tetrahedron, wedge, and pyramid element (lin-
ear velocity/linear pressureinterpolation); this is also referred to as equal-order
formulation.
Step 1: Taking three-dimensional incompressibleow as an examplefor the
mixedFEMbaseduidowformulation:
_
_
F
1
F
2
F
3
0
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
M 0 0 0
0 M 0 0
0 0 M 0
0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
u
1
u
2
u
3
P
_
_
_
_
_
C(u) 0 0 0
0 C(u) 0 0
0 0 C(u) 0
0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
u
1
u
2
u
3
P
_
_
_
_
_
2K
11
K
22
K
33
K
12
K
13
Q
1
K
21
K
11
2K
22
K
33
K
23
Q
2
K
31
K
32
K
11
K
22
2K
33
Q
3
Q
T
1
Q
T
2
Q
T
3
0
_
_
_
_
u
1
u
2
u
3
P
_
_
(32)
A morecompact formof thisequationisgivenas
_
M 0
0 0
__
u
P
_
_
C(u) K(u) Q
T
Q
T
0
__
u
P
_
=
_
F
0
_
(33)
or inamoresymbolicformat as
M
U KU = F (34)
Thenatureof thematrixissparse, generallyunsymmetric, andpositivesemide-
nite.Thezeroentriesonthediagonal of thematrixleadtodifcultiesforthesolution
of thesystemof algebraicequations. Directsolverneedstohavepivotingtechnique.
Step2: Implementationof equal-orderelementsforthemixedFEMbasedcode
rst, interms of theimplementationof so-calledbubblefunctionto stabilizethe
scheme.
Inthisapproach, thebasic formulationisstill theGalerkinFEM, but velocity
interpolationis carriedout withoneadditional DOF, whichis thecentroidof tri-
angular element (2D) and tetrahedral element (3D). Thebubblefunction for the
central nodevelocitycanbechosenasapiecewiselinear, withitsvaluebeingzero
at theelement boundaries and piecewiselinear on two-dimensional subtriangles
Figure5.3. Bubblefunctionfor linear triangular andtetrahedral elements.
or three-dimensional subtetrahedron. Thepressureisinterpolatedlinearlyover the
element (Figure5.3).
Step 3: Implementation of stabilized FEM formulation GLS for two-
dimensional and three-dimensional uid ow using two-dimensional and three-
dimensional degenerated elements, i.e., using equal-order interpolation (linear
velocity/linear pressure) for bothvelocityandpressure.
TheGLSvariationformof themomentumandcontinuityequationisgivenby
_
O
w (
0
u u)dx
_
O
w (P2jD(u))dx
_
O
0
wf dx Q udx
nel
n=1
_
O
n
R
GLS
dx =
_
I
wT
i
ds (35)
Here, w and Q aretheweight functions for themomentumequation and the
continuityequation, respectively. Theelement residual isdenedas
R
GLS
= (
SUPG
0
u w
PSPG
Q
GLS
2jD(w))
(
0
u u P 2jD(u)) (36)
The coefcients areweightingparameters, whichcouldbefunctions of the
element size, element Reynoldsnumber, and/or element averagevelocity. If these
coefcients are selected properly, equal-order elements can be used and LBB
conditionisnot necessary.
For momentumequation, thenal equationsaregivenby
(C(u) C
SUPG
(u) C
GLS
(u))u (K K
SUPG
K
GLS
)u
(QQ
SUPG
Q
GLS
) P=F (37)
For continuityequation, wehave
Q
T
u Q
PSPG
P C
PSPG
(u)u K
PSPG
u = 0 (38)
Galerkin/least-squares formulation
Thestabilityof themixedGalerkinniteelement for incompressibleowscanbe
enhanced by theaddition of various least-squares terms to theoriginal Galerkin
variational statement. TheGalerkin/Least-squares approachis sometimes termed
aresidual method becausetheadded least-squares terms areweighted residuals
of themomentumequation; this formof theleast-squares termimplies thecon-
sistency of themethod sincethemomentumresidual is employed. TheGLS a
PetrovGalerkinmethod isalsoknownasaperturbationmethodsincetheadded
termscanbeviewedasperturbationstotheweightingfunctions. Developmentand
popularizationof theGLSmethodsfor owproblemsareprimarilyduetoHughes,
Tezduyar, and co-workers and are a generalization of their work on SUPG and
PSPGmethods.
Theusual approachtotheGLSbeginswiththediscontinuousapproximationin
timeGalerkinmethodandconsiders anite-element approximationfor aspace
time slab. Continuous polynomial interpolation is used for the spatial variation
whileadiscontinuoustimefunctionisusedwithinthespacetimeslab.Theassumed
timerepresentation obviates theneed to independently consider timeintegration
methods. Tosimplifythepresentdiscussionof theGLS, thetimeindependentform
of theincompressibleowproblemisconsideredwhichavoidsthecomplexity of
the spacetime nite-element formulation. Using vector notation and following
the weak formdevelopment, the GLS variational formfor the momentumand
continuityequationscanbewrittenas
_
O
N
m
(u u)dx
_
O
N
m
( P 2jD(u)dx
_
O
N
m
f
x
dx
_
O
N
n
u)dx
nel
n=1
_
O
R
GLS
=
_
I
N
m
i
dsdx (39)
where N
m
and N
n
are the weight functions for the momentumand continuity
equationsandtheelement residual isdenedby
R
GLS
= ( ) (u u (P 2jD(u)) (40)
=
SUPG
u N
m
=
PSPG
1
N
n
=
GLS
2j(D(N
m
))
The coefcients areweighting parameters; if thedenitions for , , and
aresubstitutedintoequation(40) andthevarious weightingparameters aremade
equivalent toasingleparameter , theR
GLS
will be
R
GLS
= [u N
m
N
n
2j D(u)] [u u (P 2j D(u)] (41)
Thisisthestandarddenitionfor theresidual contributiontotheGLSformula-
tion. Thesplittingof therst residual intothreeseparatecontributionsinequation
(41) was done to allow the original SUPG and PSPG formulations to be easily
recovered.
If and areset tozero, thestabilizedSUPGmethodisrecovered.
If and areset tozero, thestabilizedPSPGmethodisrecovered.
If only is set to zero, both SUPG and PSPG stabilization methods are
recovered.
Notethatinequation(39) therstfourintegralsandtheright-handsidedenea
standardGalerkin-weightedresidual methodthatiswrittenintermsof global shape
functions; theintegralsareover thesimulationdomainwhichiscomposedby the
discretizedniteelements. Theaddedresidual terminequation(39) isdenedover
theinterior of eachelement andbasicallycontainsthesquareof all or partsof the
momentumresidual. Thevarious parameters arepositivecoefcients that have
thedimensionof time. Theformsof theseparametersareusuallydevelopedfrom
errorestimates, convergenceproofs, anddimensional analysis. Particularconstants
withineachparameter areselectedby optimizingthemethodonsimpleproblems
andgeneralizingto multidimensions. It shouldbenotedthat thedevelopment of
the parametersisnot auniqueprocess. For thesteadyproblemsconsideredhere
atypical for theGLSmethodis
=
_
_
2|u|
h
_
2
_
4
h
2
_
2
_
1,2
(42)
whereh isanappropriateelement length. For theSUPGandPSPGformulations,
the values arethefunctionof anelement Reynolds number andtheratio of an
element lengthtoavelocityscale.
The error and convergence analyses for the GLS and PSPG methods have
demonstrated that the equal-order velocity and pressure interpolation for these
methods is viable and the LBB condition is not required [6]. In nite-element
implementation, convenient elements, such as thebilinear Q1/Q1, linear P1/P1,
biquadratic Q2/Q2, and quadratic P2/P2, are now useful approximations while
beingunstableintheGalerkinnite-elementcontext. Thelow-order elementshave
anadvantageover their higher-order counterparts becausesomeof thestabiliza-
tiontermsassociatedwithviscousdiffusionareidenticallyzero. Thisconsiderably
simpliestheelement equationbuildingprocess.
The matrix form of velocitypressure equations
Thematrix formof thestabilized GLS formulation could besummarized as the
MomentumequationandContinuityequation, respectively.
Momentum: (C(u)C
(u)C
(u)]u (K K
)u (QQ
)P =F
Continuity: Q
T
u Q
P (C
(u)K
)u =0
Expendeddiscretizationformof equationsfor velocitypressurecouplingand
SUPG stabilization, whicharesummarizedinTable5.3, will beusedas thebase
Table5.3. Element-level matrices
M =
_
O
e
N
m
N
n
dO
e
C(u)=
_
O
e
N
m
u
j
N
n
x
j
dO
e
Su(u)=
_
O
e
_
s
u
i
N
m
x
i
_
u
j
N
n
x
j
dO
e
Sp
i
(u) =
_
O
e
_
s
u
j
N
m
x
j
_
N
n
x
i
dO
e
K
ij
=
_
O
e
j
N
m
x
j
N
n
x
i
dO
e
Q
i
=
_
O
e
N
m
x
i
N
n
dO
e
S
ij
=
_
O
e
N
m
x
i
N
n
x
j
dO
e
K
i
(u)=
_
O
e
p
N
m
x
i
_
u
j
N
n
x
j
_
dO
e
Q
=
_
O
e
_
N
m
x
j
N
n
x
j
_
dO
e
SF
i
(u)=
_
O
e
s
_
u
j
N
m
x
j
_
dO
e
f
bi
SF
4
=
_
O
e
p
_
f
bj
N
m
x
j
_
dO
e
F
i
=
_
O
e
N
m
A
i
dI
e

_
O
e
N
m
f
Bi
dO
e
for our further segregatedformulationinthenext chapter.
_
_
_
_
M
1
M
2
M
3
0
_
_
_
p
_
_
_
_
_
_
C(u) Su(u) Sp
1
(u)
C(u) Su(u) Sp
2
(u)
C(u) Su(u) Sp
3
(u)
K
1
(u) K
2
(u) K
3
(u) 0
_
_
_
_
u
v
w
p
_
_
_
_
_
_
2K
11
K
22
K
33
K
12
K
13
Q
1
K
21
K
11
2K
22
K
33
K
23
Q
2
K
31
K
32
K
11
K
22
2K
33
Q
3
Q
T
1
Q
T
2
Q
T
3
0
_
_
_
_
u
v
w
p
_
_
_
_
_
_
S
11
S
12
S
13
0
S
21
S
22
S
23
0
S
31
S
32
S
33
0
0 0 0 Q
_
_
_
u
v
w
p
_
_
=
_
_
F
1
F
2
F
3
0
_
_
SF
1
(u)
SF
2
(u)
SF
3
(u)
SF
4
_
_
(43)
It is noted that since all of the SUPG parameters depend on the element
size, inthelimit astheelement sizegetssmaller, thestabilizedmethodreducesto
theGalerkinform. Inanother words, stabilizationplaysasignicant roleonlyfor
coarsemesh.
5.4 Formulation of Stabilized Equal-Order
Segregated Scheme
Thissectiondiscussesthestrategiesfor thesolutionof largesystemsof equations
arising fromthe nite-element discretization of the formulations. To solve the
nonlinear uid owand heat transfer problem, particular emphasis is placed on
segregated scheme in nonlinear level and iterative methods in linear level. The
realityof velocitypressurecouplingformulationinthelastsectionnotonlyresults
inalargedimensionedsystembutalsogeneratesastiffnessmatrixradicallydifferent
to thenarrowbandtypeof matrix, whichis inefcient to solveandtheadvection
termcausessolutioninstability.
Therstpartinthesectionisthekernel part; itisauniformedconsistentsolution
schemefor nonlinear and linear level to support any uid ow/heat transfer and
transport phenomena. Thecombinationof segregatedscheme, iterativesolver,
andBlockI/Ocomposesthewholesolutionpictureinaveryefcientandrobust
way. First, the decoupled pressurevelocity segregated scheme is discussed and
expendedinvery detail under nite-element methodby nonlinear level, andthen
theGeneralizedMinimumResidual Method(GMRES)-basediterativetechnique
andmatrixpreconditionersareusedtosolvelinearequations.Withrespecttoimple-
mentation, thecondensedstorageandblockI/Otechniqueisdemonstratedtoboost
solutionefciencyespeciallyfor largesystems.
5.4.1 Introduction
Several categorizations canbemadeby usingnite-element methodto solvethe
NavierStokes equation for uid ow and thermal problems. They are mainly
(a) velocitypressure coupling and (b) orders of interpolation functions for
velocityandpressure.
The rst categorization is based on how the primitive variables of velocity
andpressurearetreated. Thesolutionschemes arecategorizedintothreegroups:
velocitypressure integrated method, penalty method, and segregated velocity
pressure method. The velocitypressure integrated scheme treats velocity and
pressuresimultaneously; itneedslessiterationnumberinnonlinearlevel, butlarger
global matrixrequireslongerexecutiontimeandalargememoryinlinearlevel; and
usuallyitsoverall runtimeperformanceisslow. Thepenaltyschemeeliminatesthe
direct pressurecomputationbyintroducingpenaltyfunction, thusspeedingupthe
executiontimeandmemoryrequirement; however, pressureeldfromsimplepost-
processisnot satisfyingespeciallyfor largeReynoldsnumber uidowproblem.
Recently, muchattentionhasbeenpaidtothesegregatedvelocitypressurescheme,
wherevelocity andcorrespondingpressureeldarecomputedalternatively inan
iterativesequence.Thisschemehastheadvantageof speedandmemoryusagewith
thepriceof complicatedformulationandpossiblelesssolutionrobustnessdueto
velocitypressuredecoupling(addressedlater).
Thesecondcategorizationisbasedonthemixed-order interpolationandequal-
orderinterpolationaccordingtotheordersof interpolationfunctionsforthevelocity
andpressureinelement level. Themixed-order interpolationattemptstoeliminate
thetendency toproducecheckerboardpressurepatternandtosatisfy LBB condi-
tion; thevelocity in this method is interpolated linearly, whereas thepressureis
assumedtobeconstant; thisinterpolationisreferredtoasQ1P0. Theequal-order
interpolationinRef. [5] useslinear interpolationfor velocitypressureformulation
(referredto as Q1P1) without exhibitingspurious pressuremodes, by employing
nonconsistent pressureequations (NCPEs) for pressurecorrection. This method
makesthesolver moreeffectivethanconstant element pressureinanelement for
Q1P0method.
Theobjectiveof thischapteristoexplorefurtherthemeritsof thenite-element
methods in simulating theowwheretheupstreameffects play important roles.
Thus, wearepresentingthedetailsof makinguseof boththesegregatedvelocity
pressureandequal-order formulationsonthebasisof SUPGmethod.
Thebasicideaof segregatedalgorithmsistodecouplethepressurecalculation
fromthevelocity calculation by taking thedivergenceof thevector momentum
equationandapplyingsomeclever insights regardingincompressibleow. Early
motivationforthisapproachwaslargelytwofold: tomitigatememoryrequirements
of fullycoupledalgorithmsandtoenablesemi-implicit timeintegration.
Pressurevelocity segregation methods have been reviewed by several
researchersinthecontextof thenite-elementmethod; mostnotablearethepapers
by Gresho andHaroutunianet al. [2]. Basically, all current segregatedalgorithm
variantsaredistinguishedby theway inwhichthepressureisdecoupledandpro-
jectedfromonetimesteptothenext. HaroutunianandEngelman[2]proposedthree
consistent nite-element counterparts to theSIMPLE and SIMPLER algorithm.
To further reducethesizeof thesubmatrix systems, each individual component
of themomentumequations was solved separately and successively by iterative
techniques. Overall at eachNewtoniterationor Picarditerationthey solvedfour
matrix subsystems, one for each of three velocity components and one for the
pressure. Interestingly, themost challengingmatrixsystemtosolvehappenstobe
onearisingfromthediscretizationof thepressureequation; here, theright-hand
sideSF
4
inequation(5.43) is laggedfromthelast iterationso that this equation
is solved solely for the pressure. The resulting matrix, despite being symmet-
ric, is actually very poorly conditioned due to poor scaling. Nonetheless, these
challengingmatrix systemscanbereadily solvedby moderniterativesolversand
reordering/preconditioner strategies, andthesuccessof thisalgorithmover thelast
decadehasbeenenormous.
Inour viewthis approachis still acompromiseto thefavorableconvergence
propertiesof afullycoupledtechniqueadvocatedhere. Convergencetostablesolu-
tions at successive time steps is linear at best case and sometimes asymptotic,
sometimesresultinginlargenumber of requiredsegregationiterations(albeit fast
iterations). Moreover, the method introduces several relaxation parameters that
must betunedtotheapplication. If onechoosesalternativestotheprimitivevari-
ableformulation, thenboundary conditions onvelocity becomechallengeableto
applyaccurately. Finally, codescenteredaroundthisalgorithmaremorecomplexin
structure, astheystill containtheintricaciesof matrixsolutionservicesbutinvolve
morethanonedatastructure(forthemixedinterpolation) andmoreinnerandouter
iterationloops.
5.4.2 FEM-based segregated formulation
Thisformulationisbasedonthealgorithmof RiceandSchnipkes[5]andShaws[7]
pioneer works; theyusenon-consistentpressureequations(NCPE) for thepressure
stepandpressurecorrectionstepratherthantheconventional weakformof theow
equationsresultingfromGalerkinniteelementcontext. Thisapproachhasgained
popularityinrecentyearswiththeverydesirableadvantageof precludingspurious
pressuremodesfrompressuresolution. Thisconsequently allowsthemtoemploy
thedesirablefeatureof equal-order interpolationfor thevelocity andpressure.
For thisreason, thealgorithmcansolvetheowwithoutusingveryrenedmeshes
andhybridelementtypeshighlydesirableforcommercial codeobtainedfromCAD
model. However, theexpanseof thisalgorithmincludestheextraworkof imposing
boundary conditions properly andtheir complex formulation. Inthis section, we
showtheformulationderivationdetailsstartingfromtheNSequation.
Bilinear interpolation
Theuidowcontinuityequationandthemomentumequationfollowsameform
aslistedinSection3.1. For implementationusingnite-element method, velocity
andpressureatarbitrarypositioncouldbeinterpolatedusingequal-order bilinear
interpolation toadapt brickor other degeneratedelements.
u(x, y) = N
i
u
i
(44a)
:(x, y) = N
i
:
i
(44b)
w(x, y) = N
i
w
i
(44c)
p(x, y) = N
i
p
i
(44d)
Discretization and system assembly
Using thestandard Galerkin approach, themomentumequation is multiplied by
weightingfunctions, andusingtheGreenGausstheorem, thediffusiontermsare
integratedbypartsinx momentumequationasfollows:
_
O
N
_
u
u
x
:
u
y
w
u
z
_
dO =
_
O
N
p
x
dO
_
O
NF
x
dO
(45)
j
_
O
N
_
2
u
x
2

2
u
y
2

2
u
z
2
_
dO
Construct afunction,
_
O
_
_
_
_
_
u
x
N
_
x

_
u
y
N
_
y

_
u
z
N
_
z
_
_
dO
(46)
=
_
O
_
u
x
N
x

u
y
N
y

u
z
N
z
_
dO
_
O
N
_
2
u
x
2

2
u
y
2

2
u
z
2
_
dO
UsingGreenGausstheorem,
_
O
_
_
_
_
_
u
x
N
_
x

_
u
y
N
_
y

_
u
z
N
_
z
_
_
dO =
_
I
N
_
u
x
n
x

u
y
n
y

u
z
n
z
_
dI
(47)
Equations (45), (46), and (47) are combined to get the new form of the
discretizedx-momentumequation:
_
O
N
_
u
u
x
:
u
y
w
u
z
_
dO =
_
O
N
p
x
dO
_
O
NF
x
dO
_
I
N
_
u
x
n
x

u
y
n
y

u
z
n
z
_
dI
_
O
_
u
x
N
x

u
y
N
y

u
z
N
z
_
dO
Movethelast itemintheright-handsidetotheleft-handside, then
LHS = [A
u
]{u] =
_
O
_
N
_
u
u
x
:
u
y
w
u
z
_
_
j
u
x
N
x
j
u
y
N
y
j
u
z
N
z
__
dO
=
_
O
N
i
_
u
N
j
x
:
N
j
y
w
N
j
z
_
dO{u]
__
O
j
N
i
x
N
j
x
dO
_
{u]
__
O
j
N
i
y
N
j
y
dO
_
{u]
__
O
j
N
i
z
N
j
z
dO
_
{u]
= [C(u, :, w) K
11
K
22
K
33
]{u] (48a)
where, C(U) is the advection item and K
11
, K
22
, K
33
are the diffusion items.
ToobtainC(U), velocitiesu, :, w areconsideredtheaveragevaluesinanelement.
RHS =
_
O
N
i
p
x
dO
_
O
N
i
F
x
dO
_
I
N
i
_
u
x
n
x

u
y
n
y

u
z
n
z
_
dI = M
14
{p] {F
I
xA
] {F
x
] (48b)
[A
:
] and[A
w
] couldbeachievedbysimilar approaches.
SUPG items TheSUPGweightingfunctionproposedbyBrooksisdenedby:
W
k
=N
k
p
k
Herethestreamline-upwindcontribution p
k
isdenedas:
p
k
=
k
e
(u
e
1
)
2
(u
e
2
)
2
_
u
e
j
N
i
x
j
_
(49)
Only convectiveitemsareweightedwiththeSUPGfunctionsfor theinconsistent
approach, whichisbelievedtobemorestablethantheconsistentSUPGformulation
[10]. Theextraitemsfrom p
k
shouldbeaddedintoK
11
, K
22
, K
33
inequation(49)
intheimplementation.
Equation of pseudo velocity (prediction phase)
Inmatrixformof thesegregatedmomentumequations:
[M
11
]{u] = [M
14
]{p] {F
I
xA
] {F
x
] (50a)
[M
22
]{:] = [M
24
]{p] {F
I
yA
] {F
y
] (50b)
[M
33
]{w] = [M
34
]{p] {F
I
zA
] {F
z
] (50c)
where
[M
11
] = [C(u, :, w) K
11
K
22
K
33
] [SUPG(u, :, w)]
[M
22
] = [C(u, :, w) K
11
K
22
K
33
] [SUPG(u, :, w)]
[M
33
] = [C(u, :, w) K
11
K
22
K
33
] [SUPG(u, :, w)]
[M
14
] =
_
O
N
i
p
x
dO
[M
24
] =
_
O
N
i
p
y
dO
[M
34
] =
_
O
N
i
p
z
dO
{F
I
xA
] =
_
I
N
i
_
u
x
n
x

u
y
n
y

u
z
n
z
_
dI
{F
I
yA
] =
_
I
N
i
_
u
x
n
x

u
y
n
y

u
z
n
z
_
dI
{F
I
zA
] =
_
I
N
i
_
u
x
n
x

u
y
n
y

u
z
n
z
_
dI
{F
x
] =
_
O
N
i
F
x
dO
{F
y
] =
_
O
N
i
F
y
dO
{F
z
] =
_
O
N
i
F
z
dO
whereO istheuiddomain(volume); andI istheowboundaries(surface).
TherearenoSUPGitemsin{F
x
]{F
y
]{F
z
] for theinconsistent approach.
The above three equations can be solved separately to obtain the velocity
estimate(predictionphase).
Hat Velocity (V
hat
) Rewriteequations(50a), (50b), (50c):
a
uii
u
i
=
i,=j
a
uij
u
j

_
O
N
i
p
x
dOj
_
I
N
i
_
u
x
n
x

u
y
n
y

u
z
n
z
_
dI {F
x
]
i
(51a)
a
:ii
:
i
=
i,=j
a
:ij
:
j

_
O
N
i
p
y
dOj
_
I
N
i
_
:
x
n
x

:
y
n
y

:
z
n
z
_
dI {F
y
]
i
(51b)
a
wii
w
i
=
i,=j
a
wij
u
j

_
O
N
i
p
z
dOj
_
I
N
i
_
w
x
n
x

w
y
n
y

w
z
n
z
_
dI {F
z
]
i
(51c)
For constant pressuregradient inanelement, rewriteequation(51a):
u
i
=
1
a
uii
_
_
i,=j
a
uij
u
j
j
_
I
N
i
_
u
x
n
x

u
y
n
y

u
z
n
z
_
dI {F
x
]
i
_
_
1
a
uii
__
O
N
i
dO
_
p
x
i.e.,
u
i
= u
i
k
p
i
p
x
(52a)
where
k
p
ui
=
1
a
uii
_
O
N
i
dO (53a)
u
i
=
1
a
uii
_
_
i,=j
a
uij
u
j
j
_
I
N
i
_
u
x
n
x

u
y
n
y

u
z
n
z
_
dI {F
x
]
i
_
_
(54a)
Rewriteequation(51b):
:
i
=
1
a
:ii
_
_
i,=j
a
:ij
:
j
j
_
I
N
i
_
:
x
n
x

:
y
n
y

:
z
n
z
_
dI {F
y
]
i
_
_
1
a
:ii
__
O
N
i
dO
_
p
y
(50)
i.e.,
:
i
= :
i
k
p
i
p
y
(52b)
where
k
p
:i
=
1
a
:ii
_
O
N
i
dO (53b)
:
i
=
1
a
:ii
_
_
i,=j
a
:ij
:
j
j
_
I
N
i
_
:
x
n
x

:
y
n
y

:
z
n
z
_
dI {F
y
]
i
_
_
(54b)
Rewriteequation(51c):
w
i
=
1
a
wii
_
_
i,=j
a
wij
w
j
j
_
I
N
i
_
w
x
n
x

w
y
n
y

w
z
n
z
_
dI {F
z
]
i
_
_
1
a
wii
__
O
N
i
dO
_
p
z
i.e.,
w = w
i
k
p
i
p
z
(52c)
where
k
p
wi
=
1
a
wii
_
O
N
i
dO (53c)
w
i
=
1
a
wii
_
_
i,=j
a
wij
w
j
j
_
I
N
i
_
w
x
n
x

w
y
n
y

w
z
n
z
_
dI {F
z
]
i
_
_
(54c)
To ensuremass continuity, thevelocity shouldbeupdated(corrected) at each
iterationbywhichvelocitycorrectionisreformulatedfromthenewpressurevalue,
refer toequation62a, 62band62cfor velocitycorrectiondetails.
V
Corrected
= V
hat
V
Correction_Term_By_Pressure
(55)
Pressure Poisson equation
On applying GreenGauss theoremand integration to the continuity equation,
theintegral of thedivergencein adomain equals thenet ux across thedomain
boundary:
_
O
_
(uN)
x

(:N)
y

(wN)
z
_
dO =
_
I
N : ndI (56)
Thecontinuityequationbecomes:
_
O
N
_
u
x

:
y

w
z
_
dO =
_
O
_
N
x
u
N
y
:
N
z
w
_
dO
(57)
_
I
N(un
x
:n
y
wn
z
)dI = 0
Themodiedcontinuity equation(57) usinggreenfunctiontransformationis
targetedtosolvepressure.
Step1: Substituteinterpolatedvelocityfromequations(44a), (44b), and(44c)
tocontinuityequation(57)
_
O
_
N
i
x
(N
j
u
j
)
N
i
y
(N
j
:
j
)
N
i
z
(N
j
w
j
)
_
dO
_
I
N
i
(un
x
:n
y
wn
z
)dI = 0
(58)
Step 2: Substitutevelocity prediction fromequations (53a), (53b), and (53c)
intoequation(58)
_
O
_
N
i
x
_
N
j
K
p
j
p
x
_
N
i
y
_
N
j
K
p
j
p
y
_
N
i
z
_
N
j
K
p
j
p
z
__
dO
=
_
O
_
N
i
x
(N
j
u
j
)
N
i
y
(N
j
:
j
)
N
i
z
(N
j
w
j
)
_
dO
_
I
N
i
(un
x
:n
y
wn
z
)dI
(59)
Step3: Rewritetonal form
Noticethat p =N
i
p
i
, sosubstituting
p
x
=
(N
i
p
i
)
x
=p
i
N
i
x
(assumethat p iscon-
stant inanelement here) inequation(59) (usingsimilar way for and) weobtain
p
y
and
p
z
.
__
O
_
N
i
x
(N
k
K
p
k
)
_
N
j
x
__
dO
_
O
_
N
i
y
(N
k
K
p
k
)
N
j
y
_
dO
_
O
_
N
i
z
(N
k
K
p
k
)
N
j
z
_
dO
_
{p]
(60)
=
_
O
N
i
x
(N
j
u
j
)dO
_
O
N
i
y
(N
j
:
j
)dO
_
O
N
i
z
(N
j
w
j
)dO
_
I
N
i
(un
x
:n
y
wn
z
)dI
MovingV
hat
out of theintegrationinequation(60), weobtain:
__
O
_
N
i
x
(N
k
K
p
k
)
_
N
j
x
__
dO
_
O
_
N
i
y
(N
k
K
p
k
)
N
j
y
_
dO
_
O
_
N
i
z
(N
k
K
p
k
)
N
j
z
)
_
dO
_
{p]
(61)
=
_
O
N
i
x
N
j
dO{ u]
_
O
N
i
y
N
j
dO{ :]
_
O
N
i
z
N
j
dO{ w]
_
I
N
i
(un
x
:n
y
wn
z
)dI
Nowequation(61) isthenal formof pressurePoissonequation.
It is interesting to note that the element pressure matrices are identical to
those obtained in classical diffusion-type problems, with the termK replacing
thediffusioncoefcient.
Herearemorediscussionsonsegregatedsolutionscheme.
(1) Thecoefcient matrix for thepressureequationissimilar tothat obtainedfor
thediffusiontermintheconventional nite-elementformulationif theviscosity
isreplacedbyN
i
K
p
j
theformulationdevelopedbyRice[5] andVellando[12];
thisfactisindicativeof thestabilityandrobustnatureof theresultingpressure
eld.
(2) The LHS and RHS of equation (69) could be constructed and evaluated in
element level and then assembled into global matrix LHS and RHS; this is
typical nite-element behavior.
(3) In equation (60), k
p
i
is a node-based property, it should be assembled from
thesaved element-level matrix,
_
O
N
i
dO, a
uii
is also aglobal property from
assembly.
(4) Equation (60) is in the formof Poisson equation; the LHS matrix has the
propertiesof symmetricandpositivedeniteasindicatedbyShaw[7].
(5) Special boundaryintegrationsonall inowandoutowboundariesarerequired
tosolvepressure, whichcorrespondstothefourthiteminequation(61).
Velocity correction
Writeequations(51a), (51b), and(51c) usingweightingfunctionp(x,y)=N
i
p
i
and
chainlaw, anddiscardingvelocitygradient itemsonboundaries. u
i
, :
i
, w
i
areused
for thevelocitypredictionashat velocity.
u
i
=
1
a
uii
_
_
i,=j
a
uij
u
j
{F
x
]
i
_
_
1
a
uii
__
O
N
i
N
j
x
dO
_
{p]
Or, u
i
= u
i

1
a
uii
__
O
N
i
N
j
x
dO
_
{p] = u
i

1
a
uii
{M
14
]{p] (62a)
Get correctedvelocity:, w inthesamewayasu,
:
i
= :
i

1
a
:ii
__
O
N
i
N
j
y
dO
_
{p] = :
i

1
a
:ii
{M
24
]{p] (62b)
w
i
= w
i

1
a
wii
__
O
N
i
N
j
z
dO
_
{p] = w
i

1
a
wii
{M
34
]{p] (62c)
At this step, u, :, w aredirectly corrected fromthepredicted and with trivial
effort, theseconditemisthepressurecouplingeffect onthevelocity.
Special treatments on boundary conditions
Therearesomespecial treatmentsinthesegregatedformulation.
Wall boundary: For wall boundary, thesurfaceintegral or natural boundary
conditionforthepressureequationiszero.Toincorporatetheknownvelocitiesinto
pressureequation, it isrequiredthat hat velocitybezero. Inimplementation, the
pressurecoefcients, k
p
ui
, k
p
:i
, k
p
wi
at thewall nodesshouldbeset aszero.
Specied velocity boundary: The surface integration of velocity boundary
conditionsshouldbeaddedintothepressureequation(61)srighthandsideasinthe
fourthitemintherighthandside; for speciedvelocityboundary, thecontribution
isxed.
Inow/Outowboundary Zerogradientvelocityboundaryconditionisapplied
at the inow/outow boundaries (including inlet/outlet boundary and pressure
boundary), i.e., no special treatment in the momentumequation is required at
this kindof boundary. However, thecontributionfromthesurfaceintegrationof
natural boundaryconditionsshouldbeaddedtotheright-handsideof thepressure
equationasdoneinthefourthitemontheright-handsideof equation(60).
Segregatedschemenotonlysimplydividesthebigcouplingmatrixintosmaller
matrices, but also sets up a pressure equation (Poisson equation) with positive-
denite symmetric properties, which can greatly expedite the pressure solution
withbetter accuracy. Most of theuidowproblems aredrivenby pressure, and
thereforethevelocitycomponentswill followagoodsolutionof pressureinpractice.
Solution stability control
Inertial relaxation. Inertial relaxationisusedinthegoverningequationstoslow
downtheconvergencerateinthesamemannerastransittermsareusedinnonsteady
problems, sotheinertial relaxationfactor isalsocalledvirtual timestep.
The inertial relaxation is added to the governing equations in the following
manner:
_
A
ii

i
_
NdO
Lt
inertia
_
j,=i
A
ij
j
= F
i

i
_
NdO
Lt
inertia

iold
(63)
Thesecondterminparenthesesandthelast termontheright-handsidearethe
inertial relaxationterms. Lt
inertia
canbeautomatically adjustedaccordingto the
global matrixconditionnumber.
Small Lt
inertia
value will enhance the solution stability and slow down the
convergencerate.
Lt
inertia
isappliedtomomentumequationsonly, andit will indirectlyaffect the
pressureequationbecauseof theslowmarchingof thevelocitychange.
For convergencesolution, theinertial termhas no affect on thenal solution

becauseit waseliminatedinbothLHSandRHS.
Explicit relaxation for momentum and pressure equations. Explicit relaxation
for momentumandpressureequationsistheregular technique, whichisalsocalled
under-relaxation. In this form, thenew solution is weighted by theold solution
usingtheformula:
= (1)
old
new
(64)
where
new
istheupdatedcurrent solutionand
old
isthepreviousvalue. isthe
relaxationfactor. If =1, all previousvaluesareignored, andall updatedvaluesare
used. For convergencedifculties, lowvalueof will help. Automatic parameter
control wasadaptedtoeliminatetheusersinputandadjustmenteffort. Thecontrol
methodbasedontheconvergencehistoryidentiestheconvergencepatternviaan
intelligencecontrol theoryasproposedbyXie[16].
Solution strategy in uid ow and heat transfer problems
Because the governing equations are nonlinear, they must be solved iteratively.
Picardsuccessivesubstitutionor NewtonRaphsoniterativemethodsareused. In
Picard successive substitution method, estimates of the solution variables (U, V,
W, P, K, E, T, etc.) aresubstitutedintothegoverningequations. Theequationsare
solvedfornewvaluesthatarethenusedastheestimatesforthenextpass.Theglobal
solver controller will either performaxed number of theseglobal iterations or
checkfortheconvergencecriterion.Thecontrollerwill stopwheneitherisreached.
Theconvergencecriterionisthelevel atwhichthespeciedvariablesresidual norm
must reach.
MethodA: For weak(oneway) coupledowandheat transfer problem
Loop(nonlinear) until convergence
Solvemomentumequationsbysegregatedscheme
Solvepressureequationsandvelocitycorrectionbysegregatedscheme
EndLoop
Solveenergyequations
MethodB: For fullycoupledowandheat transfer problem
Solvemomentumequationsbysegregatedscheme
Solvepressureequationsandvelocitycorrectionbysegregatedscheme
EndLoop
MethodC: For weak(oneway) coupledowandheat transfer problem
Solvecoupledcontinuity, momentumequations
EndLoop
MethodD: For fullycoupledowandheat transfer problem
Solvecoupledcontinuity, momentumequations
EndLoop
MethodE: For fullycoupledowandheat transfer problem
Solvewhollycoupledcontinuity, momentumandenergyequations
EndLoop
Owingtotheimportanceof thesegregatedpressurevelocity solutionscheme
versuscoupledschemeinmostof theconvectiveheattransferproblems, themajority
of computational effortsinheattransferproblemslieinsolvingtheowandpressure
elds.
Scenario I demonstrates the decoupled ow and heat transfer, i.e., there are
notemperature-dependent propertiesintheow. Wecanrst solvetheisothermal
ow(energyequationturnedoff) toyieldaconvergedow-eldsolutionandthen
solvetheenergy transport equationalone; thisisanaturally segregatedapproach.
ScenarioII depictsthecoupledowandheattransfer (typicallynatural-convection
problem); thecommon solution practiceis to realizetheowthermal coupling
usingthenonlinear iterationuntil convergence. Thisisexactlytheadvantageof the
velocitypressuresegregatedscheme.
Figure5.4shows thevesolutionschemes. MethodsA andB aresegregated
schemes described in this chapter, methods C and D are coupled momentum
and pressure schemes, and method E is completely coupled velocitypressure
temperaturesolutionscheme. MethodEisrarelyusedbecauseof thebulkproperties
inglobal matrixbynatureespeciallyfor largeindustryapplication. Inanycase, all
methodsincludesolvingenergyequation.
For multiphysics systemof equations to besolvedby segregatedmanner, the
solutionschemeisillustratedinFigure5.4:
1. Velocitypressuresequential solver (momentum-continuity)
2. Turbulencesubiteration
3. Nonlinear iterations
4. Timesteppingiteration
At eachtimestep, thenonlinear iterations areperformedfor themomentum-
continuity, turbulence, front-trackingequation, andtemperature. Subiterations of
turbulencetransport equationsarealsousedtoacceleratetheoverall convergence
of theiterativeprocess.
Inmoregeneral andwider rangemultiphysicsapplicationswithstructure, elec-
tromagnetic, acousticsdisciplinescouplingwithuidowandheattransfer, typical
applicationsuchas uidstructureinteraction(FSI), two-tier approaches may be
appliedfor thearchitecturewithoneuniedsimulationenvironment (workbench).
Intierone, CFDpackagetightlyintegrateuidow, heattransfer, masstransfer, and
acousticscomponents, andstructurepackagetightlyintegratelinear dynamicsand
explicit dynamicsanalysiscomponents. Intoplevel tier two, customizedinterpro-
cesscommunicationtechnologyorgeneral interprocesscouplingtoolslikeMPCCI
(I)
(IV)
(II)
Solve u momentum
Solve v momentum
Solve w momentum
Solve pressure and
correct velocity
Solve flow
Initial condition(IC)
Solve turbulence kinetic
energy
Solve eddy dissipation
Update m
t
Solve T (heat transfer)
Solve front tracking
(free surface problem)
While t t
max
(II)
(III)
Figure5.4. General solutionprocedureof thesegregatedsolver.
couldbeusedfor thecommunicationamongdifferent independent packagessuch
asCFD, structure, electromagneticanalysis.
5.4.3 Data storage and block I/O process
Data storage
The FEM results in a systemof linear equations containing a large number of
equationsandunknowndegreeof freedom. A bigamount of informationrequires
a clever data-keeping strategy to avoid whole matrix storage. Knowing that the
sparsepropertiesof global matrix, weareusingdatastoringwhichistheso-called
skylineor columnprolestorage. Insteadof storingevery singlematrix element,
wecouldthink of storingonly thenonzerohitsandcorrespondingpositionindex
inthematrixassemblyphase(Figure5.5).
However, evenwiththeuseof suchareducedstoragemode, thematrixisusually
solargethat it cannot bestoredincore, sothat it must besegmentedinblocksand
storedonlow-speeddiskstorage.
X X
X X X
0
0 0
X X
X X X X
Figure5.5. Skylinematrixstructure.
Program
Program
buffer
Operation system
area
System
cache
Output
file
Figure5.6. Blockbuffer I/Ofor diskwriting.
Block I/O process
Improving overall disk I/O performance can minimize both device I/O and
actual CPU time. Thetechniques listedherecansignicantly improveFEA code
performance.
Theslowestprocess(routines) couldbedetectedbyusingprolingtoolssuchas
AQTIME. After runningatypical sizeof FEA model, theroutinesusingmosttime
inanalysis, thetoproutines, andevenlinesaretheprocessor bottleneck. Theseare
thetargetstobeimprovedfor better performance.
BlockI/O isacost-efcient recordbuffer techniquefor largeamount of data
intheFEA processor. For writing, it savesaxednumber of element matrixinfor-
mationintobuffer, andthenwritesthewholebuffer intodisk if thebuffer isfull,
whereasreadingisthereverseprocedure. Thebuffer sizeisrelatedtolesystemin
operationsystemanddiskcache; wefoundthat theoptimal buffer sizeis8kbytes
for WindowsXPWIN32NTFSlesystem.
Hereisanexamplefor storagesizecalculationof oneblock element stiffness
matrixwiththree-dimensional brickelement (eight nodes) (Figure5.6).
Blocksize
=128matrices* (8*8entries/matrix) * 8bits/entry
=65,536bits
=65,536/8bytes
=8,192bytes
Table5.4. Datastructurefor BlockI/O
Part ID Element type Datamapping Blocknumbers
Simulation Part 1 Tetrahedral Block1(32kB) 6blocks
domain elements Block2
(4nodes) Block3
Block4
Block5
Block6 Block6
Other Block1(32kB) 5blocks
hybrid Block2
elements Block3
(8nodes) Block4
Block5 Block5
Part 2 Tetrahedral Block1(32kB) 7blocks
elements Block2
(4nodes) Block3
Block4
Block5
Block6(32kB)
Block7 Block7
Other hybrid Block1(32kB) 3blocks
elements Block2(32kB)
(8nodes) Block3 Block3
ThedatastructureforblockbufferI/OisshowninTable5.4.Theuiddomainis
composedof multipleparts, whileeachpartisdecodedastheagroupof tetrahedral
elements and theagroup of hybrid elements, hybrid element could bethecom-
binationof any brick, pyramid, wedgeelementswhichcouldbeconsideredasthe
degradedelement fromeight-nodebrick element. For eachgroup, 128*4matrices
fromtetrahedral element composedablock; eachmatrix has4*4element entries,
whichalsohastheblocksizeof 8kbytes.
Becausetheuid domain is composed of parts and each part has adifferent
number of brickelement andtetrahedral element whilethenumber maynot bethe
eventimesof theoptimal blockelementnumber, aspecial counterwasusedif there
werearemainder of element number over blocksizenumber.
Apart fromtheefcient useof recordbuffersanddisk I/O, someother tipsas
thefollowingwereusedinthecodeimplementation:
(a) Usingunformattedlesinsteadof formattedles.
(b) Writingwholearrays.
(c) Usingpointer shallowcopy(pointer) insteadof thecompletedeepcopy.
By usingtheabove-mentionedcomprehensivemethods, theI/O performance
canbedramaticallyimproved, but whencomparedtoother operations, it becomes
trivial.
5.5 Case Studies
Thissectionshowstwoexamplesof conjugateheat transfer problemswhereboth
solidanduidareinvolvedintheheat transfer analysis. Theresults areobtained
byusingniteelementbasedequal-order segregatedsolutionschemediscussedin
thischapter, andtheSUPGstabilizationtermisenforcedinbothuidandthermal
processors.
For simplegeometry, thehighcell Peclet number didnot causesevereproblem
for the simulation results. That is because the temperature gradient in the ow
directionhappenedto besmall for thenatural boundary conditionappliedat the
exit. Consequently, thenumerical diffusion introduced by thediscretization also
becomessmall. For complexgeometry, however, heattransfer occursthroughboth
convection and diffusion in all directions. Whenever the convection effects are
strong, thenumerical oscillationof thecomputedtemperaturewouldhappenif the
Galerkinformulationwereused.
Thereasonfor this numerical difculty has beenwell described. Theconclu-
sionbasically isthat theGalerkinformulationisof thesamenatureasthecentral
nitedifferencescheme. It doesnot consider theinuenceof theowvelocityon
thetemperaturedistributioninacell throughits basic interpolationfunctions. To
overcomethis difculty, either an upwind schemeor optimized upwind scheme
(SUPG) shouldbeadoptedfor theconvectionterm. Intheupwindschemes, abias
isgiventotheupwindnodal temperaturebymodifyingtheinterpolationfunctions
accordingtothelocal uidowvelocity, boththedirectionandthemagnitude.
5.5.1 Two-dimensional air cooling box
TherstexampleshowninFigure5.7isatwo-dimensional square-shapedelectronic
boxwithairowcooling. Twosmall copper blocksareheatsourceswithaconstant
volumetric heat generationrate. Theairowcomes infromanopeningat thetop
edgenear theleft corner, andtheoutlet is locatedat theright sideedgenear the
bottomcorner. Theow rateand thetemperatureat theinlet arespecied. The
inuenceof theinlet owrateonthemaximumtemperatureintheentiresystem,
Outlet
Inlet
cooling air
T 25C
Heat
generation
blocks
Convection
boundary
Figure5.7. Schematicillustrationforairowcoolingintwo-dimensional electronic
case.
Table5.5. Summaryof parametersforairowcoolingsystem
Inlet velocityU 0.01or 0.001(m/s)
Inlet temperatureT
in
25(
C)
Casedimensions 5by5(mbym)
Heatingblock1 (1, 1) to(2, 2) (x, y) (x, y)
Heatingblock2 (3, 3) (4, 4) (x, y) (x, y)
Convectionlmcoefcient 0.2(J /m
2
s
C)
Ambient temperature 25(
C)
Heat generationrate 20(J /s/m
3
)
causedbythetwoheatsources, canbepredicted. Toverifytheeffectsof theSUPG
formulation, thiscasehasalsobeenanalyzedusingtheGalerkinformulation.
Themeshusedfor theentiredomainis 100100, so thenumber of elements
for this model is 10,000. Two element groups are used in order to specify heat
generation ratefor thetwo heat sources. Theow media is dry air and thetwo
heating blocks are copper. The edges of the two-dimensional box transfer heat
to the ambient atmosphere through the natural convection. The convection lm
coefcientisassumedasaknownvalue. A summaryof theparametersusedinthis
casestudyisgiveninTable5.5.
ThecomputedresultsfortwodifferentinletowvelocitiesshowninFigure5.7a
andbareobtainedif thesimulationwascarriedout basedontheGalerkinformu-
lation. For (a) thecell Peclet number isabout 20.0, whilefor (b) it isabout 200.0.
Temperatureoscillationsinsomeareaof theowdomainmaybecomeseverer for
thehigher cell Peclet number caseif SUPGstabilizedtermisnot enforced.
Inlet velocity U 0.001 m/s
(a) (b)
Figure5.8. Velocityisolinesincoolingbox.
Thecoolingeffect canbeobservedbycomparingFigure5.8aandb. Theresult
was achieved by using SUPG stabilized Galerkin discretization; thetemperature
oscillationswerecompletelyeliminatedbytheoptimizedupwindSUPGscheme.
Thehigher inlet velocity makes moreeffectivecooling result, themaximum
temperature for (a) is about 113.76
C if inlet velocity is 0.001m/s, while for

(b) it isonlyabout 64.50
Cif inlet velocityis0.01m/s. Relativelyregular velocity

andtemperaturepatternsaremaintainedat smaller velocitysincetheowstaysin
laminar range. Withincreaseinvelocity, theowbecomesirregular andmorevor-
texesaredeveloped, andtheowconvectionmakesthecorrespondingtemperature
patterns.
Because the inlet velocity enters the box fromthe top side, the momentum
lets theowto hit thebottomheat generation block easily. This effect becomes
moreobviouswithincreaseinvelocity, sothat thetemperatureinthebottomheat
generationblockislower thanthetopheat generationblockevenif thetwoblocks
havethesameamount of heat generationrate(Figure5.9).
5.5.2 CPU water cooling analysis
A three-dimensional nite-elementanalysisisestablishedfor aCPUwater cooling
system, asshowninFigure5.10. Thebottomsurfaceof theheat exchangeblockis
actuallyincontact withthesurfaceof aCPU chip.
A constant heat ux is thereforespeciedfor this surface. It is assumedthat
theCPU has130Wpower dissipationandtheheat isdissipatedthroughthebase
surfaceof theheatexchangeblock. Dependingonthesurfacesizeandtotal power,
theheatuxboundaryconditionissetas38.5. Other external surfacesof theblock
areexposedtotheambientatmospherewithagivenconvectionlmcoefcientof 5.
25.000057
80.396443
25.000000
25.000000
50.908382
45.792520
33.506713
33.527300
25.014191
49.412597
55.707212
64.494155
53.733615
26.881897
Temperature
C
Temperature
C
113.7605
104.8845
96.00844
87.13238
78.25633
69.38027
60.50422
51.62816
42.75221
33.87605
25
64.50332
60.55251
56.6017
52.65089
48.70008
44.77927
40.79846
36.84765
32.89684
28.94603
24.99522
113.755978
104.314131
76.834744
60.974225
47.293483
62.560818
76.045629
101.168845
96.056686
25.008885
(a) (b)
Inlet velocity U 0.01 (m/s)
Figure5.9. Temperaturecontoursincoolingbox.
Mesh for the tube
(enlarged view)
Figure5.10. 3Dmodel for aCPU water coolingsystem.
Thetubewall isalsomodeledinthisanalysis, apart of thetubesurfaceisexposed
totheambient atmosphere, andit hasthesameconvectionlmcoefcient asthat
of theblock surfaces. Boththeblock andthetubearemadeof thesamematerial,
whichisaluminuminthiscase.
Coolingwaterwithaveragevelocityof 0.06m/satinletgoesthroughthetubeto
convecttheheatoutof thesystem; thevelocityproleinthewatertubeiscalculated
by uidowanalysisandthenpassedtothermal analysisastheconvectionterm.
Thetemperatureat theentranceof thetubeis specied as 25
C in theanalysis.
Thesteady-stateconjugatedheattransfer problemiscalculatedbyusingtheequal-
order segregatedsolutionschemeandSUPGstabilizedtermdiscussedearlier. This
exampleillustrateseffectivewater coolingintheelectronicsystem.
Temperature
C
61.75961
58.08365
54.40769
50.73173
47.05577
43.37981
39.70384
36.02788
32.35192
28.67596
25
Figure5.11. Result contour for theCPU water coolingsystem.
ThecomputedtemperaturecontoursareshowninFigure5.11a.Thetemperature
ranges from25
C to61
C. Thenumerical oscillationof thetemperaturesolution

intraditional Galerkinformulationhasbeeneliminatedby usingtheSUPGterm.
This indicates that the SUPG formulation does provide a much better solution
over theGalerkinformulation, especially for convection-dominatedheat transfer
problems. Theheat ux contour inthevicinity of thecoolingowinlet is shown
inFigure5.11b. It isnoticedthat themaximal heat uxislocatedinthevicinityof
theinlet tubewall, whichimpliesthemaximal temperaturegradient istheresince
theheat uxisproportional tothetemperaturegradient.
References
[1] Choi, H. G., andYoo, J.Y. Streamlineupwindschemefor thesegregatedformulation
of theNavier-Stokesequation. Numerical HeatTransfer, Part B, pp. 145161, 1994.
[2] Haroutunian, V., Engelman, M. S., and Hasbani, I. Segregated nite element
algorithms for thenumerical solution of large-scaleincompressibleow problems,
International J ournal for Numerical MethodsinFluids, 17, pp. 323348, 1993.
[3] Hill, D.L., andBaskharone, E.A.Amonotonestreamlineupwindmethodforquadratic
niteelements, International J ournal for Numerical MethodsinFluids, 17, pp. 463
475, 1993.
[4] Reddy, J. N., and Gartling, D. K. TheFiniteElement Method in Heat Transfer and
FluidDynamics, 2ndEdition, CRC Press, 2000.
[5] Rice, J. G., and Schnipke, R. J. A monotone streamline upwind nite element
method for convection-dominated ows, Computer Methods inApplied Mechanics
andEngineering, 48, pp. 313327, 1985.
[6] Rice, J. G., andSchnipke, R. J.Anequal-ordervelocity-pressureformulationthatdoes
not exhibit spurious pressuremodes, Computer Methods inAppliedMechanics and
Engineering, 58, pp. 135149, 1986.
[7] Shaw, C. T. Using a segregated nite element scheme to solve the incompressible
Navier-Stokesequations, International J ournal for Numerical MethodsinFluids, 12,
pp. 8192, 1991.
[8] Schunk, P. R., and Heroux, M. A. Iterative solvers and preconditioners for fully-
coupled nite element formulations of incompressible uid mechanics and related
transportproblems, SandiaNational Laboratories,Albuquerque, NewMexico, 87185
0835, 2001.
[9] Tezduyar, T., andSathe, S. StabilizationparametersinSUPGandPSPGformulations,
J ournal of Computational andAppliedMechanics, 4(1), pp. 7188, 2003.
[10] duToit, C. G. A segregatedniteelementsolutionfor non-isothermal ow, Computer
MethodsinAppliedMechanicsandEngineering, 182(3), pp. 457481(25), 2000.
[11] VanZijl, andduToit, C. G. A SIMPLEST niteelement solutionof theincompress-
ibleNavier-Stokesequations, In: Proc. Symposiumof FiniteElement Method, South
Africa, 1992.
[12] Vellando, P. Ontheresolutionof theviscous incompressibleowfor various SUPG
niteelementformulations, EuropeancongressontheComputational Methodsinthe
AppliedSciencesandEngineering (ECCOMAS) 2000, Barcelona, 2000.
[13] Wang, G. A fast and robust variant of thesimplealgorithmfor nite-element sim-
ulations of incompressible ows, Computational Fluid and Solid Mechanics, 2,
pp. 10141016, Elsevier, 2001.
[14] Wang, G. A conservative equal order nite element method using the collo-
cated GALERKIN approach, 8th AIAA/ASME Thermo-physics and heat transfer
conference, St. Louis, Missouri, AIAA 2002-3206, 2001.
[15] Wansophark, N. Enhancement of segregated nite element method with adaptive
meshing techniquefor viscous incompressiblethermal owanalysis, ScienceAsia.
29(2), pp. 155162, 2003.
[16] Xie, J. Equal-order segregatedniteelement formulationfor owandphasechange
problems, Doctoral Dissertations, Universityof Wisconsin, 2007.
III. Turbulent Flow Computations/Large
Eddy Simulation/Direct Numerical
Simulation
6 Time-accurate techniques for turbulent heat
transfer analysis in complex geometries
DaneshK. Tafti
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, VA, USA
Abstract
Withthelargeincreaseincomputational power over thepast two decades, time-
dependent techniquesinturbulent heat transfer arebecomingmoreattractiveand
feasible. Thechapter describesthenumerical andtheoretical backgroundtoenable
theuseof thesemethodsincomplexgeometries.
Keywords: Heat exchangers, Large-eddysimulations(LES), Parallel computing,
Turbomachinery, UnsteadyCFD
6.1 Introduction
Heattransferdevicesspanawiderangeof applicationsintheautomotive, aerospace,
electronics, power generation, andbiomedical industrieswithcharacteristiclength
scalesrangingfromafewhundredmicronstometers. ThecharacteristicReynolds
numbers(Re) canrangefromlowandlargely viscous(Re-10) tohighandfully
turbulent(Re>2,000). Whilepredictionsinthelaminar regimedonotposesignif-
icantcomputational challenges, barringstrongpropertyvariations, non-Newtonian
ows, or signicant body forces, predictions in the transitional and turbulent
regimeposeconsiderablechallenges. In theseowregimes common techniques
employedaredirect numerical simulations(DNS), large-eddy simulations(LES),
Reynolds-averagedNavierStokes(RANS) orunsteadyRANS(URANS). DNSby
denitionrequires that thefull spectrumof turbulencedownto thesmallest dis-
sipativescales beresolvedinthecalculation. As theReynolds number increases
beyondO(10
3
10
4
) inwall-boundedows, resolvingthefull spectrumbecomes
exceedinglyexpensive, whichlimitstheapplicationof DNS. LESextendsitsprac-
tical rangetoReynoldsnumber of O(10
4
10
5
) byresolvingscalesonlyuptothe
inertial rangeandmodelingthesmaller scales viaasubgridstress model. RANS
extendsthisrangefurthertoveryhighReynoldsnumbersbymodelingthefull spec-
trumof turbulentscalesandincorporatingtheir time-averagedeffectintothemean
momentumandenergy balance. URANS is usedincases whereexternal forcing
ispresent at agivenfrequencyor theowhasanintrinsiccharacteristicfrequency
(as insheddingof large-scalestructures). By resolvingonly thelarge-scaletime-
dependent structuresandmodelingthesmaller-scaleturbulence, therequiredgrid
densityisstill muchlessthanother time-dependent methods.
Thehighcomputational costof DNSandLESontheonehandandtheprediction
uncertainty of RANS ontheother has ledto thedevelopment andapplicationof
hybridRANS-LES methods, whichhavetriedto combinethelowcost of RANS
withthesuperioraccuracyof LES. Outof thisfamilyof hybridtechniques, detached
Eddysimulation(DES) hasgainedpopularitysinceitwasproposedbySpalartetal.
[1] in1997for external owswithmassiveseparation. DESinvolvessensitization
of aRANSmodel togridlengthscales, therebyallowingittofunctionasasubgrid
stressmodel incritical regions.
All theabovemethodsarevalidintherangeof owsencounteredinheattransfer
devices. For example, RANSandURANSandmaybeDESaremorereadilyappli-
cabletosystem-level simulations, whereasDNSandLESaremoreappropriatefor
component-level simulations.
Thechapterfocusesontheapplicationof thesetechniquestocomplexturbulent
owshighlightingtherelatedtheoretical andcomputational backgroundfromthe
authorsresearchexperience. It startswiththetransformedconservationequations
in general coordinate systems and their solution in a multiblock computational
framework. Thenonstaggeredgridpressureequationisrelatedtoitsstaggeredgrid
counterpart giving perspective to different approximations used in the literature
and the formulation nally used. A section is also devoted to the discretization
of theconvection termand its effect on solution accuracy. This is followed by a
sectiononsubgridmodelinginLESandtheDESmethod. Finally, thesolutionof
linear systemsandparallelizationstrategiesonmoderncomputer architecturesare
discussed. Thechapter is closedby referringto somerecent applicationof these
techniquestocomplexheat transfer problems.
6.2 General Form of Conservative Equations
Thecontinuumconservation of mass, momentum, and energy and theideal gas
equation of state are described by the following time-dependent, conservation
equations (the superscript * is used to denote dimensional variables throughout
thischapter):
Massconservation:
) = 0 (1)
Momentumconservation:
(
)
t
) =

_
_
_
j

u
T
)
2
3
j
)I
_
_
_
(2)
Time-accurate techniques for turbulent heat transfer analysis 219
Energyconservation:
(
p
T
)
t
p
u
) =

(
)
_
P
_
+
(3)
where
+
=
_
j

u
T
)
2
3
j
)I
_
:

u
istheviscous-dissipationterm.
Equationof state:
=
P
(4)
Targeting applications in free and forced convection with variable uid prop-
erties, the equations are cast in nondimensional form by using the following
parametrization:
=

ref
j =
j
ref
=

ref
c
p
=
c
p
c
p_ref
x =
x
ref
u =
u
ref
t =
t
ref
L
ref
P =
P
ref
ref
U
2
ref
T =
T
ref
T
o
Thereferencetemperature, T
ref
andpressureP
ref
areusedforcalculatingall ref-
erencepropertyvalues, whereasT
o
isthenondimensionalizingtemperaturescale.
Thedynamic viscosity j
,j
ref
andthermal conductivity
ref
variations with
temperaturearerepresentedbySutherlandslawfor gases(White[2]). Whilethese
twoquantitiesvarysubstantiallywithtemperature, specicheathasamuchweaker
dependence. For example, viscosity and conductivity for air in the temperature
range240to960K varybymorethan100%, whereasc
p
onlyvariesby12%. Hence,
assumingthat c
p
,c
p_ref
=1, andthat g
=g
e
y
, thenondimensional equationsare
writtenas:
Massconservation:
t

( u) = 0 (5)
( u)
t

( u u) =
P
1
Re
(j(
u

u
T
)
2
3
j(
u)I)
Ra
Re
2
Pr

(LT)
e
y
(6)
Energyconservation:
(T)
t

( uT) =
1
RePr
T) Ec
_
P
t
u

P
_
Ec
Re
+
_
Ec
Fr
_
e
y
u
(7)
Equationof state:
=

ref
U
2
ref
P P
ref
R
ref
(T T
o
T
ref
)
(8)
where LT in equation (6) is the characteristic nondimensional temperature
differencethat drivesthebuoyant ow,
Re=

ref
U
ref
L
ref
j
ref
, Pr =
j
ref
c
p_ref
ref
, Ra=
g
(LT
)L
3
ref
ref
ref
Ec =
U
2
ref
c
p_ref
T
o
, and Fr =
U
2
ref
g
ref
specifytheReynolds, Prandtl, Rayleigh, Eckert, andFroudenumber, respectively,
and
isthethermal expansioncoefcient. ThereferencevelocityU
ref
isselected
based on the dominating convection force. In forced convection, the reference
velocityisspeciedfromthedrivingow, e.g., thefree-streamvelocityinexternal
ow. In thecaseof purenatural convection, thereferencevelocity is calculated
fromthecharacteristiclengthandthedrivingtemperaturedifference, asdenedby
thefollowing(dimensional) equation:
U
ref
=
_
g
ref
LT
(9)
Inequation(6), thenondimensional coefcient of thegravitational bodyforce
term, Ra/(Re
2
Pr), determinesthegravitational effectontheoweld. Inpurenatu-
ral convection, thetermtakesonavalueof unityafter substitutionof thereference
velocity (equation(9)), into theReynolds number, whereas inforcedconvection,
whenRe>>Ra, thecoefcient wouldbenegligibly small. Inmixedconvection,
boththespecieddrivingtemperaturedifferenceandreferenceconvectiveveloc-
itydeterminetherelativemagnitudeof thegravitational sourcetermandhenceof
natural versusforcedconvection.
6.2.1 Incompressible constant property assumption
Low-speedincompressibleowwithconstant uidpropertiesresultsinanumber
of simplications intheconservationequations. Oneof themainnumerical con-
sequences of this assumptionis thedecouplingof density frompressureandthe
implicit assumptionthat pressurewavestravel at innitespeedrelativetotheow
velocities(Machnumber, Ma0).TheEckertnumber, Ec=Ma
2
( 1)0, and
thepressurework terminequation(7) makes anegligiblecontributionto energy
conservationandcanbeneglected. Inadditionit isalsocustomary toneglect the
viscous dissipationterm(Ec/Re0) andthepotential energy term(Ec/Fr0).
However, it isnoteworthy that for very lowReynoldsnumber highly viscousow
conditions might exist at which the viscous dissipation termcan no longer be
neglected. After simplications, thenondimensional equationstaketheform:
=

ref
= 1; j =
j
ref
= 1; =

ref
= 1; c
p
=
c
p
c
p_ref
= 1
x =
x
ref
; u =
u
ref
; t =
t
ref
L
ref
; P =
P
ref
ref
U
2
ref
T =
T
ref
T
o
Massconservation:
u = 0 (10)
u
t

( u u) =
P

_
1
Re
u
_
g e
y
(11)
Energyconservation:
T
t

( uT) =

_
1
RePr
T
_
(12)
whereg =1/Fr=g
ref
,U
2
ref
.
For small temperature and density differences (
ref
L
) with other
properties heldconstant, theBoussinesqapproximationcanbeaccommodatedin
equation(11) byreplacingthelast termwithg e
y
(1T) if T
ref
= T
0
.
Fully developed assumption
Inanumberof applicationsthegeometrylendsitself toconsiderablecomputational
simplicationbyconsideringasingleperiodof arepeatingfeatureinspacesuchas
inanarrayof nsandinductswithrepeatingroughnesselements. Thisisdoneby
invokingafully-developedassumptionintheowdirection, thusallowingsimula-
tionof acharacteristicunit of theow. Thisformulationwasdevelopedfor steady
owby Patankar et al. [3] for both aconstant heat ux and aconstant tempera-
tureboundarycondition. Becauseof theusefulnessof thisformulationfor detailed
analysis of ow physics and heat transfer with time-dependent techniques, it is
repeatedhereforaconstantheatuxboundaryconditioninthecontextof unsteady
owandheat transfer under conditionsof axedpressuregradient andadevelop-
ingoweld. Under theseconditions, thewall frictionvelocity u
=
_
w
eq
,
is
usedasthereferencevelocitytonondimensionalizethegoverningequations. For a
fully-developedowameanmomentumbalanceintheowdirection(x) givesthe
followingrelationship:
U
ref
= u
=
_
w
eq
,
=
_
(LP
x
,L
x
)(D
H
,4
) (13)
where
w
eq
isanequivalent meanwall shear whichalsoincludesformlossesinthe
domain, LP
x
isthemeanpressuredropintheowdirectionacrossthecomputa-
tional domainlengthof L
x
, andD
H
is thehydraulic diameter. Thecharacteristic
temperature scale is dened as T
o
=q
w
L
ref
,
, where q
w
is the applied wall
heat ux. Sinceboth pressureand temperaturehaveax-directional dependence,
theassumed periodicity of thedomain in thestreamwiseor x-direction requires
themeangradient of pressureandtemperaturetobeisolatedfromtheuctuating
periodiccomponentsasfollows:
P
( x, t) = P
ref

( x, t)
T
( x, t) = T
ref

(t) x
( x, t)
(14)
where
=LP
x
,L
x
is themean pressuregradient, p
is theperiodic pressure
uctuations,
isatime-dependent temperaturegradient, and
istheuctuating
or periodictemperaturecomponent. Nondimensionalizingequation(14) gives
P( x, t) = x p ( x, t)
T( x, t) = (t)x ( x, t)
(15)
where =4,D
H
fromequation(13).
Substitutingequation(15) inthenondimensional conservationequations(10)
(12) givesthefollowingmodiedmomentumandenergyequations:
u
t

( u u) =
p

_
1
Re
u
_
g e
y
e
x
(16)
Energyconservation:
x
d
dt

t

( u) =

_
1
RePr
_
u
x
(17)
withmodiedboundaryconditions
(x, t) = (x L
x
, t), = u, p, and
and
n = 1 e
x
n
14
12
10
8
6
0 5 15 20 10
Time
5.5 10
4
5.4 10
4
5.3 10
4
5.2 10
4
5.1 10
4
5.0 10
4
Time-dependent formulation
Nu
N
u
Quasi-steady formulation
Figure6.1. Timeevolution of using theunsteady and quasi-steady procedure.
The time-varying Nusselt number calculated on the two walls is
identical betweenthetwoformulations.
Thetimeevolution of is obtained by aglobal integration of equation (17).
Under impermeablewall conditions
O
V
L
x
2
d
dt

_
O
V
t
dO
V
=
_
O
S
1
RePr
(1 e
x
n)dO
S
Q
x
L
x
(18)
whereO
V
istheuidvolumeinthecomputational domain, O
S
istheheat transfer
surfacearea, andQ
x
isthex-directional owrate. Theleft-handsiderepresentsthe
time-dependent terms andunder assumedquasi-steady conditions theexpression
for isgivenas:
=
O
S
RePrQ
x
L
x
(19)
whichrepresents aninstantaneous energy balancebetweentheheat addedto the
domain at heat transfer surfaces and that removed volumetrically by the (sink)
termintheenergy equation(u
x
). Thereductionof equation(18) to (19) uses
_
O
s
e
x
ndO
s
=0for closedheat transfer surfaces.
Figure6.1plotsthetimevariationof intheheat transfer calculationsof tur-
bulent channel owat Re=Re
=180(basedonfrictionvelocity u
andchannel
half-width). Inonecalculation, iscalculatedbasedonthetime-dependentevolu-
tionusingequation(18) andintheother itisbasedonthequasi-steadyassumption
givenbyequation(19). ThetemperatureeldisinitiatedatTime=0withconstant
heatuxboundaryconditionsatthechannel wallsafter theturbulentvelocityeld
isfullydeveloped. Whereasthequasi-steadyformulationisaffectedbytheinstan-
taneousvariationsintheowrate, theunsteadyformulationexhibitsnear constant
valuesof . Inspiteof thesedifferences, theinstantaneousaverageNusselt num-
bersbasedonchannel half-widthonthetwochannel wallsareidentical betweenthe
twocalculations. Fromtheseandother similar results, thequasi-steadyassumption
incalculating canbedeemedadequatefor most caseswhenthereisnoextreme
drivingunsteadinessintheappliedwall heatuxorintheappliedpressuregradient.
6.2.2 Modeling turbulence
For turbulent ows, theappropriateensembleaveragedequationsfor RANSor l-
teredequations for LES areconstructedinphysical spacetoobtaintheReynolds
stress terms and the subgrid terms, respectively. For a RANS formulation the
Reynoldsstressestobemodeledtaketheform:
[];
ij
= u
/
i
u
/
j
(20)
whereasthesubgridstressestaketheform:
[]
ij
= u
i
u
j
u
i
u
j
u
//
i
u
j
u
i
u
//
j
u
//
i
u
//
j
Or
ij
= u
i
u
j
u
i
u
j
(21)
wheretheoverbar represents theReynolds-averagingoperator for RANS andthe
lteringoperationforLES, respectively. InlteringtheLESequationsitisassumed
that thelter iscommutative, i.e., f ,x =f ,x. Similarly, u
/
representsthetur-
bulent uctuatingquantities for RANS andu
//
theunresolvedsubgridvelocities.
In equation (21) the underlined termis the Leonard stress term, which denotes
interactionsbetweentheresolvedscalescontributingtosubgridterms, followedby
theinteractionbetweengridandsubgridscales, andbetweensubgridscalesonly.
Withintheframeworkof alinearisotropiceddy-viscositymodel forincompressible
ow, bothstresstensorsaremodeledas:
a
ij
=
ij

1
3
ij
kk
=
2
Re
t
S
ij
(22)
where 1/Re
t
is the nondimensional turbulent eddy viscosity for RANS and
the subgrid eddy viscosity for LES and S
ij
=1,2(u
i
,x
j
u
j
,x
i
) or [S] =
1,2
_
u

u
T
_
is the mean or ltered strain rate, respectively. The energy
equationistreatedanalogouslytothemomentumequationstogive
j
=
1
Pr
t
Re
t
T
x
j
=
1
Pr
t
Re
t
T (23)
wherePr
t
istheturbulentPrandtl number. Forconvenience, intherestof thechapter
theoverbar notationisdroppedintherest of thechapter beingmindful of thefact
that thesameset of equations areusedfor RANS andLES, whichareensemble
averagedfor RANSandlteredfor LES.
6.3 Transformed Equations in Generalized Coordinate
Systems
For generalization to complex geometries, equations (1012) are mapped from
physical coordinates ( x) to logical/computational coordinates (
) by a boundary
conformingtransformation x = x(
), where x =(x, y, z) and
=(, , ). Basedon
thedevelopmentsinThompsonetal. [4], asetof covariantbasisvectorsaredened
whicharetangentstothecoordinatecurves
i
a
i
= x
i
, i = 1, 2, 3
Alsodenedisthesymmetriccovariant metrictensor

G, whoseelementsare
g
ij
= a
i
a
j
= g
ji
where
g =
_
det[g[ = a
1
( a
2
a
3
) istheJ acobianof thetransformation, which
istheratioof element volumeinphysical spacetothat incomputational space.
Dened further are a set of contravariant vectors that are perpendicular to
coordinatesurfaces,
i
=const.,
a
i
=

i
=
1
g
( a
j
a
k
), i = 1, 2, 3 and(i, j, k) arecyclic
where
g a
i
is a measure of the area of the coordinate surface
i
=const. The
correspondingsymmetriccontravariant metrictensor withelements:
g
ij
= a
i
a
j
= g
ji
isthendened.
Under thesetransformationstheconservativedivergenceoperator isdenedas

A =
1
i
(
A a
i
), i = 1, 2, 3
theconservativegradient operator as
=
1
i
(
g a
i
), i = 1, 2, 3
andtheconservativeLaplaceoperator as:

=
1
i
_
1
k
(
gg
ik
)
_
, i, k = 1, 2, 3
Finally, thetransformedgoverningequations(1012) arewrittenas:
Massconservation:
j
(
gU
j
) = 0, (24)
t
(
gu
i
)

j
(
gU
j
u
i
) =

j
(
g( a
j
)
i
P)
j
__
1
Re
1
Re
t
_
gg
jk
u
i
k
_
gS
u
i
(25)
Energyequation:
t
(
gT)

j
(
gU
j
T) =

j
__
1
PrRe
1
Pr
t
Re
t
_
gg
jk
T
k
_
gS
T
(26)
Here
gU
j
=
g( a
j
)
k
u
k
isthecontravariant uxvector where( a
j
)
k
denotesthe
kthelement of thevector a
j
, andu
i
theCartesianvelocitybasisvector. S
u
i
andS
T
areadditional sourcetermsinthemomentumandenergyequation, respectively.
Forthefully-developedformulation, whilethemasscontinuityequationremains
unchanged, themomentumandenergyequationtaketheform:
t
(
gu
i
)

j
(
gU
j
u
i
) =

j
(
g( a
j
)
i
p)

j
__
1
Re
1
Re
t
_
gg
jk
u
i
k
_
g e
x

gS
u
i
(27)
Energyequation:
t
(
g)

j
(
gU
j
) =

j
__
1
PrRe
1
Pr
t
Re
t
_
gg
jk

k
_
gu
x

gx
gS
T
(28)
where Re=Re
is the Reynolds number based on the friction velocity u
(Equation13).
6.3.1 Source terms in rotating systems
Equations (2426) arethebaseincompressibleconservation equations in agen-
eralizedcoordinatesystem. Additional terms dueto body forces canbeincluded
inthesourceterms S
u
i
andS
T
. Innoninertial systems as that encounteredinthe
internal coolingof turbineblades additional Coriolis andcentrifugal forceterms
areincludedinnondimensional form:
gS
u
i
= 2
g Ro
k
u
m

ikm

g
ilm
jlk
Ro
j
Ro
m
r
k
(29)
whereRo
i
is therotation number given by
i
L
ref
,U
ref
,
i
is thecomponent of
angular velocityinthei-direction, r
k
istheradial componentfromtheaxisof rota-
tioninthek-direction, and
jlk
isthepermutationtensor. Inthecaseof orthogonal
rotationabout oneaxis(saythez-axis;
1
=
2
=0), equation(29) reducesto
gS
u
1
= 2
gRo
3
u
2
gRo
2
3
r
1
;

gS
u
2
= 2
gRo
3
u
1
gRo
2
3
r
2
gS
u
3
= 0
(30)
Coriolis forces have a preferential effect on turbulence, augmenting or attenu-
ating it depending on the orientation of the rotational axis with respect to the
primary strain rate in the ow. The preferential effect has a profound impact
onheat transfer coefcients, anduidtemperatures canvary substantially inthe
domainmakingthedensitydifferencesnontrivial. Thedensitydifferencesgiverise
to differential centrifugal forces which areaptly referred to as centrifugal buoy-
ancyforces. ThisisusuallyaccommodatedbyusingtheBoussinesqapproximation
L
ref
= LT
,T
ref
togive
gS
u
i
= 2
gRo
k
u
m

ikm

g
ilm
jlk
Ro
j
Ro
m
r
k
_
1T
T
0
T
ref
_
(31)
wherethesecondtermintheparenthesisrepresentsthecentrifugal buoyancyterm.
For developingandfully-developedowT
ref
= T
in
, andT
0
= (T
w
T
in
) or T
0
=
q
ref
L
ref
,
for constant temperatureandconstant heat ux boundary conditions,

respectively.
6.4 Computational Framework
Thetransformedequationscaneitherbesolvedonastaggeredornonstaggeredgrid.
Heretheequationsarediscretizedandsolvedonanonstaggeredgridusinganite-
volumeapproach. Thedependentvariablesu, v, w, P, or p andT or arecalculated
at thecell center, whilethecontravariant uxvector, whichisrepresentativeof the
normal uxtoacoordinatesurface, isdenedandcalculatedatthecell faces,
gU
i
at
=const. Typically, thegridmetrics arecalculatedusingappropriatesecond-

order central (SOC) differenceapproximations. If high-order accuracy is desired,
high-orderapproximationsareusedtocalculatethegridmetrics.Thecovariantbasis
vectors( a
1
, a
2
, a
3
), theJ acobian
g, thecontravariantbasisvectors( a
1
, a
2
, a
3
), the
diagonal elements of thecovariant metric tensor (g
11
, g
22
, g
33
), andoff-diagonal
elementsof thecontravariantmetrictensor (g
12
, g
23
, g
13
) arecalculatedandstored
at thecell center. Further, tocalculatethecontravariant uxesat thecell facesthe
contravariantbasisvectorsanddiagonal elementsof thecontravariantmetrictensor
arecalculatedandstoredat theappropriatecell face( a
i
, g
ii
at
i
=const).
Theaboveequationsarediscretizedandsolvedinamultiblockframework. This
isaccomplishedbyintroducinganoverlapregionor ghostcellsatinterblockfaces.
Typically, theoverlapregionis dictatedby theorder of discretizationusedinthe
+
Face
+
Face
Axis 2
Axis 2
Axis 1
Axis 1
Figure6.2. Anexampleof unstructuredblocktopology. Eastface()of oneblock
exchangesinformationwiththenorthface() of anadjoiningblock.
Theaxesarealsoarbitrarilyorientedwitheachother.
domain for second-order discretizations, asingleghost cell regionis neededat
aninterblockboundary; for second-order upwindapproximationsandfourth-order
central approximations, theghost cells increaseto two andso on. Obviously, the
expectedincreaseinaccuracyhastobebalancedagainst theincreasedcost of the
schemeitself, towhichupdatingtheoverlapregionswouldaddto, particularlyina
parallel distributedcomputingframework.
While each block has a structured mesh, the interblock topology can either
bestructuredor unstructured. Inastructuredtopology, a
block facecanonly
interfacewithanadjoining
block facewithcoordinateaxes perfectly aligned

with each other on thetwo faces. In an unstructured topology, this restriction is
relaxedanda
blockfacecaninterfacewithanyof thesixadjoiningblockfaces
withanyaxesorientations. Figure6.2showssuchanexampleinwhichthe
face
of oneblockinterfaceswith
faceof another block.

In this instance, datatransferred fromonefaceto theother has to besorted
and realigned with the receiving coordinate system. The sorting operation is
abstractedas:
A[
= [S]

A[
(32)
where
A isthedata-vector (of sizeequal tothenumber of nodesinthesurface) to

betransferredfromonefacetotheother and[S] isasymmetricsortingmatrix.
If theelementsof

A haveadirectional dependenceonthetransformedcoordi-
natessuchascomponentsof thecovariantvectors x
, x
, x
orotherderivativesw.r.t.
, , and, anadditional transformationisperformed. For exampleinFigure6.2,
face
=
face
. A general transformationisrepresentedas:
_
_
_
_
face
= [S][T]
_
_
_
_
face
(33)
where[T] isa33transformationmatrix. For theexampleinFigure6.2
[T] =
_
_
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 0 1
_
_
Anadditional featurethat is useful is thecapability to handlenonconformingor
nonmatchingblockinterfaces, i.e., whenthereisnoone-to-onematchbetweennode
locationsintwoadjoiningblockinterfaces.Thiscapabilityisuseful inzonal rening
or coarseningof meshes fromoneblock to another. Insuchcases, inadditionto
thesortingmatrix, aninterpolationmatrixisconstructed. Consider the
facein
Figure6.2to haven total nodes, whichneedto betransferredto
facewithm
nodes. Thenafurther generalizationof equation(32) canbewrittenas:
A[
m1
= [`]
mn
[S]
nn
A[
n1
(34)
where[`] isthem n interpolationmatrix.
Theinterpolationoperatorshouldataminimumhavethesameorderof accuracy
as thediscreteapproximations inthecode. Bi-linear interpolationis thesimplest
givingcloseto second-order accuracy. Higher-order methods basedonquadratic
or cubicsplinescanalsobeusedbut at ahigher cost [5]. Duringinterpolationit is
alsoimportant toconservethemass, momentum, andenergyuxesmovingacross
theinterface. Someelementsof thisareexplainedinSection5.3.
Figure6.3showsresultsfromazonal meshusedfor thesimulationof turbulent
channel owat Re
=180. TheresultsarecomparedtotheDNSdataof Kimet al.

[6] (KMM). Turbulent channel owinspiteof its geometrical simplicity embod-
iesall theessential characteristicsof wall-boundedturbulenceandisanideal test
casefor numerical developmentsinthesimulationof turbulentow. Thezonesare
demarcatedaty
=50and100, withresolutionsof 641480, 48964, and

32948cells, respectively, for L
x
=2 andL
z
= andhalf-channel height for
atotal resolutionof 226,304cells onasix-block mesh. Becauseof therelatively
small-scaleturbulencepresent intheow, it provides astringent test casefor the
treatment of nonmatchingboundaries. Theresults arecomparedto asinglezone
meshof 646464or 262,144cells. Bi-linear interpolations areusedat block
boundaries, together withDirichletboundaryconditionsfor pressurewiththecon-
servationof integratedmass ux andpressuregradients across zonal boundaries.
Theoverall predictionaccuracyissatisfactoryforthezonal decomposition, butpeak
valuesareslightlyunderpredictedcomparedtothesinglezonemesh. Inaddition, at
thezonal boundary y
=50, thenormal andshear stressesexhibit discontinuities

inslope.
Thiscanbeattributedtothehighlyenergeticsmall-scaleeddiesinthisregionand
theresultinginterpolationerrors. Hence, unlesshigh-order interpolationsareused,
nonmatchingboundaries shouldbeusedinregions wheretheowhas relatively
large-scalefeaturesthat canbecapturedrelativelywell onthegrid[7].
Z X
Y
(a)
(b)
2.6
2.4
2.2
Symbols DNS (KMM)
Zonal mesh
Single mesh
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
u
r
m
s
,

v
r
m
s
,

w
r
m
s
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
10
0
10
1
y
+
10
2
v
rms
w
rms
u
rms
0
1
2
0.8
0.6
0.4
t
u
r
b
u
l
e
n
t

s
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
)
DNS (KMM)
Zonal mesh
Single mesh
0.2
10
1
10
0
10
1
y
+
10
2
0
Symbols
(c)
Figure6.3. (a) Zonal mesh in xy plane; (b) rms quantities in wall coordinates;
(c) turbulent shear stress distribution in wall coordinates. Zonal
interfacesareat y
=50and100.
6.5 Time-IntegrationAlgorithm
A number of algorithms are available for time integration of the conservative
equations. Themost common methods for incompressibleowaretheso-called
pressure based methods, which solve for pressure by formulating a pressure
equationusingthemasscontinuityequation. Typicallywithinthisframework, the
momentumequationsareintegratedintimeusingsomeguessforthepressuregradi-
ent(fromapreviousiterateortimestep)togiveanintermediatevelocityeld, which
isthenmadetosatisfy masscontinuity by correctingwiththecalculatedpressure
eld. Whereasfor steady-owcalculations, algorithmsbasedonthesemi-implicit
pressure-linked equations (SIMPLE) method are quite popular (Patankar [8];
VersteegandMalalasekera[9]), for unsteadysolutionsthefractional stepapproach
nds widespread use (Ferziger and Peric [10]). Whereas methods based on the
SIMPLE algorithmsolvethefull setof nonlinear equationsiterativelyateachtime
stepandhencetechnically do not haveany timesteprestrictions, methods based
onfractional stepcanbefully explicit withtimesteplimitedby bothconvective
CourantFrederichsLevy(CFL) conditionandviscouslimits(Chorin[11]), semi-
implicitinwhichonlytheviscoustermsaretreatedimplicitly(KimandMoin[12]),
andfully implicit inwhichbothconvectionandviscous terms aretreatedimplic-
itly (Choi and Moin [13]). Although time step limitations in the fractional step
approachcanbeanimpediment toefcient solution, for unsteady turbulent ows
small timestepsareindeeddesirabletoresolvethesmall turbulent timescales. In
fact abalancedspatio-temporal discretizationdictates aCFL of O(1) andlarge
timestepscanhavethesameundesirableeffect onthesolutionasacoarsespatial
gridor adissipativespatial discretization.
Herethreealgorithmicimplementationswithinthefractional stepapproachare
given. Inthepredictor stepanintermediatevelocityeld u
i
iscomputedexplicitly,
semi-implicitly, or implicitly by neglectingtheeffect of pressuregradient. Inthe
explicit treatment, a second-order accurate in timeAdams-Bashforth scheme is
usedto approximateboththeconvectiveandviscous terms. Inthesemi-implicit
treatment, which is primarily used for low Reynolds number ows, the viscous
termsaretreatedimplicitly by asecond-order CrankNicolsonapproximation. In
theimplicit treatment, bothconvectiveandviscoustermsaretreatedby aCrank
Nicolsonapproximation. Inall threemethodstheconvectiontermsarelinearized
byusingthecontravariant uxesat timelevel n or n1. Additionally, built intothe
algorithmistheexplicit conservationof surface-integratedmass, momentum, and
energyatnonmatchingblockinterfaces, whichyieldconservedvariables
gU
j
),
u
n
i
), and T
n
), respectively, where ) denotes conserved variables. The energy
equationneedsonly thepredictor steptoobtainT
n1
andtakesaformsimilar to
theequations(35)(37) below.
6.5.1 Predictor step
First, momentumandenergy uxes across nonmatchinginterfaces areconserved
toobtaintheconservedquantityu
n
i
) or T
n
).
Explicit formulation:
u
i
u
n
i
)
Lt
=
3
2
H
n
i

1
2
H
n1
i
(35)
where
H
i
=
1
j
(
gU
j
)u
i
))
1
j
__
1
Re
1
Re
t
_
gg
jk
u
i
)
k
_
S
u
i
Semi-implicit formulation:
u
i
u
n
i
)
Lt
=
3
2
H
n
i

1
2
H
n1
i

1
2
1
j
__
1
Re
1
Re
t
_
gg
jk
_
u
i
u
n
i
)
k
__
(36)
whereH
i
=
1
j
(
gU
j
)u
i
)) S
u
i
Implicit formulation:
u
i
u
n
i
)
Lt
=
1
2
1
j
_
gU
j
u
i

gU
j
)u
n
i
)
_
1
2
1
j
__
1
Re
1
Re
t
_
gg
jk
_
u
i
u
n
i
)
k
__
S
u
i
(37)
where
gU
j
=2
gU
j
n
gU
j
n1
isalinearizedestimationof
g

U
j
.
Thesuperscript
denotestheintermediateeld, ) denotesquantitiesbasedon
conserveduxes at nonmatchingboundaries, andn thepresent timelevel. Inthe
semi-implicit and implicit formulation, at inhomogeneous boundaries u
i
=u
n1
i
in themomentumequations and

T =T
n1
areused in theenergy equation. The
semi-implicit andimplicit splittingof themomentumequationsintroduceanerror
of O(Lt
2
), whichisof thesameorder asthetemporal discretization.
6.5.2 Pressure formulation and corrector step
After obtainingtheintermediateCartesianvelocityeld, thecontinuityequationis
usedto derivethepressureequation, whichis thensolvedto obtainthepressure
eld at time(n 1)Lt. Thecalculated pressureeld is then used to correct the
intermediatevelocityeldtosatisfythedivergence-freecondition. Onastaggered
grid, thisprocedureisstraightforwardsincetheintermediatevelocitiesareavailable
onthecell faceof thepressurenodeandthereisnoambiguityinsatisfyingdiscrete
continuity. On the other hand, on a nonstaggered grid, interpolations of nodal
velocitiesandpressuregradient termsarenecessary at thecell face. Thisleadsto
adiscretepressureLaplacian, whichdoes not exhibit goodellipticity as dictated
by thecontinuousLaplaceoperator andleadstotheclassic problemof gridscale
i + 1 i 1 i
i + 1/2
i
i + 1/2 i 1/2
Staggered
Nonstaggered
i 1/2
i 1
u-velocity
i + 1
Figure6.4. One-dimensional staggeredandnonstaggeredgrids.
pressureoscillations(Tafti etal. [14]).Thealleviationoreliminationof thisproblem
isanimportantissueonnonstaggeredgridsandisdealtwithinsomedetail here. To
understandit better, ageneral framework isdevelopedinwhichthenonstaggered
gridapproximationsarewrittenintermsof their staggeredgridcounterparts. This
frameworkisthenusedtoelucidateonsomeof thetechniquesusedintheliterature
toapproachthestaggeredgridformulation.
Figure6.4 shows aone-dimensional (1-D) Cartesian staggered and nonstag-
gered grid, with thelocations of velocity and pressure. On astaggered grid, the
nondimensional x-momentumequationissolvedat i 1,2locationasfollows:
_
u
t
_
i1,2
=f (u)
p
i1
p
i
L
(38)
wheref (u) aretheconvectionandviscousterms. Here, thepressuregradient term
is approximated by a compact gradient operator. On the nonstaggered grid, the
x-momentum equation with a SOC difference approximation for the pressure
gradient at locationi isdiscretizedasfollows:
_
u
t
_
i
=f (u)
p
i1
p
i1
2L
(39)
In this case, the pressure gradient is approximated by the noncompact formof
thegradient operator. By usingTaylor series approximations, wecanrewritethis
equationinacompact gradient operator formandanerror termasfollows:
_
u
t
_
i
= f (u)
p
i1,2
p
i1,2
L
L
2
8
_
3
p
x
3
_
i
. . . (40)
Inessence, thenodal momentumequationonanon-staggeredgridhasanadditional
thirdderivativepressuretermimplicitly includedinits formulationwhichcanbe
writtenas:
_
u
t
_
ns
=
_
u
t
_
s
L
a
1
_
a1
p
x
a1
_
. . . (41)
wherethesuperscript ns refers to nonstaggeredands refers to staggeredgrid. In
thiscasea =2, and
1
=8.
Inderivingthepressureequation, the1-Dequivalent of thediscretecontinuity
equationisof theform:
u
i1,2
u
i1,2
L
= 0 or
1
L
_
_
u
t
_
i1,2
_
u
t
_
i1,2
_
= 0 (42)
Inthestaggeredgridsystem, u
i1,2
andu
i1,2
areavailableat thecell facesfrom
thex-momentumequation. However, inthenonstaggeredgrid, thesevelocitieshave
to beinterpolatedto thecell faces. Usingsecond-order symmetric interpolations
for (u,t)
i1,2
andequation(39) gives
_
u
t
_
i1,2
=
1
2
(f (u)
i1
f (u)
i
)
p
i2
p
i1
p
i
p
i1
4L
(43)
Using Taylor series expansions for f (u) about the staggered node i 1,2, and
expressing thepressuregradient termin terms of its compact form(p
i1
p
i
,),
equation(43) canbewrittenas:
_
u
t
_
i1,2
= f (u)
i1,2
p
i1
p
i
L
L
b
2
_
b
f (u)
x
b
_
i1,2
L
c
3
_
c1
p
x
c1
_
i1,2
. . .
(44)
or ingeneral
_
u
t
_
ns
=
_
u
t
_
s
L
b
2
_
b
f (u)
x
b
_
L
c
3
_
c1
p
x
c1
_
. . . (45)
whereb =2,
2
=8, c =2, and
3
=4. Equation(45) givesageneral expressionfor
theequivalent cell facemomentumequationusedonanonstaggeredgridinterms
of itsstaggeredgridcounterparttoconstructthepressureequation. Theexpression
includestwoadditional terms, oneof whichisaresultof thecell faceinterpolation,
andtheother, asintheexpressionforthenodal velocity, isaresultof thenoncompact
formof thegradient operator. It is to benotedthat theorder of theinterpolation
error termcaninfact bereducedby usinghigh-order interpolations. Zanget al.
[15] haveusedaQUICK typeupwindbiasedapproximationtointerpolatethecell
facevalueswhichgivesb =3and
2
=24inequation(45). However, althoughthe
magnitudeof theerror termintroducedby thenoncompact formof thepressure
gradient canbereduced(Tafti et al. [14]), theorder of theerror always remains
O(L
2
) withthethirdderivativeof pressure.
Finally, usingthe2-D equivalent forms of equations (45) and(42) amodied
pressureequationintwodimensionsisderivedas:
2
p
s
L
c
x
3
_
c2
p
x
c2
_
L
c
y
3
_
c2
p
y
c2
_
. . . =
1
Lt
( u)
s
L
b
x
2
_
b1
f (u, :)
x
b1
_
L
b
y
2
_
b1
g(u, :)
y
b1
_
. . .
(46)
where
2
p
s
isacompactLaplacianand( u)
s
isthecompactdivergenceoperator
as obtained on a staggered grid. The constants b, c,
2
, and
3
have the same
valuesasinequation(45). It isclear that theextratermsinthemodiedpressure
equationintroducehighfrequency errors of O(L
2
) into thepressureeld, which
contributeto thegridscalepressureoscillations. Theeliminationof thespurious
pressure terms in equation (46) has been researched extensively. For example,
SotiropoulusandAbdallah[16] useregularizingtermsinthepressureequation(of
type
4
L
2
4
p
x
4
, 0 1) whichpartially or exactly cancel thespurious terms in
equation(46). Ina2-D-drivencavitytheyfoundthat =0.1wassufcienttoobtain
smoothpressureelds. However, byarbitrarilyregularizingthepressureequation,
discretecontinuity is not exactly satised. In order to overcomethis deciency,
Tafti et al. [14] usedequation(42) for discretizingthedivergenceoperator inthe
continuityequation, anddirectionallybiasedthepressuregradientoperatortoobtain
a discrete Laplacian that exhibited better ellipticity (L
23
Laplacian in reference
[14]). ThisLaplacianwasfoundtoeliminatepressureoscillationsina2-D-driven
cavityandalsosatiseddiscretecontinuity. For thisapproximation, equation(39)
tooktheequivalent form:
_
u
t
_
i
= f (u)
p
i2
6p
i1
3p
i
2p
i1
6L
(47)
resultingina =2, and
1
=24inequation(41)forthenodal momentumequation,
b =c =2, and
2
=8and
3
=12inequations(45) and(46). Hence, thedirection-
ally biasedpressuregradient approximationwas successful inreducingtheerror
inthespurious pressuretermby afactor of 3; however, as notedpreviously, the
order of theerror termremainedthesame. A limitationof thismethodisthat the
discreteLaplacianhasalargestencil andhencemakesimplementationinageneral
coordinateframequitecumbersome.
An additional criterion that needs to be satised when solving the pressure
equationis theintegrability constraint. It states that thediscretepressurePoisson
equationshouldsatisfyGaussdivergencetheorem, i.e.,
_
O
V
D (Gp)dO
V
=
_
O
S
(Gp) ndO
s
and
_
O
V
D udO
V
=
_
O
S
u ndO
S
(48)
whereD andG arethediscretedivergenceandgradient operators, u isthenondi-
mensional velocityvector, n istheoutwardpointingunit normal at thesurfaceO
s
boundingthecomputational domainof volumeO
V
. Thissimplystatesthatthedis-
cretedivergenceoperator whensummedover thedomainmust reducetoasurface
integral atthedomainboundaries.Thisisalwayssatisedwhenanite-volumeform
of thedivergenceoperatorisusedintheformof equation(42). However, deviations
fromtheeffectivelysecond-orderdivergenceoperator(high-orderapproximations)
aredifcult to reconcileandresult inarticial mass sources/sinks inthecompu-
tational domainandincompleteconvergence. It is noteworthy that equation(48)
places no restriction on thediscretegradient operator. Following fromequation
(48) istheadditional conditionthatresultsfromGaussdivergencetheoremapplied
tothediscretepressureequation
_
O
S
(Gp) ndO
S
=
1
Lt
_
O
S
u ndO
S
(49)
Hence, if theintermediateincompressiblevelocityeldinthefractional stepmethod
satisesglobal massconservation, whichit should, thentheLHSof equation(49)
shouldsumtozero. Theuseof azerogradient conditiononpressureat inhomoge-
neous boundaries for knownboundary velocities is consistent withthis equation.
Theconditionisalsosatisedat homogeneousor periodicboundaries.
Undertherequirementsof eliminatinggridscaleoscillationsonanonstaggered
gridandsatisfyingtheintegrabilityconstraint anddiscretecontinuity, oneformu-
lationthat is quiteeffectiveis to interpolatethenodal Cartesianvelocities to the
cell faces( u
i
) toobtainthecontravariant uxes
gU
j
. However, theinterpolated
contravariant cell faceuxes aretreatedas velocities onastaggeredgridandare
correctedbyusingthecompactformof thepressuregradient. Thenetresultof this
formulationisthatthespuriouspressuretermsinequations(45) and(46) areelim-
inated. However, theequivalent nodal momentumequationstill carriestheburden
of thespuriousthirdderivativepressureterm(seeequation(41)). Inspiteof this,
theproblemof grid scaleoscillations is considerably reduced and in sufciently
well-resolvedowsisnon-existent. Thisisreferredtoascurrent formulation in
thefollowingdiscussion.
Thedifferent formulationsaretestedinturbulent channel owat Re
=180on
a64 64 64meshwithLz
=8.8andLx
=35.2. Thepressurespectrumis
1
0.01
E
p
p
E
p
p
0.001
10
5
0.0001
1 10 100
K
z
K
z
0.1
staggered
nonstaggered (L22)
nonstaggered (L23)
nonstaggered (current)
1
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
5
0.01
0.1
0.001
1 10 100
staggered
y
+
= 5
y
+
= 120
nonstaggered (L22)
nonstaggered (L23)
nonstaggered (current)
Figure6.5. One-dimensional pressure spectra in turbulent channel ow at
Re
=180for different pressureformulations.

calculatednear thewall aty
=5andtowardthecenter of thechannel aty
= 120
andplottedinFigure6.5. Differentnonstaggeredgridformulationsarecomparedto
thestaggeredgrid. L
22
isthedefaultnoncompactformof theLaplacianconstructed
onanonstaggeredgrid[14], L
23
istheLaplacianconstructedbyTafti etal. [14], and
lastlythecurrentformulationisshown. Thepressurespectrumatthetwolocations
showthatwhilethereissomeenergyaccumulationinthenear-gridscalesforall the
nonstaggeredgridformulations, thecurrent formulationpreventsalargebuildup.
Between the default formulation L
22
and the designed formulation L
23
, L
23
is
somewhat better. At thesametime, thepresenceof spuriousoscillationsnear and
at gridscales inpressuredo not necessarily carry throughto thepower spectrum
of thevelocitycomponentsasseeninFigure6.6. Infact it isonlyinthespanwise
velocitythat anyaccumulationof energyispresent.
Hence, thefollowing series of steps areused in thecorrector step. First, the
intermediatecell facecontravariant uxesareconstructedasfollows:
g

U
j
=

g( a
j
)
i
u
i
(50)
byinterpolatingthenodal velocitiesat thecell face. Thecontravariant uxisthen
conserved at nonmatching boundary faces to obtain
g

U
j
). Then, thecorrec-
tion formof thenodal Cartesian velocities and cell facecontravariant uxes are
writtenas:
u
n1
i
= u
i
Lt( a
j
)
i
_
P
n1
j
_
(51)
g(U
i
)
n1
) =
g

U
i
) Lt
gg
ik
_
P
n1
k
_
(52)
1
.01
0.01
0.001
0.0001
1 10 100
E
u
u
k
z
y
+

= 5
Staggered
non-staggered (L
22
)
non-staggered (L
23
)
non-staggered (current)
0.01
0.001
0.0001
E
v
v
k
z
y
+

= 5
10
5
10
6
1 10 100
Staggered
non-staggered (L
22
)
non-staggered (L
23
)
.01
0.01
0.001
0.0001
E
w
w
k
z
Staggered
non-staggered (L
22
)
non-staggered (L
23
)
y
+

= 5
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
8
1 10 100
Figure6.6. One-dimensional velocity spectra in turbulent channel ow at
Re
=180for different pressureformulations.

Using the nite-volume divergence operator in the mass continuity equation to
satisfy theintegrability constraint andsubstitutingequation(52) for thecell face
contravariant uxes, thepressureequationtakestheform:
j
_
gg
jk
_
P
n1
k
__
=
1
Lt
g

U
j
)
j
(53)
The calculated pressure eld at level n 1 is then used to correct the nodal
Cartesian velocities and the cell face contravariant uxes using equations (51)
and (52), respectively. The use of ) on the pressure gradient termimplies the
integral conservation of this quantity at nonmatching interface boundaries, dur-
ingthesolutionof equation(53). Hence,

g(U
i
)
n1
is automatically conserved
when the correction in equation (52) is applied to the conserved intermediate
eld.
6.5.3 Integral adjustments at nonmatching boundaries
Toeliminatethebuildupof small interpolationerrors, integral adjustmentsat non-
matching interfaces are used for conserved variables. At the beginning of each
time step, momentumand energy uxes are conserved at nonmatching bound-
aries by imposing the equality of mass or volume uxes. With reference to
Figure6.2,
gU
1
) =
gU
2
) (54)
inthe- direction, where =u
i
or T aretheinterpolatedvalues. Theequalityis
usedtoobtaintheconservedquantity->.
Theintermediatecontravariant uxesinequation(50) arerst calculatedfrom
the interpolated intermediate velocities. The calculated uxes, however, do not
exactlysatisfytheintegral balanceacrossthenonmatchinginterface.Theconserved
uxes
g

U
1
) areobtainedbyimposingtheintegral balanceacrossthetwofaces
asin
g

U
1
=
g

U
2
(55)
Therearetwo choices availablein imposing equality of theconserved quan-
tity in equation (54). One is proportional scaling and the other is an additive
adjustment. Proportional scaling may havedifculties when themean mass ux
across the boundary is close to zero, whereas additive adjustments may smear
weak recirculation zones at or near the interface. Since most of the time in
a well-resolved ow, the interpolation error is small, the contravariant ux is
adjustedlinearly for thesakeof robustness. However, for small values of

gU
1
in equation (54), even an additive adjustment has the potential of leading to
instabilities, since to obtain -> the total ux needs to be divided by this
quantity.
For the pressure equation (53), the pressure at the ghost cell is rst inter-
polated fromthe relevant boundary that serves as a boundary condition for the
interior values. Sinceinincompressibleowsthepressuregradient istherelevant
quantitythat drivestheow, thisquantityisconservedat nonmatchinginterfacial
boundaries. For each iteration in thepressureequation solver, thenormal gradi-
ent of pressureis rst evaluated and then integrated over therelevant interfacial
boundary. Based on the difference of the two integral values, a constant value
is then added/subtracted to the pressure at the ghost cells in order to guarantee
theequality of thetwointegral values. Sincethis procedureis integratedintothe
linear solutionof thepressureequation, itautomaticallyguaranteesanintegral bal-
anceof thecontravariant uxesacrossnonmatchinginterfacescalculatedthrough
equation(52).
6.6 Discretization of Convection Terms
Byfar, fromthenumerical standpoint, thediscretizationof thenonlinearconvective
termshasthemost profoundeffect ontheaccuracy withwhichturbulenceisrep-
resentedonagivenmesh. Animportant aspect of turbulent owsimulationsisthe
roleof truncationandaliasingerrors, whichusuallymanifestthemselvesinthehigh
wavenumbersof theresolvedscales. Ideally, thediscretizationshouldhavethecapa-
bility of representingall thegrid-resolvedwavenumbers withaccuracy, conserve
quadratic quantities suchas kinetic energy, haveminimal aliasingerrors, andbe
stableandrobustatthesametime. Whiletruncationerrorscanbedirectlyestimated
fromTaylorseriesexpansionsinphysical spaceandmodiedwavenumberrepresen-
tationsinwavespace(Lele[17], BeudanandMoin[18]), thequanticationof alias-
ingerrorsintimeintegrationalgorithmsandtheireffectontheaccuracyandnumer-
ical stabilityof thealgorithmisnot straightforward(KravchenkoandMoin[19]).
ThemostpopularmethodforapproximatingconvectiontermshasbeenanSOC
differencediscretizationonstaggeredaswell asnonstaggeredgrids. Althoughnot
perfect, it provides a reasonable and economical alternative to other high-order
schemes. WhentheSOCschemeisappliedtothedivergenceor conservativeform
of theconvectivetermsinanite-volumeframework, it hasthedesirableproperty
of conserving global kinetic energy. Although total kinetic energy is conserved,
also present is the articial redistribution of energy among the resolved scales.
Relatedtothisarealiasingerrorsthatresultfromthespuriousaccumulationof unre-
solvednumerical subgridenergyintheresolvedscalesduetothehigh-wavenumber
nonlinear interactions of thevelocity eld. Early work inthemeteorological and
geophysical community(Phillips[20], Lilly[21], andArakawa[22]) hasaddressed
theroleof aliasinginthedevelopmentof nonlinearnumerical instabilities, whichled
tothedevelopment of global energy-conservingnite-differenceschemes. Global
energy-conservingschemesrequirethat theadvectionof aconstant velocity eld
shouldnot producenor destroyglobal kineticenergy. AccordingtoArakawa[22],
thetwoconditionsthataconvectivedifferencingschemeshouldsatisfytoconserve
quadraticquantitiesare:
A
i
//
, j
//
, k
//
: i, j, k
= A
i, j, k : i
//
, j
//
, k
//
A
i, j, k : i, j, k
= 0
(56)
Therstequationrequiresthatthediscreteeffectof onenodeonanothershould
beequal andopposite, andthesecondconditionrequiresthat thenodeshouldnot
inuenceitsownvalue. In1-D, A
E
(i)=A
W
(i 1) andA
P
=0, whereE, W, andP
refertoathreepointnite-differencestencil. Forthenite-volumeapproximations,
therst conditionisalwayssatised, whereasthesecondconditionislinkedtothe
satisfactionof discretecontinuity inaformthat will leadtoit beingzero. Hence,
the energy-conserving property is inexplicably linked to the consistent solution
of thepressureequation. It canbeeasily shownthat theSOC schemeusedwith
aconsistent second-order constructionof thedivergenceoperator will satisfy the
secondcondition. AnydeviationfromSOC tohigh-order approximationsrequires
that thedivergenceoperator in continuity and pressurebetailored to satisfy the
second condition. In fact most other conventional high-order schemes based on
upwindingor central-differencingdonot satisfy thesecondconditionandspecial
considerations haveto begiven to construct high-order schemes that areenergy
conserving(Morinishi et al. [23]).
Ontheother hand, inspiteof not conservingglobal energy, high-order nite-
differenceschemeshavebeenformulatedandusedtoreducethetruncationerrors
associatedwiththenite-differenceapproximations. A number of suchformula-
tionshavebeenusedinthepastbasedonhigh-ordercompactdifferences(Lele[17]),
conventional high-order upwindbiasedapproximations(Rai andMoin[24]), and
fourth-ordercentral differences.Accompanyingthehigh-orderconvectiveschemes
arealsohigh-order approximationsof theviscoustermsandthepressureequation.
Tafti et al. [25] haveinvestigatedanumber of high-order schemes basedoncon-
servativeandnonconservativeformulationsof theconvectiontermcombinedwith
different pressureequationformulations.
A fewof thehigh-order formulationsweretestedfor thenumerical simulations
of turbulentchannel owatRe
=180(basedonwall frictionvelocityandchannel
half-width) usingastaggeredgrid. Resultsfromthe2
c
22, 5
c
22, 5
nc
22, and5
nc
44
formulationarecomparedwiththespectral simulations of KMM [6] andexperi-
mentsof KreplinandEckelmann[26] (KE). Herecstandsfor theconservativeor
divergenceformof theconvectionterms, whichis discretizedinanite-volume
framework, andncstandsforanonconservativeformof theconvectionterm, which
isdiscretizedusingnite-differenceapproximations. Therst number denotesthe
order of approximationof theconvectionterm, 2standsfor SOC, and5for fth-
order upwind biased approximations. The last two numbers denote the order of
approximationof thedivergenceandgradient operator usedtoconstruct thepres-
sure equation Laplacian: 22 refers to SOC approximations whereas 44 denotes
fourth-order central approximations. Thehigh-order methodsareaccompaniedby
sixth-order central interpolationoperatorsandsixth-order central treatment of the
diffusionterms. The5
nc
44formulationdoesnot satisfytheintegrabilityconstraint
in the inhomogeneous wall normal direction. Only the 2
c
22 scheme is globally
energyconserving.
Thechannel computational domain extends from0 to 4 in x, 1 to 1 in y,
and0to2 inz, andcalculations areperformedwithgrids of 64 64 64and
12896128.Asemi-implicitformulationisusedtoobtaintheintermediateveloc-
ity eld. Thepressureequationissolvedby using2-D FFTsinthehomogeneous
x- andz-directionswithalineinversioninthey orinhomogeneousdirectionforeach
combinationof wavenumbers.A nondimensional timestepof Lt =2.510
3
and
1.010
3
is usedfor thecoarseandnegridsimulations, respectively. Velocity
eldsfromprevioussimulationsareusedasinitial conditionsandeachcaseisrun
for 10 nondimensional time units before any statistics are collected. The statis-
ticsarecollectedfor additional 10nondimensional timeunits. Figures6.7and6.8
show some representative results for the coarse grid and ne grid simulations,
respectively. Thepredictedmeanstreamwisevelocity prolesinwall coordinates
are compared to the theoretical laminar sublayer prole (u
=y
) and the log-

law prole of u
=2.5ln(y
)5.5, together with predictions of kinetic energy

20
(a) (b)
2
c
22
5
c
22
5
nc
22
5
nc
44
u
= y
u
=2.5In(y
) +5.5
u
+
y
+
15
10
5
0
0.1 1 10 100
5
4
3
2
1
0
k
y
+
0 20 40 60 80 100
2
c
22
5
c
22
5
nc
22
5
nc
44
KMM
1
0.5
+
+
+ + +
(c) (d)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2.6
s
(
v
)
y
+
0 20 40 60 80 100
2
c
22
5
c
22
5
nc
22
5
nc
44
KMM
E
u
u
K
x
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
8
1 10 100
2
c
22
5
c
22
5
nc
22
5
nc
44
KMM
Figure6.7. Comparisonof differentconvectionandpressureformulationsinturbu-
lentchannel owatRe
=180ataresolutionof 64
3
. (a) Meanvelocity
inwall coordinates; (b) turbulent kinetic energy distribution; (c) one-
dimensional streamwisevelocity power spectrumin z-direction; and
(d) skewnessof cross-streamvelocityuctuations.
distributioninwall coordinates, 1-D energy spectrumof thestreamwisevelocity
(E
uu
) aty
=5.6, andthird-ordermomentorskewnessof thecross-streamvelocity,

whichisverysensitivetothenumerical approximation.Thefollowingobservations
canbemade:
1. Inboththecoarsegridandthenegridsimulationthe2
c
22formulationcom-
putesthespectrumE
uu
withthebestaccuracy.Thehigh-orderschemes5
c
and5
nc
bothexhibitadissipativebehavior inrepresentingthespectrum. Thedissipative
natureof the5
c
and5
nc
formulationsisalsoevidencedbytheoverpredictionof
thecorevelocityandtheoverpredictionandright-shiftof themaximumturbulent
kineticenergyprolesfor thecoarsegridsimulations.
5
3
2
1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
5
2
c
22
5
c
22
5
nc
22
5
nc
44
KMM
1 10
(a) (b)
100
k
E
uu
k
x
y
+
4
2
c
22
5
c
22
5
nc
22
5
nc
44
KMM
Figure6.8. Comparisonof different convectionandpressureformulationsintur-
bulent channel ow at Re
=180 at a resolution of 12896128.

(a) Turbulent kinetic energy distribution and (b) one-dimensional
streamwisevelocitypower spectruminz-direction.
2. Thereareverysmall differencesobservedinthepredictioncapabilityof 5
nc
44
and5
nc
22, inspiteof theformernotsatisfyingtheintegrabilityconstraint(equa-
tions(48)and(49)).All of thempredictthethirdmomentorskewnesswithmuch
better delitythanthesecond-order scheme.
3. As the grid resolution increases to 12896128, the high-order upwind
schemesexhibit better accuracy inpredictingtheturbulent kinetic energy dis-
tributioncomparedtothe2
c
22formulation. However, the2
c
22formulationis
better at predictingthespectral energydistribution.
Itcanbesurmisedfromtheseresultsthathigh-orderupwindschemesinspiteof
their dissipativenaturearestill veryusableandat highresolutionintheDNSlimit
givemoreaccurateresultsof turbulent statisticsthantheSOC differencescheme.
However, they arecomputationally expensivebecauseof thelarger directionally
dependent nite-differencestencils.
IncomplexCFDproblemswithcomplexgrids, thereisoftenthetemptationto
uselow-order schemessuchassecond-order upwindingor thethird-order upwind
biasedapproximation(QUICK) orothermonotonicitypreservingschemesbecause
of their relativestability andlower computational cost. Whiletheseschemes are
useful insteadyRANScalculations, theycanleadtoerroneousresultsinLESand
DES. Toelucidateonthis, anormalizedvariablediagram(NVD) (Leonard[27]) is
usedtoconstruct thetotal variationdiminishing(TVD) schemesbelow. TheNVD
is constructedby deningtheupstreamanddownstreamdirections basedonthe
cell faceuxdirectionasinFigure6.9.
Thenthenormalizedvariableat anypoint isdenedas:
=

u
d

u
CV CV
f
u
f
u
f
u
Figure6.9. Nomenclatureusedtoconstruct theNVD.
0.5
1
0.5
0
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
0.5 1 1.5
f
=
c

f
= 0.5(1+
c
)

f
= 2
c

f
Second-order central
difference with TVD limiter
0.5
1
0.5
0
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
0.5 1 1.5
c
f = c

f
= 3/8 + 3/4
c
)

f
= 2
c

f
= 1
Third order upwind-biased
with TVD limiter
Figure6.10. NVDdiagramforTVD-limitedsecond-order central schemeandthe
QUICK scheme.
where
denotesthenormalizedvariable. For example, anSOCdifferenceapprox-

imation at the cell face at time step nLt
n
f
=(
n
c

n
d
),2 is written in NVD
coordinatesas

n
f
=(1

n
C
),2. Theequivalent TVD limiter inNVD coordinates
isgivenby:
n
f
=

n
c
for

n
c
0and

n
c
1
n
C

n
f
min[2
n
C
, 1] for 0

n
c
1
(57)
Effectively, therst conditionusesarst-order upwindapproximationif
n
C
isnot
bounded by
n
u
and
n
d
. Within thebounds established in therst condition, the
secondconditionfurther limits thefacevalueto liebetweenbetween
n
C
andthe
minimumof
n
d
and
n
c
(
n
c

n
u
). Thelimiter appliedtogether withtheSOC
schemeisillustratedinFigure6.10ontheNVD. Similarly, theQUICK schemein
normalizedcoordinatesisexpressedas
n
f
=3,83,4
n
C
.
IncontrasttotheTVDlimiter, whichisappliedtotheconvectedvariableatnLt
andhencecanbetoorestrictive, Thuburn[28] developedamultidimensional ux
limiterbasedonthelessrestrictiveuniversal limiter(UL)proposedbyLeonard[27].
0.1
0
5
10
u
+
15
theoretical
SOC
SOC + TVD
SOC + DSM
SOC + UL
QUICK
20
25
1
(a) (b)
(c)
100
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
50 100 150 200
y
+
k
z
y
+
k
DNS (KMN)
SOC
SOC + TVD
SOC + UL
SOC + DSM
QUICK
10
6
1 10
E
u
u
100
10
5
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
SOC
DMS(KMM)
SOC + TVD
SOC + DSM
SOC + UL
QUICK
Figure6.11. Prediction capability of different convective schemes in turbu-
lent channel ow at Re
=180. (a) Mean velocity prole in

wall coordinates; (b) turbulent kinetic energy distribution; and
(c) one-dimensional energy spectrumof streamwisevelocity in the
z-direction.
Inthisscheme, theintermediatevelocitiesarerstcalculatedwiththebaseapprox-
imations and then checked for monotonicity in a multidimensional framework.
By not applying themonotonicity preserving criteriaat timelevel n, theuniver-
sal limiter is much less restrictive than theTVD limiter. The effect of different
schemesistestedinturbulentchannel owatRe
=180withstreamwisegridspac-
ingLx
=35.34, spanwiseLz
=8.84, andcross-stream0.63Ly
8.11for
adomain of 4 2 in x, z and y, respectively and plotted in Figure6.11.
TheresultsarecomparedwithDNSdataof KMM. Infullydevelopedchannel ow
sincetheowvelocity adjusts totheconstant pressuregradient inreactiontothe
simulatedwall friction, corevelocitieslarger thantheoryareindicativeof adissi-
pativescheme. Thisisalsotypicallyaccompaniedbyhighturbulentkineticenergy
with themaximumshifted toward thecoreof thechannel. Theenergy spectrum
alsoprovides additional evidenceof thespectral properties of thescheme. Based
on thesecriteria, out of all theschemes theTVD limiter is themost dissipative
evenwhenusedwiththenondissipativeSOC scheme. TheQUICK schemeisnot
as dissipativeas theTVD limiter, but in spiteof having ahigher accuracy than
theSOC schemeit fails togiveaccurateresults. Ontheother hand, theuniversal
limiter behavesvery muchlikethedynamic Smagorinsky model [29] (DSM) and
seemstobeaviablealternativefor turbulent owsimulations. Theuseof minimal
numerical dissipationasintheSOC-UL methodtosubstitutefor explicit subgrid
modelingasameansfor performingLESisreferredtoasimplicit LESor ILESin
theliterature(Margolinet al. [30]; Grinsteinet al. [31]).
Insummary, discreteapproximations usedfor thenonlinear convectionterms
havealargebearing on theaccurateprediction of turbulencein time-dependent
methodsbasedonDNS, LES, andDES. TheSOC methodusedinitsconservative
formisagoodcompromiseforcomplexgeometriesbetweenoverlydissipativelow-
order (second- andthird-order upwindscheme) andtheextracost andcomplexity
of high-order methods.
6.7 Large-Eddy Simulations and Subgrid Modeling
Central to the large-eddy simulation of turbulence is the ltering operation and
modelingof theresultingsubgridstresses. Ingenerictermsthelteringoperation
isdenedbyalow-pass3-Dlter inphysical space:
f (x
i
, t) =
i=1
G
i
(x
i
x
/
i
)f (x
/
i
, t)dx
/
i
(58)
Inanydiscretesimulationbydenitionthereisanimplicitlter inherentlyapplied
tothecalculation. Inphysical spacewithnite-difference/nite-element methods
the implicit lter is referred to as the top hat lter because of its shape and is
givenby:
G
i
(x
i
x
/
i
) =
1
Lx
i
; [x
i
x
/
i
[ Lx
i
,2
= 0; otherwise
(59)
whereLx
i
isthegridspacing. Similarly inspectral simulationsthelter widthin
wavenumber spaceis implicitly decidedby thenumber of fourier modes usedin
thecalculationandisreferredtoasasharpcut-off lter andisgivenby:
G
i
(k
i
) = 1; k
i
k
c
= 0; otherwise
(60)
wherek
c
is thecut-off wavenumber. Incontrast, thetophat lter is not sharpin
wavenumber spacebutsmoothsuchthatitpartiallylterseventhehighwavenum-
bersresolvedonthegrid(Sagaut andMeneveau[32]). Another smoothlter that
hasfoundsomeusefor explicitlteringistheGaussianlter. Therehasbeenmuch
debateandresearchonthepropertiesof theseltersandwhether explicit ltering
withalter widthlarger thanthat of theimplicit gridspacingshouldbeusedin
nite-difference/nite-volumemethods. Sincenite-differencemethodsinevitably
result insomecorruptionof thehighwavenumbersof theresolvedeldwhichare
alsousedtomodel thesubgridstressesparticularlyinmodelsthat assumeasimi-
laritybetweenthehighwavenumber resolvedeldandthesubgrideld, numerical
inaccuracies andmodelingerrors becomeinextricably linkedtogether. Hencethe
argument for explicit lteringistobreakthislinkbyusingatwiceasnegridand
thenexplicitlylteringoutthenumericallycorruptedscalesandusingonlythe2L
lteredscales to model thesubgridstresses. However, thecost of thesimulation
morethandoubles(in1-D) andstudieshaveshownthatcalculationsonthetwiceas
negridwithoutexplicit2Llteringgivebetterpredictionsof turbulentquantities.
In thepast, efforts on subgrid modeling focused on calculating theLeonard
termsandonmodelingtheindividual termsinequation(21) (Leonard[33]; Clark
et al. [34]). However this effort was largely abandoned in favor of modeling all
thesubgrid terms together. Thereareanumber of subgrid-scalemodels varying
incomplexityfromeddyviscositytooneequationmodels. Reviewscanbefound
inRogalloandMoin[35], Ferziger [36], Lesieur andMetais[37], andinthetext
by Saugat and Meneveau [32]. Themost widely used closuremodel, suggested
by Smagorinsky [38], is basedontheeddy-viscosity approximationinwhichthe
subgrid-scalestressesarerelatedtothestrainratetensorof theresolvedeldthrough
aneddyviscosity(equation(22)).Theeddyviscosityiscomputedfromtheresolved
strain ratemagnitudeand acharacteristic length scale(equation 61). Thelength
scaleisassumedtobeproportional tothelter widthviaaSmagorinskyconstant,
whichhasassumedvaluesanywherefromC
s
=0.06to0.23inpast studies.
1
Re
t
= C
2
s
(
g)
2,3
[S[ (61)
yielding
a
ij
= 2C
2
s
(
g)
2,3
[S[S
ij
= 2C
ij
(62)
whereC =C
2
s
, [S[ =
_
2S
ij
S
ij
is themagnitudeof thestrainratetensor that pro-
vides thenondimensional timescaleof subgrid turbulence. Germano et al. [29]
proposedadynamic procedurefor thecomputationof theSmagorinsky constant.
Thedynamic procedureutilizes informationfromtheresolvedhighwavenumber
scales by applying a test lter in addition to the grid lter to obtain the model
constant.
Central tothedynamicprocedureistheapplicationof atestlter denotedby

G
tothelteredgoverningequations(10) and(11) withthecharacteristiclengthscale
of

G beinglarger thanthat of thegridlter, G (usually

L=2L). Incomputational
coordinatesthelter iswrittenas:
G(
i

/
i
) =
1
2L
i
; [
i

/
i
[ L
i
= 0; otherwise
; i = 1, 2, 3 (63)
andthelteredquantityas:
f (
i
) =
L
I
_
L
i
3
i=1
1
2L
i
f (
/
i
/
)d
/
i
(64)
UsingSimpsonsrulefor a1-Dintegration(say; i =2or -direction)
f () =
1
6
(f
j1
2f
j
f
j1
) (65)
Usingave-point integrationrule
f () =
1
2
_
1
6
(f
j1
4f
j1,2
2f
j
4f
j1,2
f
j1
)
_
(66)
Usingasecond-order interpolationat thecell faces inequation(66) leads to the
trapezoidal tophat test lter
f () =
1
4
(f
j1
2f
j
f
j1
) (67)
Fromthedevelopment aboveit isstraightforwardtoextendthelteringoperation
to nonuniformgrids and to inhomogeneous boundaries. For example, at a wall
boundaryasimpleextensionof themethodabovewill give:
f
2
() =
1
4
(2f
1
f
2
f
3
) (68)
where1denotestheboundary nodeandnode2isat L,2fromtheboundary. The
one-sidedlter nowhasacomplextransfer functionandintroducesphaseerrorsin
thelteringoperation. Najjar andTafti [39] studiedtheeffect of inhomogeneous
lteringinturbulent channel owandfoundthat thelocal modicationtothetest
lter hadaneffectonthedistributionof thedynamicconstantandsubsequentlythe
turbulent viscosityat therst fewnodesnear theboundary.
Usingthesamemethodologyanumberof high-orderlterscanbeconstructed
(Najjar andTafti [40]). Thehigh-order lterslter out asmaller percentageof the
highwavenumber resolvedscales andapproachthebehavior of acut-off lter. It
was determined by Najjar andTafti [41], that thetrapezoidal lter yielded more
consistent resultswithnite-differenceapproximations.
Sincethegridlter isappliedtotheconservationequationsinphysical space,
for consistencythetest lteringoperationsaretransformedfromcomputational to
physical space. Thisisaccomplishedbythefollowingtransformations:
f
x
=
1
Lx
_
x
f () x
f () x
f ()
_
(69)
f
xy
=
1
Ly
_
y
f
x
() y
f
x
() y
f
x
()
_
(70)
f
xyz
=
1
Lz
_
z
f
xy
() z
f
xy
() z
f
xy
()
_
(71)
to givethelteredvariableinphysical space. Contrary to theformulationof the
subgridtermsandconsequenttestlteringinphysical space, J ordan[42]formulated
the subgrid stresses in computational space, i.e., the grid ltering operation is
appliedtothetransformedequations.
Thetest lteredsubtest scalesthat includepart of thegrid-resolvedscalesand
thesubgridscalesT
ij
=
u
i
u
j
u
i
u
j
aremodeledas:
T
a
ij
= 2C
2
s
(
2
(
2)
2,3
)[
s[
s
ij
= 2C
ij
(72)
where istheratioof thetestlterwidthtothegridlterwidth. Themostcommon
valueusedintheliteratureis2, whichisconsistent withasharpcut-off lter. For
thetrapezoidal lter, Najjar andTafti [41] obtainedavalueof
6
Theresolvedturbulent stressesrepresentingtheenergyscalesbetweenthetest
andthegridlters, L
ij
, arethencalculatedandrelatedtothesubtest(T
ij
)andsubgrid
(
ij
) stressesthroughtheidentity
L
ij
= T
ij

ij
, whereL
ij
=

u
i
u
j

u
i
u
j
(73)
togive
L
a
ij
= L
ij

1
3
ij
L
kk
= 2C
ij
2
C
ij
(74)
Equation(74) correspondstoasetof veindependentequationsthatcannotbe
solvedexplicitlyforC, whichappearsinthetestlteringoperation.Asimplication
arises if C is assumed only to beafunction of timeand thedirection whereno
explicit test lteringis applied(say they-direction), i.e., C =C(y, t), thenC can
beextracted fromtheltering operation resulting in

C
ij
=C
ij
. Using aleast-
squareminimizationprocedure(Lilly[43]) forowswithatleastonehomogeneous
direction, thefollowingclosedformfor thedynamicsubgrid-scalemodel constant,
C, isobtained:
C(y, t) =
1
2
L
a
ij
(
ij

ij
))
2(
mn

mn
)(
mn

mn
))
(75)
where) representsanaveragingoperationinthehomogeneousdirections. Equation
(75) has been extensively used in LES computations of various turbulent ows.
Theaveragingprocedureappliedinequation(75) representsasmoothingoperator
todampthelargelocal uctuationsinC. Incomplexgeometrieshowever, thereare
nohomogeneousdirectionsandthetestlter isoftenappliedinall threedirections
and C has to be computed locally. The simplest approximation is to remove C
fromthelteringoperationinequation(74) andthenapplysomesmoothingtothe
local valuesof C basedonzonal averagingor applicationof asmoothinglter not
very different fromthetest lter. Inadditionto thesmoothing, somebounds are
usually placed on C or 1/Re
t
. The dynamic procedure is capable of predicting
C -0 or backscatter of energy. To permit backscatter, but to prevent negative
effective viscosities and the ensuing numerical instability, 1/Re
t
is limited by
1/Re. However, usageincomplexgeometrieswithnite-differenceapproximations
hastendedtoeliminatebackscatter by constrainingC 0. J ust asnegativevalues
of 1/Re
eff
caninducenumerical instabilities, socanveryhighpositivevaluesof C
by decreasingtheeffectiveReynolds number of theow, whichcouldreducethe
effectivediffusivetimescalebelowthetimestep. Henceasomewhatarbitraryupper
boundonC of theorder 0.04or C
s
0.2is also usedbasedonthetheoretically
derivedvalueof C
s
=0.18for homogeneousturbulence. Moreelaboratesolutions
forcalculatingC fromequation(74)canbefoundinGhosal etal. [44]andMeneveau
et al. [45].
Table6.1summarizescalculationsdoneinafully developedribbedduct from
Tafti [46] at a nominal Re=20,000. The duct is of square cross section with a
square rib of dimension e,D
h
=0.1 and a rib pitch of P,e =10, where e is the
dimensionof theribandP isthestreamwisepitchbetweenribs. Four calculations
areshownatdifferentresolutionstohighlighttheeffectof thedynamicSmagorinsky
model (DSM inTable6.1). AnSOC differenceschemeisusedfor theconvective
terms. Thedynamic Smagorinsky constant is localized and is constrained to be
positive. The turbulent Prandtl number was xed at 0.5 [47]. The heat transfer
resultswerefoundtobequiteinsensitivetotheturbulent Prandtl number andtests
on agrid of 128
3
showed no differencewhen Pr
t
was changed to 0.9. Two grid
sizesof 96
3
and128
3
areinvestigatedwithandwithout themodel. SinceNusselt
numberaugmentationratioisaveryweakfunctionof Reynoldsnumberintherange
20,000to30,000, thepredictionsarecomparedtotheavailableexperimentsof Rau
et al. [48] at Re=30,000. Thetablesummarizes theprediction of reattachment
lengthof theseparationbubblebehindtherib, andNusselt andfrictioncoefcient
augmentation.
All calculations reproducethemajor owstructures withdelity, namely the
eddy formed at the junction between the rib and the wall, a recirculation zone
formed on top of the rib and behind the rib with a corner eddy, and the lateral
impingement of owonthesmoothsidewall at theribjunction. Qualitatively, the
bulk oweldresults areindistinguishable, but quantitativedifferences of 10to
15%exist betweenthedifferent calculations. However, therearelargedifferences
inthepredictedheat transfer andfrictioncoefcients. Thedegreeof underpredic-
tion of heat transfer and friction varies from20 to 30%for the 96
3
quasi-DNS
calculationto15to20%for the128
3
quasi-DNS. Thisiscausedprimarilybylow
turbulenceintensities. Theuseof LESwiththedynamicmodel increasesthelevel
Table6.1. Summary of heat transfer andfrictiondataandpercentageerror with
dataof Rauet al. [48]. Experimental uncertaintyis5%
Computations Rauet al. [48],
e,D
h
=0.1, P,e =10 e,D
h
=0.1,
P,e =10
96
3
96
3
DSM 128
3
128
3
DSM
Re
6,667 6,667 6,667 6,667

Re
b
24,000 20,000 22,000 20,000 30,000
%Formloss 92 94 92 91 85
Reattachment 4.8 4.3 4.6 4.1 4.04.25
length(x
r
,e)
-Nu>,Nu
0
(Nu
0
=0.023 Re
0.8
b
Pr
0.4
)
Rib 2.22 2.84 2.54 2.89
Ribbedwall 1.78 2.35 2.00 2.4 2.40
(26%) (0%) (17%) (0%)
Smoothsidewall 1.40 1.89 1.60 1.89 2.05
(32%) (7%) (22%) (7%)
Overall withrib 1.67 2.22 1.89 2.23
Overall w/orib 1.58 2.11 1.79 2.14 2.21
(28%) (4.5%) (19%) (3.4%)
f ,f
o
(f
0
=0.046 Re
0.2
b
)
Overall 6.11 8.53 7.23 8.6 9.5
(36%) (10%) (24%) (9%)
of turbulencein theow, particularly near walls, and is ableto predict theheat
transfer coefcient to within experimental uncertainty and friction coefcient to
within 10% of experiments for both mesh resolutions. The level of turbulence
augmentationprovidedbythedynamicmodel iscommensuratewiththemeshres-
olution such that the turbulent energy, heat transfer coefcient, and friction are
predictedat theright levelsindependent of theresolution.
Thedynamic Smagorinsky model has been used extensively in theliterature
for complex ows, andinspiteof someasyet unresolvedissuesit doesareason-
ablejobincalculatingtheeddy viscosity incomplex ows. Chief amongthemis
that it is difcult to separateout numerical errors fromthesubgridmodel. Some
newdevelopments insubgridmodelingandLES simulations canbefoundinthe
delteringapproachtoreconstruct thesubgridscales(Domaradzki andSaiki [49];
Domaradzki andLoh[50]; Stolz andAdams[51]), theuseof gridhierarchiesfor
dynamic simulations oncoarsegrids usinginformationfromnegrids to model
thesubgridstresses withlargesavings incomputational effort (Dubois et al. [52,
53] , Terracol etal. [54]), andthevariational multiscalemethodof Hughes[55, 56].
Alternatemethodsof simulatingturbulentowswithoutexplicitsubgridmodeling
havealsobeenproposedandused[31].
6.8 Detached Eddy Simulations or Hybrid RANS-LES
LES is anattractivealternativeto DNS, but is still computationally expensivein
wall-boundedows, particularly whenwall frictionandheat transfer coefcients
aresought fromthecalculation. Typically, tocapturetheenergy-producingscales
anegridresolutionisrequirednot onlyinthewall normal direction(whicheven
wall integrationor lowReynolds number RANS models require), but also inthe
wall parallel direction. Intypical turbulent boundarylayersthestreaksandbursts,
which are primarily responsible for near-wall production of turbulence, extend
about 40spanwisewall unitsandarespacedabout 100wall unitsapart. WithLES
itisimperativethatthesestructuresareresolvedinthecalculation, whichputslarge
demandsonthenear-wall resolutionastheReynoldsnumber increases. Henceitis
notsurprisingthatattemptshavebeenmadetousewall functionswithLES(Cabot
andMoin[57]; Piomelli andBalaras[58]).
Theforbiddingcomputational expenseof LESathighReynoldscoupledwiththe
inabilityof RANSmodelstoaccuratelypredict separationandreattachment ledto
thedevelopmentof DES, ormoregenerallyahybridRANS-LESmethod, bySpalart
et al. [1]. ThemotivationbehindtheformulationwastoallowaRANSsolutionin
thenear-wall region which woulddefault to LES away fromthewall. Hence, in
somesenseitalsoactedasawall model, whereinbyusingRANSveryclosetothe
wall, thestrictresolutionrequirementsof LESinthewall parallel directioncouldbe
relaxedconsiderably.Theoriginal formulationwasintroducedwithintheframework
of theSpalartAlmaras[59] (SA) model. WhatdifferentiatedtheDESmethodfrom
previouseffortstocombineURANSandLESwasthefact that asinglemodel (in
thiscasetheSA model) actedbothastheRANSmodel inthenear-wall regionand
asaneddy-viscositysubgridmodel inregionsawayfromthewall.Theswitchinthe
intendeduseof themodel occurs transparently anddoes not involvecomplicated
matchingof owandturbulencequantitiesat theinterface. Inthecaseof theSA
model, thisisincorporatedbycomparingthedistancetothewall (d) withthelocal
cell size(L) (whichinLES is representativeof thesmallest resolvedscale). For
d -C
des
L, theSA model isusedintheRANSmodeandwhend C
des
L, C
des
Lis
usedasthecharacteristicturbulencelengthscalefor operationinLESmode. This
ideawasappliedsuccessfullytoairfoilswithmassiveunsteadyseparation(Shur et
al. [60]), toexternal owovercylinders(Travinetal. [61]), andtoturbulentchannel
owat high Reynolds numbers (Nikitin et al. [62]) and to anumber of external
owswithseparation[6366]. IninitiatingtheswitchfromRANS toLES, while
theformulationintheSA model relatedtheturbulent lengthscaletothedistance
fromthe wall, Strelets [67] extended the DES concept to a two equation eddy-
viscosity model (SST model) by calculating theturbulent length scalefromthe
DES
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Rib
Figure6.12. Plot of thetime-averaged LES and RANS region in theDES com-
putation for a64
3
grid in alateral plane. A valueof 1 represents a
completeLESregionandavalueof 0acompleteRANSregion. Flow
isperiodic or fully developedinthestreamwisedirection. Reynolds
number basedonmeanowvelocityandhydraulicdiameter of duct
is20,000[69].
model turbulent quantities. Thisisillustratedfor thek model (Wilcox[68]) in
whichthedissipationof turbulentenergy, C
j
k iswrittenask
3,2
/ l
DES
.TheDES
lengthscaleisobtainedfroml
DES
=min(l
RANS
,l
LES
), wherel
RANS
=

k,(C
j
)
andl
LES
=C
DES
max(L
x
,L
y
,L
z
) istheturbulent lengthscaleandthegridlength
scale, respectively. Foragridscalesmallerthantheturbulentlengthscalethemodel
revertstoanLESsolution. Thisfeaturefacilitatesthecomputationtobecognizant
of theeddy length scales and hencebehaveas RANS or LES depending on the
instantaneous local conditions, unlikein thecaseof SA model DES, whereit is
constrainedtobeawall model. Another prominent featureof theDES versionof
thetwo equationmodel is that althoughaninstantaneous discontinuity may exist
between the RANS region and the LES region, in the mean however a smooth
transition takes placefromRANS to LES and viceversa. Figure6.12 plots the
fractionof timethemodel operatesinLESmodeatagivenlocationinspace. Itcan
beobservedfromFigure6.12thattheRANSregionstransitionintoLESsmoothly.
InaDESSA model, thedistancefromthewall determinestheswitchfromRANS
toLES, whichisnot asreceptivetoinstantaneousowfeatures.
MuchliketheSA model thenear-wall regionisalwaysresolvedintheRANS
mode, whichtransitionstotheLES modeasthedistancefromthewall increases.
Theow in thevicinity of theribs is mostly resolved in LES modeall theway
to the channel center. This includes the unsteady large-scale dynamics of the
separated shear layer as shown in Figure 6.12. Though the inter-rib spacing is
predominantlyLES, ittransitionstoaRANSmodeatthecenter of inter-ribregion.
Thegridfacilitatesthecomputationof theregioninRANSand/or LESdepending
ontheinstantaneous conditions existingintheregion. Downstreamof therib, in
theregionof separationit is observedthat thecomputationis mostly carriedout
intheLES model. ThissensitizestheRANS model togridlengthscales, thereby
allowing thenatural instabilities of theowin this region to develop. Thus, the
unsteadyphysicsintheseparatedregioniscapturedaccurately.
Inspiteof itsattractivenessandsuccessful application, extensionof DES toa
widerangeof owsposesseveral challenges[69]. DES isastrategy that depends
onthegridnotonlyforaccuratelyresolvingtheturbulenceintheregionsof interest,
butalsoindeterminingtheswitchbetweenRANSandLES.Thoughguidelineshave
beenprescribedfor SA-basedDES(Spalart[70]) inexternal ows, gridgeneration
ininternal owsisnottrivial andrequiressomeapriori knowledgeof theow. One
probablealternativeisthescaleadaptivesimulation(SAS) approachsuggestedby
Menter et al. [71, 72] that compares avon Karman length scaleto theturbulent
lengthscalestomaketheRANS-LESswitchindependent of thegrid.
DES still depends on the prediction capability of the base RANS model to
predict phenomenasuchas separation, transition, andeffects of secondary strain
rates dueto rotation and buoyancy forces. In previous investigations it has been
foundthat whileDES wassuccessful incapturingsecondary straineffects, which
thebaseRANSmodel didnot capturewhenusedinRANSor URANSmode([73,
74]), it also failedto predict shear layer transitionincontrast to LES whichwas
successful [75].
Thetransition fromURANS to LES still remains agrey area in DES. The
physicsbehindtheswitchfromacompletelymodeledsolutionintheRANSregions
toawell-resolvedLESstill remainstobeunderstood[76].
6.9 Solution of Linear Systems
Solution of linear systems generated in thesemi-implicit and implicit treatment
of the momentumequations and the pressure equation requires careful consid-
eration becausethesetakeup amajority of thecomputational time. Thesystem
matrixingeneralizedcoordinateswithsecond-order approximationsissparsewith
18 off-diagonal bands on nonorthogonal grids and can either be symmetric or
nonsymmetric. A symmetric systemis only generatedonorthogonal grids inthe
semi-implicit treatment of momentumandin thepressureequation, whereas the
implicit treatment of convection always leads to a nonsymmetric system. Non-
conformal block boundariescanfurther leadtostrongasymmetriesinthesystem
matrix. Thereareavariety of methods for solvinglargesparsesystems of linear
equations(Meurant [77]). Out of thesemethods, iterativeKrylov subspacemeth-
odshaveproventobequiteefcientforCFDapplications(Barrettetal. [78]).While
themethodof conjugategradients(CG) isuseful for symmetricsystems, methods
likeBiCGSTAB andGMRES(m) canbeappliedto nonsymmetric systems (Tafti
[79]). Preconditioningcanbeappliedusingavariety of methods. Oneparticular
framework that is quite effective is based on a two-level additive/multiplicative
Schwarz domain decomposition (DD) method (Smith et al. [80]; Dryja and
Widlund[81]). Inthis method, thefull systemof equations is substructuredinto
smaller setsof overlappingdomains, whicharethensolvedindividuallyinaniter-
ativemanner, all thetimeupdatingtheboundaries suchthat theglobal systemis
1 10
0
500
1000
M
F
L
O
P
/
S
1500
2000
100 1000
Block size
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
Intel lll (1 GHz)
Itanium l (800 MHz)
IBM Power4 (2.3 GHz)
Intel Xeon (3.06 GHz)
Intel Itanium 2 (1.3 GHz)
Apple G5 (2.3 GHz)
Figure6.13. Effect of substructured block sizeon single-processor performance
on some modern computer chips. MLOP, million oating point
operations.
driventoconvergence. Eachsubdomainissmoothedwithaniterativemethodsuch
astheJ acobi methodorsymmetricsuccessiveover-relaxation(SSOR)orincomplete
LU (ILU) decomposition.
Not onlydoestheDDmethodact asaneffectivepreconditioner for theKrylov
method, but alsoresultsinlargeperformancegainsonmoderncomputer architec-
tures. Bysubstructuringthelargesystemintosmaller systemsthat aredesignedto
tintocachememory, mainmemoryaccessesareminimized, whichresultinlarge
performancegains[8284]. Figure6.13showstheeffectof thesub-structuredblock
sizeonperformancewithanadditiveSchwarz preconditionedconjugategradient
(ASPCG) algorithmfor solvingalinear systemgeneratedbyaLaplaceequationin
Cartesiancoordinates.
Figure6.13showsthat thereisanoptimal block sizethat dependsonthepro-
cessor speed, cache size, speed and memory bandwidth, and latency. For very
small blocksthecachelinesarenotutilizedeffectivelyandtheoverheadof getting
datafrommemoryexceedstheequivalentnumber of oatingpointoperationsper-
formedonthedata. Astheblock sizeincreases, theoverheadof memoryaccesses
isamortizedover moreoatingpoint operationsonblockdataincache, andhence
performance increases till the block size gets so large that data required by the
iterativesolver for agivenblock doesnot t incacheandhastobeaccessedfrom
mainmemorymultipletimes onceagainincreasingtheoverheadof datareadsand
stores anddecreasingperformance. Theasymptotic performancebeyondablock
sizeof 10
5
isanindicator of themainmemoryperformancefor eacharchitecture.
Figure6.13 shows oneaspect of theequation that governs timeto solution. The
other effect that needs to beconsideredin designingan optimal block sizeis its
effectonnumberof iterationstoconvergence.Typicallyastheblocksizedecreases,
convergenceslowsandthenumberof iterationsincrease.Thisiscounteredbyusing
atwo-level methodinwhichacoarselevel is implementedwithagranularity of
onecoarsenodeper substructuredblock. A typical V-cyclebetweenthetwolevels
worksmuchlikeinmultigrid, inwhichthesolutionisrelaxedindividuallyineach
block, thenrestrictingtheblock-integratedresiduesontothecoarselevel followed
byaniterativesmoothingof acorrection, andnallyaprolongationof thecorrec-
tionback to theblocks to bedistributedacross all nodes containedintheblock.
TheadditiveSchwarz preconditioner provided thefollowing benets (Wang and
Tafti [82]):
Reducedthenumberof iterationsforconvergenceintheKrylovsolverbyafactor
of 2to3, hencereducingthenumber of global inner productsandmatrix-vector
products.
Increasedoatingpoint performancebyafactor of 2to3.
Decreasedtheoverall CPU timebynearlyanorder of magnitude.

6.10 Parallelization Strategies
It wouldnot beanoverstatement tosay that muchof thegains inthewidespread
use of steady and time-dependent CFD has been facilitated by the exponential
increase in computational power over the past two decades. Not only have pro-
cessorsbecomemorepowerful, but theabilitytoharnesstheir collectivepower in
parallel has also increased. Whilesingle-processor performanceis dependent on
theefcientuseof fastcache, parallel performanceisdependentonhowefciently
acodeparallelizesonagivenarchitecture. Threedistinct brandsof parallel archi-
tectureshaveemerged shared, distributed, anddistributed-sharedmemory(DSM)
architectures. Inthesharedmemoryarchitecture, multipleprocessorshaveaccess
tothesamesharedmemorythroughcache-coherentnonuniformmemoryaccesses
(cc-NUMA), whereas in thedistributed memory architecture, theprocessors are
distributed across a network with each processor only having access to its own
memory. Hence, explicit messages arerequired to transfer datafromonemem-
ory totheother. TheDSM architecturecombinesthetwoarchitecturesby having
multiplesharedmemorynodesdistributedacrossanetwork.
Barring recent research efforts in thecomputer sciencecommunity, two dis-
tinct programming methods have evolved for parallel computing. One method
takes advantageof theshared memory architectureby using compiler directives
for parallelization, andtheother uses explicit messagepassinglibraries to move
information between distributed memories. In the former the OpenMP API has
evolved as thestandard, whereas distributed memory programming has become
synonymous with MPI (nowOpen MPI). TheOpenMP API is aset of compiler
Processor
domain
Global
domain
Grid
Block
Cache
blocks
Figure6.14. Datastructureandmappingtoprocessorsandcachememory.
directivesthatinstructthecodeatruntimetoperformcertainoperationsinparallel
acrosssharedmemoryandcanbeimplementedincrementally. Buildingparallelism
intoaserial codewithMPI ontheother handrequiresthatthemodeof parallelism
bedecidedapriori withinasingle-programmultipledata(SPMD) frameworksuch
that for themost part thesameoperationsarerepeatedonall processors. For CFD
applications, thatusuallytranslatestoadecompositionof thespatial gridintocon-
tiguouspiecesmappedtodifferent processorswithexplicit messagepassingcalls
through MPI for transferring datafromoneprocessor to another for global syn-
chronicity, andrequiresamajorrewriteof thecode. WhereasOpenMPissimplerto
implement andmoreexibleby beingabletoaccommodatebothdifferent modes
of parallelismandadaptationof parallelism[85, 86], it does not scaleas well as
codeswritteninMPI for thesesamereasons. Thereismerit incombiningthetwo
onDSM architecturestoreapthebenetsof bothmodesof parallelism(Tafti and
Wang[87]).
The multiblock framework provides a natural framework for parallelization.
Figure6.14illustratesthedatastructureandthemultiplelevelsof parallelismthat
canbeextracted. Dependingonthetotal number of meshblocksandthedegreeof
parallelismsought, eachprocessorcanhavemultipleblocksresidingonitasshown
Number of processors
G
f
l
o
p
/
s
1
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1000
10 100 1000
10
4
MPI-OpenMP (ASCI Red)
MPI-OpenMP (ASCI Blue)
MPI (ASCI BLUE)
ASCI Blue Orgin-MIPS 250 MHz
ASCI Red Pentium Pro 200 MHz
Figure6.15. Parallel scalabilityof ASPCGontwopastASCI platformswithMPI
andMPI-OpenMP.
inFigure6.14. Theprocessor domaininFigure6.14isthesameasanMPI process.
Further withineachblock, virtual cacheblocks areusedfor preconditioningthe
solutionof linear systems. Thevirtual blocks arenot explicitly reectedinthe
datastructure, butareusedonlyinthesolutionof linear systems. Henceembedded
in each MPI process are additional levels of parallelismacross mesh blocks or
acrosscacheblocksthat canbeexploitedbyOpenMP.
Figure 6.15 shows scalability studies on theASCI Blue Origin 2000 cluster
at LosAlamos andASCI RedIntel machineat Sandiafor amodel problem. The
domainsizeoneachprocessorismaintainedat1,0241,024cells, with1,024sub-
domainsof size3232for cacheperformance. Thenumber of relaxationsweeps
in theJ acobi smoother is kept at 40 in each block and 100 on thecoarselevel.
The calculations on the ASCI Blue are run across a cluster of Ori-
gins using only MPI (in and across Origins) or a combination of
MPI-OpenMP. In the hybrid MPI-OpenMP model, MPI processes are not only
used across Origins but within Origins as well. For each nproc (total number of
processorsused) inthegure, themultipledatapointscorrespondtodifferentcom-
binationsof MPI andOpenMPthreadsexecutedacrossdifferentnumberof Origins.
OntheASCI Red, OpenMP isusedwithineachtwo-processor node. Inall cases,
thescaledperformanceexhibits aperfect linear speedupshowingtheefcacy of
thearchitectureaswell astheuseof hybridparallelism.
6.11 Applications
Thetheoryandmodelingtechniquesdescribedinthischapterhavebeenusedexten-
sivelyforLES([8892])andDES([7375, 9395])of turbineinternal coolingducts
withribswithrotationandcentrifugal buoyancy effectsat Re=20,000to50,000
and LES of leading edge lmcooling at Re=100,000 ([9698]). A number of
investigationshavealsobeenperformedinstudyingdifferent ncongurationsor
heat transfer enhancement techniques incompact heat exchangers, whichmostly
operateinthetransitional regimebetweenRe=100to2,000([99103]).Adynamic
meshcapabilityispresentlybeingusedtoinvestigateappingightforapplications
toMicro-Air Vehicles(MAVs) at Reynoldsnumbersbetween10,000and100,000
([104, 105]). A two-phase dispersed phase capability using Lagrangian particle
dynamics has beenusedwithLES to model foulingof internal coolingchannels
andlmcoolingholes([106, 107]).
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[104] Gopalakrishnan, P., andTafti, D. K.A Parallel BoundaryFittedDynamicMeshSolver
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Productionof FlappingFlights, AIAA J., 47(11), pp. 25052518, 2009.
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ASME Summer Heat Transfer Conference, Aug. 1014, J acksonville, FL.
7 On large eddy simulation of turbulent ow
and heat transfer in ribbed ducts
Bengt SundnandRongguangJ ia
Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Abstract
Thischapter presentssomework onlargeeddysimulation(LES) for heat transfer
studies. Firstly, thenumerical accuracyisvalidatedwiththesimulationof thefully
developedpipeowwiththedirectnumerical simulation(DNS) data. Secondly, the
solverisusedtostudytheheattransferanduidowinrib-roughenedducts, where
theribscouldbestraightorV-shaped. Thisisprimarilytoclarifyacontradictionon
whichpointingdirectionisthebetter for V-shapedribs. Lastly, current statusand
prospectsof LESarepresented.
Keywords: LES, Heat transfer, Ribs, Duct ow
7.1 Introduction
Inorder toallowthegasturbinedesigner toincreasetheturbineinlet temperature
whilemaintaininganacceptablematerial temperature, sophisticatedcoolingmeth-
ods areessential. For theinternal coolingof theblades, ribbedducts areusually
used. Thepresenceof ribs, alsocalledroughnessor turbulators, enhancestheheat
transfer coefcients by redevelopment of theboundary layer after owreattach-
ment betweentheribs, andbecauseof inducedsecondary ows. Theriblayouts
andcongurationscanbevariedandinclude90-degree, 60-degree, and45-degree
parallel ribsand45-degreeand60-degreeV-shapedribs.
It isessential tobeabletoaccurately predict theenhancement of heat transfer
generatedbytheroughnesselementstoensuregooddesigndecisions.Accordingly,
theheat transfer anduidowinribbedductshavebeenextensivelystudiedboth
experimentally and numerically. A summary is presented in J iaet al. [1], where
contradictionsonexperimental studiesof V-shapedribshavebeenidentied. The
experimental studies of bothHanet al. [2] andOlssonandSundn[3] showthat
squareductsroughenedwithupstreampointingV-shapedribsperformbetter than
those pointing downstream. However, results on the contrary were obtained by
Taslimet al. [4] andGao andSundn[5]. Thecontradictionmight bedueto the
differences in theexperimental conditions, which needfurther clarication. In a
previous study [1] by theRANS method, side-wall heating was found to bethe
mainreasonfor thediscrepancy. However, theRANSmethodlteredouttoomany
details, so that the explanation of the reason becomes difcult. In addition, the
uncertainties of the RANS models may become large for complex geometries.
Therefore, a more universal modeling method, large eddy simulation (LES), is
employedtofurther conrmandexplainthendingsfromRANS.
LES is acomputational method in which thelargeeddies arecomputed and
thesmallest, subgrid-scale(SGS) eddies aremodeled. Theunderlyingpremiseis
that thelargest eddies aredirectly affectedby theboundary conditions, carrying
most of theanisotropicReynoldsstresses, andmust becomputed. Thesmall-scale
turbulenceisweaker, contributinglesstotheturbulentReynoldsstresses, isnearly
isotropic, andhasnearly-universal characteristics. Therefore, it ismoreamenable
tomodel.
InLES,thetransportequationsarelteredfromthe3D,unsteady, NavierStokes
equationsbyalter functioninspace:
t

( u
i
)
x
i
= 0 (1)
( u
i
)
t

( u
j
u
i
)
x
j
=
_
p
x
i

x
j
_
j
_
u
i
x
j
u
j
x
i
_
ij
_
(2)
(
)
t

( u
j
)
x
j
=

x
j
_
j
Pr
x
j
j
_
1j
u
j
(3)
where
ij
=u
i
u
j
u
i
u
j
arecalledthesubgrid-scale(SGS) stresses, throughwhich
thesmall scalesinuencethelarge(resolved) scales. Accordingly,
j
=u
j
u
j
arecalledtheSGSheat uxes. Theyareunknownandmust bemodeledbyaSGS
model.
Theimplicit model, proposed by Boris et al. [6], is thesimplest SGS model
without introducingneither thelteringoperationnor theSGS stress tensor. It is
basedontheobservationthat truncationerrors insuchdiscretizations of Navier
Stokes equations introducenumerical dissipation with theimplicit effects of the
discretizationqualitativelysimilar totheeffectsof theexplicit SGSmodels.
However, inthepresenceof theinviscidunsteadiness, theturbulencebecomes
muchstronger, suchas theseparationzonedownstreamarib. Consequently, the
numerical diffusionisnot enoughtodissipatetheturbulent energy, especially for
anegrid. Someadditional viscosityisnecessarytoprevent thebuildupof turbu-
lent energy at highfrequency regions. Smagorinsky [7] was therst to postulate
anexplicit model for theSGS stresses. His model assumes theSGS stresses fol-
lowagradient-diffusionprocess, similar tomolecular motion. Consequently,
ij
is
givenby:
ij
= 2
T
S
ij
(4)
LES of turbulent ow and heat transfer 267
where S
ij
=
1
2
_
u
i
x
j

u
j
x
i
_
is called the resolved strain rate, and
T
is the
Smagorinskyeddyviscositygivenby:
T
= (C
S
L)
2
_
S
ij
S
ij
(5)
whereL andC
S
arethelter width(gridspacing) andtheSmagorinskyconstant,
respectively, whichmust bespeciedprior to asimulation, varyingfromowto
ow. TheSmagorinskyconstant isset asC
S
=0.1inthissimulation.
7.2 Numerical Method
The computations are carried out in an in-house parallel multi-block computer
code CALC-MP [8, 9], based on the nite volume technique. The code uses a
collocatedbody-ttedgridsystemandemploystheimprovedRhieandChowinter-
polationproceduremethodtocalculatethevelocitiesat thecontrol volumefaces.
TheSIMPLEC algorithmcouples thepressureand velocity. An algorithmbased
onSIP (Strongly Implicit Procedure) is usedfor solvingthealgebraic equations.
Boththediffusionandconvectiontermsarediscretizedbythesecondorder central
difference. Thevalidationof thecodehasbeenpresentedbyJ ia[10].
7.3 Results And Discussion
7.3.1 Fully developed pipe ow
Toillustratethenumerical accuracyof thepresentcode, afullydevelopedpipeow
iscalculatedwithLES, forRe
=460. Implicitmodel isusedformodelingtheSGS

stresses, andacentral schemeis usedfor theconvection terms. A buttery-type
multi-blockgridisgenerated, andtheapproximatenumber of gridpointsisaround
onemillion.
Although ows such as aturbulent pipeow aregeometrically simple, their
accuratesimulation using techniques such as LES is in someway moredifcult
than ows in complicated geometries. This is because no inviscid instability is
available, itsaccuratesimulationisanindicationof thereliabilityof themethod.
Figure7.1ashowsthespectrumaty=230(i.e., apointatthecenterlineof the
pipe), andthecutoff of thehigh-frequencyturbulenceenergyisclearlyillustrated.
Figure 7.1b shows the mean main streamvelocity and turbulent Reynolds
stresses by LES, in comparison with the DNS data of Eggels et al. [11]. They
areinverygoodagreement. At theregionclosetothewall, theuctuationsinthe
mainowdirectionaremuchlarger thanthoseintheother two directions. From
anyRSTMmodel (Reynoldsstressturbulencemodel), onecanseethattheproduc-
tiontermfor theuctuations of thetwo cross directions is zero. Theuctuations
of thesetwo directions obtain theturbulenceenergy frompressurestrain terms.
Thepressurestrainterms redistributeenergy fromthehigh-uctuationdirections
10
1
fD
h
/U
b
(a) Turbulent energy spectrum
10
0
10
1
5/3
y
+
= 230
E = f
5/3
10
5
10
6
10
4
E
(
f
)
10
3
10
2
(b) Statistic Values
r/D
U
/
u
uv/u
2
u/u
w/u
u/u
0.0
1 5
0.5
0
5
10
15
20
0.5
0
1
2
3
4
LES DNS
(
U
i
U
j
)
0
.
5
/
u
0.5
0.5
0.5
N/0
X
0 0.5
(c) Instantaneous u from present LES
0
(d) Instantaneous u from DNS
3
2

1
2
3
3
0
0.5
3
0
0.5
3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
(e) Contours of the instantaneous out-of-plane velocity at a center plane
Figure7.1. ThefullydevelopedpipeowcaseRe
=460.
tothelow-uctuationdirectionstoreducethedifference. However, it cannot take
awaythedifferencetotally. Therefore, themainstreamdirectionuctuationismuch
larger thanthoseintheother twodirections.
Figure7.1cshowsthemain-owdirectioninstantaneousvelocityuctuationsin
acrosssectionof thepipe. Onecanclearlyobservetheejectioneventsfromthewall
towardthepipecenter, andlow-speedstreakswill formdownstreamtheseejection
(a) Geometry
P
D
h
D
h
e
(b) Block topology
plane-IV
plane-VI
plane-III
plane-II
plane-I
plane-V
plane-V
Y
Z
X
p
l
a
n
e
-
I
I
I
Figure7.2. Thecomputationgeometry.
events. Theseejectioneventsandstreaksproducedthemajorityof theturbulence.
Approximately, therearearound six ejection events in thecircumferential direc-
tion. Normallythespanwisedistancefor theejectioneventsarearounds=100.
Figure7.1dshowsasimilar picturefromtheDNSof Eggelset al. [11].
Figure7.1eshows theout-of-planeinstantaneous velocity in aplanethrough
thepipecenterline. Superimposedontopof thesmall-scaleturbulenceinthecore
regionof theow, largescalestructure, onthescaleof thepipediameter, isclearly
seen. Near thepipewalls, theejectioneventsdescribedearlier areseenasthedark
andlightregionsthatleavethepipewallsatanangleof approximately20degrees.
In general, weobservedgoodagreement with theDNS data. This is truefor
bothmeanandrmsresults.
7.3.2 Transverse ribbed duct ow
Thecomputational geometryisschematicallyshowninFigure7.2a, andthecompu-
tational blocktopologyisillustratedinFigure7.2b. Thesquareductwithhydraulic
diameterD
h
isroughenedbyperiodicallymountedribsof sizee, e,D
h
=0.1, andthe
pitchis10e. TheV-shapeinclineanglemaybe90-degree, 60-degree, or 45-degree.
Whenit is 90-degree, transverseribs prevail. ThesimulatedReynolds number is
small, around4,000, turbulent owisensured. Theselectionof alowReismainly
becausearelativelysmall cell number canbeused, andthemainfeaturesof thetur-
bulenceeldarenotdifferentfromthehigh-Recases. Inaddition, thecontradiction
intheexperimentsisnot Re-dependent.
Flow eld
Figure7.3ashows themeanstreamlines inthesymmetry plane. Thestreamlines
arecharacterizedby four recirculationzones, accompanyingowseparationand
(a) Streamlines
x/e
y
/
e
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
(b) u/U
b
x/e
y
/
e
0.195
0.195
0
.
2
9
3
0.293
0
.
3
2
5
0.325
0.358
0.390
0.423
0.293 0.260
0
.
2
6
0
0.228
0.195
0.455
0
.
2
2
8
0
.
1
6
3
0.260
0.260
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
0
.2
2
8
0.228
0.488
0.455
0.423
0.390
0.358
0.325
0.293
0.260
0.228
0.195
0.163
0.130
0.098
0.065
0.033
(c) v/U
b
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
x/e
y
/
e
0.142
0
.
1
6
0
0.178
0.213
0.249
0.267
0.249
0.231
0.213
0.196
0.178
0.160
0.142
0.178
0.196
0.213
0.231
0
.
2
4
9
0.124
0.160
0.107
0
.1
4
2
0.178
0
.1
6
0
0.142
0.124
0
.
1
4
2
0
.
1
7
8
0
.2
1
3
0
.2
4
9
0
.
1
9
6
0
.
2
1
3
0
.2
1
3
0.267
0.249
0.231
0.196
0.213
0.178
0.160
0.142
0.124
0.107
0.089
0.071
0.053
0.036
0.018
(d) w/U
b
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0
1
2
3
4
5
x/e
y
/
e
0
.1
2
4
0
.1
5
5
0.124
0.155
0.186
0.217
0.248
0
.
2
7
9
0
.2
4
8
0.217
0
.1
8
6
0
.
1
5
5
0
.
1
2
4
0
.3
1
1
0
.
3
7
3
0
.2
7
9
0.248
0.279
0.311
0
.1
8
6
0
.
2
1
7
0.248
0
.1
5
5
0.279
0.466
0.435
0.404
0.373
0.342
0.311
0.279
0.248
0.217
0.186
0.155
0.124
0.093
0.062
0.031
Figure7.3. Streamlines and contours of the turbulent Reynolds stresses in the
symmetryplane(plane-I).
reattachment. Thesuddenexpansiondownstreamof aribleads to thegeneration
of awiderecirculationvortex associatedwithastrongshear layer. Together with
this main recirculation, asecond smaller separation is also identied, located in
the corner between the downstreamface of the rib and the bottomwall. After
reattachment, a new boundary layer grows; the ow is accelerated by the main
streamuntil it impingesuponthenext rib. Finally, afourthvortex isidentiedon
topof therib.
Figure7.3bshowscontoursof streamwiseturbulenceintensityu
/
,U
b
. Thepeak
values of u
/
,U
b
arelocated at therib top. This is dueto acceleration and strong
shear at theribtop. Somelocal maximaof u
/
,U
b
valuesarefoundat thetopof the
mainseparationzonebehindtheupstreamrib. They arerelatedtotheshear layer
originating fromtherib edgeand located abovetheseparation region. Contours
withhighu
/
,U
b
valuesarecloser totheribbedwall.
Figure7.3c shows they-directionvelocity uctuations. High:
/
,U
b
values are
foundabovethemainseparationzoneinsidethecavitybetweentwosuccessiveribs.
:
/
,U
b
issmall near thebottomwall inthecavity, indicatingweakvertical turbulent
motions.
Figure7.3dshowsthatthespanwiseturbulenceintensity, w
/
,U
b
, isenhancedby
theribs.Thepeakvalueliesatthelowercornerinfrontof therib, wherestreamwise
owisblockedby therib. A local maximumisalsofoundinthemainseparation
zonebehind theupstreamrib. Thew
/
,U
b
maximumis similar to theu
/
,U
b
peak.
Highw
/
,U
b
values arefoundupstreamtherib, near thereattachment point inthe
cavity, andclosetotheribfront edge.
Ingeneral, very stronganisotropy is observedinthedistributionof Reynolds
stressesinthreedirections. Thismakesitverydifculttopredictitbyusinglinear-
eddy-viscositymodels.
7.3.3 V-shaped ribbed duct ow
Thesolver wasalsoemployedtosimulatetheductowroughenedwith60-degree-
inclined V-shape ribs. The heat transfer coefcients are calculated locally, and
compared with theaveragevalue. Thedeviations aredisplayed with contours to
helpexplainthediscrepancybetweendifferent experimental results.
Figure7.4showsthedeviationof thelocal NufromtheaverageNu. Thereason
for theexperimental contradictioncanbeexplainedfromthispicture. If weuseone
thermocouple(TC) to measurethetemperaturerepresentingthesurface; ideally,
weshouldputtheTCattheplaces, wheretheaveragedvalueislocated, i.e., the0%-
deviationcontour lines. For thedownstreampointingV-shapedribs, if oneputsthe
TCatthecenter of thesurface, onewill obtainareasonablyaccurateaveragevalue
(Figure7.4a), becausethevalueat thecenter of thesurfaceisvery close(around
5%underprediction) to theaveragevalue. For theupstreampointingV-shaped
ribs, however, if oneputs theTC at thecenter of thesurface, onewill obtainan
over predictedaveragedvalue(Figure7.4b), becausethevalueat thecenter of the
surfaceisfar (around30%over prediction) fromtheaveragedvalue.
5
0
5
0
1
4
0
7
4
3
4
3
3
6
3
6
3
6
2
9
2
9
2
9
2
1
2
1
21
1
4
1
4
1
4
7
7
0
0
7
7
2
1
29
2
9
14
21
29
3
6
3
6
43
3
6
3
6
2
9
2
1
1
4 7
0
7
2
1
7
2 4
x/e
z
/
e
x/e
z
/
e
4
2
0
2
4
4
2
0
2
4
6 8 10 12
2
(a) Downstream pointing V-shaped ribs
(b) Upstream pointing V-shaped ribs
4 6 8 10 12
Figure7.4. Deviation(%) fromtheaverageNu.
With theliquid crystal (LC) method, thenumbers of thesampling points for
heat transfer coefcients aredoingmuchbetter to correctly represent anisotropic
heat transfer behavior. Therefore, correct conclusionsaremorelikelyobtained.
Insummary, wecanconcludethat theLC experimental datain[4] and[5] are
morereliablethanthethermocoupledatain[2] and[3]. Themainreasonisthatthe
precisetemperaturedistributionis important. ThedownstreampointingV-shaped
ribsareprovidingbetter heat transfer efciency.
7.4 Conclusions
The LES method implemented in the present solver has good accuracy for
predictionsof heat transfer anduidow.
Basedonthesimulationfor theV-shapedribbedduct ow, wehavefoundthat
theLC experimental dataaremorereliablethan thoseof TC data, which is the
reason for thediscrepancy of theexperimental conclusions. It further conrmed
that theV-shapedribspointingdownstreamareperformingbetter inheat transfer
enhancement.
However, for general applicationof LESinheat transfer simulations, thereare
remainingdifculties:
1. Treatment of near-wall turbulence: Thenear-wall turbulenceis highly turbu-
lent and small scaled (both in time and space), and plays a too signicant
rolein heat transfer predictions to beneglected. Thesesmall scales normally
cannot be captured by the simulations oriented for large scales. Therefore,
subgridmodelsarevital here. Consequently, SGSmodelswouldbeveryimpor-
tant for heat transfer problems. Some numerical error may play a role here,
but may only havelimitedsuccess. SomeSGS models seempromising, such
as WALE (wall-adaptinglocal eddy-viscosity) andthedynamic Smagorinsky
model (DSM).
2. Computational cost: It takeslongtimetoobtainenoughLESstatisticsamples,
whichimposesaheavyburdenonthecomputational speedandcapacity. Some
RANS calculations may be nished in minutes, but it may take days for a
comparableLEScalculation.
Withthedevelopment of evenfaster andlarger computer andquicker commu-
nicationhardware, at thesametimedippingprices, thesecomputational costswill
becomelesssignicant, but thesoftwarelevel parallelizationisstill somewhat left
behind.
In general, wecan foreseeadvancement of computational power and conse-
quently theSGS model will becomelessimportant at theend, sincemeshcanbe
ner andtimesteps can besmaller, andgradually comecloseto theDNS level,
althoughthebetter understandingof near wall turbulencewill speedupthisproce-
dure. Robustandaccurateschemesandalgorithmswill alwaysbeanimportantpart
of research.
Asasummary, ontodaysparallel computerclustersbuiltwithcommoditycom-
ponents, realisticheattransfer problemscanberesolvedwithLESatanacceptable
costanddecentaccuracy, whiletheadvancementof thecomputational technologies
will makethesolutionfaster andmoreaccurate.
Acknowledgment
TheSwedishEnergyAgencynanciallysupportedthisresearchwork.
References
[1] J ia, R., Saidi, A., and Sundn, B. Heat transfer enhancement in square ducts with
V-shapedribs, ASME J. Turbomachinery, 125(4), pp. 788791, 2003.
[2] Han, J. C., Zhang, Y. M., and Lee, C. P. Augmented heat transfer in square
channels with parallel, crossed, andV-shaped angled ribs, ASME J. Heat Transfer,
113, pp. 590596, 1991.
[3] Olsson, C. O., and Sundn, B. Experimental study of ow and heat transfer in
rib-roughenedrectangularchannels, Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci., 16(4), pp. 349365, 1998.
[4] Taslim, M. E., Liu, T., andKercher, D. M. Experimental heat transfer andfrictionin
channels roughened with angled, V-shaped, and discreteribs on two oppositewalls,
ASME J. Turbomachinery, 118(1), pp. 2028, 1996.
[5] Gao, X., and Sundn, B. Heat transfer and pressure drop measurements in rib-
roughenedrectangular ducts, Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci., 24(12), pp. 2534, 2001.
[6] Boris, J. P., Grinstein, F. F., Oran, E. S., andKolbe, R. L. Newinsightsintolargeeddy
simulation, Fluid Dyn. Res., 10, pp. 199208, 1992.
[7] Smagorinsky, J. General circulationexperiments withtheprimitiveequations. I. The
basicexperiment, Mon. Weather Rev., 91, pp. 99164, 1963.
[8] J ia, R., andSundn, B.A Multi-blockimplementationstrategyfora3Dpressure-based
owandheat transfer solver, Numer. Heat Transfer B, 44(5), pp. 457472, 2003.
[9] J ia, R., and Sundn, B. Parallelization of a multi-blocked CFD code via three
strategiesforuidowandheattransferanalysis, Comput. Fluids, 33, pp. 5780, 2004.
[10] J ia, R., Turbulencemodellingandparallel solver development relevant for investiga-
tionof gasturbinecoolingprocesses, Doctoral thesis, Departmentof EnergySciences,
LundInstituteof Technology, 2004.
[11] Eggels, J. G. M., Unger, F., Weiss, M. H., Westerweel, J., Adrian, R. J., Friedrich, R.,
andNieuwstadt, F. T. M. Fullydevelopedturbulent pipeow: A comparisonbetween
direct numerical simulationandexperiment, J. Fluid Mech., 268, pp. 175209, 1994.
8 Recent developments in DNS and modeling
of turbulent ows and heat transfer
YasutakaNaganoandHirofumi Hattori
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nagoya Institute of
Technology, Japan
Abstract
Thepurposeof this chapter is to reviewrecent studies ondirect numerical simu-
lation(DNS) andturbulencemodels fromthestandpoint of Computational Fluid
Dynamics(CFD) andComputational HeatTransfer (CHT). Trendsinrecent DNS
researchanditsroleinturbulencemodelingarediscussedindetail. First, theinstan-
taneous andtheReynolds-averagedgoverningequations for owandenergy are
writteninrotationandnonrotationframes. Secondly, asatypical recentDNSusing
thehigh-accuracy nite-differencemethod, thedetailed DNS results of velocity
andthermal eldsinturbulent channel owwithtransverse-ribroughnessarepre-
sented. Theproblemisvery important for elucidatingthestructure, whichaffects
heat transfer enhancement. Thirdly, our recent DNSof rotatingchannel owswith
variousrotatingaxesandheattransfer isdescribed. Rotatingowswithheattrans-
fer areencountered in many applications relevant to engineering, such as in gas
turbines. ThisDNS wasconductedusingthespectral method. Therefore, twosig-
nicant typesof DNSsarepresentedinthischapter. Finally, onthebasisof DNSs,
muchemphasisisplacedonevaluatingtheperformanceof variouskindsof turbu-
lencemodelsusedinthevelocityandthermal elds. Then, anewturbulencemodel
isproposedfor theaccuratepredictionof rotatingturbulentowwithheattransfer.
Weshould, however, bear inmindthat auniversal turbulencemodel cannever be
establishedwithout further development of DNS.
Keywords: Turbulence, HeatTransfer, DNS, TurbulenceModel, Wall Roughness,
Rotation
8.1 Introduction
Variousattemptstoanalyzeturbulencephenomenausingavailablecomputer tech-
niqueshavebeenmadebymanyresearchers. Duringthepast threedecades, direct
numerical simulation(DNS) of three-dimensional time-dependent turbulent ows
has become a powerful tool for in-depth investigation of the structure of turbu-
lent shear ows. This progress is mainly dueto theconsiderableimprovement in
computational powerof supercomputersandthegreatefciencyof numerical meth-
ods.Withtheadventof newmassivelyparallel computers, thiscomputational power
isstill continuouslyincreasingandDNSof moderatelyhighReynoldsnumberows
incomplexgeometrieshasbeenbecomingareality. Onedistinct advantageof the
DNStechniqueisreadyandaccurateinformationsuchasthepressureuctuationp
anddissipationrate of turbulentkineticenergyk, whichcanneverbeobtainedfrom
themeasurementsthathaveplayedthecentral roleintraditional turbulenceresearch.
DNShasalsocontributedtothedevelopmentof turbulencemodels. Especially,
two-equation(i.e., k for avelocity eldandk
for athermal eld, where

k and are the turbulent kinetic energy and its dissipation rate, and k
and
theintensity of uctuatingtemperatureandits dissipationrate, respectively) and

second-momentclosure(i.e., Reynoldsstressandturbulentheatux) modelshave
maderapidprogresswiththeaidof DNS. It iswell knownthat thestandardtwo-
equation and second-moment closuremodels providecomparatively satisfactory
resultsfor simpleowelds, whereasinmorecomplicatedowresultsarenot as
satisfactory as initially expected. Thus, constructing amoresophisticated turbu-
lencemodel applicabletovarioustypesof owsisthecentral issue.
Inthischapter, werstdiscussthetrendinrecentDNSresearchanditsapplica-
bilitytoturbulencemodel constructionor evaluation. Then, weshowtwotypesof
DNSs, oneisconductedusingthehighlyaccuratenite-differencemethodandthe
other performedusingthespectral method. BothDNSsmimic complex turbulent
owswithahighdegreeof accuracy. Andnally, weintendtointroduceour latest
turbulencemodelsusedinthevelocityandthermal eldsof technological interest.
In addition, we introduce some new methods of evaluation and construction of
turbulencemodelsandattempt tocomment onfutureresearch.
8.2 Present State of Direct Numerical Simulations
Atpresent, DNSiswidelyregardedasanewmethodinplaceof experimentsusing
apparatus. Sincevariousinformationthat cannever beobtainedfromexperiments
isimmediatelyandaccuratelysuppliedbyDNS, DNSisexpectedtohelpestablish
newturbulencetheories, analyzeturbulencephenomena, andconstruct universal
turbulencemodels. To establish turbulencetheories and analyzeturbulencephe-
nomena, Robinson[1] conductedthoroughinvestigationsusingtheDNSdatabase
on boundary layer ow. Previous DNS studies were compiled and reviewed by
Kasagi [2], especiallytherelationbetweenvelocityandthermal elds.
Fromtheviewpoint of turbulencemodelers, thereismuchmoreinterest inthe
roleof DNS inconstructingauniversal turbulencemodel. For example, detailed
informationonfundamental turbulencequantitiessuchasthepressureuctuation
p andthedissipation rate havebrought to light many problems inherent to the
existingturbulencemodels andpavedtheway for theconstructionof auniversal
turbulencemodel. Also, informationonbudget prolesof varioustransport equa-
tionshaveencouragedactivemodelingof theelemental processesof turbulence[3].
Recent developments in DNS 277
As aresult, DNS has emergedas themost important tool for thedevelopment of
turbulencemodel.
Ontheother hand, somenewattemptstoconstruct theturbulencemodel with
the aid of the DNS databases have been suggested. Nagano and Shimada [4],
for example, havedevisedamethodfor evaluatingamodeled-transport equation
itself usingDNSdata.Thismethodalsohastheadvantageof individuallyestimating
elemental processesof turbulence.
Early DNS researchmainly aimedtoconsolidatethefoundationof numerical
techniques under simpleowconditions, e.g., homogeneous shear ow[5], two-
dimensional channel ow [6, 7], and turbulent boundary layer ow [8]. Recent
DNSresearchfocusesontheanalysesof turbulencephenomena(e.g., mechanisms
of turbulencegenerationanddestruction, theinteractionbetweeninner andouter
layers, andtheinteractionbetweenvelocity andthermal elds). Moreover, DNS
has madeit possibleto construct databases under morecomplicated owcondi-
tions. Examples include adverse-pressure-gradient boundary layer ow [9, 10],
backward-facingstepow[11], channel owwithriblets[12, 13], rotatingchannel
ow[14][18], squareductow[19], channel owwithinjectionandsuction[20],
channel owunder stableandunstablestratications[21], impingingjet [22], and
stableandunstableturbulent thermal boundary layer [23], all of whichintroduce
highlyadvancedDNStechniques. DNSdatabasespresentedabovearenowavailable
for assessingvariouskindsof turbulencemodels.
8.3 Instantaneous and Reynolds-Averaged Governing
Equations for Flow and Heat Transfer
InDNSof turbulent motion, thethree-dimensional unsteadyNavierStokesequa-
tionsfor anincompressibleuidaresolveddirectlyfor theinstantaneousvaluesof
thevelocitycomponentsandpressure. Here, weconsider aturbulent heatedchan-
nel owwithrotationat aconstant angular velocity as showninFigure8.1. The
governingequationsforanincompressiblerotatingchannel owinreferenceframe
rotational coordinatescanbedescribedinthefollowingdimensionlessforms:
u
i
x
i
= 0 (1)
Du
i
Dt
=
p
eff
x
1
Re
2
u
i
x
j
x
ik
Ro
k
u
1
(2)
D
Dt
=
1
Pr Re
j
x
j
(3)
where t
(=tu
,) is the time, u
i
(=u
i
,u
) is the instantaneous velocity in

x
i
(=x
i
,) direction,
(=,LO) is the instantaneous temperature. These are

normalizedby thefrictionvelocity, u
, thechannel half width, , andthetemper-

ature difference, LO(=O
H
O
c
), between upper (O
c
) and lower (O
H
) walls.
Cooled wall
Heated wall
x
3
x
2
x
1
2
1
Flow
Figure8.1. Heatedrotatingchannel witharbitraryrotatingaxes.
The Reynolds-, the rotation-, and Prandtl numbers are respectively dened as
Re
=u
,, Ro
k
=2O
k
,u
, andPr=,, where isthekinematic diffusivity

for momentum, O
k
is theangular velocity withx
k
axis and is thethermal dif-
fusivity for heat. Thecentrifugal forcecan beincluded in theeffectivepressure
p
eff
(=p
s
Ro
2
r
2
c
,8), if uid properties are constant, where p
s
is the normal-
ized static pressure, Ro=(Ro
j
Ro
j
)
1,2
is theabsoluterotation number, and r
c
is
thedimensionless distancefromtherotatingaxis [17]. H
1
is thenondimensional
constantmeanpressuregradienttomaintainaow, whichisimplementedonlyfor
aowwithasymmetrically roughenedwallsat Ro=0tomakecalculationsmore
stable. Asdescribedlater, thespectral method[16] isusedfor theDNSsof rotating
channel ows. Thecomputational conditions arelisted inTable8.1. Thebound-
ary conditionsarenon-slipconditionsfor thevelocity eldanddifferent constant
temperaturesfor thethermal eldonthewalls, LO=constant, aswell asperiodic
conditionsinthestreamwiseandspanwisedirections.
In turbulence modeling, the so-called Reynolds-averaged equations are usu-
allyemployed, andturbulencemodelsbasedonReynolds-averagedNavierStokes
equationareoftenreferredtoasRANSmodels.ThegoverningequationsforRANS
turbulencemodel canbewrittenasfollows[24]:
U
i
x
i
= 0 (4)
DU
i
Dt
=
1
P
eff
x
i

x
j
_
U
i
x
j
u
i
u
j
_
2
ik
O
k
U
(5)
DO
Dt
=

x
j
_
O
x
j
u
j
_
(6)
u
i
u
j
=
2
3
k
ij
2C
0
t
S
ij
Nonlinear terms (7)
u
j
=
t
jk
O
x
k
Nonlinear terms (8)
where C
0
is a model constant, k(=u
i
u
i
,2) is turbulent kinetic energy,
S
ij
[=(U
i
,x
j
U
j
,x
i
),2] is the strain tensor, U
i
is the mean velocity in x
i
Table8.1. Methodsfor direct numerical simulation
Grid Regular grid
Timeadvancement
Viscosityterm CrankNicolsonmethod
Other terms AdamsBashforthmethod
Spatial scheme Spectral method
Gridpoints(x
1
x
2
x
3
) 646564
Computational volume 4 2 2
direction,
t
jk
=C
t0
u
j
u
k
m
is theanisotropy eddy diffusivity for heat, O is the
mean temperature,
t
=C
j
f
j
(k
2
,) is the eddy diffusivity for momentum, is
density, and
m
isthehybrid/mixedtimescale.
Thetransportequationsof turbulencequantities, i.e., turbulentkineticenergy, k,
dissipationrateof turbulentkineticenergy, , temperaturevariance, k
(=,2), and
dissipationrateof temperaturevariance,
, whichcomposetheeddydiffusivities
aregivenasfollows[16]:
Dk
Dt
=
2
k
x
j
x
j
T
k
H
k
P
k
(9)
D
Dt
=
x
j
x
j
T

k
(C
1
P
k
C
2
f
) E R (10)
Dk
Dt
=
2
k
x
j
x
j
T
k
P
k
(11)
D
Dt
=
x
j
x
j
T
(C
P1
f
P1
P
k
C
D1
f
D1
)
(12)
k
(C
P2
f
P2
P
k
C
D2
f
D2
) E
whereT
k
, T
, T
k
, andT
areturbulent diffusionterms, H
k
andH
arepressure
diffusionterms, andP
k
(=u
i
u
j
U
i
,x
j
) andP
k
(=u
j
O,x
j
) areproduction
terms, E andE
areextratermstocorrectthenear-wall behaviorsof and
, andR
andR
arerotation-inuencedadditional terms. Notethat, intherotational coordi-

natesystem, thevorticitytensor, O
ij
[=(U
i
,x
j
U
j
,x
i
),2], shouldbereplaced
withtheabsolutevorticitytensor inequations(7) and(8), i.e., W
ij
=O
ij
mji
O
m
tosatisfythematerial frameindifference(MFI) [25].
8.4 Numerical Procedures of DNS
In general, the DNSs are performed using the two methods described briey
in the following. Each method has its own special feature. Thus, between the
twoapproaches oneshoulddecidewhichtochooseafter careful considerationof
problemstobesolved.
Cooled wall T
w
= T
c
Heated wall T
w
= T
S
y
0
z
S
W
H
x
4.8
3
.
2
Figure8.2. Channel withtransverse-ribroughnessandcoordinatesystem.

8.4.1 DNS using high-accuracy nite-difference method
Tosolveaowproblemincomplex geometries, ahigh-accuracy nite-difference
method is the best choice. Figure 8.2 shows a schematic of the channel with
transverse-ribroughnessandthecoordinatesystemusedinthepresent study[13].
This typeof ow is denitely complicated. Theorigin of thecoordinateaxes is
located in the middle of the enclosure between the ribs. Table 8.2 summarizes
somedetails of thehigh-accuracy nite-differencemethod. DNS was carriedout
with aconstant mean pressuregradient to balancethewall shear stress on both
walls. Notethatafullyconsistentandconservativenite-differencemethodisused
for theconvectivetermof theNavierStokes equation[26]. Inorder to solvethe
Poisson equation for the pressure, the standard SOR method is applied and the
over-relaxationcoefcient is set to 1.5. Theadequatenumbers of gridpoints are
arranged in each direction for DNS so as to exactly capture the turbulent heat
transfer aslistedinTable8.2. Especially, thegridresolutionof spanwisedirection,
Lz
, mustbearrangedsmallerthan10.0.ThetimeadvancementisLt
=110
4
,
andthetotal timestepsneededfor thestatistical quantitiestoconvergereasonably
are300,000. Thenumerical schemeusedinthis study is validatedby comparing
thestatistical quantities, including thebudget of theturbulent kinetic energy, in
planechannel owwiththosecalculatedbyNaganoandHattori [16], employinga
spectral methodasdescribednext.
8.4.2 DNS using spectral method
ReferringtoKimet al. [6], afourth-order partial differential equationfor : (wall-
normal velocity component), asecond-order partial differential equation for the
wall-normal component of vorticity, and the continuity equation are solved to
obtain theinstantaneous ow eld. Thenumerical method is fully described by
Kimet al. [6]. That is, a spectral method is adopted with Fourier series in the
streamwiseandspanwisedirectionsandChebyshevpolynominal expansioninthe
wall-normal direction. Thecollocationgridusedto computethenonlinear terms
inphysical spacehas 1.5times ner resolutionineachdirectiontoremovealias-
ing errors (sometimes referred to as padding or 3/2-rule). For time integration,
Table8.2. Computational methods
Channel withtransverse-ribroughness
Grid Staggeredgrid
Couplingalgorithm Fractional stepmethod
Timeadvancement
Conductiveterm CrankNicolsonmethod
Other terms AdamsBashforthmethod
Spatial scheme 2nd-order central difference
Computational volume 4.8 2 3.2
Gridpoints 192(9636or 18)96
(x y (riboutsideribinside)z)
Gridresolution Lx
=3.75
Ly
=0.306.50
Lz
=5.0
thesecond-orderAdamsBashforthandCrankNicolsonschemesareusedfor the
nonlinear andviscousterms, respectively(seeSection4.1).
Transverse-Rib Roughness: Finite-Difference Method
DNS of turbulent heat transfer inchannel owwithtransverse-ribroughnesswas
carried out using thehigh-accuracy nite-differencemethod [13], in which ow
parameter andvetypesof wall roughnessarearrangedaslistedinTable8.3. The
number of gridpointsinthey-directionintheenclosureis36for Cases1, b, andc,
and18forCases2and3asindicatedinTable8.2.Accordingtotheclassicationof
roughness[27, 28], Case1inTable8.3belongstok-typeroughness, andissimilar
shapetotheexperimentof Hanjali candLaunder [29]. InCase2, theribsaresetto
half theheightof Case1, andinCase3, theheightissettohalf theheightof Case2.
Inthek-typeroughness, theeffect of theroughness is expressedinterms of the
roughnessReynoldsnumber, H
=u
H,. InCasesbandc, theheightof theribs

isset thesameasinCase1, thoughthespacingof theribsisvariedsystematically.
Casecbelongstod-typeroughness, inwhichtheeffectof theroughnesscannotbe
expressedbyH
. Ontheother hand, Casebisnotregardedastheexactd-type, but

d-liketyperoughness. Notethat thetwokindsof roughnessareextremeversions
andintermediateformscanexist [28].
8.5.1 Heat transfer and skin friction coefcients
Figures8.3and8.4, respectively, showtheskinfrictioncoefcient andtheNusselt
number against theReynoldsnumber. Bytakingintoaccount theasymmetry[30]
Table8.3. Flowandribparameters
Re
150
Pr 0.71
H W S Roughnesstype
Case1 0.2 0.2 0.6
Case2 0.1 0.2 0.6 k type
Case3 0.05 0.2 0.6
Caseb 0.2 0.4 0.4 d-liketype
Casec 0.2 0.2 0.2
10
3
0.01
0.05
C
f
r
,
C
f
s
C
f
= 12Re
m
1
C
f
= 0.073Re
m
1/4
: Dean (1978)
10
4
Re
m
Case 1
Smooth
Case 2
Case 3
Case b
Case c
Plane channel
Rough
Figure8.3. Distributionsof skinfrictioncoefcients.
2 10
3
10
10
4
50
Re
dh
N
U
= 0.021Pr
0.5
Re
dh
0.8
Case 1
Rough Smooth
Case 2
Case 3
Case b
Case c
Plane channel
: Kays & Crawford (1993)
N
u
r
,
N
u
s
Figure8.4. Distributionsof Nusselt numbers.
intheowelddisturbedby theribs, theskinfrictioncoefcient andtheNusselt
number at theroughwall aredenedasfollows:
C
f r
=
2
wr
U)
2
r
, Nu
r
=
2q
wr
d
(T
h
T)
r
)
(13)
whered indicates thedistancebetweenthewall andthelocationwherethemean
velocitybecomesmaximum, and ) denotesthebulkmeanover thedistanced. At
thesmoothwall, theyaresimilarlydenedasfollows:
C
fs
=
2
ws
U)
2
s
, Nu
s
=
2q
ws
(2 d)
(T)
s
T
c
)
(14)
Thewall shear stress,
ws
, at the(upper) smoothwall is estimateddirectly by
themeanvelocity gradient onthewall andthen,
wr
at the(lower) roughwall is
calculatedfromthebalanceof theimposedpressuregradient:
wr
= 2
dp
dx

ws
= 2
w0
ws
(15)
Theabove-denedwall shear stressattheroughwall,
wr
, includesthepressure
drag(formdrag) aswell astheviscousdrag:
wr
=
wp
wv
(16)
Ontheother hand, becausethefullydevelopedstateisassumedfor thethermal
conditioninthepresent study, thereis no increaseintheenthalpy of theowing
uidinthestreamwisedirection.Thus, theoverall heatuxattheroughwall, q
wr
, is
equal totheabsolutevalueof that at thesmoothwall, q
ws
, whichcanbeestimated
directly by the mean temperature gradient on the wall. In order to compare the
resultswiththecorrelationcurvebyKaysandCrawford[31] for thepipeow, the
lengthscales of theReynolds andNusselt numbers aredoubledinFigure8.3. In
thosegures, theDNSresultsintheplanechannel ow(Re
=150) calculatedby
thespectral method[16] arealsoincludedtocomparewiththeresultsof thepresent
DNSusingthehigh-accuracynite-differencemethod.
FromFigures8.3and8.4, itcanbeseenthattheskinfrictioncoefcientandthe
Nusselt number at theroughwall becomevery largeincomparisonwiththoseat
thecorrespondingsmoothwall, wherethesequantitiesarewell representedbythe
correlationcurves. Moreover, fromFigure8.3, eventhoughtheimposedpressure
gradientisthesameasinthesmoothwall, theribdecreasesthebulkmeanvelocity,
sotheReynoldsnumber heavilydependsontheribconguration; inCase1, where
theribishighestinthek-typeroughnesswalls, theReynoldsnumberisthesmallest
among them. In thepresent study, Case3 is found to bethelowest in drag. On
the other hand, in the d-like type roughness (Cases b and c), the heat transfer
augmentationissmaller thanthatinthek-typeroughnesswiththesameroughness
height (Case1).
Table8.4. Coefcientsfor heat transfer rateat roughwall
(St
r
,C
f
r
),(St
0
,C
f 0
) C
f
r
,C
f 0
Nu
r
,Nu
0
Case1 0.61 3.93 2.41
Case2 0.71 2.87 2.04
Case3 0.85 1.66 1.42
Caseb 0.69 2.44 1.67
Casec 0.69 2.10 1.46
Table8.4showstheStantonnumber, theskinfrictioncoefcient, andtheNusselt
number, whicharedividedbytheestimatedsmooth-wall valuesfromtherespective
correlationcurve[31, 32] for thesameReynoldsnumber. Inthek-typeclassica-
tion, Case1enhancesheat transfer most. However, fromtheviewpoint of theheat
transfercharacteristicincludingthedrag, if wecomparetheStantonnumberdivided
by theskinfrictioncoefcient St
r
,C
f r
, fromTable8.4, Case1enhances theheat
transfermorethanthesmoothwall, buttheoverall characteristicsof heattransferdo
notimprovebecauseof thelargedrag. However, Case3, thek-typewiththelowest
ribs, promotestheheat transfer withverylowdrag. Thiscaseisthemost efcient
fromthestandpoint of overall heat transfer performanceincludingthedrag. Inthe
d-liketyperoughness, theheattransfercharacteristiccannotbeimprovedregardless
of theribspacing. Thestagnationregionintheenclosurebecomeslarger thanthat
inthek-typeroughness(notshownhere), andthedeteriorationinheattransfer has
beenprofoundthere. Thus, inthefollowing, wediscusstheeffectsof theheight of
theribonthestatistical characteristicsof thermal propertyinthek-typeroughness,
whichincludesaribcongurationwhichpromotestheheat transfer.
8.5.2 Velocity and thermal elds around the rib
Tovisualizethevelocityandthermal eldsaroundtherib, Figures8.5and8.6show
themeanstreamlinesestimatedfromthemeanvelocity prolesandcontour lines
of themean temperaturedistributions. Theaverages aretaken only with respect
to thespanwisedirection in thesegures. Two-dimensional vortices exist in the
enclosuresbetweentheribsinCases1and2, andtheir shapesaredifferent ineach
case. InCase1, thecenter of thetwo-dimensional vortexisbiasedtotheupstream
sideof theribandbecomesasymmetric, whereasinCase2, thecenter of thevortex
is biasedto thedownstreamsideof therib. Moreover, inCase3, thesmall two-
dimensional vorticesarelocatedonbothsidesof therib, andtheowreattachment
isseenintheenclosure.
Ontheother hand, fromthecontour linesof themeantemperature, aroundthe
front corner of therib, thespacingbetweenthelinesbecomessmaller, makingfor
veryactiveheat transfer there. Intheenclosurebetweentheribs, thecontour lines
aredistortedcorrespondingto thestreamlines andarenot parallel to thebottom
wall. Especially, inCase3, it isconrmedthat themeantemperaturecontour lines
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Figure8.5. Streamlinesof meanvelocityaveragedinthespanwisedirection. Flow
isleft toright.
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Figure8.6. Contour lines of mean temperature averaged in the spanwise direc-
tion. Theinterval betweensuccessivecontour level is0.02. Flowisleft
toright.
aredenselydistributed, causingmoreenhancedheattransfer. Ontheupstreamside
of theribs, thewavy patterns of temperaturecanbeseen. This phenomenonis a
characteristicspecictoatemperatureeldnear theupstreamsideof therib.
Figures8.7and8.8showthelocal skinfrictioncoefcient, C
fr
(x)[=2
wv
(x),
U)
2
r
] andthelocal Nusselt number, Nu
r
(x)[=2q
wr
(x)d,(T
h
T)
r
)] alongthe
bottomof theenclosureandthecrestontheroughwall, dividedbythevaluesonthe
smoothwall. Thesemeanquantitiesareobtainedbyaveragingwithrespecttotime,
thespanwisedirectionandthestreamwiseperiodof theribroughness. Thelocal
wall shear stress,
wv
(x), and wall heat ux, q
wr
(x), areestimated directly from
thegradientsof meanvelocityandtemperature, respectively. Thus, thelocal shear
stress shown in Figure8.7 does not includethepressuredrag seeequation (16).
Byaveragingthelocal wall shear stressalongthebottomof theenclosureandthe
crest inthex-direction, thecontributions of theviscous dragto thetotal dragof
therough-wall sideareestimatedat 4.5%, 1.1%and, 20.8%, inCases1, 2, and3,
respectively. AshraanandAndersson[33] reportedthecontributionof theviscous
drag to the total drag was 2.5%, in their DNS calculation of the rib-roughened
channel ow(thepitchtotheheightratio, (S W),H, is8, Re
0
=400). Leonardi
et al. [34] havesystematically investigated theeffects of thepitch to theheight
ratioonthecontributionsfromtheviscousandpressuredrags. Theyreportedthat
Case 1 H = 0.2
Case 2 H = 0.1
Case 3 H = 0.05
Enclosure Rib
C
f
r
/
C
f
0
0.2
4
0
4
0 0.2 0.4
x/d
Figure8.7. Prolesof local skinfrictioncoefcientsaroundribalongthehorizontal
wall withx =0at themiddleof theenclosure.
Case 1 H = 0.2
Case 2 H = 0.1
Case 3 H = 0.05
Enclosure Rib
N
u
r
/
N
u
0
0.2
0
5
0 0.2 0.4
x/d
Figure8.8. Proles of local Nusselt number aroundribalongthehorizontal wall
withx =0at themiddleof theenclosure.
thetotal dragisdeterminedalmost entirely by thepressuredragwhentheratiois
withintherangefrom6to20.
FromFigure8.7, thelocal skin friction coefcient becomes minimumin the
enclosureand maximumat thefront corner of therib in Cases 1 and 2. On the
other hand, inCase3, althoughthelocal skinfrictioncoefcient takes themaxi-
mumat thefront corner of therib, bothalargeoverall decreaseandalocal peak
intheenclosurecannot beseen; but it changessignintheenclosure. Thereattach-
ment point islocatedat x, =0.04; thustheforwardowregionisobservedover
0.04-x, -0.21until separationoccursintheenclosurebetweentheribs.
Thelocal Nusselt numbers in Cases 1 and 2 distributesimilarly to theabso-
lute value of thelocal skin friction coefcient. However, in Case3, theNusselt
number increases over the entire region in the enclosure. This situation is also
observednear thereattachment regionof thebackward-facingstepows[35], and
it is reportedthat theheat transfer coefcient reaches maximumthere. Similarly,
0.5
0.3
0.1
0
0.1 0.2 0
0.1
U
/
U
m
0.5
1.5
1
0.1 0.2 0
0
0
1 2
Rough wall Smooth wall
Plane channel
Case 2 H = 0.1
Case 1 H = 0.2
Case 3 H = 0.05
y/
Re
t0
= 150
x/ = 0
Figure8.9. Prolesof meanvelocity.
thelocal Nusseltnumberincreasesinapproachingthereattachmentpointx, =0.04
andthefollowingforwardowregion(0.04-x, -0.21). Fromtheaboveresults,
itisconrmedthatinCase3, theheattransferispromoted, yetwithonlyarelatively
small increaseinthedrag.
8.5.3 Statistical characteristics of velocity eld and turbulent structures
In avelocity eld of achannel ow with arib surface, theow motions in the
enclosurebetweentheribsstronglyaffecttheoweldabovetheribs. Weexamined
thevariouswaysof averaging, e.g., averageoverthexz plane, spanwiseaverageat
themiddleof theenclosure(x, =0)andattheribcrest(x, =0.4).Thedifferences
werenot seenalongthestreamwisedirectionexcept near theroughness element.
Thus, inthefollowing, thestatistical quantitiesof turbulenceinthemiddleof the
enclosure(x, =0) arediscussed.
Figure8.9showsthemeanvelocitynormalizedbythebulkvelocityU
m
. Because
of theeffectsof therib, thevelocity decreasesontherough-wall side. Thecorre-
spondingdistributionsof theReynoldsshearstressandturbulentkineticenergyare
showninFigures8.10and8.11.Astheribheightincreases, turbulenceispromoted,
andboththeReynolds shear stress andtheturbulent kinetic energy increasenear
thewall. This affects theregion over thecenter of thechannel. However, in the
near-wall regionof theoppositewall, thereis only asmall effect, incomparison
withtheresultsfortheplanechannel ow. Despitethenegativevalueof thevelocity
gradient near thewall intheenclosureas seeninFigure8.9, theReynolds shear
stress takes apositivevalue, thus conrming theoccurrenceof counter gradient
diffusion. Becausetheproductionof theReynoldsshearstressismainlymaintained
withthepressurestraincorrelationandthepressurediffusion, noproductionfrom
themean shear is observed. An experimental study [29] indicated that theplace
where the Reynolds shear stress becomes zero and the mean velocity becomes
maximumisdifferent. However, thedifferencebetweenthemisverysmall; 2.0%,
2.8%, and0.8%of achannel widthfor Cases1, 2, and3, respectively.
0.005
0
0 1
y/
2
0.005
u
n
/
U
m 2
0.01
0.015
Case 1 H = 0.2
Case 2 H = 0.1
Case 3 H = 0.05
Plane channel
Re
t0
= 150
x/ = 0
Figure8.10. Prolesof Reynoldsshear stress.
0.01
0.02
0 1
y/
k
/
U
m
2
2
0.03
0.04
0.05
Case 1 H = 0.2
Case 2 H = 0.1
Case 3 H = 0.05
Plane channel
Re
t0
= 150
x/ = 0
Figure8.11. Prolesof turbulent kineticenergy.
Figure8.12showstheturbulenceintensitiesnormalizedbythefrictionvelocity
on therough wall. In all cases, thestatistical quantities get together well in the
upper region of the ribs. However, fromFigure 8.11, the turbulence intensities
increase relative to the bulk mean velocity. The budget of the turbulent kinetic
energy is shown in Figure 8.13. In Case 1, the convection termis enhanced in
comparisonwiththeplanechannel ow. Thisisbecausethemeanvertical velocity
component near theribisincreased, andalsothereisavariationintheturbulence
in thestreamwisedirection. Moreover, thecontributions fromtheturbulent and
pressurediffusiontermsarevery large; intheenclosurebetweentheribs, thereis
no turbulenceproductionfromthemeanshear, but turbulent transport maintains
theturbulencethere. InCase3, thedistributionof thebudgetissimilar totheresult
in theplanechannel, in comparison with Case1, but thecontributions fromthe
turbulent transport (turbulent andpressurediffusions) arelarge.
3
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Plane channel
Re
t0
= 150
v
+r
m
s
w
+r
m
s
u
+r
m
s
2
1
1
1
0.5
1.5
0.5
100 200
y
+
0
0
0
0
Figure8.12. Distributionsof turbulenceintensities.
Next, to investigate the anisotropy of turbulence, Figure 8.14 shows the
pressurestraincorrelationtermsseeequation(23) whichareimportantinthenear-
wall region. Thepressurestraincorrelationisaffectedbecausetheowimpinges
ontheupstreamsideof theribwall, andthepressureuctuationsincreaseover a
wideregionontherough-wall sideincomparisonwiththesmooth-wall side. If we
compareCase1, wheretheribishighest, withtheplanechannel ow, therespective
components of thepressurestraintermbecomemaximumintheregionbetween
the ribs, and a very active energy exchange occurs. In Case 1, the sign of +
11
becomes positiveat y
.15. Inordinary wall turbulencewithout external force,

it isobservedthat inthenear-wall region, thesplattingphenomenoncausedby:
2
givestheenergy tow
2
asseenintheDNS results[16]. However, intheenclosure
betweenribs, theenergy does not redistributeto thew
2
component. This canbe
attributedtothetwo-dimensional vorticesexistingintheenclosure, whichpromote
Plane channel
Production
Dissipation
Turbulent diffusion
Viscous diffusion
Convection
In enclosure
(cavity)
Case 1 H = 0.2
Case 3 H = 0.05
Pressure diffusion
Re
t0
= 150
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.1 0.2
y/d
0.3 0.4
0.1
L
O
S
S
G
A
I
N
L
O
S
S
G
A
I
N
L
O
S
S
G
A
I
N
Figure8.13. Budgetsof turbulent kineticenergy.
theredistributionfromthe:
2
tou
2
components. Asfor Case3, theeffectsfromthe
two-dimensional vortexandthereattachmentarecombinedandtheyaffecttheredis-
tributionmechanism. Asaresult, asshowninFigure8.12, inspiteof theexisting
roughwall, theanisotropyof turbulenceshowsbehaviorsimilartothatinthesmooth
wall, andtheroughnesspromotestheheat transfer witharelativelysmall drag.
Finally, Figure 8.15 shows the streamwise vortices educed with the second
invariant tensors of the velocity gradient II [36, 37]. In each case, streamwise
vortices are produced in the region above the ribs on the rough-wall side, and
thestructures spread over theregion abovethecenter of thechannel. Moreover,
Case 1 H = 0.2
Case 3 H = 0.05
Inside of rib
0.1
0
0.1
+i
j
0.1
0
0.1
+i
j
11
22
33
20 40 60 80 0
y
+
Symbols: plane channel
Figure8.14. Distributions of pressure strain terms in transport equations for
Reynoldsstress.
if wecompareCase1withCase3, many morestreamwisevorticesareproduced
in Case 1, where the rib effects are strong. In the enclosure between the ribs,
thestreamwisevortices areseeninthewholeregionof theenclosureinCase3.
However, in Case 1, because the ow stagnates downstreamof the rib surface,
not many streamwise vortices are produced. This corresponds to the results of
thedistributionsof theskinfrictioncoefcient andtheNusselt number asseenin
Figures8.7and8.8.
8.5.4 Statistical characteristics of thermal eld and related turbulent
structures
For thethermal eld, theturbulencestatistics at themiddleof thecross-sectional
enclosure(x, =0) arediscussedbelow. Figure8.16showsthemeantemperature
distributionnormalizedby thetemperaturedifferenceLT
w
. Theeffect of therib
causes themeantemperatureto becomeasymmetric inall cases as for themean
velocity proles, andthetemperatureincreases inthemajor part of thechannel.
Ontheother hand, becauseof therough-wall sideeffects, theregionof thelarge
temperaturegradient extends to thesmooth-wall side. Figure8.17shows thetur-
bulent heat ux inthewall-normal direction. Theheat transfer is activatedfrom
x
y
x
Case 1 H = 2
Case 3 H = 0.05
y
Figure8.15. Vortexstructuresvisualizedbysecondinvariant: II
-0.5.
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
1 0 2
0 0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Plane channel
Re
t 0
= 150
Pr = 0.71
y /
1
Case 1 H = 0.2
Case 2 H = 0.1
Case 3 H = 0.05
T
w
Figure8.16. Prolesof meantemperature.
theenclosurewiththeribs, but inthethermal eldalsotherearecounter gradient
diffusionsinCase1.
Next, Figure8.18shows therms intensities of temperatureuctuation, which
decrease on the rough-wall side, where the velocity uctuations are promoted.
However, the temperature intensities increase on the smooth-wall side, where
the turbulent velocity uctuation is suppressed. Apparently, the contrary situa-
tions occur between thevelocity and thermal elds on each side. To investigate
thecauseand effect, wecalculated theproduction and turbulent diffusion terms
of the transport equation for
2
,2 see equation (11) in each case (Figure 8.19).
Case 1 H = 0.2
Case 2 H = 0.1
Case 3 H = 0.05
Plane channel
1 0
0
/
U
m
T
w
0.002
2
Smooth wall
y/
Rough wall
Figure8.17. Prolesof wall-normal turbulent heat ux.
Case 1 H = 0.2
Case 2 H = 0.1
Case 3 H = 0.05
Plane channel
Smooth wall
y/
1 2 0
0.05
r
m
s
/
T
w
0.1
Rough wall
Figure8.18. Prolesof rmsintensitiesof temperatureuctuation.
Theproductionterms onthesmooth-wall side, wherethetemperaturegradient is
largeand thewall-normal heat uxes increase, contributes greatly in theregion
aroundthepeak tothecenter of thechannel. Thisiswhy thetemperatureintensi-
ties becomelargeonthesmooth-wall side. Ontheother hand, ontherough-wall
side, becausethecontribution fromtheproduction decreases and theturbulence
ismaintainedbytheturbulent diffusion, theintensitiesof temperatureuctuations
decrease, especiallyinCase1.
In order to examinetherelationship between thevelocity and thermal elds,
thedistributions of theturbulent Prandtl number, Pr
t
, areshown in Figure8.20.
The spanwise averaged Pr
t
at the middle of the enclosure and of the rib crest
arecomparedwiththat intheplanechannel ow. Near theregionabovetherib,
Pr
t
becomes larger than that on the rib crest. However, it becomes smaller and
then becomes larger again in theenclosure. Thus, theturbulent Prandtl number
is not constant and theanalogy between heat and momentumtransfer cannot be
expectednear theribroughness. Ontheother hand, onthesmooth-wall side, the
Pr
t
distributionwell correspondstothat intheplanechannel ow.
0.02
Case 1 H = 0.2
Case 2 H = 0.1
Case 3 H = 0.05
Plane channel
0.01
Production
Turbulent diffusion
0
0.005
0
0.005
0 1
y/
2
Figure8.19. Production and turbulent diffusion terms in temperature variance
budget.
2
1
0
P
r
t
y/
1 2
Spanwise average at the
middle of enclosure
Spanwise average at the
middle of rib crest
Plane channel
Case 1 H = 0.2
Rib
Re
t0
= 150
Figure8.20. Turbulent Prandtl number.
Finally, toobservethespatial structures that contributetothetransport of the
passive scalar, Figure 8.21 shows the streamlines, which are spatially averaged
alongthestreamwisedirection, andthetemperatureuctuations intheyz cross
sectionintheplanechannel owandCase1. Intheplanechannel ow, thestream-
lines show the streamwise vortices in the near-wall region; the sharp variations
inthetemperatureuctuations associatewiththevortices. Ontheother hand, in
Case1, large-scalevortexstructuresappear, whichextendtothecenterof thechan-
nel fromtheenclosurebetweentheribs. Withthis vortex structure, theturbulent
mixingbecomeslarger inthecenter of thechannel, andtheturbulencetransport is
promoted. Thisbehavior isconsistent withtheabove-mentionedstatistical results,
i.e., theincreaseintheheattransfercoefcient, thepronouncedchangeinthemean
Plane channel Cooled wall
Heated wall
Smooth wall (cooled)
Rough wall (heated)
Rib
Case 1 H = 0.2d
y
z
Figure8.21. Streamwise-averagedstreamlinesandtemperatureuctuationsinyz
plane: ,LT
w
=0.05(white) 0.05(black).
temperaturedistributions, andtheincreaseintheturbulent diffusionterms inthe
budget of temperaturevariance.
Arbitrary Rotating Axes: Spectral Method
Inorder to determineimprovements inthemodeledexpressionof rotating, wall-
boundedturbulentshearows, DNSsof fullydevelopedchannel owswithstream-
wise, wall-normal, andspanwiserotationarecarriedoutusingthespectral method
forthe15casesindicatedinTable8.5[18]. DNSresultsof casesforWNR1WNR5
andSTR1STR5areshowninFigures8.22and8.23, respectively (Case3isnot
shownhere). Inthesecases, thespanwisemeanvelocityappearstobecausedbya
rotational effect, whichincreaseswiththeincreaseinrotationnumberinbothcases.
Inparticular, withtheincreaseinthespanwisemeanvelocityof Case1, streamwise
meanvelocity decreasesduetotheexchangemomentumbetweenthestreamwise
andspanwisevelocititesasinthefollowingequationsobtainedfromequation(5):
0=
1
P
x

y
_
U
y
u:
_
2OW (17)
0=

y
_
W
y
:w
_
2OU (18)
Table8.5. Computational conditions
Re
150
Pr 0.71
Case1: Wall-normal rotation
WNR1 WNR2 WNR3 WNR4 WNR5
Ro
2
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.3
Case2: Streamwiserotation
STR1 STR2 STR3 STR4 STR5
Ro
1
1.0 2.5 7.5 10.0 15.0
Case3: Spanwiserotation
SPR1 SPR2 SPR3 SPR4 SPR5
Ro
3
0.0 0.75 1.5 3.0 5.0
Therefore, to predict theowof Case1 exactly, thespanwisemean velocity
shouldbereproducedbyaturbulencemodel. Notethat theReynoldsshear stress,
u:, tendstodecreaseremarkably withtheincreaseinrotational number asshown
inFigure8.22b.
On the other hand, it is found fromDNS that cases of streamwise rotating
channel ow(Case2) involvethecounter gradient turbulent diffusioninthespan-
wise direction shown in Figure 8.23. In view of turbulence modeling, this fact
clearly demonstrates that thelinear eddy diffusivity turbulencemodel (EDM)
and thequadratic nonlinear eddy diffusivity turbulencemodel (NLEDM) can-
not beappliedto calculatethecaseof astreamwiserotatingchannel ow. Thus,
thefollowingmodeledequation19employedinthelinear EDM andthequadratic
NLEDM cannot clearlyexpressacounter gradient turbulent diffusion:
:w =
t
W
y
(19)
wheretheReynoldsshearstressesof aquadraticNLEDMareexpressedidentical to
alinear model. Also, notedthat therotational termdoesnot appear inthemomen-
tumequationof afully developedstreamwiserotatingchannel owindicatedas
equation(22), inwhichtherotational effect isincludedimplicitlyintheReynolds
shear stressinthesamemanner asthespanwiserotational ow[38]. Therefore, a
cubic NLEDM or Reynolds stress equationmodel (RSM) shouldbeusedfor the
calculationof streamwiserotatingchannel owsasfollows:
0=
1
P
x

y
_
U
y
u:
_
(20)
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e)
20
y/
U
+
w
+
u
w
+
u
v
+
10
0
1
0.4
0.2
1
0 1 2
y/
0 1 2
y/
0
10
5
15
0.2
0
0.4
3
4
1
2
1 2
y/
0 1 2
y/
0 1 2
R
o
= 0.01
R
o
= 0.10
R
o
= 0.15
R
o
= 0.10
R
o
= 0.15
R
o
= 0.02
R
o
= 0.04
R
o
= 0.01
R
o
= 0.10
R
o
= 0.15 R
o
= 0.02
R
o
= 0.04
R
o
= 0.01
R
o
= 0.02
R
o
= 0.04
R
o
= 0.10
R
o
= 0.15
R
o
= 0.01
R
o
= 0.02
R
o
= 0.04
R
o
= 0.10
R
o
= 0.15
R
o
= 0.01
R
o
= 0.02
R
o
= 0.04
k
Figure8.22. DNS results of wall-normal rotatingows (Case1): (a) streamwise
meanvelocities, (b) Reynoldsshear stresses, u:, (c) spanwisemean
velocities, (d) Reynoldsshear stresses, :w, and(e) turbulent kinetic
energy.
0=
1
P
y

:
2
y
2OW (21)
0=

y
_
W
y
:w
_
(22)
Aspreviouslystated, oneof themainobjectivesinconductingDNSistoobtain
thedetailed datafor theevaluation of theturbulencemodels. Thus, this section
20
10
0 1
(a)
2
1
0
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1
(d)
0 1
(b)
2
1
1
0
1
U
+
W
+
k
+
u
v
+
u
w
+
Ro
=1.0
Ro
=2.5
Ro
=7.5
Ro
=10
Ro
=15
Ro
=1.0
Ro
=2.5
Ro
=7.5
Ro
=10
Ro
=15
Ro
=1.0
Ro
=2.5
Ro
=7.5
Ro
=10
Ro
=15
Ro
=1.0
Ro
=2.5
Ro
=7.5
Ro
=10
Ro
=15
Ro
=1.0
Ro
=2.5
Ro
=7.5
Ro
=10
Ro
=15
y /
0 1
(c)
1
2
3
0 1
(e)
2
4
2 2
y /
y /
y /
y /
Figure8.23. DNS results of streamwiserotating ows (Case2): (a) streamwise
meanvelocities, (b) Reynoldsshear stresses, u:, (c) spanwisemean
velocities, (d) Reynoldsshear stresses, :w, and(e) turbulent kinetic
energy.
briey explains thecharacteristics of channel ows with heat transfer, and with
wall-normal or streamwiserotation[39]. DNSsof fully developednonisothermal
channel owswithwall-normal (Case1) orstreamwise(Case2) rotationarecarried
outfor the10casesindicatedinTable8.5. DNSresultsareshowninFigures8.24
8.27. Inthesecases, thespanwisemeanvelocityappearstobecausedbyarotational
effect, whichincreases withtheincreaseinrotationnumber inbothcases. Also,
Reynolds shear stress, :w, andthespanwiseturbulent heat ux, w, areyielded
inbothvelocityandthermal eldsasindicatedinFigures8.25and8.27(notethat
0.8
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 1 2
1 2
y/ y/
Ro
= 0.01
Ro
= 0.02
Ro
= 0.15
Ro
= 0.10
Ro
= 0.04
Ro
= 0.01
Ro
= 0.02
Ro
= 0.15
Ro
= 0.10
Ro
= 0.04
k
+
(
H
)
/
Figure8.24. Distributionsof meantemperatureO andtemperatureuctuationk
(Case1).
(a) (b)
(c)
RO

= 0.01
RO

= 0.10
RO

= 0.15
5
5
0
5
5
0
0 1 2
0.5
v
+
v
+
1
v
+
y/
0 1 2
y/
0 1 2
y/
RO

= 0.02
RO

= 0.04
RO

= 0.01
RO

= 0.02
RO

= 0.04
RO

= 0.10
RO

= 0.15
RO

= 0.01
RO

= 0.02
RO

= 0.04
RO

= 0.10
RO

= 0.15
Figure8.25. Turbulent heat uxes (Case 1): (a) streamwise, (b) wall-normal,
(c) spanwise.
turbulentquantitiesof velocityeldareomittedhere; fordetails, seeRef. [18]). Itis
well knownthatReynoldsshear stress, :w, remarkablyrelatestothedistributionof
spanwisemeanvelocity, butthespanwiseturbulentheatux, w, hardlyaffectsthe
distributionof meantemperatureduetotheabsenceof meantemperaturegradient
inthespanwisedirection.
InCase1, it canbeseenthat theproles of meantemperaturescarcely vary,
but the temperature uctuations increase distinctly with the increase in rotation
number. Asfor theturbulent heat uxes, decreaseof thestreamwiseturbulent heat
0 1
y/
2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
R
o
= 10
R
o
= 15
R
o
= 1.0
R
o
= 2.5
R
o
= 7.5
0 1
y/
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
R
o
= 10
R
o
= 15
R
o
= 1.0
R
o
= 2.5
R
o
= 7.5
k
+
(
H
)
Figure8.26. Distributionsof meantemperatureO andtemperatureuctuationk
(Case2).
R
o
= 10
R
o
= 15
R
o
= 1.0
R
o
= 2.5
R
o
= 7.5
1
0.5
1.5
0 1
y/
2
(c)
0.5
0 1 2
5
y/
R
o
= 10
R
o
= 15
R
o
= 1.0
R
o
= 2.5
R
o
= 7.5
0
5
0
5
1
y/
2
R
o
= 10
R
o
= 15
R
o
= 1.0
R
o
= 2.5
R
o
= 7.5
u
u
+
u
u
+
u
u
+
(a) (b)
Figure8.27. Turbulent heat uxes (Case 2): (a) streamwise, (b) wall-normal,
(c) spanwise.
ux, andincreaseinthespanwiseturbulentheatuxwithlargerotationnumberare
observedas showninFigure8.25. Thestreamwiseturbulent heat ux ultimately
indicatesaninversesignatthelargestrotationnumber. Ontheother hand, thewall-
normal turbulent heat ux, whichaffectsmeantemperaturedistributioniskept in
theregionof thechannel center, whilethedecreaseisfoundnear thewall withthe
increaseinrotationnumber.
As for Case 2, since the streamwise mean velocity decreases little and the
spanwisemeanvelocity uctuatessignicantly andincreaseswiththeincreasein
rotationnumber [18], remarkableincreasesinthespanwiseturbulentheatux, w,
arealsoobservednear thewall andcenter of thechannel. However, themeantem-
peratureandtheother turbulent heat uxesof thiscasearehardly affectedby the
rotationasindicatedinFigures8.26and8.27. Notethat thecounter-gradient dif-
fusionphenomenonwasfoundbetweenthespanwisemeanvelocityandReynolds
shear stress, :w inCase2[18]. Therefore, thelinear eddydiffusivitymodel cannot
accuratelypredict inthiscase[18].
Inviewof turbulencemodeling, this fact clearly demonstrates that thelinear
eddydiffusivitymodelscannot beappliedtocalculatethethermal eldof rotating
channel ow, becauseitisdifculttoincludetherotational effectinthelinear eddy
diffusivitymodel. Ontheother hand, it iswell knownthat it isdifcult for alinear
eddydiffusivitymodel topredict thestreamwiseturbulent heat ux. Althoughthe
spanwiseheat ux also appears inthesecases, themodel might not predict it by
reasonof themodeledhypothesis, i.e., gradient diffusionmodeling. Therefore, in
order toaccuratelypredicttheheattransfer of rotatingchannel ows, theturbulent
heat-uxequationmodel, thealgebraicturbulent heat-uxmodel, or thenonlinear
eddydiffusivitymodel shouldbeused. Inthisstudy, thenonlinear eddydiffusivity
for heat model (NLEDHM) [16] is developed to predict adequately these heat
transfer phenomenaof rotatingchannel ows.
Turbulent Flow
8.7.1 Evaluations of existing turbulence models in rotating
wall-bounded ows
Theevaluatedmodelsareacubicmodel byCraftetal. [40] (hereinafter referredto
asNLCLS) andaquadraticmodel byNaganoandHattori [38] (NLHN).
Evaluations of wall-normal rotating ows predicted by the NLCLS and the
NLHN models are indicated in Figure 8.28. In this case, it can be seen that
the NLHN accurately reproduces turbulent quantities. Thus, one may consider
that streamwise rotating ows can be predicted using a quadratic nonlinear
model. However, the wall-limiting behavior of the Reynolds stress component
inthewall-normal directionis not predictedinthevicinity of thewall shownin
Figure8.28f.
Figure8.29showstheassessmentresultusingthepresentDNSof two-equation
modelswithNLEDMinthecaseof streamwiserotatingchannel ow. Obviously, the
quadratic model cannot reproducethisowasmentionedintheprevioussection.
The cubic model indicates overprediction of mean streamwise velocity, U, and
underpredictstheReynoldsshearstress, :w, inthecaseof ahigherrotationnumber.
Thewall-limitingbehaviorof ReynoldsstresscomponentsisshowninFigure8.29f.
AlthoughtheNLHNmodel ismodeledtosatisfythewall-limitingbehaviour of the
Reynoldsstresscomponentinthewall-normal directioninspanwiserotational ow,
it canbeseenthat themodel doesnot reproducethewall-limitingbehavior.
Ro

=

0.15
Ro

=

0.10
Ro

=

0.04
Ro

=

0.02
Ro

=

0.01
DNS
10
0
U
+
0
0
0
0 1
(a)
2
y/
NLCLS
NLHN
Ro

=

0.15
Ro

=

0.10
Ro

=

0.04
Ro

=

0.02
Ro

=

0.01
20
10
W
+
0
0
0
0
0 1 2
(c)
y/
DNS
NLCLS
NLHN
Ro

=

0.15
Ro

=

0.10
Ro

=

0.04
Ro

=

0.02
Ro

=

0.01
5
0
K
+
0
0
0
0
(f)
0 1 2
y/
DNS
NLCLS
NLHN
Ro

=

0.15
Ro

=

0.10
Ro

=

0.04
Ro

=

0.02
Ro

=

0.01
u
v
+
0.5
0
0
0
0
0
0.5
(d)
0 1 2
y/
DNS
NLCLS
NLHN
Ro

=

0.15
Ro

=

0.10
Ro

=

0.04
Ro

=

0.02
Ro

=

0.01
1
0
u
v
+
0
0
0
0
1
(b)
0 1 2
y/
DNS
NLCLS
NLHN
Lines: NLHN
u
2
+
v
2
+
w
2
+
Ro

=

0.1
(g)
Symbols: DNS
10
2
10
0
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
10
10
10
12
10
14
10
1
10
0
10
1
y
+
10
2
u
2
+
v
2
+
w
2
+
,
,
Figure8.28. Evaluations of predicted wall-normal rotating ows (Case 1):
(a) streamwise mean velocities, (b) Reynolds shear stresses, u:,
(c) spanwisemeanvelocities, (d) Reynoldsshearstresses, :w, (e) tur-
bulentkineticenergy, and(f)wall-limitingbehaviorof Reynoldsstress
components.
Ro = 15
Ro = 7.5
Ro = 2.5
Ro = 1.0
30
20
10
0
0
0
0
0
U
+
DNS
NLCLS
NLHN
y/
1 2
Ro = 10
(a)
Ro = 15
Ro = 10
Ro = 7.5
Ro = 2.5
Ro = 1.0
0
0
0
0
0
u
v
+
DNS
NLCLS
NLHN
y/
0 1 2
1
1
(b)
y/
(c)
y/
(d)
y/
(e)
(f)
W
+
k
+
DNS
NLCLS
NLHN
Ro = 15
Ro = 7.5
Ro = 2.5
Ro = 1.0
Ro = 10
1.5
0
0
0
0
0
0.5
1 0 2
DNS
NLCLS
NLHN
Ro = 15
Ro = 7.5
Ro = 2.5
Ro = 1.0
Ro = 10
0
5
0
0
0
1 0 2
u
w
+
DNS
NLCLS
NLHN
Ro = 15
Ro = 7.5
Ro = 2.5
Ro = 1.0
Ro = 10
0
0.2
0
0
0
0
1 2
y
+
10
0
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
10
10
10
2
10
1
10
0
10
1
10
2
u
2
+
v
2
+
w
2
+
,
,
Lines: NLHN
u
2
+
v
2
+
w
2
+
Ro

=

0.1
Symbols: DNS
Figure8.29. Evaluations of predicted streamwise rotating ows (Case 2):
bulentkineticenergy, and(f)wall-limitingbehaviorof Reynoldsstress
components.
8.7.2 Proposal of nonlinear eddy diffusivity model for wall-bounded ow
Fromtheseresults, weproposeacubicNLEDMinatwo-equationturbulencemodel
whichcanadequatelypredict rotational channel owswitharbitraryrotatingaxes,
inwhichamodelingof wall-limitingbehavior of Reynolds stress components is
alsoconsidered.
Thetransport equation of Reynolds stress with theCoriolis termis given as
follows:
Du
i
u
j
Dt
= D
ij
T
ij
P
ij
C
ij
+
ij

ij
(23)
whereD
ij
is amolecular diffusionterm, T
ij
is aturbulent andpressurediffusion
term, P
ij
=u
i
u
k
(U
j
,x
k
)u
j
u
k
(U
i
,x
k
) is a production term, C
ij
=2O
m
(c
mkj
u
i
u
k
c
mki
u
j
u
k
) is aCoriolis term, +
ij
is apressurestain correlation term
and
ij
isadissipationterm, respectively.
Introducing the Reynolds stress anisotropy tensor b
ij
=u
i
u
j
,2k
ij
,3 and
neglectingthediffusiveeffect, thefollowingrelationisderivedfromequations(9)
and(23):
Db
ij
Dt
=
1
2k
(P
ij
C
ij
+
ij

ij
)
b
ij

ij
,3
k
(P
k
) (24)
Inthelocal equilibriumstate, sincetherelationDb
ij
,Dt =0holds, equation(24)
yieldsthefollowingrelation:
(P
ij
C
ij
+
ij

ij
) = 2
_
b
ij

ij
3
_
(P
k
) (25)
Usingtheform
ij
=
2
3
ij
ij
of thedissipationterm[41] for equation(25),
wecanobtain:
(P
k
)b
ij
=
2
3
kS
ij
k
_
b
ik
S
jk
b
jk
S
ik

2
3
b
mn
S
mn
ij
_
(26)
k[b
ik
(W
jk
2
mkj
O
m
) b
jk
(W
ik
2
mki
O
m
)]
1
2
H
ij
whereH
ij
=+
ij
ij
, andthemodeledH
ij
isemployedasthefollowinggeneral
linear model:
H
ij
=C
1
b
ij
C
2
kS
ij
C
3
k
_
b
ik
S
jk
b
jk
S
ik

2
3
b
mn
S
mn
ij
_
(27)
C
4
k(b
ik
W
jk
b
jk
W
ik
)
whereC
1
C
5
aremodel constants.
Substitutingequation(27) into(26) andintroducingnondimensional quantities,
wecanobtainthefollowingrelation:
b
ij
= S
ij

_
b
ik
S
jk
b
jk
S
ik

2
3
b
k
S
ij
_
b
ik
W
kj
b
jk
W
ki
(28)
where
S
ij
=
1
2
g(2C
3
)S
ij
, W
ij
=
1
2
g(2C
4
)
_
O
ij

_
C
4
4
C
4
2
_
mji
O
m
_
b
ij
=
_
C
3
2
C
2
4
3
_
b
ij
, =
k
, g =
_
1
2
C
1
P
k
G
k
1
_
1
_
_
(29)
Equation(28) canbewritteninthematrixformas:
b
= S

_
b

2
3
{b
]I
_
b
(30)
Inorder toderiveanexplicitformof b
fromequation(30), theintegritybasis,
b
Q
()
T
()
rst proposedbyPope[42], isusedwiththefollowing10basis
tensors:
T
(1)
= S
, T
(6)
= W
2
S
W
2
2
3
{S
W
2
]I
T
(2)
= S
, T
(7)
= W
W
2
W
2
S
T
(3)
= S
2
1
3
{S
2
]I, T
(8)
= S
S
2
S
2
W
T
(4)
= W
2
1
3
{W
2
]I, T
(9)
= W
2
S
2
S
2
W
2
2
3
{S
2
W
2
]I
T
(5)
= W
S
2
S
2
W
, T
(10)
= W
S
2
W
2
W
2
S
2
W
_
(31)
Substitutingequation(31) intob
Q
()
T
()
gives:
b
=Q
(1)
S
Q
(2)
(S
) Q
(3)
_
S
2
1
3
{S
2
]I
_
Q
(4)
_
W
2
1
3
{W
2
]I
_
Q
(5)
(W
S
2
S
2
W
)
Q
(6)
_
W
2
S
W
2
2
3
{S
W
2
]I
_
(32)
Q
(7)
(W
W
2
W
2
S
) Q
(8)
(S
S
2
S
2
W
)
Q
(9)
_
W
2
S
2
S
2
W
2
2
3
{S
2
W
2
]I
_
Q
(10)
(W
S
2
W
2
W
2
S
2
W
)
Ontheother hand, substitutingtheintegrity basis andthetheoretical expres-
sions[42]:
T
()
S
T
()
2
3
{T
()
S
]I =
T
()
and
T
()
W
T
()
=
T
()
where H and J are the scalar functions, into equation 30, gives the following
equationfor T
()
:
Q
()
T
()
=
1
T
(1)
Q
()
__
T
()
_
T
()
__
(33)
Equation(33) canbewrittenasQ
()
=A
1
, whereA
,
andB
=
1
. ByusingCayleyHamiltonidentities, thematricesH
andJ
can
bedetermined. Thus, wecanobtainQ
()
usingMathematicaasfollows:
Q
(1)
=
1
2
(63
1
21
2
2
3
30
4
),D Q
(6)
= 9,D
Q
(2)
= (33
1
6
2
2
3
6
4
),D Q
(7)
= 9,D
Q
(3)
= (63
1
12
2
2
3
6
4
),D Q
(8)
= 9,D
Q
(4)
= 3(3
1
2
3
6
4
),D Q
(9)
= 18D
Q
(5)
= 9,D Q
(10)
= 0
_
_
(34)
where
D =3
7
2
2
1
15
2
2
8
1
2
3
2
2
2
3
3
(35)
2
2
3
21
4
24
5
2
1
4
6
2
4
with
1
={S
2
],
2
={W
2
],
3
={S
3
],
4
= {S
W
2
], and
5
={S
2
W
2
].
Inorder toobtainreasonableformsfor Q
(1)
Q
(9)
, weassumeS
13
=W
13
=0.
Thus,
3
and
4
become0 and
5
=
1
2
2
. Therefore, thefollowing reasonable
formsfor Q
(1)
Q
(6)
canbederived:
Q
(1)
=
3
32
1
6
2
, Q
(2)
=
3
32
1
6
2
, Q
(3)
=
6
32
1
6
2
Q
(4)
=
18
1
(32
1
6
2
)(2
1
2
)
, Q
(5)
=
18
(32
1
6
2
)(2
1
2
)
Q
(6)
=
18
(32
1
6
2
)(2
1
2
)
_
_
(36)
Consequently, wecanobtainthecubicNLEDM asfollows:
b
ij
=
3
32
2
6
2
_
S
ij
(S
ik
W
kj
W
ik
S
kj
) 2
_
S
ik
S
kj

1
3
S
mn
S
nm
ij
_
6
2
2
2
_
2
(W
ik
W
kj

1
3
ij
W
mn
W
nm
) (W
ik
S
k
S
j
S
ik
S
k
W
j
)
_
W
ik
W
k
S
j
S
ik
W
k
W
j

2
3
S
m
W
mn
W
n
ij
___
(37)
where =(S
ij
S
ij
)
1
2
, =(W
ij
W
ij
)
1
2
, and b
ij
, S
ij
, and W
ij
are nondimensional
quantities, respectively, redenedasfollows:
b
ij
= C
D
b
ij
, S
ij
= C
D
R
o
S
ij
, W
ij
= 2C
D
R
o
W
ij
(38)
Sincetheproposedmodel inequation(37) canbewrittenasthefollowingequa-
tionfortheReynoldsshearstress, :w (orb
23
), instreamwiserotatingow, inwhich
S
12
(=S
21
), W
12
(=W
21
), S
23
(=S
32
), andW
23
(=W
32
) exist, theReynoldsshear
stress, :w, canbereproducedbythepresent model:
b
23
=
3
32
2
6
2
_
S
23
6
2
2
2
[(W
21
S
12
S
23
S
21
S
12
W
23
)
(39)
(W
21
W
12
S
23
W
23
W
32
S
23
S
21
W
12
W
23
S
23
W
32
W
23
)]
_
Inequation(37), thefunctions 3,(32 26
2
) and6,(2
2
2
) may
betakentobeanegativevalueor 0withtheincreasein. Thus, inorder toavoid
taking a negative value or 0, we model these functions taking into account the
rotational effect asfollows:
3
32
2
6
2
.
1
_
1
22
3
_
W
2
4
_
2
3
_
W
2
4
S
2
f
2
_
f
B

2
3
f
2
_
(40)
6
2
2
2
.
3
_
1
3
2
_
W
2
4
_
1
2
_
W
2
4
S
2
f
2
_
f
B

1
2
f
2
_
(41)
where
f
B
= 1C
_
W
2
4
S
2
f
2
_
(42)
f
2
= (C
D
R
o
)
2
[O
m
(2
mji
W
ij
O
m
)]
2
(43)
Themodel function, f
2
, inequation(43)isintroducedtoavoidaninappropriate
valueof (W
2
,4S
2
) with theincreasein arotation number. Sincef
2
=0 is
consistently kept innonrotational ows, inadequateReynolds stresses predicted
bytheproposedmodel arenot giveninnonrotational ows.
Finally, inorder toconstruct aprecisemodel for rotational ow, acubic term
introducedinanNLCLSmodel [40] isaddedintheproposedmodel. Consequently,
thenal formof thepresent cubicNLEDM isgivenasfollows:
u
i
u
j
=
2
3
k
ij
c
1
t
S
ij
c
2
k(
2
R
o

2
R
w
)(S
ik
W
kj
W
ik
S
kj
)
c
3
k(
2
R
o

2
R
w
)
_
S
ik
S
kj

1
3
S
mn
S
mn
ij
_
c
4
k
2
Ro
_
W
ik
W
kj

1
3
W
mn
W
mn
ij
_
(44)
c
5
k
3
Ro
(W
ik
S
k
S
j
S
ik
S
k
W
j
) c
6
k
3
Ro
_
W
ik
W
k
S
j
S
ik
W
k
W
j
2
3
S
m
W
mn
W
n
ij
_
c
7
k
3
Ro
(S
ij
S
k
S
k
S
ij
W
k
W
k
)
where
t
=C
j
f
j
k
2
, and C
j
=0.12, and themodel functions and constants are
givenasfollows:
c
1
= 2,f
R1
, c
2
= 4C
D
,f
R1
, c
3
= 4C
D
,f
R1
c
4
= 8C
3
D
S
2
,(f
R1
f
R2
), c
5
= 4C
2
D
f
RO
,(f
R1
f
R2
),
c
6
= 2C
2
D
,(f
R1
f
R2
), c
7
= 10C
2
j
C
2
D
, C
D
= 0.8
f
R1
= 1(C
D
Ro
)
2
[(22,3)W
2
(2,3)(W
2
S
2
f
2
)f
B
]
f
R2
= 1(C
D
Ro
)
2
[(3,2)W
2
(1,2)(W
2
S
2
f
2
)f
B
]
f
RO
= 12[1exp(f
3,4
SW
,26)]
f
j
= [1f
w
(32)]{1(40,R
3,4
t
)exp[(R
tm
,35)
3,4
]]
f
B
= 1C
(C
D
Ro
)
2
(W
2
S
2
f
2
)
f
2
= O
m
(2
mji
W
ij
O
m
), C
= 5.0
_
_
(45)
Thecharacteristic time-scale
R
w
isintroducedinanNLHN model [38] for an
anisotropyandwall-limitingbehavior of turbulent intensitydenedas:
R
w
=
_
1
6
f
R1
,C
D
f
SW
_
1
3C
:1
f
:2
8
_
f
2
:1
(46)
Table8.6. Model constantsandfunctionsof transport equationsfor k and
C
1
C
2
C
3
C
4
C
5
C
s
C
C
O
C
f O
1.45 1.9 0.02 0.5 0.015 1.4 1.4 0.045 6.0
f
t1
f
t2
f
19f
w
(8)
[1f
w
(32)]
1,2
15f
w
(8)
[1f
w
(32)]
1,2
_
10.3exp
_
_
R
t
6.5
_
2
__
[1f
2
w
(3.7)]
f
O
R
O
C
f O
exp
_
_
R
O
10
_
0.2
_
_
_
f
O
SW
f
SW
=
W
2
2

S
2
3
f
O
SW
(47)
f
O
SW
=
_
_
_
_
_
S
2
2

_
W
2
2
_
_
f
w
(1)
_
_
2
(48)
where C
:1
=0.4, C
:2
=2.010
3
, f
:1
= exp[(R
tm
,45)
2
] and f
:2
=1
exp(
R
t
,C
:2
).Thewall reectionfunctionisdenedbyf
w
()=exp[(R
tm
,)
2
],
and the corrected Reynolds number for the rotating ow is given as
R
tm
=(C
tm
n
R
1,4
t
),(C
tm
R
1,4
t
n
)withC
tm
=1.310
2
[38]. Moreover, itisfound
fromtheevaluationshowninFigures8.28f and8.29f thatthewall-limitingbehavior
of Reynoldsstresscomponentisnotsatisedforthetestedrotatingows. Thus, the
model functioninequation(48) of characteristictime-scale
R
w
isslightlymodied
asfollows:
f
O
SW
=
_
S
2
2

_
W
2
2
f
w
(1)
2
(49)
whereS
=
mn
S
mn
O
, W
=
mn
W
mn
O
.
For themodeled transport equations of k and as indicated in equations (9)
and(10), theturbulent diffusionandthepressurediffusionterms aremodeledas
follows[38]:
T
k
=

x
j
_
C
s
f
t1
t
k
u
j
u
k
x
_
(50)
T
=

x
j
_
C
f
t2
t
k
u
j
u
_
(51)
H
k
= max
_
0.5
x
j
_
k
x
j
f
w
(1)
_
, 0
_
(52)
H
= C
4

x
j
_
[1f
w
(5)]
x
j
f
w
(5)
_
(53)
The extra termin the -equation is adopted as the identical to the NLHN
model [38]:
E = C
3
u
j
u
2
U
i
x
x
k
2
U
j
x
x
k
C
5
u
j
u
k
x
j
U
i
x
k
2
U
i
x
j
x
k
(54)
Finally, a rotation-inuenced addition term, R, in the -equation (10) is
generalizedasfollows:
R = C
O
f
O
kc
ij
W
ij
d
(55)
whered
istheunitvectorinthespanwisedirection. Model constantsandfunctions

inthek- and-equations areindicatedinTable8.6. Inwhat follows, wecall the
cubic NLEDM, thus obtained, anonlinear eddy diffusivity for momentummodel
(NLEDMM).
Turbulent Heat Transfer
8.8.1 Evaluations of turbulent heat transfer models in rotating
channel ows
Toimprovethenonlineareddydiffusivityforheatmodel (NLEDHM), thefollowing
nonlinear turbulencemodels areevaluated using DNS data(refer to thedetailed
model functionsandconstantsof eachmodelsinRefs. [38], [43], and[44]).
NaganoandHattori [38] (hereinafter referredtoasNLHN)

u
j
=
t
jk
O
x
k
C
1
f
RT
2
mo
u
u
k
_
C
2
S
j
C
3
W
j
2C
1
jm
O
m
_
O
x
k
(56)
where
t
jk
isananisotropiceddydiffusivitytensor for heat asfollows:
t
jk
=
_
C
1
f
RT
_
u
j
u
k
m
(57)
SugaandAbe[43] (hereinafter referredtoasNLSA)

u
i
= C
k(
ij

ij
)
O
x
j
(58)
0 1
y/
2
6
0
0
0
0
Ro

=0.1
Ro

=0.1
Ro

=0.04
Ro

=0.04
Ro

=0.02
Ro

=0.02
Ro

=0.01
Ro

=0.01
6
DNS
NLHN
NLYSC
NLSA
0 1 2
0
0
0
0
1
DNS NLHN
NLSA NLYSC
(a)
y/
(b)
u
+
Figure8.30. Evaluations of turbulent heat uxes (Case 1); (a) streamwise (u),
(b) wall-normal (:).
where
ij
= C
0
ij
C
1
u
i
u
j
k
C
2
u
i
u
u
j
k
,
ij
= C
0
W
ij
C
1
_
W
i
u
u
j
k
W
j
u
i
u
k
_
Notethattheoriginal model isdescribedinthenonrotational form[43]. Inorder
toevaluatetheNLSA model intherotational ow, thevorticitytensorisreplaced
withtheabsolutevorticitytensor inthemodel.
Youniset al. [44] (hereinafter referredtoasNLYSC)

u
i
= C
1
k
2
O
x
i
C
2
k
u
i
u
j
O
x
j
C
3
k
3
2
U
i
x
j
O
x
j
(59)
C
4
k
2
2
_
u
i
u
k
U
j
x
k
u
j
u
k
U
i
x
k
_
O
x
j
Notethat theabovedescriptionis intheoriginal model form[44]. Inorder to
apply to the model evaluation in rotating channel ow, the velocity gradient,
U
i
,x
j
, must bereplacedwithS
ij
W
ij
inthemodel. However, theevaluation
isconductedusingtheoriginal form, becauseweshouldknowtheadverseeffect
of usingit.
EvaluationresultsareshowninFigures8.30and8.31. InCase1, itcanbeseen
that theNLSA model accurately reproduces thestreamwiseheat ux at various
rotationnumbers, becausetheNLSA model wasimprovedinorder toproperlypre-
dictthestreamwiseturbulentheatux[43]. Asfor anevaluationfor apredictionof
0
DNS
DNS
NLSA
NLSA
0
0
0
0
0
(a)
y/
Ro

=1.0
Ro

=2.5
Ro

=7.5
Ro

=10
Ro

=15
Ro

=1.0
Ro

=2.5
Ro

=7.5
Ro

=10
Ro

=15
1 2
0
(b)
y/
1 2
6
6
NLHN
NLHN
NLYSC
NLYSC
u
+
2
0
0
0
0
+
Figure8.31. Evaluations of turbulent heat uxes (Case 2); (a) streamwise (u),
(b) wall-normal (:).
wall-normal heatux, theNLHNmodel slightlyunderpredictsincaseof thelowest
rotationnumber, but theNLHN model givesgoodagreement withDNSdatawith
increaseinrotationnumber. InCase2, theNLSA andNLYSCgiveadequatepredic-
tionsof bothturbulentheatuxesincaseof thelowestrotationnumber. Eventhough
theNLYSC doesnot employtherotational form, it isnoteworthythat theNLYSC
model nearlygivesequivalent resultsincomparisonwiththeNLSA model. How-
ever, itisobviousthatall modelscannotpredictDNSresultswithincreaseinrotation
number. Inparticular, thewall-normal turbulentheatuxisnotreproducedbyeval-
uatedmodelsincaseof thehighest rotationnumber. Fromthisevaluationof Case
2, it may beconcludedthat themeantemperaturecannot beadequately predicted
usingevaluatedmodels. Thus, themodel shouldbeimprovedtoaccuratelypredict
heatedchannel owswitharbitraryrotatingaxesandvariousrotationnumbers.
8.8.2 Proposal of nonlinear eddy diffusivity model for wall-bounded
turbulent heat transfer
The formulation of nonlinear eddy diffusivity for a heat model (NLEDHM) is
derivedbelow[39]. Thetransport equationfor turbulent heat uxiswritten:
Du
j
Dt
= D
j
T
j
P
j
+
j

j
C
j
(60)
whereweintroducethenondimensional heat-uxparameter a
j
[45]:
a
j
=
u
j
(61)
wherek
=
2
,2.
Thetransportequationfora
j
isderivedtoneglectthediffusiveeffectsasfollows:
Da
j
Dt
=
D
Dt
_
u
j
_
=
1
Du
j
Dt

1
2
u
j
_
1
k
Dk
Dt

1
k
Dk
Dt
_
=
1
_
P
j
+
j

j
C
j
_
(62)
1
2
u
j
k
_
P
k
1
_
_
P
k
1
__
where the transport equations for k and k
[see equations (9) and (11)] are

employed.
The most general linear expression is adopted for the modeled pressure
temperaturegradient correlationterm, +
j
, anddissipationterm,
j
:
+
j

j
= C
1
u
j
u
C
2
u
k
U
j
x
k
C
3
u
k
U
k
x
j
(63)
where
u
=k,.
TheproductionandCoriolistermsinequation(60) aregivenby:
P
j
= u
j
u
k
O
x
k
u
k
U
j
x
k
(64)
C
j
= 2
jmk
O
m
u
k
(65)
Therefore, therst termontheright-handsideof equation(62) isexpandedas
follows:
1
(P
j
+
j

j
C
j
) =
1
C
1
u
_
u
j

1
C
1
u
u
j
u
k
O
x
k
(66)
1C
2
C
1

u
u
k
U
j
x
k
C
3
C
1
u
u
k
U
k
x
j
2
C
1
jmk
O
m
u
k
_
wherethemodel constantsinequation(66) arereplacedasC
T1
=1,C
1
, C
T2
=(1
C
2
),C
1
, andC
T3
=C
3
,C
1
. Thus:
1
(P
j
+
j

j
C
j
) =
1
1
C
T1
u
_
u
j
C
T1
u
u
j
u
k
O
x
k
(C
T2
C
T3
)
u
u
k
S
jk
(C
T2
C
T3
)
u
u
k
_
W
jk

2C
T1
C
T2
C
T3
jmk
O
m
__
(67)
Consequently, substituting equation (67) for equation (62), the following
equationisobtained:
Da
j
Dt
=
1
1
C
1
u
_
u
j
C
1
u
u
j
u
k
O
x
k
C
2
u
u
k
S
jk
C
3
u
u
k
(W
jk
C
4
c
jmk
O
m
)
_
(68)
1
2
u
j
k
_
P
k
1
_
_
P
k
1
__
where C
1
=C
T1
, C
2
=C
T2
C
T3
, C
3
=C
T2
C
T3
, and C
4
=2C
T1
,
(C
T2
C
T3
).
Inthelocal equilibriumstate, thefollowingrelationholds:
Da
j
Dt
= 0 (69)
Withtheaboveconditionof equation(69), equation(68) becomesasfollows:
u
j
u
_
1
C
1
2
_
P
k
1
_
C
1
2R
_
P
k
1
__
(70)
= (
jk
3b
jk
)
2
3
C
1
k
O
x
k
(C
2
S
jk
C
3
W
/
jk
)
u
k
whereW
/
jk
=W
jk
C
4
c
jmk
O
m
, andthefollowingcharacteristic time-scaleinthe
left-hand sideof equation (70) is replaced with themixed time-scale
m
for the
near-wall treatment:
u
1
C
1
2
_
P
k
1
_
C
1
2R
_
P
k
1
_
m
(71)
Finally, if weintroducethenondimensional givenbythefollowingequations:
b
jk
= 3b
jk
,
O
k
=
2
3
C
1
k
m
O
x
k
,
S
jk
= C
2
m
S
jk
,
W
jk
= C
3
m
W
jk
.
_
_
(72)
Thus, equation(70) becomes:
a
j
= (
jk
b
jk
)O
k
(S
jk
W
jk
)a
k
(73)
Thus, we obtain the following explicit expression for the nondimensional
turbulent heat ux[45]:
a
j
=
1
1
1
2
_
W
2
S
2
_
[
jk
b
jk
(S
jk
W
jk
) (S
j
W
j
)b
k
]O
k
(74)
whereW
2
=W
ij
W
ij
andS
2
=S
ij
S
ij
. Thederivedequation(74) canberewritten
intheconventional formasfollows:
u
j
=
C
1
m
f
RT
u
j
u
k
O
x
k
C
1
2
m
f
RT
u
k
u
_
C
2
S
j
O
x
k
C
3
W
j
O
x
k
2C
1
c
jm
O
m
O
x
k
_
(75)
whereC
4
=2C
1
,C
3
andf
RT
=1
1
2
2
m
(C
2
3
W
2
C
2
2
S
2
), andtherst termof
right-hand sidecan berewritten using thefollowing anisotropic eddy diffusivity
tensor for heat:
t
jk
=
C
1
f
RT
u
j
u
k
m
(76)
Thus, the nal form for NLEDHM given in equation (56) is obtained as
follows:
u
j
=
t
jk
O
x
k
C
1
f
RT
2
m
u
k
u
(C
2
S
j
C
3
W
j
2C
1
jm
O
m
)
O
x
k
(77)
Based on the foregoing, the NLEDHM should be improved to accurately
predictheatedchannel owswitharbitraryrotatingaxesandvariousrotationnum-
bers. AlthoughtheNLHN properly predictstherotatingheatedchannel owwith
arbitrary rotating axes, the streamwise turbulent heat ux is slightly underpre-
dicted.Therefore, inordertoconstructaturbulencemodel havinghigher-prediction
precision, wereconstruct theNLEDHM basedontheNLHNmodel [38].
As for apredictionof streamwiseturbulent heat ux, Hishidaet al. [46] pro-
posedtherelationu =C
h
(u:,k): fromanexperimental result, andHattori
et al. [24] proposed the modied temperaturepressure gradient correlation and
dissipation terms for a buoyancy-affected thermal eld, in which the prediction
precisionof NLEDHM isimproved. Inthisstudy, weintroducethedimensionless
Reynolds stress tensor A
ij
(=u
i
u
j
,k) inananisotropic eddy diffusivity tensor for
heat as indicated in equation (60), which is adopted in theNLSA model [43] to
adequately predict thestreamwiseturbulent heat ux, for theNLHN model indi-
catedinequation[56]. Also, introducingthedimensionlessReynoldsstresstensor
intotheNLEDHM, theNLEDHMsuccessfullypredictsturbulentbuoyantowsas
mentionedinHattori et al. [24].
t
jk
=
_
C
1
f
RT
_
u
i
u
j
A
ik
m
(78)
f
RT
= 1
1
2
2
m
[C
2
2
(W
2
S
2
) (C
2
3
C
2
2
)W
2
] (79)
whereC
1
, C
2
, andC
3
aremodel constantsand
m
isthecharacteristictime-scale.
InintroducingthedimensionlessReynoldsstresstensor A
ij
,
t
jk
(O,x
k
) of the
streamwiseturbulent heat ux, u (j =1), isgivenasfollows:
t
xy
=
_
C
1
f
RT
__
u:
k
_
u
2
:
2
_
_
m
O
y
(80)
where, regardingthederivationof equation(80), afullydevelopedchannel owis
assumed.
Theoriginal model of equation(57) makes for thestreamwiseturbulent heat
ux
t
xy
=(C
1
,f
RT
):
2
m
. Comparingbothequations, theeffect of dimensionless
Reynolds stress tensor for thepredictionof thestreamwiseturbulent heat ux is
obviously obtained, i.e., thestreamwisevelocity intensity, u
2
, whichhas astrong
correlationwithu [47], evidentlyimprovestheprediction.
8.9 Model Performances
8.9.1 Prediction of rotating channel ow using NLEDMM
The evaluations for the newly improved NLEDM (or NLEDMM) are shown in
Figures8.328.42. Inordertocalculatethepresentmodel, thenumerical technique
usedisanite-volumemethod[48].
First, casesof wall-normal rotatingchannel owsareshowninFigures[8.32
8.42]. In this case, the streamwise mean velocity decreases with the increasing
rotationnumberduetotheexchangemomentumbetweenthestreamwiseandspan-
wise velocity as indicated in Figures 8.32a and c. Thus, the spanwise velocity
increases at thelower rotation numbers, but thespanwisevelocity reaches max-
imumvalueat acritical rotation number. Then, thespanwisevelocity decreases
becausethestreamwisevelocitybecomesalmost zeroat higher rotationnumbers.
IncomparisonwithDNS results, thepresent NLEDMM gives better predictions
thanthepredictions of theNLCLS model. Inparticular, Reynolds shear stresses,
:w, arepredictedvery well asshowninFigure8.32d. Figure8.33showsrelation
betweenstreamwiseandspanwisevelocitiesinthiscase, inwhichthelaminarsolu-
tionsareincludedfor comparison. Obviously, theowtendstobelaminarizedwith
theincreasingrotationnumber, andthepresentmodel canpredictproperlythisten-
dency. Also, anisotropy inturbulent intensitiesisreproducedby thepresent cubic
Ro

=0.15
Ro

=0.04
Ro

=0.02
Ro

=0.01
Ro

=0.1
20
10
0
0
0
0
0
W
+
DNS
NLCLS(1996)
Present model
0 1 2
Ro

=0.15
Ro

=0.04
Ro

=0.02
Ro

=0.01
Ro

=0.1
10
0
0
0
0
0
U
+
DNS
NLCLS(1996)
Present model
0
(a)
y/ y/
1 2
Ro

=0.15
Ro

=0.1
Ro

=0.04
Ro

=0
Ro

0.02
Ro

0.01
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
DNS
NLCLS(1996)
Present model
0
(b)
(c)
y/ y/
(d)
1 2
u
+
Ro

=0.15
Ro

=0.04
z

=0.02
Ro

=0.01
Ro

=0.1
DNS
NLCLS(1996)
Present model
0 1 2
5
0
0
0
0
0
5
w
+
Figure8.32. Distributions of predicted wall-normal rotating ows (Case 1):
(c) spanwisemeanvelocities, and(d) Reynoldsshear stresses, :w.
NLEDMMasshowninFigure8.34a. Asmentionedabove, theNLEDMMcanpre-
dictaturbulentveolocityeldsimilarinmanyrespectstotheNLHNmodel asshown
inFigure8.28, but thewall-limitingbehavior issatisedexactly by theimproved
model, asindicatedinFigure8.34b. Therefore, it isobviousthat thepresent cubic
NLEDMM giveshigher performancefor thepredictionsof rotatingchannel ows
whilemaintainingtheperformanceof thebasismodel, e.g., NLHNmodel.
Next, the predictions of fully developed streamwise rotating channel ows
calculated by the present model are shown in Figure 8.35. The results with the
Predictions
5
4
3
2
1
0 5 10
Ro

=0.10
Ro

=0.15
Ro

=0.30
: Laminar solution
: DNS
U
+
W
+
Figure8.33. Relationof betweenU andW inwall-normal rotatingchannel ow.
Ro

=0.10 Ro

=0.1
Symbols : DNS
Lines : Present model
u
2
+
2
+
w
2
+
6
4
2 u
2
+
2
+
w
2
+
,
,
0 1 2
(a)
y/
10
0
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
10
10
10
12
10
14
10
2
10
1
y
+
y
+2
y
+4
(b)
10
0
10
1
10
2
u
2
+
2
+
w
2
+
,
,
Ro

=0.1
DNS NLHN Present
u
2
+
2
+
w
2
+
Figure8.34. Distributionsof predictedwall-normal rotatingows(Case1): (a)tur-
bulent intensities and (b) wall-limiting behavior of Reynolds stress
components.
Ro
= 1.0
Ro
= 2.5
Ro
= 7.5
Ro
= 10
Ro
= 15
DNS
20
U
+
0
0
0
0
0 1 2
y/
NLCLS(1996)
Present model
Ro
= 1.0
Ro
= 2.5
Ro
= 7.5
Ro
= 10
Ro
= 15
1
u
+
0
0
0
0
0
1
0 1 2
y/
DNS
NLCLS(1996)
Present model
(a) (b)
Ro
= 1.0
Ro
= 2.5
Ro
= 7.5
Ro
= 10
Ro
= 15
DNS
2
W
+
0
0
0
0
0
0 1 2
y/
NLCLS(1996)
Present model
2
Ro
= 1.0
Ro
= 2.5
Ro
= 7.5
Ro
= 10
Ro
= 15
0.2
u
w
+
0
0
0
0
0
0 1 2
y/
DNS
NLCLS(1996)
Present model
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
0
2
4
6
8
10
0
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
10
10
10
12
10
2
10
1
10
0
10
1
10
2
1 2
y/
u
2
+
v
2
+
y
+
2
y
+
y
+
1
w
2
+
Symbols : DNS
Lines : Preset model
DNS NLHN Present
Ro
=10.0
Ro
=1.0 Ro
=10.0
u
2
+
2
+
w
2
+
,
,
u
2
+
2
+
w
2
+
,
,
Figure8.35. Distributions of predicted streamwise rotating ows (Case 2):
bulent intensities and (f) wall-limiting behavior of Reynolds stress
components.
2
2
1
x
3
Ro
y
Ro
x
Ro
z

x
2
x
1
Flow
Figure8.36. Coordinatesystemandarbitraryrotatingaxisinrotatingchannel ow.
Ro
x
= 15, Ro
z
= 2.5
Ro
x
= 11, Ro
z
= 2.5
Ro
x
= 7.5, Ro
z
= 2.5
Ro
x
= 5, Ro
z
= 2.5
Ro
x
= 2.5, Ro
z
= 2.5
20
10
0
0
0
0
0
0 1 2
y/
U
+
DNS
Present model
Figure8.37. Distributionsof meanvelocitiesinanarbitraryaxisrotatingchannel
ow: CaseSTSP: streamwisemeanvelocities.
NLCLSmodel [40] arealsoincludedinthegurefor comparison. Itcanbeseenin
Figures8.35adthatthepresentNLEDMMgivesaccuratepredictionsof bothmean
velocitiesandReynoldsshear stressesinall cases, andthetest caseof thehighest
rotational number isadequatelyreproducedbytheNLEDMM. Also, theReynolds
normal stressesareindicatedinFigures8.35eandf. Now, thepresent NLEDMM
adequately reproduces redistribution of Reynolds normal stresses, and can pre-
dict wall-limitingbehaviour exactly. Thesearebecausethemodiedcharacteristic
time-scale
Rw
givenasequation(46) isintroducedintheproposedNLEDMM.
Toconrmtheperformanceof theNLEDMMmodel, casesof rotatingchannel
ow with combined rotational axes are calculated as shown in Figure 8.36, in
which DNS databases of these cases are provided by Wu and Kasagi [17]. The
rotationnumbersof CaseSTSParegivenasRo
x
=2.515andRo
z
=2.5, those
of CaseWNSP1asRo
y
=0.04andRo
z
=2.511andthoseof CaseWNSP2as
Ro
y
=0.010.04andRo
z
=2.5, respectively. Thepredictedmeanvelocitiesare
1.5
1.5
y/
0
0
0
0
0
DNS
Present model
0 1 2
Ro
x
=2.5 , Ro
z
=2.5
Ro
x
=5 , Ro
z
=2.5
Ro
x
=7.5 , Ro
z
=2.5
Ro
x
=11 , Ro
z
=2.5
Ro
x
=15 , Ro
z
=2.5
W
+
ow: CaseSTSP: spanwisemeanvelocities.
0 1
DNS
y/
Present
2
Ro
y
= 0.04,Ro
z
= 2.5
Ro
y
= 0.04,Ro
z
= 5.0
Ro
y
= 0.04,Ro
z
= 7.5
Ro
y
= 0.04,Ro
z
= 11
0
0
0
10
20
U
+
ow: CaseWNSP1: streamwisemeanvelocities.
showninFigures8.378.42withDNS data[17]. It canbeseenthat theproposed
NLEDMM gives accuratepredictions of all cases, sincetheproper modelingfor
rotatingowswitharbitraryrotatingaxesisintroducedinthepresenttwo-equation
model withthecubicNLEDMM.
0 1
DNS
y/
Present
2
Ro
y
= 0.04,Ro
z
= 2.5
Ro
y
= 0.04,Ro
z
= 5.0
Ro
y
= 0.04,Ro
z
= 7.5
Ro
y
= 0.04,Ro
z
= 11
0
0
0
10
20
W
+
ow: CaseWNSP1: spanwisemeanvelocities.
20
0
10
0
0
0
1 2
y/
DNS
Present model
Ro
y
= 0.04
Ro
y
= 0.02
Ro
y
= 0.01
Ro
z
= 2.5
U
+
ow: CaseWNSP2: streamwisemeanvelocities.
8.9.2 Prediction of rotating channel-ow heat transfer using NLEDHM
Calculationsidentical withDNSconditionsindicatedinTable8.5usingturbulence
models arecarriedout incomparisonwithDNS results. Again, Figures 8.32and
8.35 indicate predicted streamwise and spanwise mean velocities in both cases,
andit isobviousthat meanvelocitiesinbothcasesareadequatelypredictedbythe
NLEDMM. Sinceathermal eldis passivescalar, turbulent quantities of veloc-
ity eld should beaccurately predicted by theturbulencemodel for thevelocity
eld. Therefore, theproposedNLEDHM canclosely incorporatetheNLEDMM.
10
0
5
0
0
0
1 2
y/
DNS
Present model
Ro
y
= 0.04
Ro
y
= 0.02
Ro
y
= 0.01
Ro
z
= 2.5
W
+
ow: CaseWNSP2: spanwisemeanvelocities.
1
0
0
0
0 1 2
y/
DNS
NLHN
Present
Ro

= 0.10
Ro

= 0.04
Ro

= 0.02
Ro

= 0.01
(
H
)
/
Figure8.43. Predictedmeantemperatures(Case1).
Notethat thefollowingresultsaregivenfromacalculationof full transport equa-
tionsgiveninequations(4)(12) withequation(44) andthepresent NLEDHM or
theNLHNmodel.
First, thedistributionsof meantemperature, whichareestimatedbythepresent
NLEDHM areshown in Figure8.43. TheNLHN model (16) is also included in
thegures for comparison. Accuratepredictionof themeantemperatureof Case
1 can be done with both models. On the other hand, the proposed NLEDHM
is apparently improved to predict a streamwise turbulent heat ux as indicated
in Figure8.44a. Although thestreamwiseturbulent heat ux does not affect the
distributionof meantemperaturedirectly, theturbulent heat transfer model should
(a) (b)
1
0
0
0
0 1 2
DNS
NLHN
Present
Ro

= 0.10
Ro

= 0.04
Ro

= 0.02
Ro

= 0.01
v
u
+
y/
6
0
0
0
0
0 1 2
DNS
NLHN
Present
6
u
u
+
Ro

= 0.10
Ro

= 0.04
Ro

= 0.02
Ro

= 0.01
y/
(c)
DNS
Present
6
0
0
0
0
6
u
+
Ro

= 0.1
Ro

= 0.04
Ro

= 0.02
Ro

= 0.01
0 1 2
y/
Figure8.44. Predictedturbulentheatuxes(Case1); (a) streamwise(u), (b) wall-
normal (:), (c) spanwise(w).
predict the streamwise turbulent heat ux to apply some turbulent heat transfer
problemsuchasbuoyantow. Asfor thepredictedwall-normal heatuxasshown
inFigure8.44b, adiscontinuouslinecanbefaintlyseeninthechannel centerregion.
Thisiscausedbythepredictedwall-normal velocityintensity. Sincethewall-normal
velocityintensityisslightlyoverpredictedinthiscasebytheNLEDMM, thewall-
normal turbulent heat uxisremarkablyaffectedbytheprediction. Thepredicted
spanwiseturbulent heat uxisshowninFigure8.44c. Thepresent predictionsare
ingoodagreementwithDNS. Figure8.45showsthewall-limitingbehavior of both
streamwiseandwall-normal turbulent heat uxes. Sincetheheat is carriedfrom
thewall inthecaseof theheatedwall condition, thewall-limitingbehavior should
bereproducedtoexactlyestimateheat transfer rate. It canbeseenthat thepresent
DNS
NLHN
Present
10
1
10
5
10
7
10
3
10
1
u
u
+
v
u
+
10
1
10
0
10
1
y
+
10
2
y
+2
y
+3
Ro
t
= 0.04
uu
+
vu
+
Figure8.45. Wall-limitingbehavior of turbulent heat uxes(Case1).
1
0
0
0
0
0 1 2
y/
DNS
NLHN
Present
Ro

15
Ro

10
Ro

7.5
Ro

2.5
Ro

1.0
(
H
)
/
Figure8.46. Predictionsof meantemperature(Case2).

NLEDHM appropriately predictsbothturbulent heat uxes. Notethat thepresent
NLEDHM exactly satises thedifferencebetweenturbulent heat uxes, i.e., the
streamwiseturbulent heat uxisproportional toy
2
, andthewall-normal turbulent
heat uxisproportional toy
3
.
InCase2, althoughthemeantemperatureindicatedinFigure8.46is slightly
underpredictedby theNLHN model inthehighest rotationnumber, theproposed
model can satisfactorily reproduce it. Also, in this case, it can be seen that the
proposedNLEDHM adequatelypredictsboththestreamwiseandthewall-normal
turbulentheatuxesasshowninFigure8.47. Ontheotherhand, itisdifcultforthe
present model topredict thespanwiseturbulent heat uxinCase2. Thespanwise
(a)
6
0
0
0
0
0
0 1
y/ y/
2
DNS
NLHN
Present
6
Ro

15
Ro

10
Ro

7.5
Ro

2.5
Ro

1.0
u
+
(b)
1
0
0
0
0
0 1 2
DNS
NLHN
Present
Ro

= 15
Ro

= 10
Ro

= 7.5
Ro

= 2.5
Ro

= 1.0
+
Figure8.47. Predictedturbulent heat ux(Case2); (a) streamwise(u), (b) wall-
normal (:).
10
1
10
5
10
7
10
1
10
0
10
1
y
+
10
2
10
3
10
1
y
+2
y
+3

Ro

= 2.5
DNS
NLHN
Present
u
+
+
u
+
Figure8.48. Wall-limitingbehavior of turbulent heat uxes(Case2).
turbulent heat ux, w, isexpressedbythepresent model inCase2asfollows:
w =
_
C
1
f
RT
_
_
uw
u:
k
:w
:
2
k
_
mo
O
y
(81)
C
1
f
RT
2
mo
:
2
_
(C
2
C
3
)
W
y
2C
1
O
1
_
O
y
Thewall-limitingbehaviorsof turbulentheatuxesareshowninFigure8.48, in
whichthewall-limitingbehaviorsareproperlysatisedbythepresent NLEDHM.
Onthebasisof theseevidences, itwouldnotbeanoverstatementtosaythatthe
proposedmodel canbeappliedto predict therotatingheatedchannel ows with
arbitraryrotatingaxes.
8.10 Concluding Remarks
Basedonour current works, therecent trends inDNS andturbulencemodels for
velocityandthermal eldshavebeenoverviewedinthischapter. Without dispute,
theDNS gives us apossibility to obtain highly accurateinformation on various
turbulencequantities. Withintheforeseeablefuture, DNSresearcherswill actively
tacklemorecomplex problems, e.g., ows at highReynolds or Prandtl numbers,
buoyancy-drivencomplexows, andatmosphericboundarylayer ows. Of course,
itistruethatthepower of thepresentsupercomputer systemdoesnotoffer realistic
solutions totheaboveproblems. However, improvement of computer systems, in
particular, the further development of massive parallel-computing systems will
conquer most of theserious difculties whichconfront us now. Infact, thereare
emergingindustrieswhichaimforpetaops(PFLOPS)computing. Newresearches
concerningexascalesupercomputingdesignarealsoinprogress.
Thelatest turbulencemodelsfor velocityandthermal eldsdeal withtheindi-
vidual elemental processesof turbulencewiththeaidof detailedinformationgiven
by DNS. As aresult, suchmodels canmimic theDNS withhighaccuracy. Also,
manyattemptstoconstructauniversal turbulencemodel arebeingmade. If anum-
ber of DNSdatabasesoncomplexturbulentowsareconstructedinthefuture, we
will beabletoapproachtheuniversal turbulencemodel.
Acknowledgment
This study was partially supportedby aGrant-in-Aidfor Scientic Research(S),
17106003, fromtheJ apanSocietyfor thePromotionof Science(J SPS).
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9 Analytical wall-functions of turbulence for
complex surface ow phenomena
K. Suga
Osaka Prefecture University, Sakai, Japan
Abstract
Therecentlyemergedanalytical wall-function(AWF)methodsforsurfaceboundary
conditionsof turbulent owsaresummarised. SincetheAWFsintegratetransport
equationsof momentumandscalarsover thecontrol volumesadjacent tosurfaces
withsomesimplications, itiseasytoincludecomplexsurface-owphysicsintothe
wall-functionformula. Hence, theAWF schemes aresuccessful totreat turbulent
ow and scalar transport near solid, smooth, rough and permeable walls. High
Prandtl or Schmidtnumber scalar transportnear wallsor freesurfacesarealsowell
handledbytheAWFs. Thischapter, thus, summarisestheir rationale, fundamental
equationsandprocedureswithillustrativeapplicationresults.
Keywords: Analytical wall-function, HighPrandtl number, HighSchmidt number,
Permeablewall, Roughwall, Turbulent ows
9.1 Introduction
Wall functionshavebeenusedfromtheearlystageof turbulenceCFD.Sincenumer-
ical integrationof turbulenceequations downto asolidwall requires densegrid
nodes to resolvethesteepvariations of theturbulencequantities, it was virtually
impossibleforthepeoplein1970stoperformturbulenceCFDof engineeringows
evenby themost powerful computer inthosedays. Moreover, owphysics very
near thewall (insidesublayer), whichisrequiredfor constructingamoreadvanced
turbulencemodel, wasnot well known.
However, according to the development of computers, many studies on low
Reynoldsnumber (LRN) turbulencemodelshavebeenmadeandsuchLRN mod-
els have replaced wall functions in most numerical studies (Launder [1]). The
emergenceof direct numerical simulations(Kim, MoinandMoser [2]) enhanced
this tendency, and so many LRN turbulence models have been proposed since
then.
Despite the fact that many LRN turbulence models perform satisfactorily,
industrial engineersstill routinely makeuseof classical wall-functionapproaches
for representingnear-wall turbulenceandheattransfer (e.g., AhmedandDemoulin
[3]). One reason for this is that, even with advances in computing power, their
near-wall resolution requirements make LRN models prohibitively expensive in
complexthree-dimensional industrial heat anduidows.
This is easily understandable when one considers ows over rough and/or
poroussurfaces, whicharecommoninindustrial applications. Becauseonecannot
hopeto resolvethedetails of tiny elements composing therough and/or porous
walls, thewall-functionapproachmaybetheonlypractical strategyfor suchindus-
trial applications. Another difculty of performingLRN modelsistreatingscalar
eldsof highPrandtl or Schmidt numbers. Insuchows, thesublayer thicknessof
thescalarismuchthinnerthanthatof theviscoussublayerof theow. Thisrequires
muchner gridnodesfor thescalar eldsthanthosefor owelds.
The most part of the standard log-law wall-function (LWF) strategies was
proposedinthe1970s withtheassumptionof semi-logarithmic variations of the
near-wall velocity and temperature (e.g. Launder and Spalding [4]). After the
establishment of the LWF, Chieng and Launder [5] improved the wall function
byallowingfor alinear variationof boththeshear stressandtheturbulent kinetic
energy across thenear-wall cell. Amano [6] also attempted to improvethewall
functions. However, all theaboveattempts werestill basedonthelog-lawandit
is well knownthat suchaconditiondoes not apply inows withstrongpressure
gradientsandseparation(e.g. Launder [1, 7]).
Thus, several attemptsfordevelopingnewwall-functionapproachesweremade.
Recently, Craft et al. [8] proposedanalternativewall-functionstrategy. Whilestill
semi-empirical innature, their model makes assumptions at adeeper, moregen-
eral level than thelog-lawbasedschemes. This approach is calledtheanalytical
wall-function (AWF) and integrates simplied mean ow and energy equations
analytically over thecontrol volumes adjacent to thewall, assuming anear-wall
variationof theturbulent viscosity. Theresultinganalytical expressionsthenpro-
ducethevalueof thewall shear stressandother quantitieswhicharerequiredover
thenearwall cell.
1
Following this strategy, the present author and his colleagues discussed and
proposedextensions of theAWF approachthat allowfor theeffects of ne-grain
surfaceroughness, porouswallsandawiderangeof Prandtl andSchmidtnumbers
[1013]. Thischapter summarisestheoutlinesandtheapplicationresults
2
of those
extensionsof theAWF methodfor complexsurfaceturbulence.
1
Inthecontextof largeeddysimulations, CabotandMoin[9] discussedawall model whose
basicideawassimilartothatof theAWF, thoughitusedanimplicitformulaof thewall shear
stress.
2
All theresultspresentedhavebeencomputedbyin-housenitevolumecodeswhichemploy
theSIMPLE pressure-correctionalgorithm[14] withRhieChowinterpolation[15] andthe
third-order MUSCL-typescheme(e.g. [16]) for convectionterms.
AWFs of turbulence for complex surface ow phenomena 333
P
n
w
y
x
s
U
e
Wall
Figure9.1. Near-wall gridarrangement.
9.2 Numerical Implementation of Wall Functions
In this section, we recall the main features of the implementation of the wall
functionsintoanumerical code.
A simpliedtransport equationfor near walls:
x
(U) =

y
_
I
y
_
S
(1)
can be integrated using the nite volume method over the cells illustrated in
Figure9.1giving
_
n
s
_
e
w
x
(U)dx dy =
_
n
s
_
e
w
y
_
I
y
_
dx dy
_
n
s
_
e
w
S
dx dy (2)
[(U)
e
(U)
w
]Ly =
__
I
d
dy
_
n
_
I
d
dy
_
s
_
Lx S
LxLy (3)
whereS
is theaveraged sourcetermover thewall-adjacent cell P. Notethat x

is thewall-parallel coordinatewhiley is thewall normal coordinate. (Although
two-dimensional forms are written here, extending themto three dimensions is
straightforward.)
When thewall-parallel component of themomentumequation is considered
( =U) theterm(Id,dy)
s
in equation (3) corresponds to thewall shear stress
w
, whileintheenergy equationit corresponds to thewall heat ux q
w
. Instead
of calculating thesefromthestandard discretization, they areobtained fromthe
algebraicwall-functionexpressions.
Inthecaseof thetransportequationfor theturbulenceenergyk inincompress-
ibleows, theaveragedsourcetermover thewall adjacent cell iswrittenas:
S
k
= P
k
= (P
k
) (4)
Theterms P
k
and thus alsoneedtobeprovidedby thewall function. Notethat
thewall functionalsocanprovidek and atP astheboundaryconditionsfor their
transport equations.
9.3 Standard Log-LawWall-Function (LWF)
BeforeintroducingtheAWF, thestandardwall functionapproachusingthelog-law
issurveyedbriey.
Therst requirement, whenusingthestandardwall function, is that thenode
point P is sufciently remotefromthewall for y
to bemuch greater than that

of theviscoussublayer. Thevalue, at least, greater than30(y
30) isnormally
applied. Then, theuxesof momentumandthermal eldstothewall aresupposed
toobeythefollowinglogarithmicproles:
U
=
1
lny
B (5)
O
=
1
t
lny
C (6)
wheretheconstants =0.38to0.42and
t
=0.47to0.48. TheconstantB=5.0to
5.5while
C = (3.85Pr
1,3
1.3)
2
1,
t
lnPr
for smoothwall cases. Thewall shear stress
w
andheatuxq
w
atthe(N 1) step
of theiterativecomputationarethenobtainedas:
_
w
,
(N1)
=
_
U
P
1
lny
P
B
_
(N)
(7)
(q
w
)
N1
=
_
c
p
U
O
P
1
t
lny
P
C
_
(N)
(8)
In the local equilibriumboundary layers, the eddy viscosity formula gives
u: =
t
U,y, and thus theproduction of theturbulencekinetic energy k can
bewrittenas:
P
k
= u:
U
y
=
t
U
y
_
U
y
_
(9)
Then, since
t
=c
j
k
2
, andP
k
= inlocal equilibrium,
3
_
u:
k
_
2
=
(
t
U,y)
2
k
2
=

t
k
2
P
k
=
c
j
P
k
= c
j
(10)
Thus, usingthefollowingrelation:
U
=
_
w
, .

u: .
_
c
1,2
j
k . c
1,4
j
k
1,2
P
(11)
3
The coefcient c
j
can be obtained fromthe experimental results of local equilibrium
boundarylayers: u:,k .0.3, asc
j
=(u:)
2
,k
2
=0.3
2
=0.09.
onecanrewriteequation(7) as:
w
=
c
1,4
j
k
1,2
P
U
P
1
ln(c
1,4
j
y
P
) B
(12)
with the relation of y
=c
1,4
j
y
in local equilibrium[4]. Note that the super-

scripts meaning steps are omitted for simplication hereafter. This formavoids
a shortcoming of using y
which becomes zero where the wall shear stress

w
vanishes.
For turbulenceenergyk, onecanobtainitsvalueat P fromequation(11) as:
k
P
=
U
2
c
j
(13)
for theboundarycondition. Thedissipationrateof k isalsogivenas:
P
=
U
3
y
(14)
for the boundary condition at P by manipulating equations (10) and (11) with
the relation
t
, =y
. Note that the friction velocity U
(=
w
,) should be
obtainedfromequation(7) or (12).
9.4 Analytical Wall-Function (AWF)
9.4.1 Basic strategy of the AWF
IntheAWF, thewall shear stressandheat uxareobtainedthroughtheanalytical
solution of simplied near-wall versions of thetransport equations for thewall-
parallel momentumandtemperature[8]. Incaseof theforcedconvectionregime, the
mainassumptionrequiredfor theanalytical integrationof thetransport equations
is aprescribedvariationof theturbulent viscosity j
t
. Thedistributionof j
t
over
thewall-adjacent cell P ismodelledasinaone-equationturbulencemodel:
j
t
= c
j
k
1,2
= c
j
k
1,2
c
y . jy
(15)
where istheturbulentlengthscale, =c
c
j
andy
yk
1,2
P
,. Inordertoconsider
viscoussub-layer effects, insteadof introducingadampingfunction, theproleof
j
t
ismodelledas:
j
t
= max{0, j(y
:
)] (16)
inwhichj
t
isstill linear iny
andgrowsfromtheedgeof theviscoussub-layer:
y
:
(y
:
k
1,2
P
,).
U
y
y
v
y
n
P
n
N
smooth
rough
m
t
= max[0,am(y
*
y
v
*
)]
y* y k
p
/v
m
t
Figure9.2. Near-wall cells.
Inthecontext of Figure9.2, thenear-wall simpliedformsof themomentum
andenergyequationsbecome
_
(j j
t
)
U
y
_
=

2
k
P
_

x
(UU)
P
x
_
. ,, .
C
U
(17)
__
j
Pr

j
t
Pr
t
_
O
y
_
=

2
k
P
_

x
(UO) S
_
. ,, .
C
T
(18)
wherePr
t
isaprescribedturbulentPrandtl number, takenas0.9.Thefurtherassump-
tionmadeisthatconvectivetransportandthewall-parallel pressuregradientP,x
do not changeacross thewall-adjacent cell which is astandard treatment in the
nitevolumemethod. Thus, theright-handside(rhs) terms C
U
andC
T
of equa-
tions(17) and(18) canbetreatedasconstant. Then, theequationscanbeintegrated
analyticallyover thewall-adjacent cell giving:
if y
-y
:
dU
dy
= (C
U
y
A
U
),j (19)
dO
dy
= Pr(C
T
y
A
T
),j (20)
U =
C
U
2j
y
2
A
U
j
y
B
U
(21)
O =
PrC
T
2j
y
2
PrA
T
j
y
B
T
(22)
if y
:
dU
dy
=
C
U
y
A
/
U
j{1(y
:
)]
(23)
dO
dy
=
Pr(C
T
y
A
/
T
)
j{1
(y
:
)]
(24)
U =
C
U
j
y

_
A
/
U
j
C
U
2
j
(1y
:
)
_
ln[1(y
:
)] B
/
U
(25)
O =
PrC
T
j
y
(26)
_
PrA
/
T
PrC
T
j
(1
:
)
_
ln[1
(y
:
)] B
/
T
where
=Pr,Pr
t
. TheintegrationconstantsA
U
, B
U
, A
T
, B
T
etc. aredetermined
byapplyingboundaryconditionsatthewall, y
:
andthecell facepointn.Thevalues
at n aredeterminedby interpolationbetweenthecalculatednodevalues at P and
N, whilst at y
:
amonotonicdistributionconditionisimposedbyensuringthat U,
O andtheir gradientsshouldbecontinuousat y =y
:
. Noticethat todeterminethe
integrationconstantstheempirical log-lawisnotreferredtoatall andtheobtained
logarithmicvelocityequation(25) includesC
U
. Thelatter impliesthatthevelocity
prolehassensitivitytothepressuregradient sinceC
U
includesP,x.
Theresult isthat thewall shear stressandwall heat uxcanbeexpressedas:
w
= j
dU
dy
w
= j
k
1,2
P
dU
dy
w
=
k
1,2
P
A
U
(27)
q
w
=
c
p
Pr
dO
dy
w
=
c
p
Pr
k
1,2
P
dO
dy
w
=
c
p
k
1,2
P
A
T
j
(28)
Thelocal generationrateof k, P
k
(=
t
(dU,dy)
2
), iswrittenas:
P
k
=
_
_
_
0, if y
- y
:
k
P
(y
:
)
_
C
U
y
A
/
U
j{1(y
:
)]
_
2
, if y
:
(29)
whichcanthenbeintegratedoverthewall-adjacentcell toproduceanaveragevalue
P
k
for useinsolvingthek equationof thecell P.
For thedissipationrate, thefollowingmodel isemployed:
=
_
2k
P
,y
2
, if y - y
k
1.5
P
,(c
y), if y y
(30)
Table9.1. Model coefcients
c
c
j
y
:s
y
Pr
t
c
c
j
2.55 0.09 10.7 5.1 0.9
U
t
n
P
U
n
= (u
n
,v
n
,w
n
)
U
p
= (u
p
,v
p
,w
p
)
y
n
P
y
v
t
n = (n
x
,n
y
,n
z
)
S
Figure9.3. Skewednear-wall cells.
The characteristic dissipation scale y
can be dened as y
=2c
to ensure a
continuousvariationof at y
. Thus, thecell averagedvalueisobtainedas:

=
_
_
2k
2
P
,(y
2
), if y
> y
n
1
y
n
_
y
2k
P
y
2
_
y
n
y
k
1.5
P
c
y
dy
_
=
k
2
P
y
n
_
2
y
1
c
ln
_
y
n
y
__
, if y
n
(31)
Throughnumerical experiments, thevalueof theconstanty
:
wasoptimisedtobe
10.7whichcorrespondstoapproximately half thethicknessof theconventionally
dened viscous sub-layer of y
=11. The other model coefcients are listed in

Table9.1.
9.4.2 AWF in non-orthogonal grid systems
In application codes which are written in either structured or unstructured grid
method, the near-wall cells are not always orthogonal to the walls as shown in
Figure9.3. Thus, thewayof obtainingthecell facevalues, U
n
andy
n
, for theAWF
approachisasfollows.
Whenthevelocity vector
U
P
at thenodeP is decomposedto thenormal and
tangential directionsof thewall, theycanbewrittenas:
U
n
P
= (
U
P

n )
n (32)
U
t
P
=

U
P

U
n
P
(33)
Sincethetangential unit vector is obtained as
t =
U
t
P
,[
U
t
P
[, thevelocity at the
facen canbeobtainedas:
U
n
=

t
U
n
(34)
Althoughthedistancey
n
of atetrahedral or pyramidal (trianglein2D) cell is
determinedasawall-normal distancefromitsapex, thatof ahexahedral orprismatic
(quadrilateral in2D) cell isobtainedby
y
n
= Vol,S (35)
whereVol andS arethevolumeandthewall areaof thecell, respectively.
Whenonecalculatesthevelocitycomponents, thewall shearstress
w
t should
bedecomposedtoeachdirection.
Examples of applications
AlthoughtheAWFhasshownitssuperbperformanceinmanyowelds[8, 1719],
theresultsof arelativelycomplicatedcaseareshownhere.
Figure9.4ashowsthegeometryandthemeshusedforanICEngineport-valve-
cylinder ow[18, 19]. Thetotal cell number of 300,000isappliedfor ahalf model.
Theowcomes throughtheintakeport andthevalvesectioninto thecylinder at
Re.10
5
. Theturbulencemodel usedisthestandardk- model.
As showninFigure9.4b, it is clear that thestandardLWF produces too large
k distributionintheregionbetweenthevalveandthevalve-seat circledbybroken
lines.TheAWF,however, reducessuchproductionduetoitsinclusionof thepressure
gradient dependency. Thisleadstotheimproveddistributionof thegasdischarge
coefcient Cd bytheAWF asshowninFigure9.5thoughit isnot verysignicant.
Thetumbleratio, whichisthemomentumratioof thein-cylinderlongitudinal vortex
andtheinlet ow, at thepoint of 6.8mmof thevalvelift isalsobetter predictedby
theAWF.
9.4.3 AWF for rough wall turbulent ow and heat transfer
Inaroughwall turbulent boundary layer, asshowninFigure9.6, thelogarithmic
velocityproleshiftsdownwarddependingontheequivalentsandgrainroughness
height h andwrittenasanempirical formula[20]:
U
=
1
ln
y
8.5 (36)
for completelyroughows. Thisimpliesthattheowbecomesmoreturbulentdue
totheroughness. It isthusconsideredthat theviscoussub-layer isdestroyedinthe
fullyrough regimewhileit partlyexistsinthetransitional roughness regime.
Incommonwithconventional wall functions(e.g. Cebeci andBradshaw[21]),
thisextensionof theAWFstrategy[10]toowsoverroughsurfacesinvolvestheuse
of thedimensionlessroughnessheight. Inthiscase, however, insteadof h
, h
is
usedtomodifythenear-wall variationof theturbulentviscosity. Morespecically,
inaroughwall turbulence, y
:
isnolonger xedat10.7andismodelledtobecome
smaller. This provides that the modelled distribution of j
t
shown in Figure 9.2
shifts towards thewall dependingonh
. At acertainvalueof thedimensionless
Standard k- + LWF
Standard k- + AWF
(b)
(a)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure9.4. Port-valve-cylinder ow: (a) mesh, (b) k distribution.
roughnessheight h
=A, y
:
=0isassumedandat h
>A it isexpedientlyallowed
tohaveanegativevalueof y
:
togiveapositivevalueof j
t
at thewall as:
y
:
= y
:s
{1(h
,A)
m
] (37)
wherey
:s
istheviscoussub-layer thicknessinthesmoothwall case. Theoptimised
valuesforA andmhavebeendeterminedthroughaseriesof numerical experiments
andcomparisonswithavailableowdata. Theresultant formis:
y
:
= y
:s
{1(h
,70)
m
] (38)
0.8
LDA
LWF
Exp
Cd
Tumble
0.53
1.28
0.577
1.046 0.96
0.589
AWF LWF
AWF
0.7
0.6
0.5
C
d
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
2.10 3.16 4.21 5.26
Valve lift [mm]
6.31 7.37 8.42 9.47
Figure9.5. Distributionof gasdischargecoefcient.
Smooth
Rough
log (y
+
)
U
+
Figure9.6. Surfaceroughnesseffectsonvelocityprole.
with
m = max
__
0.50.4
_
h
70
_
0.7
_
,
_
10.79
_
h
70
_
0.28
__
(39)
For h
-70, theviscosity-dominated sub-layer exists, but with theabovemodi-

edvaluefor y
:
. Whenh
>70, correspondingto y
:
-0, it is totally destroyed.
Notethatalthoughtheexperimentallyknownconditionfor thefull roughregimeis
h
70, theconditionwhentheviscoussub-layer vanishesfromequation(38) is

h
=70thatcorrespondstoh
.40inatypical channel owcase.Thisisrathercon-

sistentwiththerelationof theviscoussub-layerthicknessesinthesmoothwall case.
(Inthesmoothwall case, theviscoussub-layer thicknessof y
:
=10.7corresponds
toapproximatelyhalf thethicknessof theconventionallydenedviscoussub-layer
of y
=11.) It isthusconsideredthat apart of thetransitional roughnessregimeis

somehoweffectivelymodelledintotheregionwithout theviscoussub-layer bythe
present strategyduetosimplyassumingthenear-wall turbulencebehaviour.
Unlikeinasub-layer over asmoothwall, thetotal shear stressnowincludesthe
dragforcefromtheroughnesselementsintheinner layer whichisproportional to
thelocal velocitysquaredandbecomesdominantawayfromthewall, comparedto
theviscousforce. Infact, thedatareportedbyKrogstadetal. [22] andTachieetal.
[23] showedthat theturbulent shear stressawayfromthewall sometimesbecame
larger than the wall shear stress. This implies that the convective and pressure
gradientcontributionsshouldberepresentedsomewhatdifferentlyacrosstheinner
layer, belowtheroughnesselementheight. Hence, thepracticeof simplyevaluating
therhs of equation(17) interms of nodal values needs modifying. Inthepresent
strategy asimpleapproachhas beentakenby assumingthat thetotal shear stress
remainsconstant acrosstheroughnesselement height. Consequently, oneisledto
C
U
=
_
_
_
0, if y
2
k
P
_

x
(UU)
P
x
_
, if y
> h
(40)
Intheenergyequation, Pr
t
isalsonolongerconstantoverthewall-adjacentcell.
Thereasonfor thisisthat sincetheuidtrappedaroundtherootsof theroughness
elementsformsathermal barrier, theturbulent transport of thethermal energy is
effectively reduced relative to the momentumtransport. (The results of the rib-
roughenedchannel owdirect numerical simulation(DNS) by Naganoet al. [24]
support thisconsiderationsincetheir obtainedturbulent Prandtl number increases
signicantlytowardsthewall intheregionbetweentheriblets.) Thus, asillustrated
inFigure9.7, althoughitmightbebettertomodel thedistributionof Pr
t
withanon-
linearfunction, asimplelinearproleisassumedintheroughnessregionof y h as:
Pr
t
= Pr
t
LPr
t
(41)
LPr
t
= C
h
max(0, 1y
,h
) (42)
After aseries of numerical experiments referringtotheexperimental correlation,
thefollowingformfor C
h
hasbeenadoptedwithintheroughnesselements(y h):
C
h
=
5.5
1(h
,70)
6.5
0.6 (43)
Over therestof theeld(y >h), Pr
t
=Pr
t
isapplied. (SeeTable9.1for themodel
coefcients.) Notethatsincetheturbulentviscosityisdenedaszerointheregion
y -y
:
, thepreciseproleadoptedfor theturbulent Prandtl number intheviscous
sub-layer (y -y
:
) doesnot affect thecomputation.
At ahighPr ow(Pr>>1), thesub-layer, acrosswhichturbulent transport of
thermal energy is negligible, becomes thinner than the viscous sub-layer. Thus,
the assumption that the turbulent heat ux becomes negligible when y -y
:
no
longer applies. (Seethehigh Pr version of theAWF for such ows presented in
section9.4.5.)
Theanalytical solutions of bothmeanowandenergy equations thencanbe
obtainedinthefour differentcasesillustratedinFigure9.8assumingthatthewall-
adjacent cell height isalwaysgreater thantheroughnessheight. Althoughonecan
Pr
t
y*
v
h* y*
Pr
t
Pr
t
Figure9.7. Modelledturbulent Prandtl number distribution.
N
(a)
n
P
h
N
(b)
n
P
h
y
v
y
v
y
v
N
(c)
n
P
h
N
(d)
n
P
h
Figure9.8. Near-wall cells over a rough wall: (a) y
:
0, (b) 0-y
:
h,
(c) h -y
:
y
n
, (d) y
n
-y
:
.
apply themodels of equations (40) and (41) at any nodepoint, limiting themto
thewall-adjacent cells is preferablefromthenumerical view point sinceit only
requires alist of thecells facingto walls for wall boundary conditions. (Despite
that, insimpleowcases, theAWF isstill applicabletowall-adjacent cellswhose
heightislowerthantheroughnessheight[10].) Eveninthecasewithoutanyviscous
sub-layer, case(a) of Figure9.8a, theresultant expressionsfor
w
andq
w
areof the
sameformas thoseof equations (27) and(28). However, different values of A
U
andA
T
, whicharefunctionsof theroughnessheight, areobtained, corresponding
tothefour different cases. (SeeAppendixA for thedetailedderivationprocess.)
InTable9.A1, thecell averagedgenerationtermP
k
andA
U
arelisted, intro-
ducingY
1(y
:
). Notethatequations(30) and(31) arestill usedfor the
dissipation, andtheintegrationfor P
k
inTable9.A1canbeperformedasfollows:
_
b
a
(y y
:
)
_
Cy A
1(y y
:
)
_
2
dy
=
_
C
2
2
2
y
2
C(2A Cy
:
2C,)
2
y
(A Cy
:
C,)
2
2
[1(y y
:
)]
(44)
(A Cy
:
C,)(A Cy
:
3C,)
2
ln[1(y y
:
)]
_
b
a
0.01
0.1
1,000 10,000 100,000 1e + 06 1e + 07 1e + 08
f
Re
Moody (1944)
AWF cal.
h/D
5 10
2
3 10
2
2 10
2
1 10
2
5 10
3
2 10
3
1 10
3
5 10
4
1 10
4
5 10
5
1 10
5
0
Figure9.9. Frictionfactorsinpipeows(Moodychart).
For heat transfer, the resultant formof the integration constant A
T
can be
writtenas:
A
T
= {j(O
n
O
w
),Pr C
T
E
T
],D
T
(45)
where the coefcients D
T
and E
T
are listed in Table 9.A2, dening
T

Pr,(Pr
t
),
T
C
0
,(h
Pr
t
), Y
T
1
T
(y
:
), Y
T
1
T
(y
:
),
and
b
Y
T
0

T
h
.
Inthecaseof aconstantwall heatuxcondition, thewall temperatureisobtained
byrewritingequations(28) and(45) as:
O
w
= O
n

Prq
w
c
p
k
1,2
P
D
T

PrC
T
E
T
j
(46)
The AWF has been implemented with the standard linear k- (Launder and
Spalding [4], Launder and Sharma: LS [25]) and also with thecubic non-linear
k- model of Craft, Launder andSuga: CLS [26]. (AlthoughtheLS andtheCLS
modelsareLRNmodels, withthewall-functiongrids, theLRNpartsof themodel
termsdonot contributetothecomputationresults.) For theturbulent heat ux in
thecoreregion, theusual eddydiffusivitymodel withaprescribedturbulentPrandtl
number Pr
t
=0.9isused.
Pipe ows. Figure9.9compares thepredictedfrictioncoefcient andtheexper-
imental correlationfor turbulent pipeows, knownastheMoody chart [27]. The
turbulence is modelled by the linear k- model with theAWF. In the range of
h,D=0 to 0.05 (D: pipe diameter) and Re=8000 to 10
8
, it is conrmed that
theAWF performs reasonably well over awiderangeof Reynolds numbers and
roughnessheights.
300
398
400
19
R

1
2
0
0
160
Air
y
x
Figure9.10. Flowgeometry of theconvex roughwall boundary layers of Turner
et al. [28].
Curved wall boundary layer ows. Heat transfer alongcurvedsurfaces is very
commonandimportantinengineeringapplicationssuchasinheatsinksandaround
turbineblades. Thus, althoughtheAWF itself doesnotexplicitlyincludesensitivity
tostreamlinecurvature, itisuseful toconrmitsperformancewhenappliedincom-
binationwithaturbulencemodel whichdoescapturestreamlinecurvatureeffects.
Hence, theturbulencemodel usedhereisthecubicnon-linear k- model (CLS).
For comparison, theroughwall heattransfer experimentsover aconvexsurface
byTurner et al. [28] arechosen. Theowgeometry isshowninFigure9.10. The
workinguidwas air at roomtemperatureandthewall was isothermally heated.
Thecomparison is madein thecases of trapezoidal-shaped roughness elements.
AccordingtoTurner etal., theequivalentsandgrainroughnessheighth is1.1times
theelement height. Thecomputational meshusedis9020whosewall adjacent
cell height is 5mm, which is greater than the equivalent sand grain roughness
heights. (A nemeshof 9050whosewall adjacent cell height is 1mmis also
usedtoconrmthesensitivitytothewall-adjacentcell heights. Thecorresponding
discussionisaddressedinthefollowingparagraph.)
Figure9.11 compares theheat transfer coefcient distribution under zero-
pressuregradientconditions. Figure9.11ashowsthecaseof h =0.55mm.Theinlet
velocitiesof U
0
=40, 22m/s, respectively, correspondtoh
.90, 50andthusthey
areinthefull andthetransitional roughnessregimes. Inthecaseof h =0.825mm,
showninFigure9.11b, U
0
=40, 22m/scorrespondtoh
.135, 80whichareboth
inthefullyroughregime. Fromthecomparisons, althoughtherecanbeseensome
discrepancy, it is recognisedthat theagreement betweentheexperiments andthe
predictions is acceptable in both the full and transitional roughness regimes. In
Figure9.11b, theresultbythenemeshof 9050whosewall adjacentcell height
is1mmisalsoplottedfor thecaseof U
0
=22m/s. It isreadilyseenthat theAWF
israther insensitivetothenear-wall meshresolutioninsuchaowcasesincetwo
prolesfromverydifferent resolutionsarenearlythesame.
Figure9.11 also shows theeffects of thewall curvatureon theheat transfer
coefcients in the case of U
0
=40m/s. (The curved section is in the region of
300mmx 698mm.) Although the curvature effects observed are not large,
sincethecurvatureisnot verystrong, theyarecertainlypredictedbythecomputa-
tionswiththeAWF andcubicnon-linear k- model. Turner et al. reportedthat the
curvatureappearedtocauseanincreaseof 2to3%intheheattransfercoefcient.
(a)
0
50
a

[
W
/
(
m
2
K
)
]
a

[
W
/
(
m
2
K
)
]
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
x(mm)
Element height = 0.5mm: h = 0.55 mm
Expt. AWF + CLS
:U
0
= 40m/s
:U
0
= 22m/s
:U
0
= 40m/s; straight
(b)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
x(mm)
Element height = 0.75mm: h = 0.825 mm
Expt. AWF + CLS
:U
0
= 40m/s
:U
0
= 22m/s
:U
0
= 40m/s; straight
:U
0
= 22m/s; fine mesh
Figure9.11. Heat transfer coefcient distributioninconvex roughwall boundary
layersat Pr=0.71.
Computations are consistent with this experimental observation. Note that the
present curvature effects are of the entrance region of the convex wall. Due to
the sudden change of the curvature rate, the pressure gradient becomes locally
strongernearthestartingpointof theconvexwall resultinginowaccelerationand
thusheat transfer enhancement.
Sand dune ow. Figure9.12showsthegeometryandacomputational meshused
for awater owover asandduneof vanMierlo anddeRuiter [29]. Their exper-
imental rig consisted of arowof 33 identical 2D sand dunes covered with sand
paper, whose averaged sand grain height was 2.5mm. Since they measured the
oweldaroundoneof thecentral dunesof therow, streamwiseperiodicboundary
conditions areimposed in thecomputation. In theexperiments, thefreesurface
0.1
0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
y

(
m
)
x (m)
16525
Water flow
160 100 250 750
1600
260 80
8
y
x
2
9
2
8
0
8
0
7
2
Figure9.12. Duneproleandcomputational grid.
0.05
0.0
0.05
0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
U
/
U
b
x (m)
Expt.
Grid 16525 (LWF + CLS)
Grid 32950 (AWF + CLS)
Figure9.13. Frictionvelocityover thesanddune.
waslocatedat y =292mmandthebulk meanvelocitywasU
b
=0.633m/s. Thus,
theReynoldsnumber basedonU
b
andthesurfaceheightwas175,000. Inthisow,
alargerecirculationzoneappearsbehindthedune. Duetotheowgeometry, the
separationpoint isxedat x =0masinaback-stepow.
Figure9.13comparesthepredictedfrictionvelocitydistributiononmeshesof
33050, 16550and16525. Inthenest andcoarsest meshes, theheightsof
therstcell facingthewall are, respectively, 4and8mm, andlarger thanthegrain
height of 2.5mmwhichcorrespondstoh
.75at theinlet. Theturbulencemodel

applied is thecubic CLS k- model with thedifferential length-scalecorrection
termfor thedissipationrateequation[30]. Thelines of thepredictedproles are
almost identical to oneanother, provingthat theAWF is rather insensitiveto the
computational mesh. (Inthefollowingdiscussionsonoweldquantities, results
bythenest meshof 33050areused.)
Figure9.13alsoshowstheresultbytheLWF. AlthoughtheLWF, equation(36)
shouldperformreasonablyinat plateboundarylayer typeof ows, it isobvious
that theLWF produces anunstablewiggledproleintherecirculatingregionof
0m-x -0.6m. The computational costs by theAWF and the LWF are almost
thesameaseachother, withthemorecomplex algebraic expressionsof theAWF
requiringslightlymoreprocessingtime.
Figure9.14 compares ow eld quantities predicted by theCLS and theLS
models withtheAWF. Inthedistributionof themeanvelocity andtheReynolds
shear stress, bothmodelsagreereasonably well withtheexperimentsasshownin
Figure 9.14a and b while the CLS model predicts the streamwise normal stress
better thantheLSmodel (Figure9.14c). Thesepredictivetrendsof themodelsare
consistent withthoseinseparatingowsby theoriginal LRN versionsandthusit
isconrmedthat couplingwiththeAWF preservestheoriginal capabilitiesof the
LRNmodels.
Ramp ow. Figure9.15illustratestheowgeometryandatypical computational
mesh(22040) usedfor thecomputations of thechannel ows witharampon
the bottomwall by Song and Eaton [31]. A 2D wind tunnel whose height was
152mmwitharamp(height H =21mm, lengthL =70mm, radiusR=127mm)
was used in their experiments. Air owed fromtheleft at afreestreamvelocity
U
e
=20m/s withdevelopedturbulence(Re
=3,400at x =0mmfor thesmooth

wall case; Re
=3,900for theroughwall case). Sincefor theroughwall casesand

paper withanaveragedgrainheight of 1.2mm, whichcorrespondstoh
.100at
x =0mm, coveredtheramppart, theheightof therstcomputational cell fromthe
wall is set as 1.5mm. (Notethat sincethelocationof theseparationpoint is not
xedinthisowcase, thegridsensitivity test, whichisnot shownhere, suggests
that unlikeintheother owcaseslargewall adjacent cell heightsaffect prediction
of therecirculation zone.) This ow eld includes an adversepressuregradient
alongthewall andarecirculatingowwhoseseparationpoint isnot xed, unlike
inthesandduneow. Themeasuredvelocity elds impliedthat therecirculation
regionextendedbetween0.74x
/
(: x,L)1.36and0.74-x
/
1.76inthesmooth
androughwall cases, respectively. Thus, relatively ner streamwiseresolutionis
appliedtothecomputational mesharoundtheramppart.
Figure 9.16 compares the predicted pressure coefcients of the smooth wall
caseby theAWF andthestandardLWF withtheresultsof theLRN computation.
Theturbulencemodel usedis theCLS model. Therst gridnodes fromthewall
(y
1
) arelocatedat y
1
=15150for thewall-functionmodelswhilethosefor the
LRN arelocatedat y
1
0.2. (Themeshusedfor theLRN casehas 100cells in
they direction.) Obviously, theAWFproducesprolesthatareclosertothoseof the
experiment thantheprolesof theLWF model. TheAWF reasonablycapturesthe
(c)
0.1
0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
x (m)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
0.0 0.3
1.4 1.6 1.8
Expt.
AWF+CLS
AWF+LS
1.58 x = 0.06 0.21 0.37 0.60 0.82 0.97 1.12 1.27 1.42
uu/U
b
(b)
0.1
0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
x (m)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
1.58 x = 0.06 0.21 0.37 0.60 0.82 0.97 1.12 1.27 1.42
0.0 0.03
Expt.
AWF+CLS
AWF+LS
u/U
2
(a)
0.1
0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3

x (m)
y

(
m
)
y

(
m
)
y

(
m
)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
1.58 x = 0.06 0.21 0.37 0.60 0.82 0.97 1.12 1.27 1.42
0.0 1.5
Expt.
AWF+CLS
AWF+LS
U/U
b
b
Figure9.14. MeanvelocityandReynoldsstressdistributionof thesandduneow.
effectsof adversepressuregradientsduetotheinclusionof thesensitivitytopressure
gradientsinitsform. Hence, itspredictivetendency issimilar tothat of theLRN
model.
Figure 9.17a compares the mean velocity proles for both the smooth and
rough wall cases. For both the cases, the agreement between the experiments
and the predictions by theAWF coupled to the CLS model is reasonably good.
L (70)
R

(
1
2
7
)
H

(
2
1
)
1
5
2
1
3
1
Flow
x
y
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
200 100 0 100 200 300 400 500
y

(
m
m
)
x (mm)
220 40
Figure9.15. Rampgeometryandcomputational grid.
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
C
p
x
Top wall (smooth), Expt.
Bottom wall (smooth), Expt.
AWF y
1
+
= 15150
LWF y
1
+
= 15150
LRN y
1
+
= 0.2
Figure9.16. Pressurecoefcientdistributionof thesmoothrampow; CLSisused
inall thecomputations.
Thepredictedrecirculationzonesare0.69-x
/
-1.40and0.57-x
/
-1.60inthe
smoothandroughwall cases, respectively. They, however, donot correspondwell
withtheexperimentally estimatedones. Figure9.17bdcomparethedistribution
of theReynolds stresses at thecorrespondinglocations to thoseinFigure9.17a.
(Thevaluesarenormalisedby thereferencefrictionvelocity U
,ref
at x
/
=2.0.)
Theagreementbetweenthepredictionandtheexperimentsisagainreasonablygood
for eachquantity.
x= 2.00 0.00 0.50 0.74 1.00 1.36 1.76 2.00 4.00 7.00
(b)
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
y
/
H
u/U
2
,ref
Expt.(rough)
Expt.(smooth)
AWF+CLS(rough)
AWF+CLS(smooth)
0.0 3.0
x= 2.00 0.00 0.50 0.74 1.00 1.36 1.76 2.00 4.00 7.00
(c)
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
y
/
H
uu/U
,ref
Expt.(rough)
Expt.(smooth)
AWF+CLS(rough)
AWF+CLS(smooth)
0.0 3.0
x= 2.00 0.00 0.50 0.74 1.00 1.36 1.76 2.00 4.00 7.00
(d)
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
y
/
H
/U
,ref
Expt.(rough)
Expt.(smooth)
AWF+CLS(rough)
AWF+CLS(smooth)
0.0 3.0
(a)
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
y
/
H
x= 2.00 0.00 0.50 0.74 1.00 1.36 1.76 2.00 4.00 7.00
Expt.(rough)
Expt.(smooth)
AWF+CLS(rough)
AWF+CLS(smooth)
0.0 1.5
U/Ue
Figure9.17. MeanvelocityandReynoldsstressdistributionof therampow.
9.4.4 AWF for permeable walls
Flows over permeablewalls can beseen in many industrially important devices
such as catalytic converters, metal foamheat exchangers and separators of fuel
cells. Somegeophysical uidows, i.e. water owsover river bedsetc., areoften
concernedasowsover permeablesurfacesaswell.
Theeffectsof aporousmediumontheowintheinterfaceregionbetweenthe
porouswall andclear uid(namedinterfaceregion hereafter) havebeenfocused
on by many researchers. Dueto theseverer complexity of theow phenomena,
however, experimental turbulentowstudiesintheinterfaceregionsareratherlim-
ited. ZippeandGraf [32] andothersexperimentallyfoundthat thefrictionfactors
of turbulent ows over permeablebeds becamehigher thanthoseover imperme-
ablewallswiththesamesurfaceroughness. Therecent DNSstudyof theinterface
regionbyBreugemetal. [33] alsoindicatedthatthefrictionvelocitybecamehigher
associated with theincreaseof thepermeability. All theseresults imply that the
wall permeabilityeffectsonturbulenceshouldbesolelytakenintoaccountforow
simulations.
Thispart, thus, introducesanattempt [11] toconstruct anAWF whichincludes
theeffectsof thewall permeabilityaswell asthewall roughnessfor computingthe
interfaceregionsover porousmedia.
Modelling for porous/uid interfacial turbulence
It is natural to consider a slip tangential velocity U
w
at theinterfacebetween a
clear uid ow and a porous surface when one introduces a volume averaging
concept. Before discussing the slip velocity, it is essential to dene a nominal
location of theinterface. In someporous media, their outermost perimeter may
be reasonable as the interface [34]. This means when the pores are lled with
solidmaterial, asmoothimpermeableboundaryisrecovered. However, incasethat
aporous mediumis composed of beads, therecovered impermeablesurfacehas
someroughnessbydeningtheporesasthespacessurroundedbythebeads. This
denitionis consistent withthoseintheexperiments by ZippeandGraf [32] and
U
U
w
y
x
P
N
n
h
y = 0
H
h
(b) (a)
U
d
Porous
medium
Figure9.18. (a)Velocityproleof achannel owover aporousmedium, (b) near-
wall cell.
others. Therefore, thesurfaceroughness h of porous/uidinterfaceis considered
asinFigure9.18aandthat theinterfaceislocatedat thebottomof theroughness
elements. Inorder toobtainthetangential velocityU
w
at theinterface(y =0), the
velocitydistributioninaporousmediumisestimatedasfollows.
Following Whitaker [35], the volume averaged Navier-Stokes equations for
incompressibleowsinisotropicporousmediausingthedecomposition:
u
i
= u
i
)
f
u
i
(47)
are:
u
i
)
f
t
u
j
)
f
u
i
)
f
x
j
=
1
p)
f
x
i
2
u
i
)
f
x
2
j

ij
x
j
f
i
(48)
u
i
)
x
i
= 0 (49)
where p, , , and are, respectively, the pressure, the density, the kinematic
viscosityof theuidandtheporosityof theporousmedium. Thevolumeaveraged
values ) and)
f
aresupercial andintrinsic averagedvalues of avariable,
respectively. (Thesupercial averagingis denedby takingaverageof avariable
over avolumeelement of themediumconsistingof bothsolidanduidmaterials,
while the intrinsic averaging is dened over a volume consisting of uid only.)
Betweenthemthefollowingrelationexists:
) = )
f
(50)
Althoughthesub-lter-scaledispersion
ij
,x
j
needsaclosuremodel asinlarge
eddy simulations, it couldbeneglectedinporous mediasinceit is small enough
comparedwiththeother terms. AsinWhitaker [35], thedragforcef
i
inisotropic
porousmediacanbeparametrisedas:
f
i
.
u
j
)
K
ij
F
ij
u
k
)
K
jk
(51)
whereK
ij
and F
ij
are, respectively, thepermeability tensor and theForchheimer
correction tensor. These tensors are empirically given by Macdonald et al. [37]
beingbasedonthemodiedErgunequation[36] as:
K
ij
=
d
2
p
3
180(1)
2
. ,, .
K
ij
(52)
F
ij
=

100(1)
d
p
. ,, .
F
_
(u
k
)
f
)
2
ij
(53)
whered
p
isthemeanparticlediameter.
Thus, by the Reynolds averaging of the volume averaged momentumequa-
tions onecan obtain thefollowing equations for adeveloped turbulent owin a
homogeneousporousmedium:
0=
1
P
x

u:
y

2
U
y
2

K
U
F
K
qu)
f
(54)
0=
1
P
y

:
2
y

F
K
q:)
f
(55)
where q =
_
u
k
)
f
u
k
)
f
, u
i
u
j
= (u
i
)
f
u
i
)
f
)(u
j
)
f
u
j
)
f
), U =u), and
P =p)
f
.
In laminar ow cases where the permeability Reynolds number Re
K

KU
,, which is based on thepermeability K and thefriction velocity U
, is
sufciently small, the Reynolds stress and the Forchheimer drag terms can be
neglected:
0=
1
P
x

2
U
y
2

K
U (56)
0=
1
P
y
(57)
Thesolutionof theaboveequations(56) and(57), namely, theBrinkmanequations
[38] isadecayingexponential functionwhichmeetstheinterfacial (slip) velocity
U
w
at y =0andtheDarcyvelocityU
d
deepinsidetheporousmedium.
U = U
d
(U
w
U
d
)exp
_
y
_
K
_
(58)
TheDarcyvelocityis:
U
d
=
K
j
P
x
(59)
Inthecaseof highRe
K
, turbulent diffusionandForchheimer dragtermsinthe
momentumequationsshouldbeconsideredandthustheirgeneral analytical solution
cannot beeasily obtained. Breugemet al. [33] found that agood approximation
of the turbulent ow inside the porous media can be obtained by the following
exponential formula:
U . U
d
(U
w
U
d
)exp
_
p
y
_
K
_
(60)
where
p
isanempirical coefcient. If Re
K
issmall enough,
p
=1. Inverylarge
Re
K
cases, wheretheturbulent diffusionandtheForchheimer dragterms should
balanceeachother out:
u:
y
.
F
K
qu)
f
(61)
TheReynoldsstressestimatedwiththeeddyviscosity(
t
. u
t
y; u
t
isanappropriate
velocityscale) andthevelocitygradient fromequation(60) leadsto
u: =
t
1
U
y
. u
t
y
U
p
_
K
.
p
u
2
t
y
_
K
(62)
thentheLHSof equation(61) mayberewrittenas
u:
y
.
p
_
K
u
2
t
(63)
Thus,
p
canbeestimatedas
p
_
K
u
2
t
.
F
K
u
2
t

p
.
_
K
F (64)
Therefore, thefollowingformcanbeamodel for
p
:
p
= f
p
(1f
p
)
_
K
F (65)
f
p
= exp
_
Re
K
p
_
(66)
bridgingbetween1and
,KF dependingonthepermeability. Byreferringtothe

distributionof thecoefcient
p
obtainedfromtheDNS[33], themodel coefcient
p
canbefunctionalisedas
p
=
90
Re
0.68
K
(67)
Hence
f
p
= exp
_
Re
1.68
K
90
_
(68)
(Notethattheaboveformisrewritteninadifferentwayfor theAWF asinequation
(73).)
Consequently, theslipvelocityU
w
canbeexpressedas
U
w
= U
d

U,y[
y=0
,K
(69)
withthevelocitygradient U,y[
y=0
givenbytheAWF.
IntheAWF, thewall shear stressisobtainedbytheanalytical solutionof asim-
pliednear-wall versionof thetransportequationfor thewall-parallel momentum.
Theresultantshearstressformhereisthesameasthatfortheroughwall turbulence
but withtheslipvelocityU
w
intheintegrationconstant A
U
.
Sincethewall permeabilityalsomakestheowmoreturbulent, y
:
shouldhave
itsdependency. Equation(38) isthusfurther modiedas
y
:
= y
:s
_
1(h
,70)
m
f
K
_
(70)
wheref
K
is a function of thepermeability. By referring to theexperiments and
theDNS data[32, 33], therangeof y
:
which depends on thewall permeability
is estimated. Considering theroughness effects in y
:
, theoptimised function in
equation(70) for thepermeabilityeffectsis
f
K
= 3.7
_
1exp
_
_
K
6
_
2
__
(71)
whereK
=

Kk
P
,. Inthisform, K
isusedrather thanRe
K
sincetheAWF uses
k
P
for thevelocity scale. Inorder tokeepconsistency withsuchnormalisation,
Equation(68) isrewrittenas
f
p
. exp
_
K
1.68
250
_
(72)
using therelation of Re
K
. c
1,4
j
K
. Thefollowing modied form, however, is

employedafter further tuningof themodel function
f
p
= exp
_
K
1.76
180
_
(73)
Permeable-wall channel ows. Inordertoconrmtheperformanceof themethod,
computationsof fullydevelopedturbulentowsinaplanechannel withapermeable
bottomwall aty,H =0andasolidtopwall aty,H =1(seeFigure9.18a) areshown
here. Theconsideredowconditions arethesameas thoseintheDNS [33]. The
meandiameter of theparticlecomposingthepermeablebedsis d
p
,H =0.01and
their porosityare =0.95, 0.80, 0.60, 0.00. ThepermeabilityandtheForchheimer
termarethenobtainedbyequations(52)and(53).ThebulkowReynoldsnumberis
Re
b
=5, 500inall thecases.Theroughnessheightisconsideredtobeh =d
p
inthis
practice.Thegridcell numberusedisonly10inthewall normal directionduetothe
useof thewall-functionapproachfor suchrelativelylowReynoldsnumber ows.
Theturbulencemodelsusedarethestandardk- model [4] andthetwo-component
limit (TCL) secondmoment closureof Craft andLaunder [39].
Figure9.19acomparesthemeanvelocity distributioninsidetheporouswalls.
Theobtained velocity proles arefromequation (60). Whilst therecan beseen
0.3 1.5
1.0
0.5
0.95
w =0.80
w =0.95
0.0
0.80
Re=5500
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Present
Present
DNS
DNS
0.2
0.1
0.0
y/H
y/H
(b) (a)
0.15 0.10 0.05 0.00
U
/
U
b
U
/
U
b
Figure9.19. Meanvelocitydistribution: (a)insideporouswalls, (b)channel region.
a margin to be improved in the comparison between the present and the DNS
results in the case of =0.95, the agreement is virtually perfect in the case of
=0.80.
The mean velocity distribution in the channel region is compared in Figure
9.19b. Itisobviousthatthecomputationwell reproducesthecharacteristicvelocity
prolesnear thepermeablewalls.
TheAWF is also applicable to the second moment closures. Figure 9.20ac
comparestheobtainedReynoldsstressdistributionbythesecondmoment closure
[39]. Duetotheuseof theAWF, itseemshardtocapturethenear wall peaksof the
Reynoldsnormal stressesasinFigure9.20aandb. However, general tendenciesof
thedistributionprolesaresatisfactorilyreproducedbythepresent scheme.
Turbulent permeable boundary layer ows. Theother test cases areturbulent
boundarylayer owsover permeablewalls. Thesameowconditionsof theexper-
iments of ZippeandGraf [32] areimposedinthecomputations. Thefreestream
turbulenceis
_
u
2
,U
0
= 0.3510
2
. TheReynoldsnumber basedonthemomen-
tumthicknessrangesRe
= 1.32.110
4
. Althoughit wasnot reportedinRef.
[32], thepermeability canbeestimatedby equation(52) asK = 2.54 10
9
m
2
sincetheexperimentally usedmeandiameter of theellipsoidal beads composing
thepermeablebedwasd
p
= 2.883mm. Thepresentlyappliedporosityis . 0.30
consideringtheeffects of non-spherical shapes of beads usedintheexperiments.
(Theporosity of afully packed body-centred cubic structureby spherical beads
is = 0.26. ZippeandGraf didnot report about theporosity as well.) Thegrid
cell number usedis 120 150for thedevelopingboundary layer computations.
Theturbulencemodel usedisthestandardk- model of Launder andSpalding[4].
SinceZippeand Graf [32] also did not report theroughness height of their test
cases, it ispresently estimatedash
. 116comparingtheexperimental velocity
prolewiththeformulaof Nikuradse[20]: Equation(36).
Figure9.21 compares themean velocity proles wheretheir boundary layer
thicknesses correspond to each other. The cases are R (non-permeable rough
3
w = 0.95
w = 0.95
w = 0.80
0.80
0.0
DNS :
DNS
present :
present
2
1
0
1
0.0
(a) (b)
(c)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
4
3
2
1
0
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
y/H
y/H
4
3
2
1
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
y/H
u
v
U
2
u
2
/U
v
2
/U
w
2
/U
DNS present
u
2
/U
v
2
/U
w
2
/U
Figure9.20. Reynoldsstressdistributioninpermeablechannel ows.

Expt. present
20
10
0
100 1,000
y
+
U
+
10,000
R
P12.5
P16.5
Figure9.21. Meanvelocitydistributioninpermeableboundarylayers.
wall boundary layer), P
12.5
(permeablewall boundary layer with U
0
=12.5m/s)
and P
16.5
(permeable wall boundary layer with U
0
=16.5m/s). Obviously, the
presentschemereasonablyreproducestheexperimentallyobtainedvelocityproles
with/without thepermeability.
0
5
10
15
20
25
1 10 100 1,000 10,000
y
+
Re = 10
5
Pr = 0.71
0.2
0.1
0.025
LS(Pr = 0.71)
k- + AWF
Kader
+
Figure9.22. Meantemperatureprolesinturbulentsmoothchannel owsatPr-1.
9.4.5 AWF for high Prandtl number ows
If oneconsiderstopredictturbulentwall heattransfer of highPrandtl number uid
owssuchascoolingoil andICenginewater-jacketows, itisessential toanalyse
thethermal boundary layer whichismuchthinner thanthat of theowboundary
layer. Thus, near-wall modelling which resolves the viscous sub-layer has been
thought tobeessential for highPr thermal elds. For example, at thedevelopment
of anovel turbulentheatuxmodel applicabletogeneral Prcases, Rogersetal. [40]
supposedcorrect near-wall stressdistributionandSugaandAbe[41] employedan
LRN nonlinear k- model. SoandSommer [42] alsoappliedanLRN k- aswell
asanear-wall stresstransport model for owsat Pr=1000.
However, even with the recent development of LRN heat transfer models,
wall-function approaches still attract industrial engineers. Its reasons areahigh
computational cost of theLRN computation and difculty of generating quality
near-wall gridsfor complex3DoweldssuchasanIC enginewater jacket.
AlthoughtheAWFperformsreasonablywell atPr-1asshowninFigure9.22,
4
itsapplicabilitytohigherPrcaseshasnotbeendiscussedwell sofar.Therefore, this
part focuses ontheimprovement of thethermal AWF for highPr turbulent ows
withandwithout wall roughness[12].
High Pr AWF for smooth wall heat transfer
IntheAWF forsmoothwall heattransfer, j
t
variationisassumedthatj
t
iszerofor
y
:
=10.7andthenincreaseslinearlyasof equation(16). Sincethetheoretical
4
InthecasesshowninFigure9.22, theconstantPr
t
=0.9isusedfor convenience. However,
for lower Pr cases, it is well knownthat higher values of Pr
t
shouldbeused[43]. Thereis
thus atendency for theAWF tounderpredict themeantemperatureprole, particularly, at
Pr=0.025.
amy
3
/Pr
t
m/Pr :(air)
m/Pr : (oil)
m
t
/Pr
t
y
b
T
h
e
r
m
a
l

d
i
f
f
u
s
i
v
i
t
i
e
s
am(y
)/Pr
t
Figure9.23. Near-wall thermal diffusivitydistribution.
wall-limitingvariationof j
t
isproportional toy
3
, thisassumptiondoesnotcounta
certainamountof turbulentviscosityintheviscoussub-layer. Despitethat, itseffect
is not serious for oweldpredictionsincethecontributionfromthemolecular
viscosityismoresignicant inthesub-layer. Thisisalsotruefor thethermal eld
predictionof uidswhosePrislessthan1.0. However, inhighPruidowssuchas
oil ows, sincetheeffectof themolecular thermal diffusivity(j/Pr) becomesvery
small asillustratedinFigure9.23, it isthennecessarytoconsider thecontribution
fromtheturbulent thermal diffusivityinsidethesub-layer. (Notethat aprescribed
constant turbulent Prandtl number Pr
t
isassumedinFigure9.23.)
Inorder tocompensatethethermal diffusivityinsidethesub-layer, Gerasimov
[17] introducedanad hoc effectivemolecular Prandtl number as:
Pr
eff
=
Pr
10.017Pr(12.9[F
1[)
1.5
(74)
whereF
is amodel function. This effectivePr approach was tailored for water

ows. Thus, itsperformanceinoil owswhosePr isover 100isnot guaranteed.
In order to improvethej
t
proleinsidethesub-layer, it is assumed that the
proleof Equation(16)isconnectedtoafunction
/
y
3
atthepointy
b
, asillustrated
inFigure9.23.
j
t
,j =
_
/
y
3
, for 0 y
b
(y
:
), for y
b
y
(75)
Thus,
I
=
_
_
1

/
Pry
3
Pr
t
= I
a
, for 0 y
b
1
Pr(y
:
)
Pr
t
= I
b
, for y
b
y
(76)
wherejI
,Pr isthetotal thermal diffusivity. Byreferringtothenear-wall prole

of j
t
inaDNS dataset, thevalueof y
b
is optimisedas y
b
= 11.7andthus
/
is
obtainableas:
/
=
(y
b
y
:
)
y
3
b
=

y
3
b
(77)
Usingequation(76), integrationinequation(18) canbemade. Althoughthe
modicationof themodel isverysimple, itmakestheanalytical integrationalittle
cumbersomeasbelow.
Wheny
b
y
n
, withP
2
=1, I
a
, P
/
2
= 1, I
b
, y
0
= 0, y
1
= y
b
andy
2
= y
n
,
thecoefcientsD
T
andE
T
of equation(45) and(46) are:
D
T
= S
2
(y
1
) S
2
(y
0
) {S
/
2
(y
2
) S
/
2
(y
1
)]
P
2
(y
1
)
P
/
2
(y
1
)
(78)
E
T
= S
1
(y
0
) S
1
(y
1
) S
/
1
(y
1
) S
/
1
(y
2
)
(79)
{S
/
2
(y
1
) S
/
2
(y
2
)]
P
1
(y
1
) P
/
1
(y
1
)
P
/
2
(y
1
)
whereP
1
= y
P
2
, P
/
1
= y
P
/
2
, S
i
=
_
P
i
dy
.
Inthecaseof y
n
- y
b
, withy
0
= 0, y
1
= y
n
, theyare:
D
T
= S
2
(y
1
) S
2
(y
0
) (80)
E
T
= S
1
(y
0
) S
1
(y
1
) (81)
(SeeAppendixB for theresultsof theintegrationof 1, I
a
etc.)
High Pr AWF for rough wall heat transfer
SincetheAWF heattransfer model presentedsofar wasonlyvalidatedinair ows,
thecoefcientC
h
needsrecalibrationinhighPr owsandtheobtainedpolynomial
formis:
C
h
= max(0, C
3
Pr
3
C
2
Pr
2
C
1
Pr C
0
) (82)
C
3
= 0.48,h
0.0013, C
2
= 9.90,h
0.0291
C
1
= 72.35,h
0.3067, C
0
= 98.98,h
0.2103
Sincetheroughwall AWF modiesy
:
of Equation(38) as:
y
:
= y
:s
_
1
_
h
70
_
m
_
= y
:s

:
(83)
theturbulent viscosityformof equation(75) changesto:
j
t
,j =
_
/
(y

:
)
3
, for y
b
(y
:
), for y
b
- y
(84)
Then, thethermal diffusivityhasthefollowingforms:
I
=
_
_
1

/
Pr(y

:
)
3
Pr
t
C
h
max(0, 1y
,h
)
= I
c
, for y
- y
b
1
Pr(y
:
)
Pr
t
C
h
max(0, 1y
,h
)
= I
d
, for y
b
y
(85)
Theanalytical solutions of energy equations thencanbeobtainedinthefour dif-
ferent casesillustratedinFigure9.8. Theresultant expressionsfor q
w
andA
T
are
of thesameformasthosepresentedsofar. For cases(a) and(d) of Figure9.8, D
T
andE
T
havetheformsof Equations(78) and(79) withsomechanges. For case(a),
they areP
2
= P
/
2
= 1, I
d
, y
0
= 0, y
1
= h andy
2
= y
n
. For case(d), they are
P
2
= P
/
2
= 1, I
c
, y
0
= 0, y
1
= h andy
2
= y
n
.
Incases(b) and(c), D
T
andE
T
havethefollowingforms:
D
T
= S
2
(y
1
) S
2
(y
0
) {S
/
2
(y
2
) S
/
2
(y
1
)]
P
2
(y
1
)
P
/
2
(y
1
)
{S
//
2
(y
3
)
(86)
S
/
2
(y
2
)]
P
2
(y
1
)P
/
2
(y
2
)
P
/
2
(y
1
)P
//
2
(y
2
)
E
T
= S
1
(y
0
) S
1
(y
1
) S
/
1
(y
1
) S
/
1
(y
2
) {S
/
2
(y
1
) S
/
2
(y
2
)]
P
1
(y
1
) P
/
1
(y
1
)
P
/
2
(y
1
)
S
//
1
(y
2
) S
//
1
(y
3
) {S
//
2
(y
2
) S
//
2
(y
3
)] (87)
_
P
1
(y
1
) P
/
1
(y
1
)
P
/
2
(y
1
)

P
/
2
(y
2
)
P
//
2
(y
2
)

P
/
1
(y
2
) P
//
1
(y
2
)
P
//
2
(y
2
)
_
For case(b), P
2
= 1, I
c
, P
/
2
= P
//
2
= 1, I
d
, y
0
= 0, y
1
= y
b
, y
2
= h, and
y
3
= y
n
. For case(c), P
2
= P
/
2
= 1, I
c
, P
//
2
= 1, I
d
, y
0
= 0, y
1
= h, y
2
= y
b
,
andy
3
= y
n
. (SeeAppendixB for theresultsof theintegrationof 1, I
c
etc.)
Smooth wall heat transfer. Inorder toconrmtheeffectsof thecorrectedturbu-
lentviscosityontheowelds, Figure9.24comparesthemeanvelocityprolesin
turbulentchannel owsatthebulkReynoldsnumber, Re=10
5
. (Thestandardhigh
Reynoldsnumber k- model [4] andtheeddydiffusivitymodel withPr
t
=0.9are
usedfor thecomputationof thecoreeldsof thepresent computations.) Although
theresultbythej
t
correctionalmostperfectlyliesonthelog-lawlineandtherecan
beseenaslight discrepancy betweentheresults withandwithout thecorrection,
boththeresultswell accordwiththeLRNLSmodel andthelog-lawproles. (The
meshes usedfor theAWF andtheLRN computations have, respectively, 50and
100nodepointsinthewall normal direction. Their rst cell heightsarey
. 30
andy
. 0.2, respectively.) This conrms that thecorrectioninthemomentum

equationmaynotbetotallynecessaryfor engineeringoweldcomputations, and
thusthepresentschemedoesnotemploythecorrectionfortheoweldAWF.This
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 10 100 1,000 10,000
U
+
y
+
Re = 10
5
LS
k- + AWF(+corr.)
k- + AWF(no corr.)
Log Law
Figure9.24. Meanvelocityprolesinturbulent smoothchannel ows.
+
y
+
}
Re = 10
5
Pr = 10.0
LS(Pr = 5.0)
Kader
k- +AWF(+corr.)
k- +AWF(no corr.)
5.0
2.0
0.71
1 10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
100 1,000 10,000
Figure9.25. Meantemperatureprolesinturbulent smoothchannel ows.
meansthat thecorrectionof j
t
ismadeonlyintheenergyequationinthepresent
strategy.
Figure 9.25 clearly indicates that without the correction, theAWF does not
properlyreproducethelogarithmictemperatureprolesinhighProwsof Pr5.0.
Notethat theexperimentally suggestedlogarithmicdistributionby Kader [44] for
awiderangeof Pr is:
O
= 2.12ln(y
Pr) (3.85Pr
1,3
1.3)
2
(88)
Inthecaseof Pr=0.71, theproles of theAWF withandwithout thecorrection
arevirtually identical andconrmthat thenear-wall correctionof j
t
is effective
for owsat Pr>1.0.
AsshowninFigure9.26a, thecorrectedAWF provesitsgoodperformancein
therangeof 50Pr10
3
. However, boththeLRN LS model andtheAWF with
(a)
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
1 10 100 1,000 10,000
+
y
+
1 10 100 1,000 10,000
y
+
500
100
50
LS(Pr = 500)
k- +AWF(Gerasimov,Pr = 500)
Kader
(b)
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
18,000
+
Re = 10
5
Re = 10
5
Pr = 10
3
Pr = 4 10
4
2 10
4
5 10
3
1 10
4
k- +AWF(+corr.)
LS(Pr = 2 10
4
)
Kader
k- +AWF(+corr.)
Figure9.26. Mean temperature proles in turbulent smooth channel ows at
higher Pr.
Gerasimovs [17] effective molecular Prandtl number scheme fail to predict the
thermal eld at Pr=500. Theformer predicts thetemperaturetoo high and the
latter does too low. Figure9.26balso conrms that thecorrectedAWF performs
well upto Pr=410
4
thoughtheLRN LS model predicts thethermal eldtoo
high. Notethat thesamegrid resolution as that for Pr=5.0 is used in theLRN
computations. This reasonably implies that thegridresolutionusedis too coarse
andamuchnergridisneededforsuchahighPrcomputationsbytheLRNmodels.
Obviously, it highlightsthemerit of usingtheAWF whichdoesnot requireaner
gridresolutionfor ahigher Pr ow.
Rough wall heat transfer. Figure9.27comparesthepredictedtemperatureelds
of turbulent roughchannel owsof h,D=0.01and0.03, (D ischannel height). In
thecasesof h,D=0.01, thecorrespondingroughnessReynoldsnumberish
. 60
which is in the transitional roughness regime, while h,D = 0.03 corresponds
to h
. 220 which is well in thefully rough regime. For each roughness case,
(a)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 10 100 1,000 10,000
+
y
+
Pr = 10.0
5.0
0.71
Pr = 10.0
5.0
0.71
2.0
(b)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
1 10 100 1,000 10,000
+
y
+
Re = 10
5
, h/D = 0.01
Re = 10
5
, h/D = 0.03
Kays-Crawford
k-+AWF(+corr.)
Kays-Crawford
k- + AWF(+corr.)
Figure9.27. Meantemperatureprolesinturbulent roughchannel ows.
it is obvious that thecorrectedAWF reasonably well reproduces thetemperature
distributionfor roughwalls[45]:
O
=
1
0.8h
0.2
Pr
0.44

Pr
t
ln
32.6y
(89)
wherePr
t
=0.9 and = 0.418. This correlation is based on theexperiments of
Pr= 1.20to5.94at theorder of Reis10
4
to10
5
.
9.4.6 AWF for high Schmidt number ows
Turbulentmasstransferacrossliquidinterfacesissometimesveryimportantinengi-
neeringandenvironmental issues. For example, inorder toestimatetheamount of
theabsorptionof atmosphericCO
2
(carbondioxide) at theseasurface, oneshould
consider predictingturbulent mass transfer across airwater interfaces. Thedif-
culty of analysingsuchaphenomenoncomesfromthat theconcentration(scalar)
boundary layer isvery muchthinner thanthat of theowboundary layer. Infact,
theSchmidtnumberScistheorderof O(10
3
). Sincespaceresolvedaccurateexper-
imentsof suchfree-surfacemasstransfer arerather difcult comparedwiththose
of solidwalls, numerical approachesarepromising(Calmet andMagnaudet [46];
HasegawaandKasagi [47]) toinvestigatethedetailedmasstransfer mechanisms.
AlthoughthoseapproachesarebasedonLESor DNSwhichrequirehighgridres-
olutions for capturingne-scaleowandscalar transfer, they arenot practical to
beusedintheestimationof theCO
2
absorptionat alargewater surfaceevenwith
therecent computer environment. Inorder toprovideamorepractical strategy, the
AWF scheme, whichrequiresonlyrather coarsewall-functiongridsinsteadof ne
gridsresolvingthethinscalar boundarylayers, canbeapplied[13].
AWF modelling for high Schmidt number ows
Thetheoretical limitingvariationsof thevelocitycomponentsandtheiructuations
near anairliquidinterfaceare:
u = a
u
b
u
y c
u
y
2
, : = a
:
b
:
y c
:
y
2

u
/
= a
/
u
b
/
u
y c
/
u
y
2
, :
/
= a
/
:
b
/
:
y c
/
:
y
2

(90)
SincetheeddyviscosityrelatestheReynoldsstresswiththemeanvelocitygradient
asu: = j
t
U,y, theaboverelationsleadto:
{a
/
u
a
/
:
(a
/
u
b
/
:
a
/
:
b
/
u
)y ] = j
t
(b
u
2c
u
y ) (91)
and it is obvious that j
t
O(y
0
). Thus, the near-interface variation of j
t
is
modelledas:
j
t
= jmax{0, (y
:
)] (92)
whereisafactorforadjustingthelengthscaledistributionforthenear-free-surface
turbulence. In thecaseof non-surfacedisturbancewherea
/
:
= 0, equation (92)
(a)
P N n
y*
(b)
y* y
c
*
m
t abmy*
t
aby*
Sc
t
Sc
t
a
c
y*
2
Figure9.28. (a) Near surfacecell arrangementandtheeddyviscositydistribution,
(b) turbulent diffusivitydistribution.
reducestoj
t
= jy
asinFigure9.28asinceequation(91) leadstoj
t
O(y).
On constant surface concentration conditions, the surface limiting behaviour of
concentrationanditsuctuationare:
c = a
c
b
c
y c
c
y
2
, c
/
= a
/
c
b
/
c
y c
/
c
y
2
(93)
Whentheturbulent concentrationux:c ismodelledas:c = jI
t
c,y,
{a
/
c
a
/
:
(b
/
c
a
/
:
a
/
c
b
/
:
)y (a
/
c
c
/
:
c
/
c
a
/
:
)y
2
] = jI
t
(b
c
2c
c
y ) (94)
Thus, I
t
O(y
0
). (In thecaseof non-surface-disturbance, I
t
O(y
2
) dueto
a
/
:
=0anda
/
c
=0.) Inthecontextof theeddyviscositymodels, theturbulentscalar
diffusivity I
t
is modelledusingaturbulent Schmidt number as I
t
= j
t
,(jSc
t
);
thus, withequation(92) onecanrewritethisas:
I
t
= max{0, (y
:
)],Sc
t
(95)
In order to satisfy the limiting behaviour of I
t
near the surface, the limiting
behaviour of Sc
t
isrequiredasO(y
1
). Thus, Sc
t
is:
Sc
t
=
_
Sc
t
,(y
,y
c
), 0 y
c
Sc
t
, y
c
- y
(96)
whereSc
t
isaprescribedconstant. Thissimpletwo-segment variationproleof
Sc
t
leadstotheturbulent diffusivitydistributionasinFigure9.28b:
I
t
=
_
c
y
2
,Sc
t
, 0 y
c
y
,Sc
t
, y
c
- y
(97)
for thecaseof non-surfacedisturbancewhereI
t
O(y
2
). Thecoefcient
c
and
y
c
have the relation
c
= ,y
c
for connecting the two segments. Then, with
the assumption that the rhs terms can be constant over the cell, the simplied
concentrationequationinthesurfaceadjacent cell:
_
_
j
Sc
jI
t
_
c
y
_
=

2
k
P
_

x
(Uc)
_
. ,, .
C
C
(98)
can be easily integrated analytically to form the boundary conditions of the
concentrationat thesurface, namelythesurfaceconcentrationux:
q
s
=
j
Sc
dc
dy
s
=
k
1,2
p
A
C
(99)
or thesurfaceconcentration:
c
s
= c
n

q
s
ScD
C
k
1,2
P
ScC
C
E
C
j
(100)
d
x
y
Air
Free surface
Computational domain
Water
Free slip
Figure9.29. Computational domainof free-surfaceows.
wheretheintegrationconstantsA
C
, D
C
andE
C
are
A
C
= {j(c
n
c
s
),ScC
C
E
C
] ,D
C
(101)
D
C
=
1
1,2
cd
tan
1
(
1,2
cd
y
c
)
1
ct
ln
_
1
ct
y
c
1
ct
y
n
_
(102)
E
C
=
1
ct
(y
c
y
n
)
1
2
ct
ln
_
1
ct
y
c
1
ct
y
n
_
1
2
cd
ln
_
1
ct
y
c
_
(103)
with
ct
= Sc,Sc
t
and
cd
=
ct
,y
c
. Themodel coefcients areSc
t
=0.9,
=0.55andy
c
=11.7.
Theexamplecaseis afully developedcounter-current airwater owdrivenby a
constant pressuregradient. Figure9.29 illustrates thecoordinatesystemand the
computational domainappliedinthepresent computations. Only thewater phase
issolvedwiththenon-disturbanceandtheconstantconcentrationconditionsatthe
freesurface. At thebottomof thedomain, afreeslipandaconstant concentration-
ux condition areimposed. Thecoupled turbulencemodel for coreows is the
standardk- model. Figure9.30accomparethepresentapplicationresultswiththe
DNSresultsof thefree-surfaceturbulent owwithsurface-shear whoseReynolds
number is Re
=150by HasegawaandKasagi [47]. Figure9.30ashows that the

agreementbetweenthepresentandtheDNSresultsof themeanvelocitydistribution
issatisfactory andtheprolesaresignicantly lower thanthat of thelog-lawline
for wall turbulence. Figure9.30bandc comparethemeanconcentrationeldsof
1 Sc 10
3
. Theconcentrationproles reasonably agreewiththeDNS results
inthevarious Schmidt numbers. This means that theAWF model canreproduce
essential near-surfacebehaviour of highSchmidt number turbulent ows.
500
300
100
Sc=1,000
C
+
C
+
2 5
30
35
20
15
10
5
0
2 50
300
350
400
200
150
100
50
0
(b) (c)
1 10 100
y
+
1 10 100
y
+
Present
DN S
Present
DN S
(a)
2 5
20
15
U
+
U
+
=y
+
U
+
=2.5 ln y
+
+5.5
10
5
0
1 10 100
y
+
Present
DN S
Figure9.30. (a)Meanvelocitydistributionof aturbulentfree-shearboundarylayer,
(b) mean concentration distribution near a free surface at Sc=1,
(c) meanconcentrationdistributionnear afreesurfaceat Sc=100
1,000.
9.5 Conclusions
TheAWFs, whicharefor thereplacementof theLWF andthetreatmentof complex
surfaceowphenomena, havebeensummarised.Theiroverall strategiesforderiva-
tionandimplementationhavebeenpresentedwithtypical applicationresults. From
theresults, ithasbeenshownthattheAWFsarevalidinmanyimportantowsover
awiderangeof Reynolds, Prandtl andSchmidtnumbers.Theeffectsof wall rough-
nessand/or wall permeability canbealsoincludedintheAWF aswell. Although
theydonot includetheconventional log-laws, theAWFsaccuratelyreproducethe
logarithmicprolesof meanvelocitiesandtemperatureswithout griddependency.
TheAWFsperformwell withsecondmoment closures, linear andnonlinear k
modelswhilethepredictiveaccuracy dependsontheturbulencemodel employed
inthemainoweld. Thecomputational costrequiredfor theAWFsiscomparable
tothat of thestandardLWF.
Intherough-wall versionof theAWF,theeffectsof wall roughnessonturbulence
andheat transfer areconsideredbyemployingfunctional formsof equivalent sand
grain roughness for thenon-dimensional thickness of themodelled viscous sub-
layer andtheturbulent Prandtl number immediatelyadjacent tothewall.
Although the permeable-wall version of theAWF does not need to resolve
theregioninsideapermeablewall, by non-linearly linkingto thesolutionof the
modied Brinkman equations for the ows inside porous media, it can bridge
the ows inside and outside of the porous media successfully. Since the com-
putedturbulentoweldsoverpermeableporoussurfacesarereasonablyinaccord
withthecorrespondingdata, theAWF for permeablewall turbulencemodelssuch
complicatedwall-owinteractions.
By linking to thecorrect near-wall variation of turbulent viscosity j
t
y
3
,
theAWF can be successfully applicable to ows over a wide range of Prandtl
numbers upto Pr=410
4
, for smoothwall cases. (For owelds andthermal
eldsat Pr1, it isnot totallynecessarytoemploythecorrect near-wall variation
of turbulentviscosity.) Forroughwall cases, itisconrmedthatthemodel function
of Pr
t
insideroughnesselementsenablestheAWF toperformwell inhighPr ows
at least at Pr10.
With aslight modication, theAWF can reproducethecharacteristics of the
turbulencenear freesurfaces. Thepredictiveperformanceof suchaversionof the
AWF isreasonableinturbulentconcentrationeldsintherangeof Sc=1to1,000.
Acknowledgements
Theauthor thanksProfessorsB. E. Launder, H. IacovidesandDr. T. J. Craft of the
Universityof Manchesterfortheirfruitful discussionsandcommentsontheAWFs.
Appendix A
Theanalytical integrationof themomentumandenergyequations(17) and(18) is
performedinthefour different cases illustratedingure9.8. Theprocess for the
case(a) y
:
- 0isasfollows:
Theintegrationof equation(17) withequation(40) is:
If y
,
dU
dy
=
A
U
j{1(y
:
)]
=
A
U
jY
(A.1)
U =
A
U
j
lnY
B
U
(A.2)
At awall: y
=0, theconditionU =0leadsto:

B
U
=
A
U
j
ln(1y
:
) =
A
U
j
lnY
w
(A.3)
Whenh
-y
, theintegrationleadsto:
dU
dy
=
C
U
y
A
/
U
jY
(A.4)
Table9.A1. Cell averagedgenerationP
k
, andintegrationconstant: A
U
; (a) y
:
-
0, (b) 0 y
:
h, (c) h y
:
y
n
, (d) y
n
y
:
; U
w
= 0 for
non-permeablewalls
Case P
k
(a)

j
2
y
n
k
P
_
_
h
0
(y
:
)
_
A
U
Y
_
2
dy

_
y
n
h
(y
:
)
_
C
U
(y
) A
U
Y
_
2
dy
_
(b)

j
2
y
n
k
P
_
_
h
:
(y
:
)
_
A
U
Y
_
2
dy

_
y
n
h
(y
:
)
_
C
U
(y
) A
U
Y
_
2
dy
_
(c)

j
2
y
n
k
P
_
y
n
y
:
(y
:
)
_
C
U
(y
) A
U
Y
_
2
dy
(d) 0
Case A
U
(a)
_
j(U
n
U
w
) C
U
(y
n
h
) C
U
_
Y
_
ln[Y
n
,Y
h
]
_
_
ln[Y
n
,Y
w
]
(b)
_
j(U
n
U
w
) C
U
(y
n
h
) C
U
_
Y
_
ln[Y
n
,Y
h
]
_
_
_
y
:
lnY
n
_
(c)
_
j(U
n
U
w
) C
U
(y
n
y
:
) C
U
_
Y
_
lnY
n

2
C
U
(y
2
:
2h
:
h
2
)
_
,
_
y
:
lnY
n
_
(d)
_
j(U
n
U
w
)
1
2
C
U
(y
2
n
2h
n
h
2
)
_
_
y
n
U =
C
U
j
y

_
A
/
U
j
w
C
U
2
j
_
lnY
B
/
U
(A.5)
Then, amonotonicdistributionconditionof dU,dy
andU at y
= h
gives:
A
U
jY
h
=
C
U
h
A
/
U
jY
h
(A.6)
A
U
j
lnY
h
B
U
=
C
U
j
h

_
A
/
U
j
w
C
U
2
j
_
lnY
h
B
/
U
(A.7)
Since at y
=y
n
the velocity is U = U
n
(U
n
is obtainable by interpolating the
calculatednodevaluesat P, N),
U
n
=
C
U
j
y
n

_
A
/
U
j
w
C
U
2
j
_
lnY
n
B
/
U
(A.8)
TheintegrationconstantsA
U
, B
U
, A
/
U
andB
/
U
arethuseasilyobtainablebysolving
equations(A.3, A.6A.8).
Table9.A2. Coefcientsinequation(45)
Case D
T
(a)

T
h
T

T

T
Y
T
h
(
T

T
)
2
ln(Y
T
h
,
b
)
1
T
ln(Y
T
n
,Y
T
h
)
(b)

T
y
:

T
h
T

T

T
Y
T
h
(
T

T
)
2
ln(Y
T
h
,Y
T
h
)
1
T
ln(Y
T
n
,Y
T
h
)
(c)
1
T
lnY
T
n
y
:
(d) y
n
Case E
T
(a)
h
T
_
Y
T
w
T
h

Y
T
h
T

T
_

b
T

T
1
_
T
Y
T
h
(
T

T
)
2
_
ln(Y
T
n
,Y
T
h
)
b
Y
T
h
(
T

T
)
3
ln(Y
T
h
,
b
)
h
T

T
_
1

T
h
2

T
T

T
_
(b)
h
T
_
Y
T
w
T
h

Y
T
h
T

T
_

b
T

T
1
_
T
Y
T
h
(
T

T
)
2
_
ln(Y
T
n
,Y
T
h
)
b
Y
T
h
(
T

T
)
3
ln(Y
T
h
,Y
T
h
)
h
T

T
_
1

T
h
2

T
T

T
_
T

T
_

T
Y
T
h
T

T

T
y
:
2
_
(c)
y
:
y
T
y
2
:
,2
Y
T
w
2
T
lnY
T
n
(d) y
2
n
,2
Inthiscase, thewall shear stress
w
iswrittenas:
w
= (j j
t
)
dU
dy
y=0
= jY
w
k
1,2
P
dU
dy
=0
=
k
1,2
P
A
U
(A.9)
whoseresultant formisthesameasequation(27) andcanbecalculatedwithA
U
.
Since the cell averaged production term P
k
of the turbulence energy k is
writtenas:
P
k
=
1
y
n
_
_
h
0

t
_
dU
dy
_
2
dy
_
y
n
h
t
_
dU
dy
_
2
dy
_
(A.10)
=

y
n
k
P
_
_
h
0
(y
:
)
_
dU
dy
_
2
dy

_
y
n
h
(y
:
)
_
dU
dy
_
2
dy
_
it canbecalculatedbysubstitutingdU,dy
withequations(A.1) and(A.4).
Asfor thethermal eld, wheny
, applyingequations(41) and(42) tothe

energyequation(18), onecanleadto:
__
j
Pr

j(y
:
)
Pr
t
C
0
(1y
,h
)
_
O
y
_
= C
T
(A.11)
Itsintegrationfollows:
_
j
Pr

j(y
:
)
Pr
t
C
0
(1y
,h
)
_
dO
dy
= C
T
y
A
T
(A.12)
dO
dy
=
{1
T
(h
)](C
T
y
A
T
)
1
T
(y
:
)
T
(h
)
Pr
j
(A.13)
Thefurther integrationleadsto:
O =
_
C
T
T
(
T

T
)
2

C
T
(1
T
h
)
T
A
T
T

T
_
Pr
j
y

PrC
T
T
2j(
T

T
)
y
2
_
C
T
2
b
T
(
T

T
)
3

b
{C
T
(1
T
h
)
T
A
T
]
(
T

T
)
2
(1
T
h
)A
T
T

T
_
Pr
j
ln[(
T

T
)y

b
] B
T
(A.14)
Wheny
> h
dO
dy
=
Pr(C
T
y
A
/
T
)
j{1
T
(y
:
)]
=
Pr(C
T
y
A
/
T
)
jY
T
(A.15)
O =
PrC
T
j
T
y

Pr
j
_
A
/
T
C
T
Y
T
w
2
T
_
lnY
T
B
/
T
(A.16)
Theintegrationconstants A
T
, B
T
, A
/
T
andB
/
T
arereadily obtainableby equations
(A.13A.16) imposingtheboundaryconditions(O[
y=0
= O
w
, O[
y=y
n
= O
n
) and
amonotonic distribution condition of dO,dy
and O at y
= h
as in theow
eld.
In the case of a constant wall temperature, the wall heat ux q
w
can be
calculatedas:
q
w
= c
p
_

Pr

t
Pr
t
_
k
1,2
P
dO
dy
w
=
c
p
k
1,2
P
j
A
T
(A.17)
whoseresultant formisthesameasequation(28) andcanbecalculatedwithA
T
.
In the other cases (b)(d), integration can be performed by the similar
manner.
Appendix B
Theintegralsof thefunctionsare:
_
1
I
a
dy
=
_
1
1

/
Pry
3
Pr
t
dy
(B.1)
=
a
3
_
1
2
ln
(y
a)
2
y
2
ay
a
2

3tan
1
2y
a
a
3
_
_
y
I
a
dy
=
_
y
1

/
Pry
3
Pr
t
dy
(B.2)
=
a
2
3
_
1
2
ln
(y
a)
2
y
2
ay
a
2

3tan
1
2y
a
a
3
_
_
1
I
b
dy
=
_
1
1
Pr(y
:
)
Pr
t
dy
=
1
ln[1
(y
:
)[ (B.3)
_
y
I
b
dy
=
_
y
1
Pr(y
:
)
Pr
t
dy
(B.4)
=
y
ln[1
(y
:
)[
_
1
I
d
dy
=
_
1
1
Pr(y
:
)
Pr
t
C
h
max(0, 1y
,h
)
dy
=

T
y
T

T
_

T
b
(
T

T
)
2

1
T
h
T

T
_
(B.5)
ln[(
T

T
)y

b
[
_
y
I
d
dy
=
_
y
1
Pr(y
:
)
Pr
t
C
h
max(0, 1y
,h
)
dy
=

T
y
2
2(
T

T
)

_

T
b
(
T

T
)
2

1
T
h
T

T
_
y
(B.6)
_

T
2
b
(
T

T
)
3

b
(1
T
h
)
(
T

T
)
2
_
ln[(
T

T
)y

b
[
where
= Pr/Pr
t
,
T
= Pr/Pr
t
, a = (
/
Pr/Pr
t
)
1,3
T
=
_
C
h
,(Pr
t
h
), for y h
0, for h - y
b
=1
T
h
:
. (Note that integration constants are neglected in the
results.)
_
1
I
c
dy
=
_
1
1

/
Pr(y

:
)
3
Pr
t
C
h
max(0, 1y
,h
)
dy
/
T
_
T
(
a

b
)(1
T
h
)

b
2
(1
T
[h

a
])
_
+(y)
1
T
(h

a
)
2
ln[y
2
b
y

c
[
{1
T
(h

a
)] ln[y

a
[
_
(B.7)
_
y
I
c
dy
=
_
y
1

/
Pr(y

:
)
3
Pr
t
C
h
max(0, 1y
,h
)
dy
/
T
__
c
(1
T
[h

a
])

b
2
(
T
[
a
b

c
]
a
[1
T
h
])
_
+(y)
1
2
{
T
[
a
b

c
] (B.8)
a
(1
T
h
)] ln[y
2
b
y

c
[
a
{1
T
(h

a
)] ln[y

a
[
_
where
/
T
=
/
Pr/Pr
t
,
=
_
_
(q
_
q
2
p
3
)
1,3
(q
_
q
2
p
3
)
1,3
, if q
2
p
3
0,
2
p cos
_
1
3
cos
1
_
q
p
p
__
, if q
2
p
3
- 0,
(B.9)
p =
T
,(3
/
T
), q = {1
T
(h

:
)],(2
/
T
),
a
=
:
,
b
= 2
:
,
c
=
2
:

:

2
3p, = 1,{
a
(
a

b
)
c
]
and
+(y) =
_
b
2y
, if
2
b
4
c
= 0,
2
_
2
b
4
c
tan
1
_
_
_
b
2y
2
b
4
c
_
_
_
, if
2
b
4
c
- 0,
2
_
2
b
4
c
ln
b
2y
2
b
4
c
b
2y
2
b
4
c
, if
2
b
4
c
> 0.
(B.10)
9.6 Nomenclature
A
C
, A
T
, A
U
: integrationconstants
c, c: concentration, meanconcentration
c
p
: specicheat capacityat constant pressure
c
, c
j
: model constants
C
0
C
3
, C
h
: model coefcients
C
p
: pressurecoefcient
C
C
: sumof theconvectionandthediffusiontermsof
theconcentrationequation
C
T
theenergyequation
C
U
themomentumequation
d
p
: meanparticlediameter
D pipediameter
D
C
, D
T
, E
C
, E
T
: integrationconstants
f : frictioncoefcient of pipeows
f
i
: dragforce
F, F
ij
: Forchheimer correctioncoefcient, Forchheimer
correctiontensor
h, h
: roughnessheight (equivalent sandgrainroughness

height), h
k
P
,
h
: roughnessReynoldsnumber: hU
/
H: rampheight or channel height
k, k
P
: turbulenceenergy, k at nodeP
K, K
ij
: permeability, permeabilitytensor
: turbulent lengthscale
L: ramplength
Nu: Nusselt number
P: pressureor cell centreof thewall-adjacent cell
P
k
: productiontermof k equation
Pr, Pr
t
, Pr
t
: Prandtl number, turbulent Prandtl numbers
q
w
: wall heat ux
q
s
: surfaceconcentrationux
Re, Re
x
, Re
: Reynoldsnumbers: U
b
D,, U
0
x,, U
e
,; :
momentumthickness
Re
K
: permeabilityReynoldsnumber: U
K
1,2
/
Sc, Sc
t
, Sc
t
: Schmidt number, turbulent Schmidt numbers
St: Stantonnumber: Nu/(RePr)
S
: sourcetermof theenergyequation
U, U
: meanvelocity, U,U
U
b
, U
: bulkvelocity, frictionvelocity:
w
,
U
d
: Darcyvelocity
U
e
, U
0
: freestreamvelocities
U
n
: velocityat thepoint n
U
w
: slipvelocity
x: wall-parallel coordinate
x
/
: x,L intherampow
y: wall normal coordinateor wall normal distance
y
n
, y
:
, y
: cell height, viscoussublayer thickness, characteristic

dissipationlength
y
, y
: normaliseddistances: yU
,, y
k
P
,
y
b
, y
c
: connectionpointsintwosegment diffusivitymodels
Y
, Y
i
: 1(y
:
), 1(y
i
y
:
); i =w, n, h; y
w
=0; y
h
=h
Y
T
, Y
T
i
: 1
T
(y
:
), 1
T
(y
i
y
:
); i =w, n, h; y
w
=0; y
h
=h
Y
T
, Y
T
i
: 1
T
(y
:
), 1
T
(y
i
y
:
); i =w, n, h; y
w
=0; y
h
=h
: c
j
c
or heat transfer coefcient: q

w
,(O
w
O
inlet
)
/
,
ct
,
cd
: (y
b
y
:
),y
3
b
, Sc,Sc
t
,
ct
,y
T
,
: Pr , Pr
t
, Pr , Pr
t
,
p
: model coefcients
T
: C
0
,(h
Pr
t
)
I
U
, I
, I
t
: normalisedtotal viscosity, thermal diffusivityandturbulent
diffusivity
:
: originshift
Lx, Ly: cell widthsinthex, y direction
: porosity
: dissipationrateof k
O, O
: meantemperature, [OO
w
[(c
p
U
),q
w
O
w
, O
n
: wall temperature, temperatureat thepoint n
,
t
: vonKrmnconstants
b
: Y
T
w

T
h
j, j
t
: viscosity, turbulent viscosity
,
t
: kinematicviscosity, kinematicturbulent viscosity
: uiddensity
w
: wall shear stress
), )
f
: supercial andintrinsicaveragedvaluesof
: Reynoldsaveragedvalueof
References
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ows, ASME J. Fluid Eng., 110, pp. 11121128, 1988.
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EngineeringTurbulenceModellingandMeasurements5, W. Rodi andN. Fueyo(Eds.),
Elsevier ScienceLtd., Amsterdam, pp. 2942, 2002.
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streamfroman abrupt pipe expansion, Numerical Heat Transfer, 3, pp. 189207,
1980.
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1203, 2007.
IV. Advanced Simulation Modeling
Technologies
10 SPH a versatile multiphysics
modeling tool
FangmingJ iang
1
andAntonioC.M. Sousa
2, 3
1
The Pennsylvania State University, USA
2
Universidade de Aveiro, Portugal
3
University of New Brunswick, Canada
Abstract
Inthischapter, thecurrentstate-of-the-artandrecentadvancesof anovel numerical
method theSmoothedParticleHydrodynamics(SPHs) will bereviewedthrough
casestudies withparticular emphasis to uidowandheat transport. To provide
sufcient backgroundandtoassessitsengineering/scienticrelevance, threepar-
ticular casestudieswill beusedtoexemplifymacro- andnanoscaleapplicationsof
this methodology. Therst applicationdeals withmagnetohydrodynamic (MHD)
turbulencecontrol. Effectivecontrol of thetransitionto turbulenceof anelectri-
callyconductiveuidowcanbeachievedbyapplyingastationarymagneticeld,
whichisnot simplyalignedalongthestreamwiseor transverseowdirection, but
alongadirectionthat forms ananglewiththemainuidowintherangeof 0
(streamwise) to90
(transverse). TheSPHnumerical techniqueisusedtointerpret

thisconcept andtoanalyzethemagneticconditions. Thesecondapplicationdeals
withnon-Fourier ballistic-diffusiveheat transfer, whichplaysacrucial roleinthe
developmentof nanotechnologyandtheoperationof submicron- andnanodevices.
Theballistic-diffusiveequationtoheattransportinathinlmissolvednumerically
viatheSPH methodology. Thethirdapplicationdealswithmesoscopicpore-scale
model for uidowinporous media. SPH simulations enablemicroscopic visu-
alization of uid owin porous mediaas well as theprediction of an important
macroscopicparameter thepermeability.
Keywords: CFD, Numerical methods, Smoothedparticlehydrodynamics
10.1 Introduction
A novel numerical method thesmoothedparticlehydrodynamic (SPH) offers a
relatively exibletool for heat anduidowcomputations, as it cancopewitha
widerangeof spacescalesandof physical phenomena. SPHisameshlessparticle-
basedLagrangianuiddynamicssimulationtechnique, inwhichtheuidowis
represented by a collection of discrete elements or pseudo-particles. These par-
ticles areinitially distributed with a specied density distribution and evolvein
timeaccordingtotheconstitutiveconservationequations(e.g., mass, momentum,
energy). Flowproperties aredeterminedby aninterpolationor smoothingof the
nearby particle distribution using a special weighting function the smoothing
kernel. SPH was rst proposed by Gingold and Monaghan [1] and by Lucy [2]
in the context of astrophysical modeling. The method has been successful in a
broad spectrumof problems, among others, heat conduction [3, 4], forced and
natural convectiveow[5, 6], lowReynolds number ow[7, 8], and interfacial
ow[911]. Manyother applicationsaregivenbyMonaghan[12] andRandleand
Libersky [13], which offer comprehensivereviews on thehistorical background
and someadvances of SPH. In comparison to theEulerian-based computational
uiddynamics(CFD) methods, SPHisadvantageousinwhatconcernsthefollow-
ingaspects: (a) particular suitabilitytotackleproblemsdealingwithmultiphysics;
(b) easeof handlingcomplexfreesurfaceandmaterial interface; and(c) relatively
simplecomputercodesandeaseof machineparallelization.Theseadvantagesmake
it particularlywell suitedtodeal withtransient uidowandheat transport.
Thischapter isorganizedinsixmainsections, namely: 1. Introduction; 2. SPH
theory, formulation, and benchmarking; 3. Control of theonset of turbulencein
MHD uidow; 4. SPH numerical modelingfor ballistic-diffusiveheat conduc-
tion; 5. Mesoscopic pore-scaleSPH model for uidowinporousmedia, and6.
Concludingremarks.
10.2 SPHTheory, Formulation, and Benchmarking
SPH, despite its promise, is far frombeing at its perfected or optimized stage.
ProblemswiththeSPH,suchashandlingof solidboundaries[14], choiceof smooth-
ingkernel andspecicationof thesmoothinglength[15], treatment of heat/mass
conducting ow [5, 6], and modeling of low Reynolds number ow, where the
surface/interfaceeffectsact asadominatingrolerelativetotheinertial effect [10],
have prevented its application to some practical problems. This section reports
an effort to enhance the SPH methodology and develop appropriate computer
programmableformulations.
10.2.1 SPH theory and formulation
IntheSPH formulation, thecontinuous owat timet is representedby acollec-
tion of N particles each located at position r
i
(t) and moving with velocity v
i
(t),
i =1, 2, . . . . . . , N. Thesmoothed valueof any eldquantity q(r, v) at aspace
pointr (boldtextdesignatesvectorortensor) isaweightedsumof all contributions
fromneighboringparticles, namely:
q(r, v)) =
j
m
j
(r
j
)
q(r
j
, v
j
)w([r r
j
[, h) (1)
SPH a versatile multiphysics modeling tool 385
q(r, v)) =
j,=i
m
j
(r
j
)
q(r
j
, v
j
)w([r r
j
[, h) (2)
where, m
j
and(r
j
), respectively, denotethemassanddensityof particlej. w([r[, h)
istheweight or smoothingfunctionwithh beingthesmoothinglength.
Density update
Basedonequation(1), thelocal densityat positionr
i
(t) is:
i
=
j
m
j
w
ij
(3)
Thesummationisover all neighboringparticlesj includingparticlei itself. Equa-
tion(1) conservesmassaccurately if thetotal SPH particlesarekept constant. In
terms of equation(2), another formulationfor density calculationcanbederived
fromthecontinuityequation, namely
d
i
dt
=
j,=i
m
j
v
ij

i
w
ij
(4)
Thesummationisover all neighboringparticlesj withexceptionof particlei itself.
Here, v
ij
=v
i
v
j
, r
ij
=r
i
r
j
, andw
ij
=w([r
i
r
j
[, h); thesubscript intheoper-
ator
i
indicatesthegradient derivativesaretakenwithrespect tothecoordinates
at particlei
i
w
ij
=
r
ij
r
ij
w
ij
r
i
(5)
Equation (4) is the Galilean invariant, which is more appropriate for interface
reconstruction in freesurfaceowsimulations. Theuseof this equation has the
computational advantage over equation (3) of calculating all rates of change in
onepass over theparticles; whereas theuseof equation(3) requires onepass to
calculatethedensity, thenanother onetocalculatetheratesof changefor velocity,
anddifferent scalars, suchastemperature.
Equation(4) is employedto performthedensity updateinthecasestudies to
bepresented.
Incompressibility
A quasi-compressiblemethodisimplementedtodeterminethedynamic pressurep
[8], inwhichanarticial equationof stateisused
p = p
0
__

0
_
1.0
_
(6)
where, p
0
isthemagnitudeof thepressurefor material statecorrespondingtothe
referencedensity
0
. Theratio of thespecic heats is articially alargevalue
(say, 7.0) to guaranteetheincompressibility of theuid. Thespeedof sound, c
s
,
canbeformulatedas:
c
2
s
=
p
0
0
= U
2
(7)
where, U is the characteristic or maximumuid velocity. The choice of is a
compromise: it shouldbeanadequatevaluetoavoidmakingp
0
(or c
s
) toolarge,
whichwill forcethetimeadvancement of thesimulationtobecomeprohibitively
slow, andalsotoavoidyieldingMachnumbersthatcanviolatetheincompressibility
conditionof theuid; takes100inthecasestudiestobepresented, whichensures
thedensityvariationbelessthan1.0%.
Velocity rate of change
TheSPH formulationof viscouseffectsinuidowrequirescareful modelingto
satisfyitsadaptivityandrobustness. Inthisrespect, Morriset al. [8] presentedthe
followingexpression, equation(8), tosimulateviscousdiffusion.
__
1
j
_
v
_
i
=
j,=i
m
j
(j
i
j
j
)v
ij
j
_
1
[r
ij
[
w
ij
r
i
_
(8)
Thisexpressionhasproventobehighlyaccurateinparticular for thesimulationsof
lowReynoldsnumberplanarshearows[7, 8].Thevariablejdenotesthedynamic
viscosityof theuid.
In what concerns equation (2), the pressure gradient terms in the Navier
Stokes (NS) equations can be formulated using the following symmetrized [6]
SPHversion:
_
1
p
_
i
=
j,=i
m
j
_
p
i
2
i
p
j
2
j
_
i
w
ij
(9)
Therefore, theSPHmomentumequationyields
dv
i
dt
=
j,=i
m
j
_
_
_
_
_
_
p
j
2
j
p
i
2
i
_
i
w
ij

1.0
j
_
j
i
j
j
_

i
w
ij
r
ij
r
2
ij
0.01h
2
v
ij
_
_
F
i
(10)
where, F is thebody forceper unit mass (m/s
2
). Thequantity 0.01h
2
is usedto
prevent singularitiesfor r
ij
0.
Position update
ToassuretheSPHparticlesmovewithavelocityconsistentwiththeaveragevelocity
of itsneighboringparticlesit usedthevariant proposedbyMorris[10]
dr
i
dt
= v
i

j
m
j
v
ij

ij
w
ij
(11)
Here,
ij
=(
i
j
)/2.0andthefactor ischosenas =0.5.
Rate of change of temperature
Clearyetal. [16] derivedaSPHheattransferequationforsolidifyingmetals, which
canberewrittenfor auidof constant heat capacityas:
4.0m
j
i

j
r
ij

i
w
ij
r
2
ij
0.01h
2
T
ij
2.0m
j
j
j
i
j
j
_
v
ij
r
ij
_
2
j
i
j
j
r
ij

i
w
ij
_
r
2
ij
0.01h
2
_
2
c
p
dT
i
dt
=
j,=i
(12)
where, andc
p
aretheheatconductivityandthespecicheatatconstantpressure,
respectively. Duetotheincompressibilityof theuid, pressureworkwasneglected
andthesecondtermontheright-handsidedenotesthecontributionfromviscous
heat dissipation.
Time advancement
The4thorderRungeKuttaintegrationalgorithmisusedtoperformtheintegrations
of equations(4), (10), (11), and(12). ThetimestepLt isadaptiveanddetermined
bytheCourantFriedrichsLewy(CFL) condition[8] givenby:
Lt = min
_
_
c
1
h
max
i
(15.0U, [v
i
[)
, c
2
_
h
max acceleration
,
c
3
h
max soundspeed
_
_
(13)
TheCourant safety factorsc
1
, c
2
, andc
3
aregivenasc
1
=0.125, c
2
=0.25, and
c
3
=0.25, respectively. Intheright-handsideof equation(13), aquantity 15.0U
is introducedintherst constraint so that thethreeconstraints may havesimilar
inuenceuponthecalculation.
Smoothing kernel
Highaccuracythree-splinesquintickernel isused
w
ij
= n
d
1.0
h
_
(3.0s)
5
6.0(2.0s)
5
15.0(1.0s)
5
if 0 s - 1.0
(3.0s)
5
6.0(2.0s)
5
if 1.0 s - 2.0
(3.0s)
5
if 2.0 s - 3.0
0 if s 3.0
(14)
where, s =[r
ij
[/h, is thedimensionality of theproblem, andn
d
anormalization
constant, whichisdeterminedbythenormalizationproperty[15] of thesmoothing
kernel
_
w([r r
/
[, h)dr
/
= 1.0 (15)
For thepresent implementation, =2andn
d
=7.0/478.0.
Boundary
d
A
d
B
v
A
v
B
B
A
f
x
y
F
l
u
i
d

c
h
a
n
n
e
l
W
a
l
l

r
e
g
i
o
n
p
p
p/2
p/2
Figure10.1. Illustrationof initial particlearrangementandtreatmentof solidwall
boundary.
Thesmoothinglengthh isgivenas:
h = 1.001
_
(Lx)
2
(Ly)
2
(16)
where, Lx and Ly are the initial spacing in the x and y direction, respectively,
between two neighboring particles, and Lx =Ly. Thus, theinterpolation of the
eldquantitywithrespect tooneuidparticleextendstoaregionwhereabout 61
neighboringparticlesareincluded.
Solid wall boundary
Thetreatment of solid wall boundaries is illustrated in Figure10.1. Taking into
accounttheinuenceregionof theemployedquinticsmoothingkernel, four layers
of dumb wall particlesarearrangedoutsideof theuidchannel andparallel tothe
real wall boundarywiththerstlayerLp/2awayfromthewall plane.Thesedumb
particles havethesamespatial separationLp as uidparticles. Thedensity of a
dumb particleisinitiallysetequal tothereferenceuiddensity,
0
, anditremains
unchanged. Boundary particles interact with the uid particles by contributing
to their density variations, andby prescribingviscous forces on thenearby uid
particles.
Toensurethenon-penetratingconditionof solidwall boundary, thecalculations
aremadewithboundaryparticlesexertingcentral forcesonuidparticles[17]. For
apair of boundary anduidparticleseparatedby adistancer, theforceper unit
massf (r) isassumedtohavethe12-6LennardJ onesform[18]:
f (r) = D
_
_
r
0
r
_
12
_
r
0
r
_
6
_
r
r
2
(17)
f (r) is set to zero if r >r
0
so that theforceis purely repulsive. r
0
is takento be
0.45Lp. Duringthecalculations, only thecomponent of f (r) normal tothesolid
wall isconsidered; Dhastheunitsof (m/s)
2
andistakenas10.0F Characteristic-
Geometric-Length. Varyingthemagnitudeof D hasnoparticular inuenceonthe
calculationresults.
Nonslipwall boundary conditionisguaranteedby usingthemethodproposed
byMorriset al. [8]. For eachuidparticleA, thenormal distanced
A
tothewall is
y
d
u
x
(y, )
U
0
x B0 B0 B 0
d
0
Figure10.2. CombinedPoiseuilleandCouetteow.
calculatedandforeachboundaryparticleB, d
B
isobtained.Thenanarticial veloc-
ity v
B
=(d
B
/d
A
)v
A
isappliedtotheboundary particleB withanassumptionof
zero velocity conditionontheboundary planeitself. This articial velocity v
B
is
used to calculatetheviscous forceapplied on thenearby uid particles, but not
usedto locatetheboundary particleposition. Boundary particles aremotionless
or movingatspeciedvelocities. Therelativevelocitybetweenuidandboundary
particlesis:
v
AB
= v
A
v
B
= v
A
(18)
where
= min
_
max
, 1.0
d
B
d
A
_
(19)
max
is used to exclude the extremely large values when uid particles get too
closeto thewall. In Morris et al. [8] good results wereobtained for
max
=1.5
when simulating low Reynolds number planar shear ows. In thepresent study,
max
=7.0isspecied, whichisthelargestvalueof for theinitial regular particle
arrangement.
10.2.2 Benchmarking
Thevalidity of theabove-outlined SPH formulation is examined for two bench-
marksdealingwithheat anduidow, namely: combinedtransient Poiseuilleand
Couetteow, andsteadyheatconvectionfor combinedPoiseuilleandCouetteow
conditions; thesebenchmarkswereselectedbecauseanalytical solutionsfor them
areavailable.
Transient combined Poiseuille and Couette ow
Thistestcaseistheuidowbetweentwoparallel inniteplates, locatedaty =d
andy =d, respectively, asshowninFigure10.2. Thesystemisinitiallyat rest. At
timet =0, theupper platestartstomoveat constant velocityU
0
alongthepositive
x-axis. Concurrently, abodyforceF isalignedparallel tothex-axis. Theresultant
velocityproleisdependent onanon-dimensional quantity, designatedasB
B =
d
2
U
0
F (20)
anditstime-dependent seriessolutionis:
u
x
(y, t) =
F
2
(d
2
y
2
)
U
0
2d
(y d)
n=0
(1)
n
16Fd
2
3
(2n 1)
3
cos
_
y
2d
(2n 1)
_
exp
_
(2n 1)
2
4d
2
t
_
n=1
(1)
n
2U
0
n
sin
_
n
2d
(y d)
_
exp
_
n
2
4d
2
t
_
(21)
Therst andthirdtermsintheright-handsideof equation(21) refer tothecontri-
butionbytheappliedbodyforceF andtheother twotermsresult fromthemotion
of theupper plate. Whentimet approachesinnite, thesteady-statesolutiontakes
theform:
u
x
(y, ) =
B
2
U
0
_
1
y
2
d
2
_
1
2
U
0
_
1
y
d
_
(22)
Thephysical properties of theuidarespeciedas, =1.010
6
m
2
/s and
=1000.0kg/m
3
.Thevalueof d istakenas0.0005mandU
0
5.010
5
m/s. Fifty
SPHuidparticlesaresettospanthechannel. ThebodyforceF isadjustedtogive
different valuesof B. TheresultsarepresentedinFigures10.3aandb.
The overall agreement between simulations and exact analytical solutions is
excellent: the largest deviation between SPH simulation and series solution is
observedat thepositionclosetothemotionlesswall, andit islessthan2.0%.
Steady heat convection for combined Poiseuille and Couette ow conditions
Thesecondtest caseis conductedonthesteady convectiveheat transfer between
two parallel innite plates, which are kept at constant temperatures: T
e
and T
w
(T
e
>T
w
), respectively.TheupperplateismovingataconstantvelocityU
0
yielding
theCouetteowcondition, asshowninFigure10.4. Concurrently, abodyforceF
maybeappliedtoo.
Theexact solutionfor thesteady-statetemperatureproleisgivenas:
T
(y) =
1
2
(1y
)
Br
8
(1y
2
)
Br
6
B(y
y
3
)
Br
12
B
2
(1y
4
) (23)
where, Br stands for the Brinkman number which is the product of the Prandtl
number Pr by theEckert number Ec (Br =Pr.Ec), y
andT
arethenormalized
positionandtemperature, respectively, asdenedbelow:
Br =
jc
p
U
2
0
c
p
(T
e
T
w
)
(24)
4.8
(a)
4.0
3.2
2.4
1.6
0.8
0.0
1.0
1.0
0.5 0.0
2.0
5.0
B = 10.0
0
y/d
u
/
U
0
0.5 1.0
4.8
5.6
(b)
4.0
3.2
2.4
1.6
0.8
0.0
1.0
1.0
0.5 0.0
2.0
5.0
B = 10.0
0
y/d
u
/
U
0
0.5 1.0
Figure10.3. Results for combined Poiseuille and Couette ow at: (a) time=
0.212seconds, and(b) timeapproachinginnite. (Symbolsrepresent
theSPHpredictionsandthefull linestheanalytical solutions).
y
=
y
d
(25)
T
(y) =
T(y) T
w
T
e
T
w
(26)
Theparameter B istheratiobetweenthecontributionsfromthebody forcetothe
uidowandthemotionof upperplate, asexpressedinequation(20).Therstterm
intheright-handsideof equation(23) isduetotheheatconductionbetweenthetwo
y
d
u U
0
, T T
e
u 0, T T
w
u u
x
(y)
U
0
x
d
0
Body force F
T T(y)
Figure10.4. Steady heat convection for combined Poiseuille and Couette ow
condition.
parallel plates, whereas thelast threeterms describetheviscous heat dissipation,
whichfor moderatevaluesof B andsmall valuesof Br isnegligible; however, for
highviscosityuids, asexpected, maybesignicant. Inthefollowingcalculations,
totest theabilityof theSPH methodologyinpredictingheat dissipation, theuid
isassumedtohavearelativelylargeviscosityof 1.0Pas. Moreover, thegeometric
dimensionisincreasedtod =0.05mandthemovingvelocityof theupper plateis
U
0
=0.05m/s. Other parametersspeciedare: heat conductivity, =0.1W/mK;
heat capacity, c
p
=4,200J /kgK; density, =1,000.0kg/m
3;
andthetemperature
of thelower plate, T
w
=0
C. By varyingthemagnitudeof F andtheupper plate

temperatureT
e
, different B andBr valuesareobtained.
As before, 50SPH uidparticles areset to spanthechannel. Theresults for
thisparticular casearedepictedinFigures10.5aandb, and, asobserved, theSPH
predictionsfor thenon-dimensional temperaturecomparewell withtheanalytical
solution; themaximumdeviationislessthan1%.
The heat convection process and the heat dissipation characteristics are also
reproducedwell bytheSPHsimulations.
10.3 Control of the Onset of Turbulence in MHD Fluid Flow
Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) ow control nds growing importance in many
industrial settings, inparticular inthemetallurgical industry. Theelectromagnetic
forceimposed by astationary magnetic eld may suppress theowinstabilities
of electricallyconductinguidsandcreatesfavorableowconditionsinuidow
devices, suchas tundishes, as describedby Szekley andIlegbusi [19]. Thework
reportedbyHartmannandLazarus[20] wastherstonetoexperimentallyidentify
thechangeindragandthesuppressionof turbulencewhenamagneticeldisapplied
toturbulentliquidmetal ows. Fromthenon, numerousstudieshaveaddressedthe
interactions betweentheappliedtransverse(wall-normal) magnetic eldandthe
uidow, asreportedinLeeandChoi [21], Krasnovetal. [22], J i andGardner[23].
A magnetic eld applied in thetransverseowdirection is effectivein reducing
theturbulenceuctuationsandsuppressingthenear-wall streamwisevorticity; the
meanvelocityproleismodied, thereforeyieldingadragincrease. Incontrast to
(a)
1.2
1.6
0.8
T
*
T
*
0.0
0.4
1.0 0.5 0.0
2.0
5.0
Br = 0.001
10.0
y/d
0.5 1.0
(b)
6.0
8.0
10.0
4.0
0.0
2.0
1.0 0.5 0.0
0.4
Br = 0.0001
1.0
y/d
0.5 1.0
Figure10.5. Results for temperature proles when (a) B=0 and (b) B=10.0.
(Symbols represent the SPH predictions and the full lines the
analytical solutions).
theextensiveresearcheffort dealingwithMHD ows withanappliedtransverse
magneticeld, littleattentionwasgiventotheowsinteractingwithastreamwise
magneticeld. Theapplicationof astreamwisemagneticeld, toaow, however,
isabletorestrainthevelocity uctuationsinthetransverseplaneof that owand
thetransitiontoturbulencecanbedistinctlydelayed, orevensuppressedintheow.
Theability of astreamwisemagnetic eldof controllingtheonset of turbulence
in an electrically conducting uid owwas recently corroborated by J iang et al.
[24]. To achievethemost effectiveowcontrol with theleast amount of energy
consumptionisthegoal of anMHDowcontrol strategy, whichcanberealizedby
combiningthetwoabove-mentionedmagneticelds.
10.3.1 MHD ow control
Motionof electricallyconductinguidsacrossamagneticeldinducestheso-called
Lorentz force, which, when properly handled, may suppress theow instability
andrestraintheowturbulence. A magnetic eldappliedinthetransverse(wall-
normal) directionof auidowcreatesaponderomotivebodyforceandchanges
themeanvelocityproleduetotheformationof theHartmannlayersatelectrically
insulatingboundariesnormal tothemagneticeld. A magneticeldappliedtothe
owinthestreamwisedirectionrestrainsthevelocityuctuationsinthetransverse
plane of the uid ow and prevents the onset of turbulence. In comparison to
astreamwisemagnetic eld, amagnetic eld applied in thetransversedirection
of theow acts directly on themain ow and may proveto bemoreexiblein
controllingtheow; however, it increasestheowresistanceandneedsadditional
energy consumption. Therefore, areasonablecontrol strategy may berealizedby
bringing an angle between the magnetic eld and the ow direction within the
rangeof thetwoabove-mentionedmagneticsupplyconditions, i.e., 0
(streamwise)
and90
(transverse). Inthis way, bothvelocity uctuations inthetransverseand

streamwisedirectionarerestrainedconcurrentlyandamoreeffectivecontrol effect
maybeachievedwithsomeadvantageinwhat concernsexternal energyusage.
The transition to turbulence of electrically conducting uid ow in a two-
dimensional (2-D) channel constrained by two parallel inniteplates, which are
assumedelectricallyinsulated, asdepictedinFigure10.6, ischosentoillustratethe
underlyingconcept. Fluidentersthechannel withauniformvelocityU
0
, initially.
ForaReynoldsnumberexceedingacritical value(2,000), theturbulence, after
ashortentrylength, setsin. Forthesakeof restrainingthetransitiontoturbulence, a
uniformmagneticeldBisappliedatanangle tothemainuidowdirection.The
presentstudy, byadjustingtheangle, aimstoachievethebestrestrainingeffect.To
comparetheresultsobtainedfor differentvaluesof , abodyforceF
B
isprescribed
in thex direction to balancetheproduced ponderomotiveelectromagnetic force
soastomaintainthemaximumowvelocity (U
0
) approximately equal for the
casesof interest. Therestrainingeffectisquantitativelyevaluatedbythetimewhen
theturbulencesetsin, or by measuringthemagnitudeof theturbulence-related
quantities themeanvelocity u andthetwo velocity correlations inthex andy
direction, i.e., u
/
u
/
and:
/
:
/
at aspeciedtime.
B
F
B
U
0
u (y, t)
y
x
Figure10.6. MHDowcontrol for 2-Dchannel ow.
10.3.2 MHD modeling
TheMHD owis governedby aset of coupledpartial differential equations that
expresstheconservationof mass, momentumandtheinteractionbetweentheow
andtheappliedmagnetic eld. Inthepresent work, it is assumedthat thehydro-
dynamicReynoldsnumber Reismuchlarger thanthemagneticReynoldsnumber
Re
m
, namely
Re=
UL
>>Re
m
=
U
m
L
m
(27)
Here, =(j
0
)
1
, where , , and j
0
are the kinematic viscosity, electrical
conductivity, and magnetic permeability of free space (j
0
=4 10
7
H/m),
respectively; U andL arethecharacteristic velocity andlengthof theuidow,
respectively; thesubscript m denotesthecorrespondingmagnetic quantities. This
assumptionguaranteestheuctuationsof themagneticeldduetotheuidmotion
areverysmall ascomparedtotheappliedeldB; therefore, thetotal magneticeld
canbetakenasuniformandtime-independent, andtheinducedelectrical current j
isgivenby:
j = ( V B) (28)
where,V istheuidvelocityvector and istheinducedelectrical potential, which
is produced by the interaction between the applied magnetic eld, and the ow
vorticityw (= V). Thepresentstudydoesnotaimtoinvestigatetheturbulence
patternorstructureof MHDturbulentows[2123], of interesthereistoinvestigate
thetimedurationprior to theonset of turbulenceof theow. Thevorticity itself,
w, isconsideredtobenegligible, andtheinducedelectrical potential isassumedto
bezero, whichyields[25]
j = (V B) (29)
TheLorentz forcedenedper unit of volume, F takestheform
F = j B = (V B) B (30)
Accordingly, the MHD equations for the above-mentioned transient 2-D (x y)
planar channel owcanbewrittenasfollows:
D
Dt
=
_
u
x

:
y
_
(31)
Du
Dt
=
p
x
j
_
2
u
x
2

2
:
y
2
_
(Bsin)
2
u F
B
(32)
D:
Dt
=
p
y
j
_
2
u
x
2

2
:
y
2
_
(Bcos)
2
: (33)
where, u and: denotethevelocitycomponentsinthestreamwise(x) andtransverse
(y) direction, respectively. In the present study, u is the total velocity in the x
direction: u = u u
/
, and: isthevelocityuctuationinthey direction, i.e., : =:
/
.
, and j stand for thedensity and dynamic viscosity, respectively. D,Dt is the
material derivative. F
B
(N/m
3
) istheappliedbodyforce, whichisusedtobalance
theelectromagneticforceinthex direction, andisgivenby:
F
B
= (Bsin)
2
U
0
(34)
10.3.3 SPH analysis of magnetic conditions to restrain the transition
to turbulence
SPH simulations are performed with respect to the channel ow conguration
shown in Figure 10.6. The separation distance between the two parallel innite
plates(L) istakenas1.0m. Thecomputational domainisaunitsquarewheresolid
boundariesconnetheowinthetransversedirection(y) andperiodicboundaries
arespeciedintheowdirection(x).Thesimulationisstartedwiththeuidmoving
totheright(positivex) atavelocity, U
0
=1.0m/s. TheReynoldsnumber isdened
as Re=UL/, with U, L being the characteristic velocity (1.0m/s) and length
(1.0m), respectively, and thekinematic viscosity, , is adjusted to givedifferent
Reynoldsnumbers. Theinitial arrangement of theSPH particlesandtreatment of
solidwall boundarieswerealreadyillustratedinFigure10.1. A 50squarelatticeof
uidparticlesisused.
Theintensityof theelectromagneticforcecanbequantiedwithadimensionless
quantity, namely, Stuart number St, whichisdenedas:
St = Re
m
Al =
B
2
L
m
U
m
(35)
where, Al denotes theAlfvnnumber. TheStuart number St designates theratio
of theelectromagnetic forceto theinertial force. It is assumedthat themagnetic
characteristicvelocityU
m
andlengthL
m
havethesamemagnitudesof their hydro-
dynamiccounterparts, i.e., 1.0m/sfor U
m
and1.0mfor L
m
. Themagnitudeof the
appliedmagneticeldB isadjustedtogivedifferent valuesof St.
Transitional organization of the SPH uid particles versus the onset
of turbulence
For SPH simulations, the onset of turbulence is accompanied by an ordered
disordered transition of the SPH uid particles [14, 24], so the transitional
organization of theSPH uid particles indicates thetimewhen theonset of tur-
bulencetakesplace. For uidowof Re=10
4
andSt=40withthemagneticeld
alignedalongthestreamwiseowdirection, i.e., =0
, atthetimeof 1.89seconds
theSPHparticlesdisplayanorderedowpattern, whichtakesonaplugowpro-
lewithverythinboundarylayers. At1.95secondsthetransitional organizationof
SPH uidparticlesbeginstoappear, whichindicatesthat theowturbulencesets
0.5
0.0
0.6 0.8 1.0
y
/
L
0.5
u (m/s)
0.5
0.0
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
y
/
L
0.5
u u ( m
2
/ s
2
)
y
/
L
0.5
0.0
0.0
5.010
4
1.010
3
1.510
3
2.010
3
0.5
( m
2
/ s
2
)
Figure10.7. Representationof u, u
/
u
/
, and:
/
:
/
forMHDchannel owof Re=10
4
,
St=40, and =0
at time1.9seconds.
in. ThecalculationisterminatedatthispointbecausetheensuingMHDturbulence
isof noimmediateinterest tothepresent study.
Further insightintotheowstatecanbeachievedbyexaminingtheturbulence-
relatedquantities, themeanvelocity u andthevelocity correlationsu
/
u
/
and:
/
:
/
.
This is doneby dividing theowdomain into 50 horizontal strips and by using
a smaller time step to redo the calculations around a specied instant of time,
afterwards theresults areaveraged both spatially and temporally over each sub-
region. Shortly beforetheonset of turbulenceis detected, at time1.9seconds,
theturbulence-relatedquantitiesof theabove-describedMHDuidowareshown
inFigure10.7. Theowtakesonsometurbulent owcharacteristics, namely, the
mean velocity proleis approaching to that of plug owwith theoccurrenceof
verythinboundarylayers.
Enhanced effect of the tilting angle
TheMHDowtobeconsideredinthissectionhasRe=10
4
andSt=40.Thetilting
angle of theappliedmagneticeldB tothemainuidowdirectionisvariedto
examinetheacquiredrestrainingeffecttothetransitiontoturbulence. When =0
,
i.e., astreamwisemagneticeldisapplied, theowturbulencetakesplaceat time
1.95seconds. Theturbulence-relatedquantitiesat time1.9seconds, asshown
inFigure10.7, reveal thevelocitycorrelationsinthey directiontakesmallervalues
thanthoseinthex direction: thevaluesof u
/
u
/
areintherangeof 0.015to0.06m
2
/s
2
0.0 5.010
15
1.010
14
1.510
14
y
/
L
0.5
0.0
0.5
uu ( m
2
/ s
2
)
y
/
L
0.5
0.0
0.5
0.0
6.010
9
1.210
8
1.810
8
( m
2
/ s
2
)
0.94 0.96 0.98 1.00
y
/
L
0.5
0.0
0.5
u (m/s)
Figure10.8. Representationof u, u
/
, and:
/
:
/
for MHDchannel owof Re=10
4
,
St=40, and =20
at time5.24seconds.
while:
/
:
/
arewithin0to0.002m
2
/s
2
, whichimpliesthatthevelocityuctuationsin
thetransverseplaneof theowarerestrainedbytheappliedstreamwisemagnetic
eld. Thelargest velocity uctuationinthey directionisdetectedtooccur inthe
regionclosetothewalls, whereasthat inthex directiontakesplaceinthecentral
region of theuid ow. This indicates thevelocity uctuation in thex direction
is initiated fromthelargebulk ow velocity, whiletheonein they direction is
causedbytheinteractionsbetweentheuidowandtheboundarywalls. It isthe
largevelocityuctuationsfreelydevelopinginthex directionthatcausethevelocity
uctuationinthey directionandyieldthetransitional organizationof SPHparticles.
AneffectiveMHDmethodtorestrainthetransitiontoturbulenceisenhancedwhen
theappliedmagnetic eldiscapableof controllingtheowconcurrently inthex
andy direction.
Atanangleof =20
, plugowwithverythinboundarylayersdevelopsgrad-
ually; althoughthedisplacement inthestreamwisedirectionbetweenparticles in
theboundary layers andthoseinthemainowis cumulativewithtime, theow
is laminated and theSPH particles remain ordered till theend of thesimulation
(t =6.79seconds). Thecorrespondingturbulence-relatedquantitiesfor thiscondi-
tionat time5.24secondsaredisplayedinFigure10.8. Therepresentationof the
meanvelocityproletakesonanearlyperfectplugow: evenfortheuidparticles
closeto thewall boundaries, their velocities approachthebulk velocity, 1.0m/s.
Compared to thoseshown in Figure10.7, both thevelocity uctuations in thex
andy direction arerestrained, even when thetimeis extendedby approximately
3.3 seconds beyond that presented in Figure 10.7; for these conditions the
uctuationsareatamuchlower level, namely: u
/
u
/
iswithin0to1.510
14
m
2
/s
2
and :
/
:
/
within 0 to 2.010
8
m
2
s
2
. Thevelocity uctuation in either thex or
y direction gets effectively damped, and although theelectromagnetic forcepre-
scribedinthey directiondiminishes, therestrainingeffect exertedonthevelocity
uctuationsinthisdirectionseemstobecomestronger, not weaker. Thisisseem-
inglyunreasonable; however, it maybeexplainedonthebasisof what isobserved
inFigure10.7: thevelocityuctuationsinthex directionarenotconstrainedbythe
appliedstreamwisemagneticeld, thustheyhaveverylargevalues; thesevelocity
uctuations inthex directiontransfer turbulent energy to thevelocity uctua-
tionsinthey direction, which, inturn, alsoacquirelargevalues. Thissupportsthe
viewpointadvancedabove: aneffectiveMHDmethodfor restrainingthetransition
to turbulenceneeds to suppress simultaneously thevelocity uctuations in thex
andy direction.
TenSPH simulationswereperformedfor =0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80,
and90
, respectively. All theresultsarelistedinTable10.1. Anappliedstreamwise

magnetic eld( =0
) ismoreeffectiveinrestrainingthevelocity uctuationsin
they direction, butithasnoinuenceonthevelocityuctuationsinthex direction.
Table10.1. Restrainingeffectuponthetransitiontoturbulencebythetiltingangle
(Re=10
4
, St=40)
(
) Onset of turbulence Turbulence-relatedquantities

at timeequal
u
b
u
/
u
/
:
/
:
/
to(seconds)
c
90 0.96 0.991 04.310
11
00.068
c
80 1.02 0.99 01.110
11
00.014
c
70 1.23 0.989 04.210
12
00.011
c
60 1.85 0.988 01.110
12
00.006
a
50 0.985 05.410
17
09.210
9
a
40 0.978 05.110
18
01.210
8
a
30 0.965 05.710
18
02.210
8
a
20 0.93 01.510
14
02.010
8
a
10 0.78 08.010
7
03.510
8
c
0 1.95 0.55 0.0150.06 02.110
3
a
Uptotheendof simulationtime, 6.79seconds, turbulenceispracticallynot detected.
Theturbulence-relatedquantitiesarecalculatedat time5.24seconds.
b
Inthecentral regionof theuidow, theaveragevelocityisabout 1.0m/s. Thedatum
shownhereisthevelocityof theuidparticleclosest tothewall.
c
Theturbulence-relatedquantitiesarecalculatedshortlybeforetheonset of turbulence.
For instance, theturbulencequantitiesshowninthelast rowarecalculatedaroundat
1.90seconds.
It isthefast growthof thevelocity uctuationsinthex directionthat leadstothe
earlyturbulenceonset (1.95seconds). Withincreasing ( =10to50
), themean
owvelocityproleapproachestheplugowmoreclosely; thevelocityuctuations
inthex directionareeffectively restraineddueto theincreasingelectromagnetic
forceproducedinthisdirection; althoughthey-component of theelectromagnetic
forcedecreases, therestrainingeffect exertedonthevelocity uctuationsinthey
directionbenetsfromtheeffectiveconstraintof itscounterpartsinthex direction.
Further increaseof ( =60to80
) yieldstherenewedappearanceof turbulence,
largelyduetotheincreaseof thevelocityuctuationsinthey direction. Anapplied
transversemagnetic eld( =90
) ismoreeffectiveincontrollingthemeanow
prole, but it doesnot restrainwell thetransitiontoturbulence. Turbulenceoccurs
at anearlier time(0.96seconds), whentheappliedmagnetic eldisalignedwith
thetransversedirection.
Enhancedconditioningeffect of thetransitiontoturbulenceis obtainedwhen
theobliqueangle is withintherange20to50
. Inthis situation, themeanow

velocityproleisclosetoaperfectplugow; thevelocityuctuationsinboththex
andy directionarekeptatverylowlevels, namely: u
/
u
/
isbelow1.510
14
m
2
/s
2
and:
/
:
/
less than2.210
8
m
2
/s
2
; and, effectively, theonset of owturbulence
doesnot takeplaceuptotheendof thesimulationtime(6.79seconds).
SPH simulationswerealsoconductedwithamagnetic eld, B, increasedby a
factorof 10togiveaStuartnumber, St, of 4,000fortheMHDowof Re=10
4
with
the varyingintherangeof 0to90
. For therange10
80
thetransitionto
turbulencegetseffectivelysuppressed; evenso, for themagneticsupplyconditions
of =0 and 90
with this increased magnetic eld applied, theow turbulence

still appears, which supports the viewpoint advanced above; an effective MHD
methodfor restrainingthetransitiontoturbulencerequiresastrategythat restrains
all velocityuctuationcomponentssimultaneously.
10.4 SPH Numerical Modeling for Ballistic-Diffusive
Heat Conduction
Designof nanoscalesystems, suchas semiconductor devices basedontheGaAs
MESFETs or Si MOSFETs, and ultrafast (picoseconds or even femtoseconds)
pulsedlasers haveforcedafreshlook into fundamental heat transfer issues [26].
At nanoscale level, the classical Fourier heat diffusion is not valid due to: (a)
themean freepath of theenergy carriers becomes comparableto or larger than
thecharacteristic lengthscaleof theparticular device/system, and/or (b) thetime
scaleof theprocessesbecomescomparabletoor smaller thantherelaxationtime
of theenergy carriers. Numerical solutions either usingtheBoltzmanntransport
equation(BTE) or usingatomic-level simulationssuchasthemolecular dynamics
simulation(MDS) andMonteCarlosimulation(MCS) arehelpful inunderstand-
ing the physics of heat transfer in this regime; however, these options require
large computational resources, which make themnot very effective analytical
tools for the design/management of devices in practical nanoscale engineering.
TheCattaneo-Vernotte(C-V) hyperbolic equation[27], for awhile, seemedtobe
aconvenient alternativeapproach, sinceit excludes theso-calledinnitethermal
propagationspeedassumptionimpliedinFourier law. Thework reportedbyHaji-
Sheikhet al. [28] was therst oneto point out certainanomalies existinginthe
hyperbolicsolutions. Further on, recentworkbyJ iangandSousa[29] alsodemon-
stratedthepresenceof hyperbolicanomaliesinahollowspherewiththeDirichlet
boundaryconditionprescribed.Althoughmayexistsomeremedies[28] totheCV
equation, anewly developedheat conductionformulation, knownastheballistic-
diffusiveequation[30, 31], seemstobeaviablecandidatefor applicationsinthis
particular eld.
Thekey concept of themodel, on which theballistic-diffusiveheat conduc-
tionequationisformulated, istosplit theheat carriersinsidethemediumintotwo
components ballistic anddiffusive. Theballistic component isdeterminedfrom
theprescribedboundaryconditionand/or nanoscaleheatsources, anditonlyexpe-
riencesoutscattering; thetransport of thescatteredandexcitedheat carriersinside
themediumis treated as adiffusivecomponent. This approach has its origin in
methodologiesusedtodeal withradiativeheat transfer [32, 33].
Theballistic-diffusiveequation is derived on thebasis of theBTE under the
relaxation timeapproximation; it differs, in appearance, fromtheCV equation
mainlybyhavingtheadditional ballisticterm, namely
2
u
m
t
2

u
m
t
=
_
C
u
m
_
q
b

_
S
S
t
_
(36)
where, C refers to thevolumetric specic heat (J /m
3
K), q
b
to theballistic heat
uxvector (W/m
2
), S totheheatgeneration(W/m
3
), t totime(seconds), u
m
tothe
internal energyper unit volume(J /m
3
), totheheat conductivity(W/mK), and
tothethermal relaxationtime(seconds). Theheat generationS isassumedtohave
amuchlarger featuresizethanthemeanfreepathof theheat carriers; otherwiseit
shouldbetreatedasaballistictermalso. Intheoriginal workof Chen[30, 31], the
followinggeneral boundaryconditionfor thediffusivecomponentsisasfollows:
u
m
t
u
m
=
2A
3
u
m
n (37)
where, n (boldtextdesignatesvector) istheinwardunitvector perpendicular tothe
boundary, andAisthemeanfreepathof heatcarrier (m). Theballisticheatuxq
b
is givenby analgebraic analytical expression[31, 34]; however, thefull solution
of equation(36) still hastoresort toanappropriatenumerical method, ingeneral,
thenitedifferenceor niteelement method.
Thepresentsectionaimstoshowtheviabilityandaccuracyof theSPHsolution
of theone-dimensional (1-D) model proposedbyChen[31]. Itshouldbementioned
thatSPHwasalreadyemployedtosolvetheFourierheatconductionequationswith
satisfyingresults[3, 4, 35], andacorrectiveSPHmethod[35] isusedbyChenand
Beraun[36] tosolvethenon-classicheattransfer processinthinmetal lmsheated
byultrashort laser pulse[37].
10.4.1 Transient heat conduction across thin lms
InChen[31] it isreportedthat theapplicationof theballistic-diffusivemodel toa
transientheatconductionprocessinthinlms.Thesamethermal caseisconsidered
inthepresent study: athin(nanoscale) lmof thickness L withconstant thermal
properties initially at ambient temperature T
0
; at the time t 0, one boundary
surfaceemits phonons at temperatureT
1
; bothboundary surfaces areblack body
emittersandthereisnoheatgenerationinsidethelm.Thedimensionlessballistic-
diffusiveequationandassociatedinitial andboundary restrictions canbewritten
asinChen[31].
m
t
2

m
t
=
Kn
2
3

2
2
Kn
q
(38)
t
= 0, (, 0) = 0
(, t
)
t
=0
= 0 (39)
= 0,
_
m
t

m
_
=0
=
2Kn
3
_
_
=0
(40)
= 0,
b1
= 1 (41)
= 1,
_
m
t

m
_
=1
=
2Kn
3
_
_
=1
(42)
= 1,
b2
= 0 (43)
where, and
m
are the dimensionless coordinate and diffusive temperature,
respectively.
Theboundaryheatux, itsderivative, andthetemperatureof theballisticcom-
ponentshavetheir algebraicanalytical expressions[31] giveninnon-dimensional
formas:
q
b
(, t
) =
_
_
1
2
_
1
j
t
je
(,jKn)
dj
_
0 j
t
=
x
:t
1
_
0 other j
t
(44)
q
b
_
, t
=
_
1
2Kn
_
1
j
t
e
(,jKn)
dj

Knt
2
e
t
(0 j
t
1)
0 other j
t
(45)
b
_
, t
_
=
_
_
1
2
_
1
j
t
e
(,jKn)
dj (0 j
t
1)
0 other j
t
(46)
where, j
t
=x,(:t), : referstothecarrier groupvelocity(m/s), x tothecoordinate
(m), andj tothedirectional cosine.
Thenon-dimensional parametersaredenedasfollows:
m
=
u
m
u
m0
CLT
,
b
=
u
b
u
b0
CLT
, q
m
=
q
m
q
m0
C:LT
, q
b
=
q
b
q
b0
C:LT
,
(47)
t
= t,, = x,L
with
Kn= A,L, LT = T
1
T
0
(48)
where, KnreferstothephononKnudsennumber, L tothethicknessof thenanoscale
thinlm(m), T
0
andT
1
aretheinitial temperature(K) andthephononemission
temperatureat theleft boundary(K), respectively.
Thus, thetotal temperatureandheat uxaredenedby:
=
u u
0
CLT
=
T T
0
LT
, q
=
q q
0
C:LT
(49)
Thediffusivecomponent of theheat uxisgovernedbythefollowingequation.
q
m
t
m
=
Kn
3

m
(50)
where, q
m
isthedimensionlessdiffusiveheat ux.
InChen[31] theaboveset of equationsweresolvednumericallywiththenite
differencemethod (FDM) and theresults werecompared against thoseobtained
using: (a) thedirect solutionof theBTE, (b) theCattaneohyperbolicheat conduc-
tionequation[27], and(c) theclassic Fourier heat diffusionequation. Relativeto
theBTE results, theballistic-diffusionheat conductionequationgives consistent
temperatureandheat uxproles, whereastheCattaneoandFourier heat conduc-
tionmodel bothleadtoerroneousrepresentationsof theprocesses. Inthepresent
study, theballistic-diffusiveequationistobesolvedwiththeSPHmethod.
10.4.2 SPH modeling
Intheimplementationof theSPHmethodtosolvetheheatconduction, thethermal
actionattimet isrepresentedbyacollectionof N particleslocatedatapositionr
i
,
i =1, 2, , N.Thesmoothedvalueof anyeldquantityf (r, t) ataspacepoint
r andat atimet isaweightedsumof all contributionsfromneighboringparticles
f (r, t)) =
N
j=1
V
j
f (r
j
, t)w
_
[r r
j
[, h
_
(51)
where, N referstothetotal SPHparticlenumber.
Sincetheparticledensityremainsconstanthere, theweightisthevolumeof SPH
particleinsteadof thequotient of mass anddensity [9]. Therst order derivative
of f (r, t) iswrittenas:
f (r, t)) =
N
j=1
V
j
f (r
j
, t)w([r r
j
[, h) (52)
Equation (52) is not symmetric; however, by using the following mathematical
operator
f =
( f ) f
(53)
where, isunity, equation(52) canberewritteninthefollowingsymmetricform:
f (r, t)) =
N
j=1
V
j
[ f (r, t) f (r
j
, t)]w([r r
j
[, h) (54)
Intermsof equation(54), thesmoothingformulationof therst-order derivative
of thetemperature(
m
) is:
m
(
i
, t
) =
j
V
j
[
m
(
i
, t
)
m
(
j
, t
)]
i
w
ij
(55)
where,
i
denotesthegradient takenwithrespect tothecoordinatesat particlei
i
w
ij
=

ij
[
ij
[
w
ij
i
(56)
and
ij
=
i
j
andw
ij
=w([
i
j
[, h).
Oneof thekeyissuesfor theSPHmodelingof theballistic-diffusiveheat con-
ductionishowtoconstructthesmoothingformulationforthesecondderivativeof
thediffusivetemperature(
m
) inequation(36).A formulation, whichcombinesthe
standardrst-orderSPHderivative(equation(55))andthenitedifferenceconcept,
wasrst usedby Brookshaw[38] andlater onby Cleary andMonaghan[3]. This
procedureiscomputationallyefcient, sinceit onlyinvolvestherst-order deriva-
tiveof thesmoothingkernel. Althoughitdoesnotconservetheangular momentum
accurately, itsuseinsimulationsof Fourier heat conductionproblems[3] hasbeen
verysuccessful. Itisemployedinthepresentstudyandhasthefollowingevolution
form:
m
(
i
, t
2
=
j
2V
j
[
m
(
i
, t
)
m
(
j
, t
)]
1
[
ij
[
w
ij
i
(57)
Five hundred SPH particles are uniformly distributed along the heat transfer
path. TheseparationdistancebetweenneighboringparticlesisLp (=L/500). The
W
0
p/2 p
A
1
A
1
= 1, A
2
< 1, A
2
+ A
3
= 1
A = w( , h)d
A
2
A
3
Figure10.9. Illustration of SPH near-boundary deciency and the boundary
treatment devised.
inner-node approach is used, which means that either the rst or the last SPH
particleis not set ontheboundary surfaces, but has half Lp distanceaway from
therespectiveadjoiningboundary. Thetimederivatives areapproximatedby the
explicit central (for thesecond-order derivative) or by theforward (for therst-
orderderivative) scheme. Thetimestepisadjustedtosatisfythenumerical stability
requirements.
Inthisimplementation, thehighorder 3-splinesquintickernel isalsoused.
10.4.3 Boundary treatment
In thepresent ballistic-diffusiveheat conduction case, thetemperaturespecied
at theboundary does not represent theequivalent equilibriumtemperatureof the
boundary; the boundary temperature and the boundary ux are calculated from
thesummationof thecorrespondingballisticanddiffusivecomponents. Therefore,
thetemperaturevaluesof all theSPH particlesdependonthesmoothinginterpo-
lation. Thisisthereasonwhytheboundaryconditionrequiresspecial treatment.
On the basis of the properties of the smoothing kernel, a simple boundary
treatment isdevised, asillustratedinFigure10.9.
Oneof thepropertiestheSPHsmoothingkernel musthaveisthenormalization
property[15], that is
_
w([
/
[, h)d
/
= 1.0 (58)
Clearly, fortheparticlesclosetotheboundarythenormalizationpropertyisnot
satised, whichisthereasonfortheSPHnear-boundarydeciency.Anexpedient
boundarytreatmentcanbedevisedbyvaryingthenormalizationconstantn
d
values
tomeet therequirementsset byequation(58) for all theparticles. A general form
for theSPHsmoothingkernel is:
w(s, h) = n
d
F(s, h) (59)
where, s =[
ij
[,h, andF isattingfunction.
By substituting equation (59) into equation (58), the following expression,
whichisusedtoadjust thevaluesof thenormalizationconstant of thesmoothing
function, n
d
, yields:
n
d
=
1.0
_
F(s, h)d
/
(60)
Equation(60) isessentially equivalent tothecorrectiveinterpolationformulation
for aeldquantityof zero-thorder proposedbyLiuet al. [15], whichgivesfor the
1-D3-splinequintickernel, n
d
[39]
:
n
d
=
1
120
_
1.4632 1st closest particletotheboundary
1.0781 2ndclosest particletotheboundary
1.0054 3rdclosest particletotheboundary
1.0 other particles
(61)
Theparticleclosest to theboundary gets thelargest modicationfactor, 1.4632,
whichimpliesthat thenear-boundarydeciency staysprimarilywiththeclosest
particletotheboundary.
10.4.4 Results
Figures 10.10 and 10.11 display the non-dimensional diffusive temperature and
heat uxdistributionsinthinlmsof different thicknessesyieldingfor Knvalues
of 10 and 1.0, respectively. The overall agreement between the SPH and FDM
calculationsisexcellentandmoreaccuratepredictionscanbegivenbySPHfor the
heat conductionprocessesinsolidlmswithsmaller valuesof Kn.
Thedistributions for thetotal (summation of theballistic and diffusivecom-
ponents) temperatureandheat ux werealso calculated; theballistic component
dominatesandduetoitsanalytical formulationyieldsenhancedagreementbetween
theSPHandFDM results, asshowninFigure10.12.
As seen fromFigure10.12, thecalculated boundary temperatureis not con-
stant, but increases as time advances. In Chen [31] this articial temperature
jump is attributed to theinconsistency between thetemperatures obtained in the
ballistic-diffusive calculation and the imposed boundary temperature. As men-
tioned previously, the imposed boundary temperature is the temperature of the
emittedphonon, not theequivalent equilibriumtemperatureat theboundary; how-
ever, thecalculatedtemperatureisthetemperatureof equilibriumphononsthatcan
beunderstoodas ameasureof thelocal internal energy. Theso-calledequivalent
equilibriumconcept canbevisualizedastheadiabaticthermalizationequilibrium
stateof thelocal phonons. Inwhat concernstheSPH calculation, thetemperature
of theparticleclosesttotheboundarycannotbedetermineddirectlyfromthespec-
iedtemperatureof theemittedphononsat theboundary, but dependsontheSPH
smoothinginterpolation. Thisfact explainswhyfurther treatment of theboundary
Kn = 1.0
Lines : FDM
Symbols : SPH
t* 0.1
t* 0.01
t* 1.0
Non-dimensional position
N
o
n
-
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

d
i
f
f
u
s
i
v
e

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
N
o
n
-
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

d
i
f
f
u
s
i
v
e
h
e
a
t

f
l
u
x
0.0
0.0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
t* 0.1
t* 0.01
t * 1.0
Figure10.10. Comparison between the SPH and the FD predictions for non-
dimensional diffusivetemperatureandheat uxwithKn=10.
Kn 1.0
Lines : FDM
Symbols : SPH
t * 0.1
t * 0.1
t * 0.1
t * 0.1
t * 10
t * 10
N
o
n
-
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

d
i
f
f
u
s
i
v
e

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
N
o
n
-
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

d
i
f
f
u
s
i
v
e
h
e
a
t

f
l
u
x
0.0
0.00
0.05
0.15
0.25
0.12
0.09
0.06
0.03
0.00
0.03
0.06
0.09
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
dimensional diffusivetemperatureandheat uxwithKn=1.0.
Kn 1.0
Lines : FDM
Symbols : SPH
t * 1.0
t * 1.0
t * 1.0
N
o
n
-
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
N
o
n
-
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

h
e
a
t

f
l
u
x
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
t * 1.0
t * 10
t * 10
dimensional total temperatureandheat uxwithKn=1.0.
is required. Figure10.13 displays thecontributions of theballistic and diffusive
componentstothetotal temperature(internal energy) andheat ux. TheSPH cal-
culations reproduce the characteristics of the ballistic-diffusive heat conduction
reportedinChen[31].
Closeobservationof thecalculationsourcedatafor all the500SPH particles
revealsananomalyfor theSPH heat uxresult for thesecondparticleawayfrom
theboundary. Theheat uxof thisparticleisinconsistent withtheoverall trendof
theheat ux proleandclearly deviates fromtheFDM predictions. This particle
was not shown in Figure10.10 dueto thelimited amount of particles (only 50)
selected. Theimplementationof equation(61) canaffectthesymmetryof theSPH
formations, inparticular that givenbyequation(55), whichmayexplainthecause
forthisanomaly.A testsimulationdemonstratesapossibleremedyforthisanomaly
istheuseof aad hoc operation: articially increasethen
d
of thesecondparticle
closetotheboundaryto1.234(midvalueof then
d
-sfor therst andthirdparticle
awayfromtheboundary), whichyields[39]
n
d
=
1
120
_
1.4632 1st closest particletotheboundary
1.234 2ndclosest particletotheboundary
1.0054 3rdclosest particletotheboundary
1.0 other particles
(62)
Kn 1.0, t 1.0
Solid Lines : FDM
Symbols : SPH
0.0
0.0
N
o
n
-
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
Artificial wave front
Artificial wave front
Diffusive
component
Diffusive
component
Ballistic component
Ballistic
component
Total
Total
N
o
n
-
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

h
e
a
t

f
l
u
x
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Figure10.13. Contribution of theballistic and diffusivecomponents to thenon-
dimensional total temperatureandheat ux.
Increasingthen
d
valueof thesecondclosestparticletotheboundaryimprovesthe
symmetrycontributionsamongtheparticlesinthevicinityof theboundaryregion,
in particular the symmetry between the rst and second closest particles to the
boundary. By plottingall theSPH particles near theleft boundary, Figure10.14
clearlyindicatesthelimitationof thetreatment formulatedbyequation(61).
Theuseof equation(62) provides aneffectivead hoc modicationfor then
d
byeliminatingtheobservedheatuxanomalyanditdoesnotinuencetheoverall
calculationaccuracy.
10.5 Mesoscopic Pore-Scale SPH Model for Fluid Flow
in Porous Media
Manyindustrial applicationsinvolveowinporousmedia, suchasoil exploration,
groundwater puricationfromhazardous wastes, andpackedbedchemical reac-
tors. One application area of particular interest is in liquid composite molding
0.04
Kn = 10
SPH with boundary treatment
expressed by eqation (61)
SPH with boundary treatment
expressed by eqation (62)
FDM
t * = 1.0
t * = 0.1
t * = 0.1
t * = 1.0
t * = 0.01
t * = 0.01
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.000
N
o
n
-
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

d
i
f
f
u
s
i
v
e
h
e
a
t

f
l
u
x
N
o
n
-
d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
a
l

d
i
f
f
u
s
i
v
e
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
0.010 0.020
0.030
Figure10.14. Error resulting fromthe boundary treatment expressed by equa-
tion(61) andthead hoc correctioneffect byusingequation(62).
(LCM), aprocess beingwidely usedto manufacturepolymer compositecompo-
nents in thecivil, aerospace, automotiveand defenseindustries [40]. Important
LCMtechnologiesaretheresintransfer molding(RTM) andthestructural reaction
injectionmolding(SRIM), andfor bothcasestheunderstandingof thephysicsof
liquidowintheporouspreformisarequirement for thedesignof themoldand
thechoiceof theoperationprocedure, whicharecritical tothequalityof thenal
product. Tothis goal CFD numerical modelingcaneffectively reducetheexperi-
mental parametricinvestigationeffortneededfor theoptimizationof theindustrial
process. Therefore, itcanplayanimportantroleinpractice. CFDmodelingof uid
owinporousmediaisingeneral conductedbyusingDarcyslaw[41, 42], which
isexpressedinthefollowingform:
:) =
K
j
P (63)
where, <v>andP arethevolumeaveraged(supercial) velocity andthepressure
of theuid(boldtext denotesvector or tensor); K isthepermeabilitytensor of the
porousmedium; andj isthedynamicviscosityof theuid.
Darcyslawisamacroscopicphenomenological model, whichislargelybased
onexperimental observations. Inthis law, thecomplex interactions betweenuid
and microscopic porous structures are all lumped in a macroscopic physical
quantity thepermeability tensor, K. Asthepermeability tensor isof paramount
importanceto theuidowinporous media, numerous researchefforts [4245]
weredevotedtoestablishtheoretical relationsbetweenthepermeabilityandother
characteristic material properties with the purpose of avoiding time-consuming
physical experiments. Thesetheoretical modelsaregenerallybasedontheanalysis
of themicroscopic porousstructureof themediumandthesubsequent extraction
of thedesiredmacroscopic information. Thecomplicated, diverseporestructures
inreality present amajor challengetopure(or semiempirical) theoretical models
because they are all constructed on the basis of articially simple, regular pore
arrangements.
Obviously, themodeling of uid ow in brous porous mediadirectly from
the mesoscopic pore structure level provides rened uid ow information and
it does not resort to Darcys law. Moreover, thesimulateduideldis amenable
to thedetermination of K as well. Over thelast fewdecades, rapid advances in
computer capabilitiesandcomputational algorithmsenabledthiskindof modeling
work. For example, thelattice-gas-automaton(LGA) or latticeBoltzmannmethod
(LBM) [46], based upon amicro- or mesoscopic model of kinetic formulations
or theBoltzmannequation, respectively, canbridgethegapbetweenmicroscopic
structuresandmacroscopicphenomena.Thesemodelshavetheadvantageof allow-
ingparallelisminastraightforwardmanner for large-scalenumerical calculations,
andthey havetheattractivefeatureof nonslipbounce-back solidboundary treat-
ment for thesimulationof uidowinporous media. Thesimulations basedon
LGA [47, 48] andLBM [4951] havedemonstratedthat Darcyslawcanberepro-
ducedby thesemethods. Thesimulatedporousmediainthework by Koponenet
al. [49] describethree-dimensional (3-D) randomber websthat closelyresemble
broussheetssuchaspaper andnon-wovenfabrics. Thecomputedpermeabilityof
thesewebspresentsanexponential dependenceontheporosityover alargerange
of porosity andis ingoodagreement withexperimental data[52, 53]. Spaidand
Phelan[51] investigatedtheresininjectionprocessencounteredinRTM. Thecell
permeability obtainedfor transverseowthroughregularly arrangedporoustows
of circular or elliptical cross-sectionagreeswell withthesemi-analytical solution.
Incontrast toLBM or LGA, SPH isameshlessparticle-basedmethodandoffers
morefreedomindealingwithcomplicatedgeometries. Applicationof SPHtouid
ow in porous media has the potential of providing a mesoscopic/microscopic
pore-scale insight into the relevant physics [5457]. In the present work, SPH
is employedto construct amesoscopic pore-scalemodel for uidowinporous
media, inparticular, forthetransverseuidowinrandomlyalignedbrousporous
media.
10.5.1 Modeling strategy
SPH formulation and methodology
SPH formulationisdirectlybasedontheresolutionof themacroscopicgoverning
equationsof uidow. Derivationof theSPHformulationfromtraditional Eulerian-
basedequations is routine, as describedinSection2; therefore, inthis sectionis
onlybrieysurveyed.
InSPH, thecontinuousowattimet isrepresentedbyacollectionof N particles
located at position r
n
(t) and moving with velocity v
n
(t), i =1, 2, . . . . . . , N. The
smoothed valueof anyeldquantityq(r, t) at aspacepoint r isaweightedsum
of all contributionsfromtheneighboringparticles
q(r, t)) =
N
j=1
m
j
(r
j
)
q(r
j
, t)w([r r
j
[, h) (64)
where, m
j
and(r
j
) denotethemassanddensityof particlej, respectively. w([r[, h)
is the weight or smoothing function with h being the smoothing length. In the
present SPH implementation, thehigh-order 3-splines quintic kernel [15] is used
andthesmoothinglengthh isequal to
2LS, withLS beingtheaverageseparation

of theSPHparticles. IntheSPHformulationthegradientof q(r, t) isdeterminedas:
q(r, t)) =
N
j=1
m
j
j
[q(r
j
, t) q(r, t)]w([r r
j
[, h) (65)
Equation (65) is already symmetrized [24], and for the second order viscous
diffusiveterm, theSPHtheorygivesthefollowingformulation[8, 24]:
1
(jq) =
j
m
j
j
(j
n
j
j
)q
nj
1
[r
nj
[
w
nj
r
n
(66)
where, q
nj
=q
n
q
j
, r
nj
=r
n
r
j
andw
nj
=w([r
n
r
j
[, h).
Intermsof equation(65), thesmoothedversionof thecontinuityequationis:
d
n
dt
=
j
m
j
:
nj
r
nj
[r
nj
[
w
nj
r
n
(67)
Thesummationisover all neighboringparticlesj withexceptionof particlen itself
andv
nj
=v
n
v
j
.
Thetransformation of theNS equations into their SPH version is relatively
involved, becauseitrequiresthesymmetrizationof thepressureterms[24]tosatisfy
momentumconservation, andtheadequatetreatmentof theviscousterms. InSPH,
thesymmetrizationversionof pressuregradient canbeformulatedas:
1
n
p
n
=
j
m
j
_
p
n
2
n
p
j
2
j
_
r
nj
[r
nj
[
w
nj
r
n
(68)
Fromequations(66)and(68), thestandardSPHformof NSequationisderived[8]
d:
n
dt
=
j
m
j
_
p
n
2
n
p
j
2
j
_
r
nj
r
nj
w
nj
r
n
j
m
j
_
j
n
j
j
_
:
nj
j
_
1
[r
nj
[
w
nj
r
n
_
F
B
(69)
where, F
B
denotes an external body force. In this work, the following SPH
expressionfor themomentumequationsisused.
d:
n
dt
=
j
m
j
_
p
n
2
n
p
j
2
j
RG
nj
_
r
nj
[r
nj
[
w
nj
r
n
(70)
j
m
j
(j
n
j
j
):
nj
j
_
1
[r
nj
[
w
nj
r
n
_
F
B

f
Equation(70) wasproposedbyJ ianget al. (2007) andit differsfromthestandard
SPHNSequationinwhatconcernstwotermsontheright-handsideof thisequa-
tion, namely: (a) RG
nj
, anarticial pressure, whichis usedto restrainthetensile
instability[58]; (b)
f , anadditional force, whichisintroducedwiththepurpose

of correctly mimicking the no-penetrating restraint prescribed by the solid pore
structure. ThetermRG
nj
iscalculatedasfollows:
G
nj
=
w
nj
w(LS, h)
(71)
R =
_
1
[p
n
[
2
n
if p
n
- 0
1
[p
j
[
2
j
if p
j
- 0
2
_
[p
n
[
2
n
[p
j
[
2
j
_
if p
n
> 0andp
j
> 0
(72)
Thefactors
1
and
2
aretakentobe0.2and0.05, respectively. Theexponential
is dependent on thesmoothing kernel as w(0, h),w(LS, h); 3.0 is adopted
for inthiswork. Therepulsiveforcef (per unit mass) isinitiatedfromaporous
material particleandisappliedtotheneighboringuidparticleswithinadistance
less thanathresholdvaluer
0
. Intheseconditions, for most of theuidparticles,
f =0. f isassumedtobeof the12-6LennardJ onespair potential form, namely

f (r) = F
B
_
_
r
0
r
_
12
_
r
0
r
_
6
_
r
r
(r - r
0
) (73)
Determination of theconstants: and r
0
werediscussed in detail in J iang et al.
[55]; thevaluesr
0
=0.6LS and =15.0werefoundtobesuitablefor thepresent
SPHimplementation.
Thequasi-compressiblemethod, presentedinSection2isusedtocomplywith
theincompressibility conditionfor theuid. Thevalues of p
0
andc
s
aretakenin
accordancewiththefollowingrelation
c
2
s
=
p
0
0
= max
_
0.01U
2
, 0.01F
B
L,
0.01Uj
0
L
_
(74)
where, U and L are the characteristic (or maximum) uid velocity and the
characteristiclengthof thegeometry, respectively.
Thepositionsof SPHparticlesaredetermineddirectlyfromtheoweldusing
dr
n
dt
= :
n
(75)
A directnumerical integrationalgorithmisusedtoperformtheintegrationof equa-
tions(67), (70), and(75). ThetimestepLt isadaptiveanddeterminedbytheCFL
condition[8]
Lt = min
_
_
_
0.125h
max
n
(100.0U, [v
n
[)
, 0.25
_
h
dv
n
dt
,
0.25h
c
s,n
_
_
_
(76)
On theright-hand sideof equation (76), thequantity 100.0U is introduced in
the denominator of the rst constraint to restrict it to a small value so that the
calculation advances mostly in axed small timestep. In this way theaccuracy
of theintegrationprocedurecanbeenhancedandthecalculationstability is also
improved.
Mesoscopic pore structures
Theporousmatrix isestablishedby randomly packingacertainnumber of bers.
Only thetransverseowacross thebers is simulated in thepresent implemen-
tation. Typical 2-D porous microstructures are illustrated in Figure 10.15. The
cross-sectional shape of the bers is either circular (Figure 10.15a) or square
(Figure 10.15b), and the bers can be either overlapped with no precondition-
ing(Figures 10.15aandb) or beisolatedfromeachother (Figure10.15c). Each
poroussystemisformedbypackingbersof xedcross-section(shapeandarea).
(c)
(a) (b)
Figure10.15. Typical 2-Dporousmicrostructuresformedby randomly packinga
number of bers: (a) bersareof circular cross-sectionwithunlim-
itedoverlappingbetweenbers; (b)bersareof squarecross-section
withunlimitedoverlappingbetweenbers; (c) bersareof circular
cross-sectionandthebersareisolatedfromeachother. Voidspace
representstheuidregion.
Different poroussystemshavebersof different cross-sectional shapes, different
cross-sectional areasor different relativearrangement conditions.
BoththeresinuidandthebersarerepresentedbySPHparticles.Thepositions
of theSPH particles usedto represent thesolidporematrix arexedthroughout
thesimulation. Thus, theporosity of aporoussystemisdeterminedas:
= 1
number of xedparticles
total number of particles
(77)
Fixedporousmaterial particlescontributetothedensityvariationsandexertviscous
forcesuponthenearby uidparticles, whiletheir densitiesarekept constant. The
no-penetratingrestraint prescribedbysolidporestructureisensuredbyactivating
arepulsiveforce, asexpressedbyequation(73), onauidparticleonceit isaway
fromaporousmaterial particlebyadistancelessthanr
0
. Withthisadditional force,
theuidparticlesaredirectedtopassbytheporestructuresinphysicallyacceptable
paths[55].
Other relevant conditions
Thesimulateddomainisa2-Dsquareof dimensions10mm10mmwithperiodic
boundaryconditionsappliedinboththestreamwiseandtransverseowdirections.
Initially, 100100SPH particles aredistributeduniformly withinthesimulated
domain(i.e. Lx =Ly =LS =0.1mm) andareall motionless; thedensity for all
theSPHparticlesisspeciedtobe
0
.
Theuidowisdrivenbyaconstantbodyforce(F
Bx
)imposedinthestreamwise
owdirection. Thedensity, velocity, andpositionof eachuidparticleevolvein
timebyintegratingequations(67), (70), and(75) respectively; whileall theporous
material particleshaveaxedpositionandconstantdensity(
0
).Thegivenphysical
propertiesof theresinuidarej=0.1Pasand
0
=1,000kg/m
3
.Theappliedbody
forceperunitof massF
Bx
is10m/s
2
formostof thesimulations; however, whenthe
porosityisveryhigh, amuchsmallerbodyforce(F
Bx
=1.0or0.5m/s
2
) isimposed
tokeeptheuidowinthecreepingowregime.
10.5.2 Results and discussion
Flow visualization
Practical LCM procedures requiresufcient wettingof all thebers by theresin.
Anidentiedserioushurdlefor LCM processistheso-calledpreferential owor
edgeow, whichiscausedbyinhomogeneityof theporousperformor unavoidable
clearances existingbetweenthepreformedges andmoldwalls. Preferential ow
results in the maldistribution of injected resin and makes part(s) of the brous
preformnottobesaturatedorfullysaturated, i.e., dryspot(s).Toexactlypredictthe
preferential owsoastooptimizetheresininjectionprocessiscrucial tothequality
of thenal product. Pore-scaleSPH model canprovideuidowinformationat
microscopic/mesoscopic porelevel and it has thepotential of being very useful
inpractice. Figure10.16presents thevisualizationof theuidmotionacross the
aligned bers due to the applied body force (F
Bx
). Preferential ow paths are
identiedbydepictingthelocal velocityvectors. Theuidmeandersintheporous
microstructures and its path has a tortuosity determined by the location of the
embedded bers. Themesoscopic ows involved in porous systems of different
microstructuresdonot exhibit substantiallydifferent patternsandtheuidalways
owsthroughthepathof least resistanceamongtheporousstructures.
Derivation of permeability
Thepermeability is an important macroscopic property for uid ow in brous
porousmedia. Intermsof thesimulatedsteadystateoweld, thepermeabilityfor
thetransverseowthroughthebrousporousmediumcanbecalculatedas:
k =
j
0
F
Bx
u) (78)
andthisformulationisbasedonequation(63).Tofacilitatethecomparisonbetween
thepresentresultsandexistingnumerical results/experimental data, thepermeabil-
ity k (of asquaredomain) must benormalized. Thenormalization parameter is
takentobethesquareof thecharacteristicdimension, d
2
, of theembeddedbers;
d isdenedasthehydrodynamicradiusof theembeddedberscross-section: for
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure10.16. Flow visualization in randomly aligned brous porous systems.
(Note: thelengthscalesfor thevelocityvectorsinthethreeplotsare
notthesameandresinuidowsfromthelefttotherightside.)The
backgroundof theplot depictsthelocationof thebers. (a) Unlim-
itedoverlappingbetweenbersof 0.60.6mmsquarecrosssection,
=0.705; (b) unlimited overlapping between circular bers with
cross-sectionof 0.8mmdiameter, =0.7061; (c) isolatedcircular
berswithcross-sectionof 0.6mmdiameter, =0.4661.
bers of circular cross-section, d is theradius; whilefor bers of squarecross-
section, d shouldbethehalf side-lengthof thesquare. It isworthpointingout that
dueto thenitenumerical discretization, thecircular ber cross-section cannot
beapproximatedaccurately andd is calculatedexactly interms of thedenition
of hydrodynamic radius, insteadof simply specifyingit equal totheradiusof the
desiredcircular cross-section.
Exp. data [52, 53]
Exp. data [53]
SPH cal
LGA cal. [48]
LGA cal. [49]
Num. results [59]
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7
Porosity
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
l
e
s
s

p
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
0.6 0.5 0.4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
0
10
1
Figure10.17. A comparison between thecalculated permeability for theporous
systemformedby circular bers of 0.6mmdiameter cross-section
(withunlimitedoverlappingbetweenbers) andexistingnumerical
results/experimental data.
The calculated dimensionless permeability for the porous systemformed by
packingcircularbersof 0.6mmdiametercross-sectionwithunlimitedoverlapping
betweenbersisdepictedinFigure10.17, asafunctionof porosity.
ThecomparisonbetweentheSPHsimulationresultsandexistingexperimental
data[52, 53] indicates thepresent SPH calculation techniquecaptures themain
features of theuidowinbrous porous media. Computational results derived
fromother numerical techniques[48, 59] arealsoconsistent, at least intrend, with
thepresent SPH simulationpredictions. It shouldbenotedthat thereareat least
two free parameters present in this comparison. First, different porous systems
werestudied, namely, theLGA results[48] wereobtainedfor 2-Dporoussystems
withrectangularobstacleseitherrandomlydistributed(depictedbydownwardopen
trianglesinFigure10.17)orplacedinaregularsquarelattice(upwardopentriangles
inFigure10.17); thephysical experiments[52, 53] wereperformedwithrespectto
3-Dcompressedbermatsandbrouslters; the(Eulerian-based)numerical results
[59] werereportedfor a3-Dporoussystemof aface-centered-cubic(fcc) arrayof
bers. As asecond freeparameter for comparison, different physical properties
of theuidwereassumed. For example, inthepresent study theviscosity of the
uidisspeciedas, j=0.1Pa s, whichmaybedifferent fromthat usedbyother
researchers, since in many cases this parameter is not reported. A nearly linear
dependenceof permeabilityonviscosity(withxedporosity) wasreportedinthe
workbyKoponenet al. [49].
FromFigure10.17, it isclearlyseenthat whentheporosityissmaller than0.7,
the SPH-calculated dimensionless permeability is slightly larger than the FEM
result, but is noticeably larger than that obtained by LGA technique. Besides
theabove-describedfreeparameters betweendifferent numerical efforts, thereis
another reason present. For the porous systems of unlimited overlapping bers,
theembeddedbersmay beconnectedandadjoinedtoeachother, andthey form
larger obstacles (as showninFigure10.15a). This holds trueespecially whenthe
porosity is low. Therefore, assumingthehydrodynamic radius as thecharacteris-
tic dimensionof theindividual bers, toagreat extent, underestimatestheactual
characteristic dimension of theporous system, which leads to larger dimension-
less permeability values. Moreover, for porous systems established by randomly
distributedinclusions, therandomnesscanaffect theinterior non-homogeneity of
thesystem, whichmightcausealargevariationof thepermeability. Koponenetal.
[48] statedthat thenon-homogeneity couldincreasethepermeability as muchas
50%as comparedtoaporous systemwithhomogeneous porestructure. Notably,
theSPH-calculatedpermeability has largedeparturefromtheLGA predictionin
verylowporosityrange( -0.5). Non-homogeneityinthestructurehassignicant
inuenceontheeffectiveporositywhentheporosityisapproachingthepercolation
threshold. Slight variationof theeffectiveporosity may leadto anorder of mag-
nitudechangeof thepermeability. Thisadditional uncertainty makesit extremely
difcult to accurately predict thepermeability of aporous systemwithvery low
porositybyusinganynumerical technique.
The microstructures inside the porous media may have some effect on the
permeabilityporosity relation. However, as displayed by Figure 10.18, for the
investigated2-Disotropicporousmedia, noneof theexaminedparticipatingfactors:
theinclusionshape(circular or square), theinclusionsizeandtherelativearrange-
ment conditionbetweeninclusions (isolatedor unlimitedoverlappinginclusions)
brings signicant effect ontherelationof thedimensionless permeability versus
porosity.
Therearesomedistinctfeaturesdisplayedbythepermeability porosityrelation
showninFigure10.18. First, thepermeability has asharpincrease, as expected,
whentheporosity approachesone(k isinnitefor =1). Second, thepermeability
seemstofollowanexponential dependenceontheporositywithintheintermediate
porosity range, 0.5 0.8. A regression t to the calculated data yields the
followingexponential relationship:
ln
_
K
d
2
_
= 3.139.43 (79)
Thecorrelationcoefcientbetweenthesimulatedpointsandtheexponentiallytted
curveis0.99. Third, theSPH simulationsindicatethepercolationthresholdof the
investigatedporousmediaissmaller than0.4. A valueof 0.33for thepercolation
thresholdwasused[48] fora2-Dporoussystemconsistingof randomlydistributed
rectangular obstacles.
Unlimited overlapping circular inclusions
of 0.6 mm diameter
Unlimited overlapping square inclusions
of 0.6mm side-length
An exponential dependence
expressed by eqantion (79)
Unlimited overlapping circular
inclusions of 0.8 mm diameter
Isolated circular inclusions
of 0.6 mm diameter
0.4
10
2
10
1
10
0
10
1
D
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
l
e
s
s

p
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Porosity
Figure10.18. Dependenceof thedimensionlesspermeabilityonporestructure.
10.6 Concluding Remarks
InSection2of this chapter, theSPH benchmarkingconductedfor owandheat
transfer situationswithanalytical solutionsprovesthereliabilityandfeasibilityof
thismethodology.
InSection3, SPH simulationswithrespect to2-Dchannel owof electrically
conductinguidwereusedtodemonstratethat aMHDmethodologytocondition-
ingthetransitiontoturbulenceismoreeffectivewhenthemagneticeldisapplied
at anangle, withrespect tothemainuidowdirection, withintherangeof 0
(i.e., streamwiseowdirection) to90
(transverseowdirection). Inwhatconcerns
theowat Re=10
4
, anappliedmagnetic eldthat gives aStuart number of 40
caneffectivelystoptheonset of turbulence, whenit formsanangle between20
and50
withrespect tothemainuidowdirection. For thepurposeof obtaining

aneffectiverestrainingeffect asufciently strongmagnetic eldis required, and
theapplieddirection() for amagnetic eldof larger Stuart number alsogetsits
effectiverangeenhanced. For aturbulent ow, augmentedvelocityuctuationsin
onedirectionwill transferturbulentenergytotheothertwodirectionswithaconse-
quentcascadingeffect, whichmayspreadover thewholeowregion. Therefore, it
canbereasonedthataneffectiveMHDturbulencecontrol strategyshouldconsider
restrainingthevelocityuctuationsinall owdirectionssimultaneously.
In Section 4, theviability of theSPH method to solvetheballistic-diffusive
heat conductionequationis demonstrated. It is reportedasimpleSPH procedure
togiveaccuratetemperatureandheatuxrepresentationsfor theballistic-diffusive
heatconductionprocessesinsolidthinlms. Thisapproachisprimarilybasedona
particular boundarytreatment, whichisconstructedintermsof thenormalization
propertyof theSPHsmoothingkernel. Itisshownthatthisboundarytreatmentcan
affectthesymmetryof theSPHformulations. TheSPHheatuxcalculation, based
ontherst-order derivativeof thesmoothingkernel, mayleadtoanerroneousheat
uxvalueatthesecondparticleclosesttotheboundary. Anad hoc modicationof
thenormalizationcoefcientsof thesmoothingkernel iscapableof givingcorrect
resultsfor all theSPHparticles.
Finally, inSection5, inwhatconcernsthetransverseuidowacrossrandomly
aligned brous porous media, a 2-D SPH numerical model is constructed. The
developed model fully utilizes the meshless characteristic of SPH methodology
andthusoffersgreat exibilityintheconstructionof complicatedporestructures.
Theproposedmodelingapproachenablesamesoscopicinsight intotheuidow.
Pore-scalepreferential owpathsarevisualized, theuidmeandersintheporous
microstructuresand, asexpected, alwaysowsalongthepathsof least resistance.
Themacroscopic features of theuid owarefully captured by this model. For
instance, thedimensionlesspermeability(normalizedbythesquaredcharacteristic
dimensionof theber cross-section) isfoundtoexhibitanexponential dependence
on the porosity in the intermediate porosity range. In addition, it is found that
neither therelativearrangement betweenbers nor theber cross-section(shape
or area) hassignicanteffectonthisdimensionlesspermeabilityporosityrelation.
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge the nancial support received by this
project from FCT (Foundation for Science and Technology, Portugal) the
research grant POCTI/EME/59728/2004 (ACMS) and the Post-doctoral Fellow-
ship, SFRH/BPD/20273/2004 (FJ ), and from NSERC (Natural Sciences and
EngineeringResearchCouncil of Canada) DiscoveryGrant 12875(ACMS)
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11 Evaluation of continuous and discrete
phase models for simulating
submicrometer aerosol transport
and deposition
PhilipWorthLongest
1
andJ inxiangXi
2
1
Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
2
University of Arkansas, Little Rock, AR, USA
Abstract
Submicrometer aerosolsarewidelyprevalent throughout theenvironment. Exam-
plesof theseaerosolsincludecombustionbyproducts, ionsfromradioactivedecay,
andrespiratory-specicviruses. Predictingthetransport andfateof theseaerosols
isimportantinanumberof applicationsincludinglarge-scaleenvironmental assess-
ments, determiningpollutantexposurelevelsinmicroenvironments, andevaluating
thelungdepositionandpotential healtheffectsof inhaledparticles. Numerical simu-
lationsof submicrometeraerosolsarechallengingduetolowdepositionefciencies,
theactionof concurrentinertial anddiffusivetransportmechanisms, andstiff equa-
tionsets.Aswithothertwo-phaseowsystems, bothcontinuousanddiscretephase
modelshavebeenusedtosimulatethetransport anddepositionof submicrometer
aerosols. However, eachof theseapproacheshasinherentstrengthsandweaknesses.
Inthisreview, theperformanceof continuousanddiscretephasemodelsisassessed
inaseriesof casestudiesthatfocusonsubmicrometeraerosol transportanddeposi-
tionintherespiratorytract. Thenumerical methodsconsideredincludeachemical
speciesapproachthat neglectsparticleinertia, Lagrangianparticletracking, anda
recently proposeddrift ux model that utilizes anear-wall analytic solution. The
performanceof thesemodelsisevaluatedthroughcomparisonswithexperimental
datasets of deposition in arepresentativedoublebifurcation geometry, arealis-
tic model of theupper tracheobronchial region, andarealistic model of thenasal
cavity. Comparisonsof themasstransport methodsconsideredwithexperimental
datahighlight advantages anddisadvantages of eachapproach. Theseresults are
intendedtoprovideguidanceinselectingappropriatetwo-phasemodelsfor simu-
latingsubmicrometer aerosol transport anddepositioninavariety of applications
includingexposureanalysis, respiratorydosimetry, andrespiratorydrugdelivery.
Keywords: Modelingnanoaerosols, Submicrometer aerosol dynamics, Drift ux
model, Lagrangianparticletracking
11.1 Introduction
Finerespiratoryaerosolscanbecharacterizedashavingaparticlediameter inthe
range of approximately 100nmto 1m. Inhalable ne aerosols include diesel
exhaust products, environmental and mainstreamtobacco smoke, and airborne
bioaerosolssuchasvirusesandbacteria. Morawskaetal. [1]reportedaveragecount
mediandiameters of samplediesel exhaust andenvironmental tobacco smoketo
be125and183nm, respectively. Theparticlefractionof diesel exhaust canrange
from5to500nm[2]. Bernstein[3] summarizedanumber of studiesandreported
a consistent value of cigarette smoke count median diameter of approximately
260nmsurroundedbyawidedistributionof valuesrangingfrom18nmto1.6m.
Respiratory-specicvirusessuchasAvianuandSARStypicallyrangefrom20to
200nm[4].
Fineaerosolsdepositintherespiratorytractatareducedrateincomparisonwith
smaller ultrane(-100nm) andlarger coarse(>1m) aerosols. Thisreductionin
depositionfor neaerosolsisduetoaminimuminthenet sumof diffusion, sed-
imentation, andimpactioneffects [5]. Invivoexperiments of whole-lungaerosol
depositioninhumansindicateaminimuminretentionforneaerosolswithadiam-
eter of approximately 400nm[68]. For environmental tobaccosmokeanddiesel
exhaust, thein vivo deposition study of Morawskaet al. [1] reporteddeposition
fractionsof 36and30%, respectively. Whiledepositionratesaretypicallylowfor
nerespiratoryaerosols, environmental pollutantswithinthissizerangeareoften
carcinogenic [9] andinammatory [10]. As aresult, understandingthetransport
and deposition characteristics of ne respiratory aerosols is critical in order to
makeaccuratetoxicologyriskassessments, toestablishappropriateenvironmental
standards, andtodeterminesafeexposurelimits.
Localized accumulations of particles have been widely observed at branch-
ing sites in bifurcating respiratory geometries. These focal depositions, or hot
spots, are often most pronounced for coarse aerosols due to inertial driven
impaction [1117]. However, signicant increases in local deposition have
also been observed for dilute submicrometer respiratory aerosols and vapors
[17,1821]. Thequantity of particles depositing within aspecic localized area
will affect thetransport of particles andchemical species (CS) across themucus
barrier andultimatelythecellular-level dosereceived[18]. Asaresult, evaluations
of localizeddepositionvalues areneededtobetter predict cellular-level doseand
response[22].
Oneadvantageof computational uiddynamics (CFD) predictions compared
with in vivo and in vitro studies is that modeling results can readily determine
localizeddepositioncharacteristicsinthreedimensions. However, duetonumeri-
cal challengesonlyfewcomputational studieshavequantiedthelocal deposition
of nerespiratoryaerosols. Zhanget al. [17] comparedregional andlocal deposi-
tionsof coarseandultraneparticles, butneaerosolswerenotconsidered. Longest
andOldham[23] modeledtheeffectof anupstreamaerosol deliverysystemonthe
deposition of 1maerosols in a double bifurcation geometry. Robinson et al.
[24] considered the total deposition of ne respiratory aerosols in a model of
Evaluation of continuous and discrete phase models 427
respiratorygenerationsG3G8. LongestandOldham[25] werethersttocompare
CFD-predictedlocal depositionsof neaerosolswithinvitrodata.
Numerical models for simulating particle transport and deposition typi-
cally employ either a EulerianLagrangian [18,24,26] or a EulerianEulerian
[17,21,27,28] approach for submicrometer aerosol transport and deposition. The
Eulerian model that is typically used for respiratory aerosols treats the particle
phaseasadiluteCSinamulticomponent mixture. Thisapproachneglectsparticle
inertiaandonlyconsidersdepositionduetodiffusional effects. However, Longest
andXi [20] illustratedasignicant inuenceof inertiaontheregional andlocal
deposition of ne and ultrane aerosols. In contrast to the CS Eulerian model,
theLagrangianapproachtracks individual particles withintheoweldandcan
account for avariety of forcesontheparticleincludinginertia, diffusion, gravity
effects, and near-wall interactions [29]. Disadvantages of theLagrangian model
includeanexcessively largenumber of particles requiredto establishconvergent
local depositionprolesandastiff equationsetfor neandultraneparticles[30].
Inthestudyof LongestandOldham[23], aLagrangianmodel wasusedtomatchthe
overall invitrodepositionrateof 1mparticlesinadoublebifurcationgeometry;
however, themodel wasnot abletomatchthelocal depositioncharacteristics.
IncontrasttotheCSEulerianmodel thatistypicallyappliedtoultraneandne
respiratory aerosols, other continuous eldtwo-phaseowmethods areavailable
[31,32]. Respiratoryaerosolsaretypicallydilute, suchthatconstantoweldprop-
ertiescanbeassumed. However, niteparticleinertiahasbeenshowntostrongly
affectthedepositionof neandultraneparticles[20]. Of theavailabletwo-phase
methods, thedrift ux (DF) model is an effectiveapproach that can beapplied
todilutesystemswithlowStokesnumbersSt
k
andcanaccount for niteparticle
forces [33]. WangandLai [34] appliedaDF model tothedepositionof ultrane
throughcoarserespiratoryaerosolstoaccount for gravityandelectrostaticeffects.
However, nopreviousstudieshaveconsideredaDF model toapproximatetheiner-
tiaof respiratory aerosols. A potential problemwiththeDF model appliedtone
aerosolsistheestimationof particleinertiainthenear-wall region.
This chapter will discuss (i) theeffect of inertiaon thedeposition of submi-
crometer particlesandtheappropriateboundsfor theapplicationof aCSEulerian
model; (ii) developmentof anewdriftuxmodel thateffectivelytakesintoaccount
niteparticleinertia; and(iii) evaluationof thisnewdrift ux velocity correction
(DF-VC) model by comparisons withexperimental dataandother model predic-
tions in human respiratory airways. Direct comparisons between numerical and
experimental depositionresultsaremadeonaregional andhighlylocalizedbasis.
Computational modelsevaluatedincludeastandardCSmassfractionapproxima-
tion, Lagrangianparticletracking, andtheDFapproachtoaccountforniteparticle
inertia. Theairwaygeometriesconsideredinthisstudyincludeaidealizedbifurca-
tionmodel, acast-basedtracheobronchial (TB)geometry, andaninvivoscan-based
nasal cavity model. Agreement between computational and experimental results
will helptoestablishaneffectiveapproachfor simulatingnerespiratory aerosol
depositionwherebothinertial anddiffusional effectsmay besignicant transport
mechanisms.
11.2 Models of Airow and Submicrometer Particle Transport
Floweldsintherespiratorytractaretypicallyassumedtobeisothermal andincom-
pressible. Dependingonactivityconditions, theowregimeundernormal breathing
canbelaminar, transitional, or fully turbulent. Turbulencemodels havedifferent
levels of complexity and includedirect numerical simulation (DNS), largeeddy
simulation(LES), theReynolds stress model (RSM), andtheReynolds-averaged
NavierStokes(RANS) two-equationapproach. Selectionof anappropriatemodel
for theowof interest mainly depends onthedesiredaccuracy andtheavailable
computational resources. DNS is themost accurateapproachandresolves turbu-
lent eddies at all scales, but it also requires the most computational resources.
Largeeddysimulationsresolvelarge-scaleenergy-containingeddies, andtheRSM
approach captures theanisotropic turbulence, which is signicant near thewall.
Eventhoughthelower-order RANS two-equationmodels cannot account for tur-
bulenceanisotropy, thesemodels arestill often shown to adequately capturethe
mainfeaturesof theow, providedavery nemeshisemployedinthenear-wall
boundary region[35]. Inthis study, thelowReynolds number (LRN) k two-
equation model was selected based on its ability to accurately predict pressure
drop, velocityproles, andshear stressfor transitional andturbulentows[36,37].
Thismodel wasdemonstratedtoaccuratelypredict particledepositionprolesfor
transitional and turbulent ows in models of theoral airway [38,39], nasal pas-
sages [40], and multiplebifurcations [41,42]. Moreover, theLRN k model
was shownto provideanaccuratesolutionfor laminar owas theturbulent vis-
cosity approaches zero [37]. Transport equations governingtheturbulent kinetic
energy (k) and thespecic dissipation rate() areprovided by Wilcox [37] and
werepreviouslyreportedinLongest andXi [30].
11.2.1 Chemical species model for particle transport
Thereisanever-increasingliteraturebaseonparticledynamicsinturbulent ows,
asreviewedbyCroweetal. [43]. Dependingontheneedtosimulateparticleinertia
andcouplingwiththecontinuousphase, Eulerian-basedparticletransport models
canbecategorizedasCS, DF, or mixturemodels. Intherespiratorysystem, dilute
suspensionsof nanoparticlesareoftentreatedasaCSwithaEulerianmasstransport
model.Thismodel oftenneglectsparticleinertiaandtheeffectsof theparticlephase
on theoweld, i.e., one-way coupled particletransport. Thetransport relation
governingtheconvectivediffusivemotionof ultraneaerosols intheabsenceof
particleinertial effectscanbewrittenonamassfractionbasisas:
c
t

(u
j
c)
x
j
=

x
j
__
D

T
Sc
T
_
c
x
j
_
(1)
In the above equation, c represents the mass fraction of nanoparticles,

D is the
molecularorBrowniandiffusioncoefcient, andSc
T
theturbulentSchmidtnumber
takentobe0.9. Assumingdiluteconcentrationsof spherical particles, theStokes
Einsteinequationwasusedtodeterminethediffusioncoefcientsfor varioussized
particlesandcanbeexpressedas:
D =
k
B
TC
c
3jd
p
(2)
wherek
B
=1.3810
16
cm
2
g/sistheBoltzmannconstantexpressedincgsunits.
TheCunninghamcorrectionfactorhasbeencomputedusingtheexpressionofAllen
andRaabe[44]
C
c
= 1

d
p
_
2.341.05exp
_
0.39
d
p
__
(3)
where isthemeanfreepathof air, assumedtobe65nm. Theaboveexpressionis
reportedtobevalidfor all particlesizes[45]. Toapproximateparticledeposition
onthewall, theboundaryconditionfor theEuleriantransportmodel isassumedto
bec
wall
=0.
11.2.2 Discrete phase model
One-waycoupledtrajectoriesof monodisperseultraneparticlesrangingindiame-
ter(d
p
) from1to1,000nmareoftencalculatedonaLagrangianbasisbyintegrating
anappropriateformof theparticletrajectoryequation. Aerosolsinthissizerange
haveverylowStokesnumbers(St
k
=
p
d
2
p
C
c
U,18jD--1), whereU isthemean
uidvelocityandDacharacteristicdiameterof thesystem. Othercharacteristicsof
theaerosolsconsideredincludeaparticledensity
p
=1.00g/cm
3
, adensity ratio
=,
p
10
3
, andaparticleReynoldsnumber Re
p
=[u :[d
p
,j--1. The
appropriateequationsfor spherical particlemotionunder theseconditionscanbe
expressedas:
d:
i
dt
=
Du
i
Dt

f
p
C
c
(u
i
:
i
) f
i, Brownian
and
dx
i
dt
= :
i
(t) (4aand4b)
Intheaboveequations, :
i
andu
i
arethecomponentsof theparticleandlocal uid
velocity, respectively. Thecharacteristic timerequiredfor particles to respondto
changesintheoweld, orthemomentumresponsetime, is
p
=C
c
p
d
2
p
,18j.The
pressuregradient or accelerationtermisoftenneglectedfor aerosolsduetosmall
values of thedensity ratio. However, it has beenretrainedhereto emphasizethe
signicanceof uidelement accelerationinbiouidows[29]. Thedragfactor f ,
whichrepresentstheratioof thedragcoefcient C
D
toStokesdrag, isassumedto
beonefor submicrometer aerosols. Theeffect of Brownianmotionontheparticle
trajectoriesisincludedasaseparateforceper unitmasstermateachtime-step. The
amplitudeof theBrownianforceisof theform[46]
f
i, Brownian
=
i
_
S
o
Lt
(5)
where
i
isazeromeanvariant fromaGaussianprobabilitydensityfunction, S
o
a
spectral intensity functiondirectly relatedtothediffusioncoefcient, andLt the
time-stepfor particleintegration. Theinuenceof anisotropic uctuations inthe
near-wall regionis consideredby implementingananisotropic turbulencemodel
proposedbyMatidaet al. [47], whichisdescribedas:
u
/
n
= f
:
_
2k,3 and f
:
= 1exp(0.002y
) (6)
In this equation, is a randomnumber generated froma Gaussian probability
density function and f
:
a damping function component normal to the wall for
valuesof y
lessthanapproximately40.
11.2.3 Deposition factors
For Lagrangiantracking, thedepositionefciency (DE) is denedas theratio of
particles depositing within aregion to theparticles entering that region. For the
Eulerianmodel, themassdepositionrateonawall canbeexpressedas
m
w, i
=
N
j=1
m
A
j
_
D

T
Sc
T
_
c
n
w, j
(7)
wherethesummationisperformedoverregionof interesti, andn isthewall-normal
coordinatepointingout of thegeometry. Localizeddepositioncanbepresentedin
termsof adepositionenhancementfactor (DEF), whichquantieslocal deposition
asafractionof thetotal or regional DE. A DEF, similar totheenhancement factor
suggestedbyBalashazyet al. [11], for local region j canbedenedas
DEF
j
=
DE
j
,A
j
N
j=1
DE
j
_
N
j=1
A
j
(8)
wherethesummationisperformedovertheregionof interest, i.e., theupperairway
geometries. For theLagrangianmodel, thelocal areaA
j
isassumedtobearegion
withadiameter of 500m, or approximately50lungepithelial cellsinlength[48].
The denition of the DEF is for a pre-specied constant area at each sampling
location. Samplinglocationsaretakentobenodal points. Constant areasarethen
assessedaroundeachnodal point andallowedtooverlapif necessary.
11.2.4 Numerical methods
Tosolvethegoverningmassandmomentumconservationequationsineachof the
casesconsidered, theCFDpackageFluent 6wasemployed. User-suppliedFortran
andC programs wereimplementedfor thecalculationof initial particleproles,
wall mass owrates, Brownianforce[30], anisotropic turbulenceeffect [47,49],
andnear-wall velocityinterpolation[30].All transportequationswerediscretizedto
beatleastsecondorderaccurateinspace.Asegregatedimplicitsolverwasemployed
to evaluatetheresultinglinear systemof equations. This solver uses theGauss
Seidel method in conjunction with an algebraic multigrid approach to solvethe
linearizedequations. TheSIMPLECalgorithmwasemployedtoevaluatepressure
velocity coupling. Convergenceof theoweldsolutionwas assumedwhenthe
normalizedglobal massresidualsfell below10
5
andtheresidualiterationcurves
for all owparametersbecomeasymptotic.
11.3 Evaluation of Inertial Effects on Submicrometer Aerosols
A direct comparisonbetweentheEulerianandLagrangiantransport model results
can be visualized in a branching respiratory geometry by snapshots of particle
locations at two selected times during awashout phasewith atracheal owrate
of 30L/min(Figure11.1). Theinitial velocity prolewasparabolic resultingina
near-wall region of lowowbeginning at theinlet. For each model, 5nmparti-
cles wereinitially releasedfromaninlet planefor 0.003seconds. Thesimulation
was then continued over timeto illustratethewashout of theremaining particle
fraction. For the Eulerian simulation at t =0.005 seconds, a high concentration
regionisobservedtointeract withtherst carinaandinner wallsof thedaughter
branches (Figure11.1a). However, theseelevatedconcentrations havebeenelim-
inated fromtherst carinaby timet =0.015 seconds dueto thehigh velocities
inthisregion(Figure11.1b). Moderatelyelevatedconcentrationsof massfraction
areobservednear thesecondcarinas at t =0.015seconds (Figure11.1b). As the
simulationcontinues fromt =0.005to 0.015seconds, washout of themass frac-
tionisobservedinregionsof highow, whereasregionsof lowowaredominated
bymixing.
Snapshotsof Lagrangianparticlesappear similar totheEulerianmasstransport
model over time(Figure11.1c and d). For time0.005 seconds, aregion of high
concentration is again observed to interact with therst carinal ridge. However,
the Lagrangian particles simulated have not progressed as far as the minimum
contourlevel consideredfortheEulerianow(Figure11.1avs. c). Thismaybedue
tothediscretenatureof theLagrangianparticles andtherelatively small number
of particles considered for this illustration. Approximately 2,000 particles were
tracked for visualization. However, theLagrangian model also directly accounts
for themolecular slipcorrectionandTaylor diffusion. At time0.015seconds, the
EulerianandLagrangianmodelsagainappearsimilar(Figure11.1bvs. d). Itisnoted
that theEulerianmodel ispresentedfor amid-planeslice, whereastheLagrangian
model must bepresentedintermsof particlesinthe3-Deld. Therefore, themid-
planeviewof theEulerianmodel reveals only athinnear-wall regionof elevated
concentration in G3 at time0.015 seconds (Figure11.1b). In contrast, this thin
near-wall concentration layer of slow-moving particles is observed to occupy a
majority of thethirdgenerationbasedonthe3-D viewthroughthegeometry for
theLagrangianresult (Figure11.1d).
(a) Eulerian model at time 0.005 s
Mass fraction
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.005
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.005
(c) Lagrangian model at time 0.005 s
Mass fraction
(d) Lagrangian model at to 0.015 s
(b) Eulerian model at time 0.015 s
Figure11.1. Comparison of Eulerian species mass fraction (a and b) and
Lagrangian particle distributions (c and d) at various times for an
inhalationowrateof 30L/minintheupper airway model. A con-
stant concentrationof 5nmparticles was releasedat theinlet plane
for therst 0.003secondsof thesimulation.
Figure11.2showstheregional depositionfractionsbasedonbothEulerianand
Lagrangianparticletrackingmodelsincomparisontoexperimental andanalytical
results within an upper airway doublebifurcation geometry (generation G3G5)
for atracheal owrateof 30L/min. Predictions of theEulerian transport model
areconsistentwiththecorrelationof CohenandAsgharian[50] aswell astheana-
lytic solution of Ingham[27] (Figure 11.2). Based on available empirical data,
the correlation of Cohen and Asgharian [50] is valid for particles from40 to
200nmand includes a high degree of variability. Over this range, good agree-
ment is observed between theEulerian and empirical models (Figure11.2). The
particlesizeandStokesnumber for whichtheLagrangianparticledepositionfrac-
tionexceedsEulerianparticledepositionbyadifferenceof 20%hasbeenmarked
(Figure11.2). Thisparticlesizeisconsideredtobethethresholdwhereimpaction
plays asignicant rolein total deposition fraction and will bereferred to as the
inertial particlediameter. At 30L/min, theinertial particlediameter is120nmand
20% variation in Eulerian and
Lagragian simulations (120 nm)
St
3
= 5.0E-5

Particle diameter (nm)
Cohen and Asgharian (1990)
Ingham (1991)
Martonen (1993)
Eulerian simulation
Lagrangian particle
Lagrangian fluid element
D
e
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

(
%
)
10
1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
1
10
2
10
3
Figure11.2. Branch-averaged deposition fraction in respiratory generations
G3G5 of the upper airway model for an inhalation ow rate of
30L/min. Goodagreementisobservedbetweenthesimulatedresults
andtheempirical correlationof CohenandAsgharian(1990) from40
through 200nm. Separation of Eulerian and Lagrangian simulation
resultsindicatestheonsetof particleimpaction. Particleimpactionis
observedtobecomesignicant for 120nmparticles.
theassociatedStokesnumber for generationG3is5.010
5
. Astheowrateis
increased, theminimumparticlesizewhereimpactionbecomes important grows
smaller duetoincreasingowinertia. Thesmallestobservedinertial particlediam-
eter was70nm(St=5.110
5
), whichoccurredfor thehighesttracheal owrate
considered, whichwas60L/min.
To ensureaccuracy intheparticletrackingroutine, thedepositionfractionof
massless Lagrangian uid elements has also been assessed (Figure 11.2). Fluid
elementsareassumedtohavethedensityof thecontinuousuid, or air, resultingin
negligibleinertiaeffects. Thediffusionof uidelementsisbasedonthegeometric
element diameter and is not inuenced by the density. The resulting deposition
fractionof Lagrangianuidelementsisobservedtobeincloseagreementwiththe
Eulerian model results for all particlesizes considered (Figure11.2). Therefore,
differencesintheLagrangianandEuleriansolutionsmaybeassumedtorepresent
theeffectsof niteparticleinertiaandnotnumerical errorsintheparticletracking
routine.
In comparison to regional-averaged values, the effects of particle inertia
on localized deposition characteristics were found to be much more dramatic
[20,40,42]. As shown by Longest and Xi [20], for the upper airway bifurcation
model, inclusionof particleinertiawasfoundtoincreasethemaximumlocal micro-
dosimetryfactorbyoneorderof magnitudefor40nmparticlesataninhalationow
rateof 30L/min. ThemaximumDEF values predictedby theLagrangianmodel
was103.9incontrasttoaDEF
max
of 5.7predictedbytheEulerianCSmodel [20]. It
wasalsoobservedthat theLagrangianmodel didnot appear toresolvecontinuous
contoursof DEF belowvaluesof approximately5.
Fromtheaboveobservations, it is indicatedthat particleinertiamay bemore
signicant intheregional andlocal depositionof neandultraneaerosols than
previously considered. Therefore, CS Eulerian models of particletransport may
signicantly underestimate branch-averaged and local deposition values of ne
andultraneparticledeposition. Thisunderestimationwasfoundtobeespecially
signicant for localized deposition patterns and microdosimetry estimates. For
40nmparticles, aoneorder of magnitudeincreaseof theDEF valueswasobserved
inLagrangianestimatesincomparisontoEulerianpredictionsfor theupper airway
model at an inhalation ow rate of 30L/min. Furthermore, the particle inertia
cannot beignoredfor regional depositioncalculationswithStokesnumberslarger
than5.0 10
5
inbifurcatingairways. As aresult, it is necessary to developan
appropriateparticletransportmodel thatcaneffectivelyresolvecontinuouscontours
of depositionandcapturetheinuenceof niteparticleinertiafor submicrometer
aerosolsintherespiratorytract.
11.4 An Effective Eulerian-Based Model for Simulating
Submicrometer Aerosols
Thebasisof thisEulerianapproachistheDF model withanovel extensiontobetter
computewall depositiononacontinuousbasis. Incontrast withtheCSmodel, the
DF approachincludes particleinertial effects, whicharetakenintoconsideration
throughtheconvectionterm[25,33]
c
t

(:
j
c)
x
j
=

x
j
__
D

T
Sc
T
_
c
x
j
_
(9)
Inthisequation, :
j
istheparticlevelocity, whichisevaluatedfromtheparticleslip
velocity(vs
j
) as:
:
j
= :s
j
u
j
(10)
For acontinuous eld solution, theparticleslip velocity can bedetermined as a
functionof inertial andgravityforcesas[33]
:s
j
=
C
c
d
2
p
18j
c
(
p
m
)
_
g
j

u
j
t
u
i
u
j
x
i
_
(11a)
where C
c
is the Cunninghamcorrection factor,
p
and
m
are the particle and
mixturedensities, d
p
theparticlediameter, andj
c
thecontinuous eldviscosity.
s
Control volume
centre (CV)
v
p,i
u
cv,n
n
Particle
location (p)
Wall boundary
Variables
n wall normal coordinate
u fluid velocity
v particle velocity
p particle position
s distance detween CV center and wall
Subscripts
CV control volume center
Figure11.3. Velocitycomponentsandnotationwithinanear-wall control volume.
Inequation(11a), therst terminbracketsisthegravity vector andthenext two
termsrepresent thematerial derivative, whichaccountsfor uidelement accelera-
tion. For thesmall particles consideredinthis study (1m), gravity effects are
neglectedandStokesowconditionscanbeassumed. Asaresult, equation(11a)
canbewrittenintermsof theuidpressuregradient as[33]:
:s
j
=
C
c
d
2
p
18j
c
_
p
_
m
p
x
j
(11b)
AswiththeCSmodel, theDFapproachapproximatesperfectabsorptionatthewall,
i.e., c
wall
=0. Theassociatedlocal massdepositionasaresult of bothdiffusional
andinertial effectsisexpressedas:
m
w,l
=
m
A
l

D
c
n
wall

m
A
l
c :
n
[
wall
(12a)
Intheaboveexpression, :
n
representsthewall-normal particlevelocityscalar
:
n
= :
i
n
i
(12b)
where n
i
isthelocal wall-normal unit vector pointingout thegeometry.
DifferencesamongthetwoDFapproachesconsideredinthisstudyarebasedon
howtheparticlevelocity at thewall iscomputedandimplementedintheparticle
depositionexpression, equation(12a). Velocity values near thewall onacontrol
volumegridandrelatednomenclatureareindicatedinFigure11.3. Forthestandard
DF model, slipvelocitiesareonlyavailableat control volumecenter locations. As
aresult, theparticlevelocityat thewall isapproximatedasthevalueat thecenter
of thenearest control volume, i.e.,
:
n
[
wall
= :
cv,i
n
i
= :
cv,n
(13)
AsindicatedinFigure11.3, thesubscript CV indicatesthevalueatthecontrol vol-
umecenter andthesubscriptn indicatesthewall-normal scalar. Basedonexpected
particle deceleration between the control volume center location and the wall
surface, thestandardDF approximationis expectedto signicantly overestimate
particleinertiaat thewall andmaybemeshdependent.
To improve performance of the standard DF approach, velocity corrections
areproposedfor particleconditionsat theinitial point of particle-to-wall contact.
Instead of utilizing velocity at thenear-wall cell center as with thestandard DF
model, theparticlevelocityatthewall isdeterminedbasedonasubgridsolutionof
particlemotionbetweenthecontrol volumecenterandwall location.Themotivation
behindthis subgridsolutionis that fully resolvingnear-wall niteparticleinertia
withacontinuous model wouldrequireanexcessivenumber of control volumes.
Instead, theDF-VCmodel employsananalyticsolutionof particlevelocitybetween
thenear-wall control volumecenterlocationandthewall (Figure11.3). Itisassumed
that thecontinuouseldmodel approximatesparticlediffusionwithinthisregion.
Furthermore, for lowparticleReynoldsnumberstheindividual Lagrangiantrans-
porttermsbecomelinearandseparable. Particleinertiabetweenthecontrol volume
centerandwall surfacecanthenbeapproximatedonadiscreteLagrangianbasisas:
d:
p, n
dt
=
1
p
(u
p, n
:
p, n
) (14)
Toformulateananalytic solutionof equation(14), thewall-normal uidvelocity
isassumedtovarylinearlybetweenthecontrol volumecenter andzeroatthewall.
Theresultingequationfor particlepositionbetweenthenear-wall control volume
center andthewall asafunctionof timecanbewrittenas
d
2
x
p
dt
2

1
p
dx
p
dt

u
cv,n
s
p
x
p
=
1
p
u
cv, n
(15)
whereu
cv,n
is theuid velocity at thecontrol volumecenter location normal to
thewall. Ananalyticsolutiontoequation(15) ispossibleresultinginwall-normal
expressionsfor particleposition
x
p
(t) =
:
cv,n

2
s
2
e
1
t
_
:
cv,n

2
s
2
s
_
e
2
t
s (16a)
andvelocity
:
p,n
(t) =
:
cv,n

2
s
2

1
e
1
t
_
:
cv,n

2
s
2
s
_
2
e
2
t
(16b)
where
1
=
1
2
_
_
p

_
_
1
p
_
2
4
_
u
cv,n
s
p
_
_
_
(16c)
2
=
1
2
_
_
p

_
_
1
p
_
2
4
_
u
cv,n
s
p
_
_
_
(16d)
Thetimefor initial wall contact canbedeterminedfromequation(16a). Theasso-
ciatedparticlevelocityat thepoint of depositionisthencalculatedusingequation
(16b) andappliedtocalculatethelocal massdepositioninequation(12a).
Theexpressionsfor near-wall particlepositionandvelocitypresentedasequa-
tions(16aandb) requirethe coefcients(equations16candd), whichareroots
of thecharacteristic equationfor particlemotion, to bereal andunique. If these
coefcients arecomplex numbers or repeated roots, then thegeneral solution of
near-wall particlemotion will haveadifferent form. Theoccurrenceof real and
uniquevaluesof
1
and
2
requiresthat
_
1
p
_
2
> 4
_
u
cv,n
s
p
_
(17)
Theparticleresponsetime(
p
) is proportional to theparticlediameter squared.
Therefore, the condition for real and unique values of
1
and
2
is more likely
to besatised for smaller particles. As theparticlesizeincreases, theleft-hand
side(LHS) of theconditiondecreasesrapidly, whichincreasestheprobability for
complex values of
1
and
2
. Considering submicrometer aerosols, thelimiting
maximumparticlesizeis1m, whichshouldresultinonlyreal anduniquevalues
of
1
and
2
, asveriednumerically[42].
11.5 Evaluation of the DF-VC Model in an Idealized
Airway Geometry
Inthissection, threecontinuouseldmodelswereevaluatedbasedontheir ability
to capture the inertial effects of submicrometer aerosols by direct comparisons
withinvitroexperimental datainaidealizedbifurcationgeometry. Therstmodel
consideredwastheEulerianCSapproximation, whichisknowntoneglectparticle
inertia[20]. Implementation of this model is intended as abasecaseto capture
purelydiffusional effects. TheremainingtwomodelswerebasedonaDF approach
that accountsfor bothdiffusionandparticleinertiaeffects. DifferencesintheDF
modelsariseasaresult of howthenear-wall inertiaisapproximated, asdescribed
intheprevioussection. Theidealizedairway bifurcationmodel wasselectedhere
as a test case because it can be mathematically described, which facilitates the
generationof identical experimental andcomputational geometries.
The experimental method for the generation and delivery of submicrometer
aerosolswaspreviously describedby Oldhamet al. [15]. Briey, aLovelace-type
compressedairnebulizer(In-ToxProducts,Albuquerque, NM)wasusedtogenerate
theuorescent 400nmand 1maerosols. As shown in Figure11.4a, acustom
copperenclosure[51] wasusedtoconnectthenebulizerwiththedoublebifurcation
model. Aerosolsweredriedanddilutedusing5%relativehumidityair at aninject
rateof 10 times thenebulizer output. Theaerosol was discharged to Boltzmann
equilibriumby passing through a
85
Kr discharger. Aerosols werepulled through
the double bifurcation models by use of a vacuumpump. Particles that did not
(a) Aerosol delivery system (b) PRB geometry
Mixing
chamber
Sudden
contraction
z
z
y
Outlet extension
y x
x
Inlet to
PRB
Figure11.4. Geometries considered including (a) experimental particledelivery
system, and(b) doublebifurcationmodel of respiratory generations
G3G5.
depositinthemodelswerecollectedona25mmdiameter polycarbonatelter with
a 0.1mpore size (Nucleopore Corporation, Pleasanton, CA). Local and total
depositionsof aerosolsweredeterminedby microscope-basedcountingonagrid
of 1.40.95mmfor 1mparticlesand10.69mmfor 400nmparticles[25,15].
Fluorescent particle counts in photographic microscope elds were determined
usinguorescencemicroscopy.
Comparisons of experimental and numerical total particle deposition values
inthebifurcationgeometry for thetwoparticlesizesconsideredareillustratedin
Figure11.5. For400nmparticles, theexperimental total depositionrateis0.0054%.
TheCS model appearstoclosely matchtheexperimental depositionvaluewitha
total depositionpredictionof 0.0048%, resultinginapercent differenceof 11.1%.
In contrast, the standard DF model predicts a deposition rate that is nearly two
ordersof magnitudehigherthantheexperimental ndings.Asaresult, thestandard
DF model appears to signicantly overpredict theeffects of particleinertia. The
DF-VCapproximationmatchestheexperimental resultstoahighdegreewithatotal
depositionvalueof 0.00585%andapercent difference8.3%. Asaresult, boththe
CSandDF-VC modelsappear toprovideadequatepredictionsof total deposition
for 400nmparticles. Comparisons of local deposition results with experimental
ndingswill beusedtoevaluatedifferencesbetweentheCSandDF-VC models.
Experimental depositionresults for 1mparticles indicateatotal deposition
fractionof 0.01%(Figure11.5), as reportedinOldhamet al. [15]. Dueto alack
of particleinertiainthecomputational model, theCSapproachunder predictsthe
total depositionfractionfor 1maerosolsbyoneorder of magnitude. Incontrast,
thestandardDF model overpredictsthetotal depositionbyoneorder of magnitude.
Aswith400nmparticles, predictionsof theDF-VC model for 1mparticlesare
incloseagreement withexperimental results. TheDF-VC model predicts atotal
depositionvalueof 0.0104%, resultinginadifferenceof 4.0%incomparisonwith
theexperiment.
DF
DF
Exp
T
o
t
a
l

d
e
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

(
%
)
CS
400 nm 1 m
DF-VC
DF-VC
Exp
CS
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
Figure11.5. Comparison of total deposition fraction as a percentage between
experimental results and model predictions for 400nmand 1m
particles.
Experimental results of local 400nmparticledepositions on a 1 0.69mm
gridareshowninFigure11.6aasapercentageof total depositedparticles[25]. As
expected, localizedincreasesinparticledepositionareobservedatthebifurcations.
Depositioncontoursareintherangeof 1to5%at therst carinal ridgeand0.1to
1%atthesecond. A discontinuousshadingpatternisobservedintherstdaughter
branches with contours in the range of 0.01 to 1%. At the second bifurcation,
higher contour valuesappear toextenddowntheinner branchincomparisonwith
theouter branch. Someasymmetry inthedepositionpatternmay beduetominor
variationsintheinletparticleconcentrationandalignmentof thegrideldwiththe
experimental model.
Numerical resultsof local particledepositionfor 400nmaerosolsarereported
onatwo-dimensional gridwithelementsizesequivalenttotheexperimental study,
i.e., 10.69mm(Figure11.6bd). FortheCSmodel and400nmparticles, hotspots
of local particledepositionarenot observedat thecarinal ridges (Figure11.6b).
Asaresult, theCSmodel appearstomatchtheexperimental total depositionvalue
but displays signicant differences fromlocal experimental ndings. Moreover,
theCS model appears to predict moreevenly distributed contours of deposition
throughout thephysiologically realistic bifurcation(PRB) incomparisonwiththe
experimental results. ConsideringthestandardDF model, asignicant increasein
local particledepositionisobservedat therst carinal ridgeandalesser hot spot
occurs at the second bifurcation point (Figure 11.6c). However, these hot spots
areat ahigher contour level thanobservedintheexperiment andsurroundedby
fewdeposited particles. TheDF-VC model provides thebest match to localized
experimental results for thedepositionof 400nmparticles (Figure11.6d). Max-
imumlocalized particledeposition values at both carinal ridges arepredicted to
bewithinthesamerangeasobservedexperimentally. Specially, theDF-VCmodel
(a) Experiment (b) CS model and 400 nm particles
(d) DF-VC model and 400 nm particles
Percent of deposited
400 nm particles
0.01 0.1 1 5
(c) DF model and 400 nm particles
Figure11.6. Comparisonbetweenexperimental andnumericallydeterminedcon-
tours of local deposition for 400nmparticles expressed as a per-
centage of total deposition: (a) experimental, (b) CS, (c) DF, and
(d) DF-VC models.
predictslocalizeddepositionattherstandsecondcarinal ridgestobe1to5%and
0.1to1%, respectively. Furthermore, theDF-VCmodel predictselevatedcontours
withintherangeof 0.1to1%extendingdowntheinner branchof G5, asobserved
experimentally. Similar agreementsbetweenmodel andexperimental resultswere
alsoobservedfor 1mparticles[25].
A signicant ndingfromthisdirect comparisonwasthat theCSandstandard
DF models didnot effectively predict thedepositionof nerespiratory aerosols.
TheCSmodel hasbeenwidelyappliedinrespiratorydynamicssystemsforparticles
uptoapproximately 100nm[20,21,52,53]. However, only afewavailablestudies
haveapplied aDF model for thesimulation of respiratory aerosols [34,54]. No
previous study has implementedaDF model to determinetheinertial deposition
of nerespiratory aerosols. Basedontheavailabletwo-phaseowliterature, the
standardDFmodel shouldadequatelymodel thedepositionof dilutenerespiratory
aerosolsbasedondiffusional andinertial transport mechanisms[32,33]. However,
results of this study indicated asignicant overprediction of respiratory aerosol
depositionwithuseof thestandardDF formulation. Thisoverestimationwasdueto
signicant changesinparticleslipvelocity betweenthenear-wall control volume
center locationandconditionsat particle-to-wall contact.
11.6 Evaluation of the DF-VC Model in Realistic Airways
In this section, theDF-VC model was extended to transient conditions and was
tested in more complex geometries of the respiratory tract for laminar and tur-
bulent ows. Particletransport anddepositionwereevaluatedinacomputational
replicaof theTBgeometryandanMRI-basednasal model. Numerical resultswere
comparedtoexistingexperimental datainthesemodels. A standardCSmodel was
alsoconsideredtoevaluatetheextenttowhichtheDF-VCmodel capturestheeffects
of particleinertia. Todeterminetheinuenceof timeeffectsonparticledeposition,
steadyandtransientoweldswereevaluated.Thesestudiesareintendedtofurther
developahighlyeffectivemethodfor thesimulationof nerespiratoryaerosolsin
realisticmodelsof theupper airway.
11.6.1 Tracheobronchial region
A hollowcastof thehumanTBtree(Figure11.7a) utilizedbyCohenetal. [55] was
digitally replicatedinthis study to ensureadirect comparisonwithexperimental
depositionresults. Thegeometric parameters of thecast wereinagreement with
populationmeansof arepresentativeaverageadult male. Theoriginal cast usedin
thestudyof Cohenetal. [55]wasscannedbyamultirow-detectorhelical CTscanner
(GE medical systems, Discovery LS) with thefollowing acquisition parameters:
0.7mmeffective slice spacing, 0.65mmoverlap, 1.2mmpitch, and 512 512
pixel resolution. The multislice CT images were then imported into MIMICS
(Materialise, AnnArbor, MI) to convert theraw imagedatainto aset of cross-
sectional contoursthatdenethesolidgeometry. Basedonthesecontours, asurface
geometrywasmanuallyconstructedinGambit2.3(Ansys, Inc.) (Figure11.7band
c). Somedistal branchesintherangeof generationsG5andG6werenot retained
inthedigital model duetolowresolution. Mostof thedigital model pathsextended
fromthetracheato generation G4with somepaths extending to generations G5
andG6. Twenty-threeoutlets andatotal of 44bronchi wereretainedinthenal
computational model (Figure11.7b). Thesurfacegeometrywasthenimportedinto
ANSYS ICEM 10(Ansys, Inc.) as anIGES lefor meshing. To avoidexcessive
gridelements, someminor smoothingof thegeometricsurfacewasnecessary.
Theleftrightasymmetry, whichisanimportantfeatureof thehumanlung, was
preservedintheTB model. Therearethreelobesintheright lungandtwolobesin
theleft. AsobservedintheTB model, theleft mainbronchusisapproximately2.5
timeslonger thantheright(Figure11.7b), whichisconsistentwithvanErtbruggen
et al. [56]. For conductingairways, thebifurcatingpatternistypicallyasymmetric
(a) TB cast (b) Reconstructed surface
CT scans
MIMICS
ICEM
Left Left
Right Right
Glottis
Back view Front view
Near-wall mesh
Figure11.7. Development of atracheobronchial airwaymodel fromareplicacast
of thehumanupper respiratory tract: (a) thehollowcast utilizedby
Cohen et al. [14] showing thedivisions of sub-branch segments. A
mechanical larynxwasconnectedtothecastinordertogeneratecyclic
inspiratory ows. (Thegurewas provided by Dr. Beverly Cohen,
NYU School of Medicine.) (b) A surfacegeometry wasconstructed
basedonCT scans of thecast andsoftwarepackages MIMICS and
Gambit. UsingANSYSICEM 10, thecomputational meshwasgen-
eratedandconsistedof unstructuredtetrahedral control volumeswith
averynenear-wall gridof prismelements.
withdaughter branchesfromthesameparent oftendifferingbothindiameter and
length. Additionally, thespatial orientations of thebifurcatingbranches arequite
variable, resultinginalungarchitecturethat ishighlyout-of-plane.
A critical featureof thephysiologically realisticTB model usedinthis study
istheinclusionof alaryngeal approximationandwedge-shapedglottis, asshown
inFigure11.7bandc. Includingalaryngeal approximationprovidesabetter rep-
resentationof invivo conditions andis signicant indepositionstudies withTB
casts [57]. Studies by Chanet al. [58], Gurmanet al. [59], Martonenet al. [60],
andrecentlyXi et al. [35] havehighlightedthesignicanceof thelaryngeal jet on
downstreamdepositionintherespiratorytract. Thetransient breathingconditions
of Cohenet al. [55] wereapproximatedasasinusoidal functionwiththeformat
Q(t) = Q
in
[1cos(2t)]; u(t) = u
mean
[1cos(2t)] (18aandb)
where isthebreathingfrequencyinradians/s.
Compared with theidealized bifurcation model, interesting ow phenomena
areobserveddueto thecomplex geometry characteristics of theTB model such
asthepresenceof thelarynx, leftrightasymmetry, andnon-coplanar bifurcations.
Thelaryngeal jetthatformsattheglottisapertureextendsdownstreamthroughthe
x
z
y
x
z x
y
z
x
y
z
x
y
z
x
y
z
R2
L2
L1
T2
200 cm/s
T1
360
275
190
105
20
Speed
(cm/s)
Q
in
= 34 L/min; steady state
Trachea
T2: SMIF = 0.10
R1: SMIF = 0.52
R2: SMIF = 0.40
L1: SMIF = 0.66
L2: SMIF = 0.43
T3: SMIF = 0.20
Right lung Left lung
R1
y
x z
Figure11.8. Midplanevelocity vectors, contours of velocity magnitude, and in-
planestreamlinesof secondarymotioninthetracheobronchial model
understeadyconditionswithaninspiratoryowrateof 34L/min.The
slicesarenot toscale.
tracheaand is skewed toward theright wall (Figure11.8). Flow reversal occurs
in the trachea due to the strong jetting effect. As a result, a large recirculation
zonedevelops near theleft tracheal wall, which signicantly reduces thecross-
sectional areaavailablefor expansionof thehigh-speedow. Similar resultshave
beenreportedbyCorcoranandChigier [61]. UsingLaser DopplerVelocimetryand
uorescentdye, CorcoranandChigier [61] alsoobservedaskewedlaryngeal jetin
theright anterior tracheaandaregionof reverseowintheleft tracheawithacast
model. Theskewedjet featuremay havephysiological implications that facilitate
efcientmixinganddeeperpenetrationof inhaledoxygenintothelung. Conversely,
higher particledepositionrates areexpectedontheright tracheal wall andinthe
right downstreambranchesduetoimpaction.
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
40 nm 200 nm
Exp
CS
steady
CS
tidal
DF-VC
tidal
DF-VC
tidal
W
a
s
h
o
u
t
p
h
a
s
e
CS
tidal
Exp
DF-VC
steady
CS
steady
DF-VC
steady
P
a
r
t
i
c
l
e

r
e
l
e
a
s
e
p
h
a
s
e
D
e
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

(
%
)
Figure11.9. Comparisonof total depositionfractionasapercentagebetweenthe
experimental resultsof Cohenetal. [14] andmodel predictionsunder
steadyandtransient conditionsfor 40and200nmparticles.
For transient inlet conditions of ameanowrateof 34L/min, theWomersley
number() rangesfrom4.2to0.8intheconductingairwaysof G0toG6, indicating
moderatetosmall unsteadyeffects. Asexpected, transientowpatternsaresimilar
to steady stateconditions for amajor portion of thebreathing cycle(i.e., 0.15T
to 0.85T), resulting in what can beconsidered as aquasi-steady system[42]. In
contrast, during the transition phase between breathing cycles when the veloc-
ity is small, theuidexperiences dramatic changes inbothmainstreamowand
secondary motion[35,42]. Similarly, Kabilanet al. [62] examinedtheowchar-
acteristics inaCT-basedovinelungmodel. Their results suggestedthat theonset
of thetransient phaseof theowmight bethemaincauseof vorticity formation,
whichplaysanimportantroleingasmixing. Li etal. [63] alsoreportedthatparticle
depositionhasastrongdependenceonindividual phasesof thetransientwaveform.
Comparisons of experimental andnumerical values of total depositioninthe
TB model geometry for 40 and 200nmparticles are illustrated in Figure 11.9.
Theexperimental depositionvalues werereportedby Cohenet al. [55] for cyclic
breathingwithameanowrateof 34L/minandabreathingfrequencyof 20breaths
per minute. Thetransient numerical depositionfractionisacumulativevaluethat
includesboththeparticle-releasephase(2ndcycle)andthefollowingwashoutphase
(3rdand4thcycles). Therst cycleis airowonly, without particles, inorder to
establishthetransientoweldwithintheTBgeometry. Inthecaseof 40nmparti-
cles, theexperimental total depositionrateis0.7%. BoththeCSandDF-VCmodels
closelymatchtheexperimental depositionvalueundersteadyconditionswithatotal
depositionpredictionof 0.706and0.714%, respectively.Themarginallyhighertotal
depositionvalueof theDF-VCmodel indicatesanegligiblecontributionof inertia
tototal depositionfor 40nmparticles. Incontrast, bothmodelsappear tounderes-
timatetheexperimental result for transient conditions, resultinginapercent error
of 48.9%forthetransientCSmodel and21.1%forthetransientDF-VCmodel.
1.8
0.9
0
2.7
3.6
DEF
Transient
ventilation
DEF
max
= 17.67
Transient
ventilation
DEF
max
= 266.77
(a) 40 nm (b) 200 nm
Right
Left
1.8
0.9
0
2.7
3.6
DEF
Right
Left
Figure11.10. Numerically determineddepositionenhancement factors (DEF) in
thetracheobronchial airwayundertransientconditionsatameanow
rateof 34L/minwiththeDF-VCmodel for(a) 40nmand(b) 200nm
particles.
Experimental cyclicdepositionresultsfor200nmparticlesindicateatotal depo-
sition fraction of 0.38%(Figure11.9). Dueto a lack of particleinertia, theCS
model signicantlyunderpredictsthetotal depositionfractionfor200nmaerosols,
resultinginpercenterrorsof 52.1%for steadyventilationand81.3%for cyclic
ventilation. The DF-VC model provides a substantial improvement over the CS
approachby incorporatingtheparticleinertiaforces inthecomputational model.
Aswith40nmparticles, predictionsof theDF-VCmodel for 200nmparticleswith
steady ow are in close agreement with the experimental results, with a minor
underestimationof 8.4%. For cyclicconditions, theDF-VC approachpredictsa
total depositionof 0.257%, resultinginadifferenceof 32.4%incomparisonwith
theexperiment. Comparingthesetwomodels, differencesbetweentheCSpredic-
tions andtheexperimental results aresignicant for 200nmparticles, indicating
asignicant contributionfromparticleinertia. Still, anunder predictionof depo-
sitionfor 200nmparticles is observedwiththeDF-VC model. As notedbefore,
somedistal branchesof theTB cast werenot includedinthenumerical model and
astatic openglottiswasemployed, whichmay contributetothisunder prediction
of theexperimental resultsfor bothsteadyandtransient inhalationconditions.
Figure11.10illustratestheDEF valuefor theDF-VC model under cycliccon-
ditions withameanowrateof 34L/min. For theDF-VC model, thedeposition
patterns under steady andcyclic conditions aresimilar inappearancefor 40and
200nmparticles, respectively. However, moreconcentratedlocal depositionvalues
inthelarynxandbifurcationsareobtainedunder cyclicconditionscomparedwith
steadystate. Specically, themaximumDEF valuefor 200nmaerosolswithcyclic
ow(i.e., 267) isaboutseventimeshigher thanwiththesteadycondition(i.e., 37),
Nasopharynx Main passage
IM
LP
MM
UP
OR
SM
Valve
region
Vestibule
Figure11.11. Surface geometry of a MRI-based human nasal cavity. The nasal
airway was divided into different anatomical sections to exam-
inesub-regional particledeposition. Sectionsincludethevestibule,
nasal valveregion, olfactoryregion(OR), septumwall (SW), middle
meatus (MM), as well as theupper (UP) andlower (LP) passages
thatincludethesuperior(SM)andinferior(IM)meatus, respectively,
andthenasopharynx.
indicatingadramatic increaseof thevelocity-dependent inertiaeffect onparticle
localization. For thesmaller 40nmparticles, themaximumDEF valueof approxi-
mately18forcyclicinhalationisonlytwiceaslargeasthesteadystatevalueof 8.3.
Asaresult, transientconditionshaveagreater effectonthedepositionof a200nm
aerosol, incomparisonwith40nmparticles, duetoinertial effects.
Geometriccomplexity, turbulence, andtransientowareall expectedtosignif-
icantly inuencethedepositionof aerosols intherespiratory tract [38,6466]. In
this context, anextendedDF-VC model was evaluatedby comparingwithexper-
imental resultsinacomplexTB geometrywithtransient andlaminar-to-turbulent
ows. ThroughcomparisonwiththeCS model, theDF-VC approachwas shown
tobetter capturetheexpectedeffectsof particleinertiaonatotal andlocal basis.
11.6.2 Nasal cavity
TheDF-VC model was further testedinahumannasal airway, whichwas based
onMRI scansof ahealthynon-smoking53-year-oldmale(weight73kgandheight
173cm). The procedure for developing the nasal airway geometry and mesh is
similartotheapproachappliedfortheTBmodel intheprevioussection.Asshownin
Figure11.11, thenasal cavityischaracterizedbynarrow, convoluted, andmultilayer
channelscalledmeatus. Thiscomplexpassagewaygeneratesuniqueaerodynamics
insidethenasal cavityandhelpsthenosetoaccomplishitsphysiological functions.
Conversely, reasonsfordecientnasal functioncanoftenbetracedbacktoabnormal
(b) DF-VC model
DE = 0.021%
DEF DEF
DE = 0.067%
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
DEF
max
= 97 DEF
max
= 592
(a) CS model
Q
in
= 30 L/min
d
p
= 400 nm
Figure11.12. Numerically determineddepositionenhancement factors (DEF) in
thenasal airway for 400nmparticles at aninhalationowrateof
30L/minusingthe(a) CSand(b) DF-VC models.
global andlocal owconditionsandturbulentphenomenainthenasal passages. In
anadult, 18,000to20,000L of airpassthroughthenoseeachday. Besideswarming
and moistening the inhaled ambient air, the nasal cavity also houses olfactory
sensory receptors, lters out airbornepollutants, drains excess sinus secretions,
andbalancespressurebetweenthemiddleear andatmosphere.
Asintheprevioussection, twocontinuouseldparticletransport models, i.e.,
CS and DF-VC models, areconsidered. To highlight theeffect of niteparticle
inertiaondepositionlocalization, acomparisonof DEFs predictedusingtheCS
andDF-VCmodelsareshowninFigure11.12for 400nmparticlesataninhalation
owrateof 30L/min. WithDEF values plottedonthesamescale, thedifference
betweenthesetwomodelsisstriking. Incontrasttothemoreuniformlydistributed
DEF valuesof theCSmodel, thedepositionwiththeDF-VCmodel issignicantly
moreheterogeneousandlocalized. Specically, attheanterior junctionpoint(solid
circle) betweenthemiddlemeatusandmedial passagewherehigh-speedowand
steep geometry transition occur, thehot spot of theDEF valuepredicted by the
DF-VC model isabout vetimeshigher thantheCS value. Another expectedhot
spot is at the superior part of the vestibule (dashed square), which is captured
by theDF-VC model. Incontrast, theCS model does not indicatethis regionas
having elevated deposition. Additionally, elevated deposition accumulations are
alsopredictedaroundtherear olfactoryregion(lledarrow) basedontheDF-VC
model dueto trajectory deviations of largeparticles fromcurved streamlines in
the main airow. These elevated localizations may have important implications
inchemical sensingapplicationsor nasal drugdelivery for neurological disorders
wheretheolfactoryregionisthetargeteddepositionsite.
Theeffectivenessof theDF-VCmodel incapturinginertial anddiffusivedepo-
sitionis further illustratedinFigure11.13interms of depositionwithinspecic
sections of the nose. The denition of each section is depicted in Figure 11.11
0
LP
MMUP
OR
SW
LP
MM
SW
OR
0.015
0.01
0.005
D
e
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

(
%
)
Vestibule Nasal valve
region
Main passage Nasopharynx
R
i
g
h
t
DF-VC model
CS model
Q
in
= 30L/min, d
p
= 400 nm
L
e
f
t
UP
Figure11.13. Comparison of deposition fractions between the CS and DF-VC
modelsindifferent nasal sections. Themagnitudeof thedeposition
fractionvaluesintheanteriorandmainnasal airwayisthesummation
of theright (lower bar) andleft (upper bar) nasal passages.
and the inhalation conditions are identical to those shown in Figure 11.12
(i.e., Q
in
=30L/minand400nmparticles). Themagnitudeof thedepositionfrac-
tionvaluefor eachregion(except for thenasopharynx) representsthesummation
of right (lower bar) and left (upper bar) nasal passages. Thedeposition fraction
values for theCS model denotedepositionfromdiffusiononly, whilethediffer-
encebetweentheDF-VCandCSmodelscanbeviewedasdepositionfrominertial
impaction. In the vestibule, where the direction of airow changes by approxi-
mately 90
, signicantly enhanceddepositionis predictedby theDF-VC model,

whichisabout 6.1timestheCS model estimatefor identical conditions. Aneven
morepronouncedeffectof inertial impaction(i.e., anorder of magnitudeincrease)
isfoundinthenasal valveregionwherethecross-sectional areaisminimal andthe
airowpassages arenarrowest. Inthis region, thevalve-associatedstenosis, ow
acceleration, andshort distances to thewalls combineto effectively increasethe
inertial depositionof particlesentrainedintheow.Theinertial effectondeposition
inthemainpassageremainssignicant, but toalesser degreeincomparisonwith
thevestibuleandnasal valveregions, whichislikelyduetotheincreasedowarea
(decreasedowspeed) andlessseverestreamlinecurvatures. Withinthemainpas-
sage, diffusionisenhancedinthemiddleandinferior meatusbytheslow-moving
ows (and theresulting prolonged particleresidencetimes) as well as thelarge
surfaceareas of thesetwo n-likeprojections availablefor particlecontact. As a
result, thedepositionfractionof theDF-VCmodel isonly3.0timesthat of theCS
model for themiddlemeatusand2.9timeslarger for thelower passage.
Figure11.14ashows theDF-VC simulation results of inspiratory deposition
fractions in comparison to replica measurements as a function of a diffusion
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
0
20
40
60
80 X
SLA (Kelly et al., 2004)
Viper (Kelly et al., 2004)
ANOT1 (Cheng et al., 1995)
DF-VC simulation
D
e
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

(
%
)
100
10
3
10
2
10
1
(a) Inhalation diffusion parameter (D
1/2
Q
1/8
)
C1 (Cheng et al., 1993)
DF-VC model
D
e
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

(
%
)
0
20
40
60
80
100
10
3
10
4
10
2
10
1
(b) Exhalation diffusion parameter (D
0.5
Q
0.28
)
Figure11.14. Predicted deposition rates with the DF-VC model in comparison
withexistinginvitroexperimental datafor particlesrangingfrom1
to 1,000nmandinhalationowrates rangingfrom4to 45L/min:
(a) inspiratory, (b) expiratory. Units: Q [L/min] andD [cm
2
/s].
parameter suggested by Cheng et al. [67]. Inhalation ow rates that were con-
sideredincluded4, 7.5, 10, 15, 20, and30L/minwithparticlesizesrangingfrom
1to1,000nm. Thecorrelatedassociationof depositionfractionwiththeparameter
(D
1,2
Q
1,8
) indicatesastronger dependenceof nasal depositiononparticlediffu-
sivity (exponent of 1/2) thanonowrate(exponent1/8) for thesubmicrometer
particlesconsidered.
Figure 11.14b shows the DF-VC simulation results of expiratory deposition
fractions incomparisonwithexistinginvitro depositiondata. Simulatedexpira-
tory deposition rates with thediscreteLagrangian trackingis also superimposed
inthis gure, whichclosely matches thecontinuous-phaseDF-VC results. From
Figure11.14b, reasonablygoodagreementisobservedbetweensimulationsandin
vitromeasurementsfor thethreereplicacastsconsideredwithslight underestima-
tiontotheinvitrodata. Specically, thecloselycorrelatedassociationof deposition
fractionwiththeparameter (D
0.5
Q
0.28
) indicatesastronger dependenceof nasal
deposition on particle diffusivity (exponent of 0.5) than on ow rate (exponent
0.28) for thesubmicrometer particlesconsidered.
Asdescribedearlier, theDF-VCapproximationaccountsforbothparticleinertia
anddiffusion, whereastheCSmodel onlyconsidersparticlediffusion. Asaresult,
theincreaseddepositionof theDF-VCmodel overtheCSapproachcanbeattributed
entirely to particle inertial effects. For ultrane particles where inertial effects
are negligible, the Sherwood number Sh is nearly identical for the two models
considered(Figure11.15a). Deviationof Sh betweentheDF-VC andCS models
begins at Re
0.55
Sc
0.60
=1.5 10
4
(equivalently, St
k
=1.0 10
5
) andbecomes
progressivelysignicantwithincreasingvaluesof Re
0.55
Sc
0.60
(or St
k
). Compared
withtheinertial limit of St
k
=5.0 10
5
for TB airways[20], asmaller valuein
R
2

= 0.80
DSh = 4.7 10
6
St
k
1.1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
S
h
e
r
w
o
o
d

n
u
m
b
e
r

d
e
v
i
a
t
i
o
n
,

S
h

DSh
(a) Correlation for diffusion regime (b) Correlation for inertia-based deposition
St
k
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
Re
0.55
Sc
0.60
Sh = (Re
0.55
Sc
0.60
)
0.553
R
2

= 0.93
CS model
DF-VC model
Correlation for diffusion
S
h
e
r
w
o
o
d

n
u
m
b
e
r
,

S
h
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
Diffusion-
impaction
Diffusion
Sh deviation
Correction for inertia
Figure11.15. Development of a Sherwood number Sh correlation in the nasal
airway that accounts for both diffusional and inertial deposition
mechanismsforsubmicrometeraerosols: (a)correlationforultrane
particles wherediffusiondominates depositionand(b) correlation
forenhancedmasstransportduetoparticleinertia, LSh, asafunction
of Stokesnumber, St
k
.
thenasal cavityindicatesanearlier onset of particleinertial effects, whichmaybe
duetothehighcomplexityof thisgeometry.
Whilethenasal deposition can bereasonably predictedby existent empirical
correlationsintheliterature, theseexpressionsaretypicallylimitedtoultraneor
coarseparticles whereeither diffusion or inertial impaction arethepredominate
mechanismsfor particleloss. Therefore, acorrelationthat isvalidfor bothdiffu-
sional and inertial deposition regimes is of valueto inhalation toxicologists and
is sought in this study based on numerical experiments. Figure11.15 shows the
development of amasstransfer correlationinthenasal cavityintermsof thenon-
dimensional Sherwood number. Thedependenceof mass transfer on convective
diffusion is plotted in Figure 11.15a with a best-t correlation for the diffusion
zonegivenby
Sh = (Re
0.55
Sc
0.60
)
0.553
= Re
0.30
Sc
0.33
(St
k
1.010
5
) (19)
Theconvectivediffusioncoefcient(Re
0.55
Sc
0.60
) adoptedherewassuggestedby
Chengetal. [68] forinvivonasal depositiondata. Fornerespiratoryparticlesthat
areinuenced by diffusion and impaction deposition mechanisms, thedeviation
fromtheaboveequation (LSh, seeFigure11.15a) dueto particleinertiacan be
correlatedasafunctionof St
k
using(Figure11.15b)
LSh = 4.710
6
St
1.1
k
(20)
Basedontheassumptionof weakcouplingbetweentheinertial anddiffusivedeposi-
tionmechanisms, theoverall correlationthatisvalidfor all submicrometer particle
sizescanbeobtainedbyaddingequations(19) and(20) as:
Sh = Re
0.30
Sc
0.33
4.710
6
St
1.1
k
(d
p
= 11, 000nm) (21)
Alternatively, the above correlation can be expressed in terms of total nasal
depositionfraction,
Df = 1exp
_
_
A
s
A
c
_
_
Re
0.70
Sc
0.67
4.710
6
St
1.1
k
ReSc
__
(22)
whereA
s
isthetotal surfaceareaandA
c
themeancross-sectional areaof thenasal
passage. Theaboveequationisvalidfor particlesizerangingfrom1to1,000nm.
11.7 Discussion
Numerical simulationsof nerespiratoryaerosolsarechallengingduetolowdepo-
sition efciencies and the action of concurrent inertial and diffusive deposition
mechanisms. TheCSEulerianmodel thatistypicallyappliedfor ultraneaerosols
ishighlyefcientandshowsreasonableagreementwithanalyticsolutionsforultra-
nediffusivedepositioninatubular geometry[17,20,69]. However, thetypical CS
Eulerianmodel neglectstheeffectsof niteparticleinertia[20,32] andcannot be
usedtopredict neparticlesintherangeof 100to1,000nm. Aspresentedinthis
chapter, niteparticleinertiamaysignicantlyaffectthetotal depositionof submi-
crometeraerosolsassmall as70nmandthelocal depositionof particlesassmall as
40nm[25,40,42]. Basedontheavailabletwo-phaseowliterature, thestandardDF
model shouldadequately model thedepositionof dilutenerespiratory aerosols
basedondiffusional andinertial transport mechanisms [32,33]. However, results
presentedby Longest andOldham[25] andsummarizedaboveindicatedasignif-
icant overpredictionof respiratoryaerosol depositionwiththeuseof thestandard
DF formulation. Thisoverestimationwasduetosignicantchangesinparticleslip
velocity between thenear-wall control volumecenter location and conditions at
particle-to-wall contact. Toimprovethesimulationsof submicrometer aerosolsin
therespiratorytract, ahybridDF-VCmodel wasdevelopedandtestedbothexperi-
mentallyandnumerically[25,40,42]. IncomparisonwiththeCSmodel, deposition
resultsof theDF-VCapproachpersistentlyagreedbetterwithexperimental ndings
onatotal andsubbranchbasis, whichindicatedthat theDF-VC model effectively
capturedtheinuenceof niteparticleinertia. Results of this study indicatethat
aDF particletransport model withnear-wall velocity corrections canprovidean
effectiveapproach for simulating thetransport and deposition of submicrometer
respiratoryaerosolsincomplexhumanrespiratoryairways.
WhiletheDF-VCmodel hasbeenshowntobeeffectivefor submicrometer res-
piratory aerosols, it doeshaveseveral limitations. Thecurrent DF-VC model was
developedmainlyfor submicrometer aerosolsbasedontheuseof thepressuregra-
dientterminequation(11b).Thismodel canalsobeextendedtolargerparticlesizes
if equation(11a) isusedtocomputeparticleslip. Another limitationof thegeneral
DF approachistheassumptionof adiluteaerosol inwhichthemomentumof the
discretephasedoesnot inuencetheoweld. Asaresult, lowloadingsof parti-
cleconcentrationarerequired, whichisgenerallythecasefor respiratoryaerosols.
Finally, thecurrent model wasdevelopedfor monodisperseaerosol distributions.
Theresultsof thestudiessummarizedinthischapter shouldnot beinterpreted
to imply that thecontinuous eldDF-VC model is superior to Lagrangianparti-
cletrackingfor simulatingaerosol transport inall situations. A primaryadvantage
of Lagrangian particle tracking is the direct treatment of particles as individual
or potentially interactingdiscreteelements, incontrast withtheapproximationof
acontinuous aerosol eld. Treating particles as discreteelements allows for the
direct evaluation of individual force terms that represent a number of physical
phenomenasuchaslift, near-wall lubrication, andparticle-to-particleinteractions
[29]. Furthermore, Lagrangian particle tracking can be directly applied to non-
spherical shapes, likerotatingbers, andpolydisperseaerosols. Incontrast tothe
Lagrangianapproach, theDF-VCmodel approximatesniteparticlesasacontinu-
ousspecies. Asaresult, transportanddepositionareevaluatedfromthesolutionof
aconvectiondiffusionequation, whichmayintroducenumerical dissipationerrors
intothesolution. Furthermore, itdoesnotappear thattheDF-VCmodel caneffec-
tively account for particle-to-particleinteractions or themotion and interception
of complexshapes, likerotatingbers. A primaryadvantageof theDF-VC model
ishighefciency, wheresuccessiveadditionsof discreteparticlesarenot required
toestablishconvergedlocal depositioncharacteristics. As aresult of theseobser-
vations, it is clear that both thecontinuous eld DF-VC model and Lagrangian
particletrackinghaveinherent strengthsandweaknesses. Further testingandeval-
uationis requiredto extendtheexibility of theDF-VC model andto overcome
somecurrentlimitations, suchasmonodisperseaerosols. Itislikelythatselectionof
EulerianversusLagrangianmodelsforsubmicrometeraerosol transportwill remain
dependentontheparticular problemof interestinconjunctionwiththeadvantages
anddisadvantagesof eachmethod. However, resultsof thisstudyindicatethat the
DF-VC model does providean effectiveapproach that can simulatetheconcur-
rent actionof diffusionandinertiainacomplextransient andlaminar-to-turbulent
oweld.
Inconclusion, acontinuous-phaseDF particletransportmodel withanear-wall
velocitycorrectionprovidedaneffectivesolutionforthedepositionof submicrome-
ter aerosolsunder transientandlaminar-to-turbulentowconditions. Comparisons
withastandardCSmodel indicatedthattheDF-VCapproachwasincorporatingthe
effectsof niteparticleinertiaindeterminingtotal andlocal depositioncharacter-
isticsfor thecomplexTBandnasal geometriesthatwereconsidered. Comparisons
of steady andtransient conditions indicatedthat cyclical owdecreasedthetotal
depositionof submicrometer particles but signicantly increasedrelativeparticle
localization, as indicated with the DEF parameter. Future studies are necessary
toaddresswall surfaceroughnessandcompliance, mucusclearance, andreal-life
breathingwaveformsbeforethecurrent DF model canbedirectlyappliedtomake
doseresponseandhealtheffectspredictions.
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12 Algorithm stabilization and acceleration in
computational uid dynamics: exploiting
recursive properties of xed point
algorithms
Aleksandar J emcovandJ osephP. Maruszewski
ANSYS, Inc., Canonsburg, PA, USA
Abstract
Convergenceaccelerationof nonlinear owsolversthroughuseof techniquesthat
exploit recursive properties xed-point methods of computational uid dynam-
ics (CFD) algorithms is presented. It is shownthat nonlinear iterativealgorithms
create Krylov subspace that can be considered linear within the second order
of accuracy in the vicinity of the local solutions. Moreover, repeated applica-
tionof thexed-point iterationsgiverisetovariousvector extrapolationmethods
that are used to accelerate underlying iterative method. In particular, suitability
of the reduced rank extrapolation (RRE) algorithmfor the use of convergence
acceleration of nonlinear ow solvers is examined. In the RRE algorithm, the
solutionis obtainedthroughalinear combinationof Krylov vectors withweight-
ing coefcients obtained by minimizing L
2
norm of error in this space with
properly chosen constraint conditions. This process effectively denes vector
sequenceextrapolationprocessinKrylovsubspacethatcorrespondstotheGMRES
method applied to nonlinear problems. Moreover, when the RRE algorithmis
used to solve nonlinear problems, the ow solver plays the role of the precon-
ditioner for the nonlinear GMRES method. Benets of the application of the
RRE algorithmincludebetter convergencerates, removal of residual stalling, and
improved coupling between equations in numerical models. Proposed algorithm
is independent of thetypeof owsolver andit is equally applicableto explicit-,
implicit-, pressure-, and density-, based algorithms. RRE algorithmcan also be
consideredasangeneralizationof matrix-freealgorithmsthatareusedextensively
inCFD.
Keywords: Fixed-point methods, Krylovsubspace, Recursiveproperties, Reduced
rankextrapolation, Vector extrapolation
12.1 Introduction
Computational uiddynamics(CFD) inmodernengineeringapplicationsischar-
acterizedbycomplexphysical models, complexshapesof computational domain,
andlargemeshsizes. Governingequationsof uidowandassociatedequations
for thetransport of conservedvariablesareseeminglysimpleandyet theycontain
veryprominentnonlinearitiesof whichthemostfamousoneismanifestedthrough
the phenomena of turbulence. The need to model turbulent ows coupled with
radiation, heatandmasstransfer, andmultiphaseinteractionsleadtoverycomplex
physical modelsthat containmany nonlinear termsandwiderangeof spatial and
temporal scales. This complexity directly translates into difculties innumerical
applications and they areloosely referred to hereas computational stiffness (for
thecurrent purposes of thequalitativediscussion, wewill usethetermstiffness
tosignify computational difculties). Another sourceof stiffnessinCFD isasso-
ciatedwiththeuseof largemeshsizes inorder to capturerelevant spatial scales
associatedwithphysical models. It is well-knownfact that theconditionnumber
of linear systemincreases withtheincreaseof themeshsizeas it canbeveried
by theuniformrenement of thecomputational mesh. Furthermore, topological
complexities of thecomputational domains lead CFD practitioners to theuseof
unstructured meshes with nearly arbitrary shapes of control volumes. Themain
issues of unstructured meshes such as presenceof highly skewed volumes, high
aspect ratios closetotheboundaries, loss of orthogonality, andlack of convexity
directly contributeto thestiffness of thecomputational problem. This is usually
manifestedinthelossof thediagonal dominanceof thematrixinthelinear system
of discreteequations. Iterativesolversfor linear systemsof equationsarenot par-
ticularly effectivewhenthematrix of thelinear systemdeparts strongly fromthe
diagonal dominanceexpressedthroughM-matrixcondition.
Complexity is not just restricted to physical models and related issues as
describedabove; owsimulation is also characterizedby agreat number of dif-
feringalgorithmsrangingfromexplicit tofractional steptoimplicit methods[1].
Furthermore, dependingonthechoiceof thesolutionvariablesandchosendiscrete
formulation, pressure[24] anddensity-basedsolvers [5,6] canbedistinguished.
Pressure- anddensity-basedsolverscanbeformulatedasimplicit, explicit, or frac-
tional stepmethods. Complexityof thelandscapeisfurther increasedbythechoice
of linear solver usedinimplicitalgorithms. Additionally, variousuxformulations
arein theusetoday including Riemann solver, ux vector splitting, central dif-
ferencewith dissipation ux formulation [6], to namejust afew. Each of these
algorithms havecontrol parameters that haveoptimal values for agivenapplica-
tionareathusproducinganoptimal convergencerateduringtheiterativeprocess.
Examplesof control parametersareCFL numbersindensity-basedandrelaxation
factorsinpressure-basedalgorithms.
Optimal range of control parameters are dened by the stability constraints
of thenumerical algorithm, underlyingphysics, computational mesh, geometrical
complexityof thecomputational domain, andboundaryconditions. Duetothenon-
linear natureof equationsdescribingtheowphenomena, selectionof thevalues
exploiting recursive properties of xed point algorithms 461
of control parameters that areoutsideof theoptimal rangeresults in either slow
convergenceratesor divergenceof theresidual norm. Linear stabilityanalysis[5]
providessomeguidelinesfor theselectionof theoptimal valuesof control param-
eters but in the industrial applications of ow solvers, problemcomplexity due
tophysics, domaingeometry, boundary conditions, etc. dramatically changes the
optimal rangeof control parameters. Furthermore, thenonlinear natureof govern-
ingequationschangestheoptimal valuesof control parametersduringtheiterative
process. Duringinitial iterations, dependingontheinitial guess, optimal valuesare
verydifferentfromtheoptimal valuesof thecontrol parametersduringlater stages
initerativeprocess. Usually, initiallyconservativevaluesof control parametersare
usedtomaintainthestabilityof theiterativeprocessandasiterationsapproachthe
solution, moreaggressivevaluescanbeused.
Theneedtodynamicallychangethevaluesof control parametersduringitera-
tionsisaddressedinalgorithmsthat computeoptimal or nearly optimal valuesby
utilizingtheknowledgeof thestateof computedvariablesandsomecriterionthat
measuresstabilityof thecomputedstate. Continuationmethods[7] provideapos-
siblesolutiontothisproblem. Another approachtotheproblemof optimal control
parametersisintheuseof backtrackingorlinesearchalgorithminconjunctionwith
Newtonmethods[8]. BothcontinuationandNewtonwithbacktrackingalgorithms
areeffectivetoolsfor thesolutionof theproblemof dynamicallychangingcontrol
parametersbuttheyrequirealgorithmicchangestotheowsolver. Manytimesitis
not feasibletoimplement newalgorithmsinlargecodes, andeventhoughthenew
algorithmsprovideaddedstabilityandincreaseconvergencerates, theycannot be
implementedintimelymanner. Lessintrusivewaysof improvingtheconvergence
ratesandoverall stabilityof theowsolver arerequired.
Anothersourceof instabilityandlowconvergenceratesinowsolversisrelated
toarticial segregationof discreteequationsinthenumerical model. Exampleof
thealgorithmsthat usesegregatedapproacharetheSIMPLE familyof algorithms
[2,4]. Another exampleof segregatedalgorithms is foundinthetreatment of tur-
bulencemodels[9] indensity-basedalgorithmswheretheyarelaggedbehindow
quantities. Inmulti-equationturbulencemodels, eachturbulent transport equation
may besolvedseparately, thus articially decouplingequations inthenumerical
model. Decouplingof equationsinsegregatedowsolvershasadetrimental impact
onconvergencerates. Thesolutiontothisproblemisusually foundincreationof
coupledsolversat theexpenseof increasedmemoryandcodecomplexity.
Vectorsequenceextrapolationmethods[10] offeranalternativesolutiontocon-
vergenceaccelerationandstabilizationof owsolvers. Theideaof vectorsequence
extrapolationisbasedonthegeneralizationof scalar sequenceconvergenceaccel-
erationmethods, suchasRichardsonextrapolation[10], tovectorsequences.Vector
sequencesareproducedbyiterativeproceduresof solver algorithmswhileseeking
thesolution of thegiven ow problem. In addition to accelerating properties of
vector sequenceextrapolationmethods, theyalsoexhibitcouplingpropertiessince
only one set of extrapolation coefcients is calculated for all elds. This has a
positiveeffect onconvergencerates, verysimilar totheactionof Krylovsubspace
solvers actingonsystems withblock coefcients. Moreover, formal equivalence
betweenvector sequenceextrapolationmethods to Krylov subspacesolvers such
asGMRESandFOM [11] exists.
Early examples of the application [13] of vector sequence methods in CFD
was the application of reduced rank extrapolation (RRE), minimal polynomial
extrapolation (MPE), and modied minimal polynomial extrapolation (MMPE)
toexplicitowsolversbasedonJ ST scheme[12] andimplicitowsolver withux
vector splitting formulation. Acceleration of convergence rates of inviscid ow
solverswasexamined[13] andmarginal improvementswereobtainedwithexplicit
solvers, whereas implicit solvers showed better results. Another application [14]
of an extrapolation-related technique to several types of ow demonstrated the
suitabilityof extrapolationtoaccelerateinviscidcompressibleandviscouslaminar
incompressibleows. Themethod[14] usedinthestudiesreliedonresidual mini-
mizationandrequiredmanyevaluationsof residualsmakingthismethodexpensive.
Other applicationsof vector sequenceextrapolationtononlinear problemsinclude
Chandrasekhars H-equation [15]. Vector sequenceextrapolation is also usedfor
accelerationof stationaryiterativemethods[16]andthealgebraicmultigrid(AMG)
method[17].
Traditional viewof extrapolationmethods appliedto vector sequences is that
they performthe transformation of one sequence into another sequence result-
ing with faster convergencerates. Sinceaow solver will begenerating vector
sequences that will beused to computeextrapolation coefcients, an alternative
viewof thisprocessisthattheowsolverplaystheroleof anonlinearpreconditioner
for anextrapolationsolver. Dueto equivalenceof RRE andGMRES algorithms,
theproposedaccelerationtechniquecorresponds to anonlinearly preconditioned
GMRESsolver.
Theoutlineof thepaper isasfollows. CFDalgorithmswereexaminedfromthe
xed-pointalgorithmpointof viewandtherecursivepropertyof thesealgorithmsis
shown. Recursivepropertyof thexed-pointalgorithmsrepresent, tosecond-order
approximation, a power iteration with the matrix of J acobian of the xed-point
function. Thispropertyplaysanimportantroleinthederivationof vector sequence
extrapolationalgorithms. Thisisfollowedby adescriptionof thevector sequence
extrapolationmethodwheretherecursivepropertyof thexed-point functionwas
usedtoobtaintheextrapolationcoefcients.Thisisdonethroughtheformulationof
anoptimizationproblemintheKrylovsubspaceandaproper choiceof constraints
leadtotheRREalgorithm. Inthesectiononnumerical experiments, theapplication
of nonlinearaccelerationisdemonstratedonvariousCFDproblemsutilizingseveral
owsolvers. Finally, asummary andconclusionispresented, followingresultsof
numerical experiments.
12.2 Iterative Methods for Flow Equations
Inthis sectionwewill consider thediscreteformof thegoverningequations and
iterativemethodsof ndingthesolutionfor nonlinear problemsinCFD. Iterative
methods areconsideredfromthepoint of viewof thexed-point algorithms that
havearecursivepropertyrelatedtopowersof theJ acobianof thexed-point func-
tion. Recursivepropertyplaysimportantroleinestablishingtheexistenceof Krylov
subspaceinwhichthesolutionof theproblemisapproximated. Infact, wedemon-
stratehow therecursiveproperty generates Krylov subspacefor any xed-point
functionthusenablingaccelerationandstabilizationof arbitraryiterativeproblems
under thecertainconditions.
12.2.1 Discrete form of governing equations
Consider NavierStokessystemof equationsinintegral form
t
_
O
QdO
_
O
(F
c
F
:
)dA
_
O
SdO = 0 (1)
HereQ represents vector of conserved quantities, F
c
and F
:
areconvectiveand
viscousuxvectors, andS isthesourcetermvector
Q =
_
_
_
_
_
_
u
:
w
E
_
_
_
_
_
_
, F
c
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
V
uV n
x
p
:V n
y
p
wV n
z
p
HV
_
_
_
_
_
_
, F
:
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
0
n
x
xx
n
y
xy
n
z
xz
n
x
yx
n
y
yy
n
z
yz
n
x
zx
n
y
zy
n
z
zz
n
x
O
x
n
y
O
y
n
z
O
z
_
_
_
_
_
_
S =
_
_
_
_
_
_
0
f
e,x
f
e,y
f
e,z
(f
e,x
u f
e,y
: f
e,z
w) q
h
_
_
_
_
_
_
andV andO
x
, O
y
, andO
z
aredenedas:
V = n
x
u n
y
: n
z
w
O
x
= u
xx
:
xy
w
xz
k
T
x
O
y
= u
yx
:
yy
w
yz
k
T
y
O
z
= u
zx
:
zy
w
zz
k
T
z
Thesystemof equations in equation (1) may includeadditional scalar or vector
transport equations
t
_
O
dO
_
O
_
F
+,c
F
+,:
_
dA
_
O
S
+
dO = 0 (2)
Depending on thechoiceof thetransported quantity, equation (2) can represent
species, passivescalar, turbulent transport, etc. Appropriateboundary conditions
[1] must be also supplied to dene a well-posed problem that can be solved
numerically.
Therst stepinobtainingthediscretizedequationsistodenearesidual R(Q)
R(Q) =
_
O
(F
c
F
:
) dA
_
O
SdO (3)
Equation(3)denesacontinuousresidual thatcanbediscretizedonacomputational
meshusingacell-centerednitevolumemethod. Forithnitevolumecell, discrete
residual isgivenby:
R
i
(Q) =
f
(F
f
c
F
f
:
)
i
S
i
(4)
Heresymbol
f
( ) representssummationover all facesof agivennitevolume
cell i. If thediscretevalueof theconservedvariablesvector Q
i
isdenedas:
Q
i
=
_
O
i
QdO
O
i
(5)
Thediscreterepresentationof theNavierStokessysteminequation(1) becomes
d (OQ)
i
dt
= R
i
(Q) (6)
Thediscretesystemof equations given by equation (6) represents thenonlinear
discretesystemdueto nonlinear natureof theresidual R
i
. Anexplicit algorithm
canusethesysteminequation(6) directlybyapplyingthetimemarchingprocedure
suchasthemultistageRungeKutta[1] procedureandfull approximationscheme
(FAS) [18] toobtainthesolutionof theproblem. Theexplicitalgorithmisgivenby
thefollowingexpression:
.Q
(1)
i
=
.t
(O)
i
R
i
(Q
()
) (7)
Q
(1)
= Q
()
.Q
()
Inthecaseof animplicit algorithm, aNewtonor Picardlinearizationof theresid-
ual is applied to forman iterative scheme. If Newton linearization is used, the
discretizedsystemof equationsisgivenbythefollowingexpression:
_
(O)
i
.t
(
Q
R)
i
_
.Q
()
i
= R
i
(Q
()
) (8)
Q
(1)
= Q
()
.Q
()
Sincethesolution of thesystemin equation (8) requires inversion of matrix on
the left-hand side, iterative methods for solving large sparse systems of linear
equationsareused. PopularchoicesforlinearsolversareKrylovsubspacemethods
[11] andAMG method[18]. Therearealsonumber of choices for theconvective
andviscousuxevaluationsat cell faces, popular choicesindensity-basedsolvers
areux differencesplitting and ux vector splitting [1], whereas in thecaseof
pressure-based solvers, collocated schemes with RhieChow dissipation [4] are
oftenused.
12.2.2 Recursive property of iterative methods
Both explicit and implicit algorithms are particular instances of the xed-point
methodthat canbegenerallyexpressedas:
Q
(1)
= Q
()
M
()
(R(Q
()
)) (9)
Thegeneral formof anyxed-point methodis
Q
(1)
= F(Q
()
) (10)
withxed-point functionF(Q
()
)
F(Q
()
) = Q
()
M
()
(R(Q
()
)) (11)
Operator M
()
(R(Q
()
)) is, in principle, anonlinear operator that may not even
be known explicitly. In the case of stationary linear iteration schemes such as
GaussSeidel, J acobi, and ILU(n), this operator may be constructed explicitly.
However, inthecaseof theAMGmethodwithmultiplecoarselevels, it isusually
knownimplicitlythroughimplementationintheowsolver. Inthecaseof nonlinear
owsolvers, this operator is almost always denedalgorithmically throughcode
implementation except in trivial cases. However, as it will be shown later, this
knowledgeisnot requiredfor thevector sequenceextrapolationmethodtowork.
Animportantpropertyof anyxed-pointalgorithmistherecursiverelationthat
canbeestablishedbetweentheinitial solutioncorrection.Q
(0)
andlatercorrections
.Q
()
throughpowersof thexed-point functionJ acobian
Q
F. Thisrelationcan
beestablishedbyformingthefollowingdifference:
.Q
()
= Q
(1)
Q
()
(12)
Fromthe denition of the xed-point algorithm, equation (10), equation (12)
becomes
.Q
()
= F(Q
()
) F(Q
(1)
) (13)
Bythedenition, Q
()
isgivenby
Q
()
= Q
(1)
.Q
(1)
(14)
andif thisexpressionissubstitutedinequation(13), wearrivetoexpression
.Q
()
= F(Q
(1)
.Q
(1)
) F(Q
(1)
) (15)
Using the linear expansion of the term F(Q
(1)
.Q
(1)
) in the previous
equation, weobtain
F(Q
(1)
.Q
(1)
) = F(Q
(1)
)
Q
F(Q
(1)
) O(
2
) (16)
Neglectingthetermsof higher order, expressioninequation(16) becomes
F(Q
(1)
.Q
(1)
) F(Q
(1)
)
Q
F(Q
(1)
) (17)
Substituting equation (17) into equation (15), expression linking .Q
()
and
.Q
(1)
isformulated
.Q
()

Q
F(Q
(1)
).Q
(1)
(18)
Bylettingtheindex torangefrom0to 1, equation(18) isusedrecursivelyto
obtainthelinkbetween.Q
(0)
and.Q
(1)
.Q
(1)
(
Q
F(Q
()
))
.Q
(0)
(19)
Therecursiveproperty of thexed-point algorithmis givenby equation(19) and
uponcloserinspectionitcanbeseenthatitrepresents, apoweriterationof .Q
(1)
withmatrix
Q
F(Q
()
), withinsecondorder of accuracy. Moreover, it canalsobe
observed that the sequence of .Q
(1)
vectors will tend to lie in the dominant
eigenspaceof matrix
Q
F(Q
()
) andalso denethebasis of theKrylov subspace
associatedwiththeiterativeproceduredescribedbythexed-point method, equa-
tion(9).Thispropertyisusedtoapproximatethesolutionof thexed-pointproblem
byusingtheminimal polynomial of theJ acobianmatrix
Q
F(Q
()
). A Krylovsub-
spacegeneratedby theiterativeprocess denedby equation(10) canbedened
formallybyusingthelocal linearizationof thexed-point function
K
n
(M
1
(
Q
R), R
(0)
) = span(R
(0)
, (M
1
(
Q
R))R
(0)
, . . . , (M
1
(
Q
R))
n1
R
(0)
)
(20)
Sinceinequation(20) operator Mis kept constant inthelocal neighborhoodof
solutionvectors, KrylovsubspaceK
n
canbeshowntobeequivalent [14,15] tothe
spacespannedbycorrectionvectors.Q
()
K
n
(M
1
(
Q
R), R
(0)
) = M
1
K
n
(.Q
(n)
)
(21)
= M
1
span(.Q
(0)
, .Q
(1)
, , .Q
(n)
)
For stronglynonlinear xed-point function, thelocal approximationusedinequa-
tion (21) is not valid and thespacegenerated by corrections .Q
()
is no longer
equivalent to the classical Krylov subspace. However, the solution to the xed-
point problemcan be still sought in this space although convergence cannot be
guaranteed.
12.3 Reduced Rank Extrapolation
After n iterations, vector sequenceextrapolation searches for thesolution of the
xed-pointproblem, equation(10), inthespacedenedinexpressionequation(21)
byapproximatingthesolutionbythefollowinglinear combination:
Q
(n)
= Q
(n1)
=0
e
()
(22)
Here
areextrapolationcoefcientsthat needtobedetermined, e iserror after n

iterationsdenedas
e
()
= Q
()
Q
(23)
andQ
isthesolution(xedpoint) of theproblem. Error e

()
sharestherecursive
propertydenedinequation(19)
.e
(1)
(
Q
F(Q
()
))
.e
(0)
(24)
Equation(24) representstheapproximateerror propagationequationof thegiven
xed-pointfunctionanditfollowsfromthelinearityof therecursiverelation, equa-
tion (19). The recursive property of the error, equation (24), is used to dene
extrapolationcoefcients. Toachievethat, rst wemust ndwhat conditionserror
must satisfy.
At convergence, thefollowingidentityholds
Q
= Q
=0
e
()
(25)
duetothefact that theerror e iszero. Therefore, at convergenceafter n iterations,
thefollowingidentitymust betrue:
n
=0
e
()
= 0 (26)
Equation(26) representstheformal conditionthatcanbeusedtodetermineextrap-
olationcoefcients
. Beforecoefcientscanbecomputed, aformal connection

betweenequation(26) andKrylovsubspaceK
n
(.Q
(n)
) must beestablished.
It is a known fact that Krylov space methods for linear problems have the
property todetermineimplicitly aminimal polynomial of thesystemmatrix with
respect toinitial residual. If theminimal polynomial of theJ acobianof thexed-
pointfunctionisdenotedbyP
m
(
Q
F), thenthefollowingidentitywill holdlocally
P
m
(
Q
F).Q
(0)
=
n
=0
c
(
Q
F(Q
()
))
.Q
(0)
= 0 (27)
Furthermore, usingequations(24) and(27)
n
=0
c
(
Q
F(Q
()
))
.Q
(0)
= (I
Q
F(Q
()
))
n
=0
c
e
()
= 0 (28)
andsince(I
Q
F(Q
()
)) hasafull rankweobtainthefollowingexpression:
n
=0
c
e
()
= 0 (29)
Fromthisanalysisitispossibletoconcludethatif thecoefcientsc
arechosenso
that theyarethecoefcientsof theminimal polynomial P
m
withrespect to.Q
(0)
,
then the condition in equation (29) holds. If we chose coefcients
to be the
coefcientsof theminimal polynomial
= c
(30)
thentheycanbedeterminedbyrequiringthat theL
2
normof theapproximationof
thesolutioninKrylovspaceisminimized
= argmin
_
_
_
_
_
Q
()
=0
.Q
()
_
_
_
_
_
2
(31)
Theconstraintsfor thisoptimizationproblemisobtainedfromthepropertyof the
minimal polynomial
n
=0
= 1 (32)
Usingtherecursiveproperty equation(19) andsubstitutingit into equation(27),
thefollowingover-determinedlinear systemresults
n
=0
.Q
()
= 0 (33)
Equations(32) and(33) represent aconstrainedoptimizationproblemfor nding
theextrapolationcoefcientsfor theproblemdenedbyequation(31). Theresult-
ing systemof normal equations is solved using aQR-decomposition algorithm.
Oncethecoefcients aredetermined, thesolution is expressed by thefollowing
extrapolationformula
Q
(1)
= Q
()
=0
.Q
()
(34)
Given the fact that equation (33) represent an over-determined systemof linear
equations, it isobviousthat not all linear equationsinthat systemwill besatised
by thecomputedvector
. This is theconsequenceof theinconsistent natureof

theover-determinedlinear systeminequation(33) andthisfactplaysanimportant
roleintheselectionof thesizeof thedimensionof therestart space.
In practical terms, the RRE algorithmis usually implemented in a restarted
versionby collectingn vectors .Q
()
andstoringthemintherectangular matrix
[.Q]
[.Q] = [.Q
(0)
, .Q
(1)
, , .Q
(n)
] (35)
leadingtothefollowingmatrixequation
[.Q] = 0 (36)
Withpreviousdenitions, theRRE algorithmisshowninFigure12.1.
It is evident fromtheRRE pseudo-codethat theiterativealgorithmacts as a
preconditionerfortheRREextrapolationalgorithmandonlythesequenceof arrays
.Q
()
isrequiredinorder toformthematrix[.Q] thatisusedtoobtainextrapola-
tioncoefcients.Therefore, theRREalgorithmisimplementedasawrapperaround
Algorithm 1
for k = 0, N
for = 0, n
.Q
()
= M
()
(R(Q
()
))
Q
(1)
= Q
()
.Q
()
formmatrix[.Q]
end
Find = argmin
[[Q
()
n
=0
.Q
()
[[
2
suchthat
n
=0
= 1
Q
(k1)
= Q
(k)
n
=0
.Q
()
if converged
stop
else
restart
endif
end
Figure12.1. RRE pseudo-code.
existingcodethatimplementsthexed-pointalgorithm. A further advantageof the
proposed algorithmis that no explicit knowledgeof theoperator M
()
(R(Q
()
))
inequation(11) isever required; it isonly requiredthat thexed-point algorithm
inequation(10) produceasequenceof solutions. This particular property makes
this approachwidely applicableandnonintrusivefromtheimplementationpoint
of view. Furthermore, dueto equivalencebetweenKrylov spaces, equation(21),
theRRE algorithmisequivalent totheGMRES method. Intheparticular caseof
nonlinear owsolvers, theRRE algorithmcorrespondstoGMRESalgorithmwith
nonlinear preconditioningandit issometimesreferredtoasnonlinear GMRES.
Sincethetheory of RRE andits applicationrelies onthelinearizedproblem,
most of thepropertiesof thealgorithmarevalidwithinsomesmall neighborhood
of theoperator M(R(Q). Furthermore, sinceweareusingarestartedversionof
RRE, thechoiceof therestartspaceisveryimportant. Thesizeof therestartspace
isveryimportantandsomewhatproblemdependent. Restartedversionsof GMRES
suffer fromthesameproblems [11] andthereis no theory onhowto choosethe
sizeof therestart space. Therefore, somenumerical experimentationisneededin
order toestablishtheproper sizeof therestart spacefor agivenclassof problems.
12.4 Numerical Experiments
As was shown in thealgorithmin Figure12.1, theRRE algorithmrequires only
a sequence of arrays produced by the preconditioning solver M(R(Q
()
). Due
to this property, RRE is implemented as a wrapper around several nonlinear
owsolversincludingcoupledpressure-based, segregatedpressure-based, explicit
coupled density-based and implicit coupled density-based solvers [19]. Herewe
describeresultsobtainedthroughnumerical experimentsintheapplicationof the
RRE algorithmtomentionedsolvers.
12.4.1 RRE acceleration of implicit density-based solver
Hereweconsider inviscidandviscousturbulentowaroundNACA 0012airfoil at
0
angleof attackwiththefree-streamMachnumber Ma =0.7. Thecomputational

grid is shown in Figure 12.2 and it consists of 4, 800 nite volume cells. The
governing equations are described by two dimensional inviscid Euler equations
thatcanbeobtainedfromequation(1) byremovingviscousuxesF
:
anddropping
themomentum, continuity, andenergyterminthez-direction
t
_
O
QdO
_
O
F
c
dA = 0 (37)
HereQ andF
c
aregivenby
Q =
_
_
_
_
u
:
E
_
_
_
_
, F
c
=
_
_
_
_
V
uV n
x
p
:V n
y
p
HV
_
_
_
_
Grid
Figure12.2. Computational gridfor NACA 0012airfoil.
Thenumerical uxschemeusedtoapproximateuxesat thecentroidsof faces
of nitevolumesistheRoeuxdifferencesplittingscheme[1,6] withsecond-order
spatial accuracy. Steadystatewasobtainedafter 375implicititerationsaccordingto
theschemeinequation(8)andwithCFL numberequal to25.Asymmetricoweld
patternthatwasexpectedat0
angleof attackisshowninFigure12.3. Figure12.4

shows theconvergencehistory of all conservedvariables. Convergencebehavior
isoverall linear, but asmall marginallyunstablemodeinthemomentumequation
isobservedthat correspondstoalmost aperiodichalf-sinusoidal oscillationof the
residuals. Results of theRRE algorithmthat uses coupleddensity-basedimplicit
solver areshowninFigure12.5. Theseresultsareobtainedby usingasizeof the
restart space of 25 and it is evident fromFigure 12.5 that the accelerated case
convergesafter 265implicititerationsof density-basedsolver. Moreover, itcanbe
observedthat analmost periodicmarginallyunstablemodeevident inFigure12.4
is no longer present and it is substituted with higher moreirregular modes. The
overall savingsintermsof number of iterationsbetweenbaselineandaccelerated
runsisabout 100iterationor 25%.
A more interesting case to consider is turbulent viscous ow over the same
NACA 0012at anangleof attack of 1.25
. For thisangleof attack, aweak shock

waveappearsontheuppersurfaceof theairfoil, closetotheleadingedge.Thebasic
set of equations, equation (1) was extended with additional turbulencetransport
equations. Thegenericformof transport equationsisgivenbyequation(2) andin
Contours of Mach number May 20, 2007
FLUENT 6.3 (2d, dp, dbns imp)
9.10e01
8.83e01
8.56e01
8.28e01
8.01e01
7.74e01
7.46e01
7.19e01
6.92e01
6.64e01
6.37e01
6.10e01
5.82e01
5.55e01
5.28e01
5.00e01
4.73e01
4.46e01
4.18e01
3.91e01
3.64e01
3.36e01
3.09e01
2.82e01
2.54e01
2.27e01
Figure12.3. Contours of Machnumber for NACA 0012airfoil at thezero angle
of attackusingimplicit density-basedsolver.
Coupled airfoil: No extrapolation
scaled residuals May 20, 2007
Iterations
400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
1e02
1e00
1e02
1e04
1e06
1e08
1e10
1e12
1e14
energy
y-velocity
x-velocity
continuity
Residuals
Figure12.4. Residual historyof thebaselinerun(noacceleration) of NACA 0012
airfoil ininviscidowatthezeroangleof attackusingimplicitdensity-
basedsolver.
Coupled airfoil: With extrapolation
Iterations
300 250 200 150 100 50 0
1e02
1e00
1e02
1e04
1e06
1e08
1e10
1e12
1e14
energy
y-velocity
x-velocity
continuity
Residuals
Figure12.5. Residual history of thetheacceleratedrunof NACA 0012airfoil in
inviscidowat thezeroangleof attack usingimplicit density-based
solver.
thecaseof twoequationturbulencemodel it takesthefollowingform:
t
_
O
dO
_
O
(F
+,c
F
+,:
)dA
_
O
S
+
dO = 0
Here, F
+,c
, andF
+,:
aregivenby
=
_
K
c
_
, F
+,c
=
_
KV
c
V
_
, F
+,:
=
_
n
x
K
xx
n
y
K
yy
n
x
c
xx
n
y
c
yy
_
whereasS
+
isgivenby
=
_
P c
(C
c1
f
c1
C
c2
f
c2
c
)
c
K

c
_
where P is production term[20] and
xx
and
yy
are normal turbulent viscous
stresses[20]. Theturbulencemodel that wasusedinthecomputationisrealizable
k c model withthefreestreamturbulenceconditionsthatcorrespondto0.5%tur-
bulenceintensitywithaviscousratioof turbulenttolaminar viscosityof 10. These
conditionscorrespondtofreestreamconditionsinthecalmatmosphere. Resultsof
thecomputationsusingbaselinecoupledimplicitdensity-basedsolverareshownin
Figure12.6. ConvergencebehaviorforthiscaseisshowninFigure12.7whereitcan
beseenthat theconvergencewasachievedafter 390nonlinear iterations. It isalso
Contours of Mach number May 20, 2007
FLUENT 6.3 (2d, dp, dbns imp, rke)
1.01e00
9.79e01
9.47e01
9.15e01
8.84e01
8.52e01
8.20e01
7.88e01
7.56e01
7.24e01
6.93e01
6.61e01
6.29e01
5.97e01
5.65e01
5.34e01
5.02e01
4.70e01
4.38e01
4.06e01
3.75e01
3.43e01
3.11e01
2.79e01
2.47e01
2.16e01
Figure12.6. Mach contours of NACA 0012 airfoil in viscous turbulent ow at
1.25
angleof attackusingimplicit density-basedsolver.

Coupled airfoil: No extrapolation
Iterations
400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
1e02
1e00
1e02
1e04
1e06
1e08
1e10
1e12
1e14
epsilon
k
energy
y-velocity
x-velocity
continuity
Residuals
Figure12.7. Residual historyof thebaseline(noacceleration) runof NACA 0012
in viscous turbulent ow at 1.25
angle of attack using implicit

density-basedsolver.
observedthatturbulentdissipationrateexperiencesaplateaueffectafter200nonlin-
ear iterations, keepingthelevel of residualsat1E07withoutanyfurther decrease.
For practical computations, thislevel of residualsmaybeacceptablebut it clearly
indicatesadifculty withtheconvergenceof k-equation. Applicationof theRRE
accelerating algorithmproduces better convergence behavior since the problem
convergesin275nonlinear iterationswithout theplateaueffect ink-equation.
12.4.2 RRE acceleration of explicit density-based solver
HereagainweconsiderinviscidandviscousturbulentowaroundNACA 0012air-
foil at 0
and1.25
anglesof attack withthefree-streamMachnumber Ma =0.7.

However, thistimeweusetheexplicitmultistageRungeKuttaschemewiththefull
approximationstoragescheme[1,18,19]. Thesameset of equations, equation(37)
andthenonlinear updateisperformedbytheexplicit schemeinequation(7) with
modicationstoaccommodateFASandRungeKuttamultistagealgorithms. Due
tostabilityrestrictions, CFL numberof 2isusedwithsecond-orderschemeinspace
(Figure12.8).
TherstcasethatwasconsideredistheinviscidowoverNACA0012atthezero
angleof attackwithfree-streamMachnumber Ma =0.7. Convergencebehavior of
residualsof theconservedvariablesareshowninFigure12.9whereit canbeseen
that it takes approximately 3, 470 nonlinear iterations to reduce residuals below
tolerancelevel set tobe1E 12.
Coupled airfoil: With extrapolation
Iterations
300 250 200 150 100 50 0
1e02
1e00
1e02
1e04
1e06
1e08
1e10
1e12
1e14
epsilon
k
energy
y-velocity
x-velocity
continuity
Residuals
Figure12.8. Residual history of the accelerated run of NACA 0012 in viscous
turbulent owat 1.25
angleof attack using implicit density-based

solver.
Explicit airfoil: No extrapolation
FLUENT 6.3 (2d, dp, dbns exp)
Iterations
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0
1e02
1e00
1e02
1e04
1e06
1e08
1e10
1e12
1e14
energy
y-velocity
x-velocity
continuity
Residuals
ininviscidowatthezeroangleof attackusingexplicitdensity-based
solver.
In thecaseof theRRE accelerated explicit density-based algorithm, thesize
of arestart spaceis25asinthecaseof implicit solvers. However, duetothefact
that theexplicit solvers arenot very good preconditioners, theresulting Krylov
subspacedoesnothaveagoodbasistoguaranteeconvergenceof theRRE method.
It was determined experimentally that if every 10th correction vector is stored,
thenRRE converges. Thisbehavior isinducedbyaverynonlinear behavior of the
systemonascaleof 10to15iterationsasit canbeseeninFigure12.9. Skipping
iterations results in a better basis of the Krylov subspace and the RRE method
of acceleratingexplicit density-basedsolver converges as showninFigure12.10
whereit canbeseenthat theconvergenceis achievedafter approximately 2, 250
nonlinear iterations. This behavior requires further research and some possible
approachesincludeevaluationof residualstodeterminethegoodcandidatefor the
extrapolation[14]. Someother measuresof thequalityof theKrylovsubspacethat
involvesingular valuedecompositionof matrix [.Q] andthresholdingbasedon
thedesiredaccuracycanbeused.
A viscous turbulent caseof NACA 0012 at an angleof attack of 1.25
with
thesamefree-streamconditions is examinednext. Stalledconvergenceas shown
inFigure12.11is experiencedinthis casewiththeresidual levels inthevicinity
of 1E 06. Employing the same strategy of storing every 10th correction vec-
tor, convergence is accelerated and stalled residuals are removed. Convergence
improvement inthiscaseisattributedtoimprovedcouplingbetweenowandtur-
bulenceequationsbytheRREalgorithm. Currentalgorithmindensity-basedsolver
Explicit airfoil: With extrapolation
FLUENT 6.3 (2d, dp, dbns exp)
Iterations
2,250 2,000 1,750 1,500 1,250 1,000 750 500 250 0
1e02
1e00
1e02
1e04
1e06
1e08
1e10
1e12
1e14
energy
y-velocity
x-velocity
continuity
Residuals
Figure12.10. Residual history of theacceleratedrunof NACA 0012ininviscid
owat an1.25
angleof attackusingexplicit density-basedsolver.

solvesowequationsinacoupledmanner andthenit solvesturbulenceequations
separately by usingcomputedvelocity eld. Thisproceduresometimesleadsinto
convergenceproblems that areobserved in Figure12.11and theRRE algorithm
helps the convergence by providing the missing coupling between equations by
computingoneset of extrapolationcoefcientsusedinextrapolationof all elds.
Furthermore, in a view of previous connection between the RRE and GMRES
method, thisapproachcorrespondstoapplyingtheGMRES methodonacoupled
systemof equationsthusimprovingtheconvergence(Figure12.12).
12.4.3 RRE acceleration of segregated pressure-based solver
Inthissectionweconsider accelerationof thecomputationof laminar incompress-
ibleowsbytheRREmethod.Thebasicsetof equationsisgiveninequation(1)and
their specializationfor thelaminar incompressibleowis givenby thefollowing
equation:
_
O
(F
c
F
:
) dA = 0 (38)
with the incompressibility constraint enforced through the divergence-free
condition
_
O
(u)dO = 0 (39)
Explicit airfoil: No extrapolation
scaled residuals
May 23, 2007
FLUENT 6.3 (2d, dp, dbns exp, ske)
Iterations
3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0
1e01
1e00
1e01
1e02
1e03
1e04
1e05
1e06
1e07
epsilon
k
energy
y-velocity
x-velocity
continuity
Residuals
inaviscousturbulent owat an1.25
angleof attackusingexplicit
density-basedsolver.
Explicit airfoil: With extrapolation
scaled residuals
May 23, 2007
FLUENT 6.3 (2d, dp, dbns exp, ske)
Iterations
2,500 2,250 2,000 1,750 1,500 1,250 1,000 750 500 250 0
1e02
1e00
1e02
1e04
1e06
1e08
1e10
1e12
1e14
epsilon
k
energy
y-velocity
x-velocity
continuity
Residuals
Figure12.12. Residual historyof theacceleratedrunof NACA 0012inaviscous
turbulentowatan1.25
angleof attackusingexplicitdensity-based
solver.
Z
Y
X
Grid Feb 04, 2007
FLUENT 6.3 (3d, dp, pbns, lam)
Figure12.13. Computational gridforlaminarviscousowinserpentinegeometry.
Variablesinequation(1) for thecaseof incompressiblelaminar owsaregivenby
followingexpressions:
F
c
=
_
_
uV n
x
p
:V n
y
p
wV n
z
p
_
_
, F
:
=
_
_
n
x
xx
n
y
xy
n
z
xz
n
x
yx
n
y
yy
n
z
yz
n
x
zx
n
y
zy
n
z
zz
_
_
Theincompressiblesystemof equations(38) and(39) isusuallysolvedthrough
theprojectionmethods[1,3,4] wheretheprimaryunknownvariablesaretheprim-
itivevariables such as pressureand velocity. Furthermore, dueto thekinematic
constraint, equation (39) imposed on the velocity eld, there is no direct link
betweenpressureandvelocityelds, aspecial pressureequationisusuallyformed
[1,4]. Formingthepressureequation, together withthemomentumequationand
theboundaryconditions, createsawell-posedproblemthatcanbesolvedinacou-
pled or segregated manner. If theSIMPLE algorithm[4] is adopted, segregated
algorithmresults.
As a study case, we consider the ow through the geometry shown in
Figure 12.13. Due to the nonlinearities in equation (38), and due to the initial
guessesthatlayoutof theconvergencedomainof theSIMPLEmethods, relaxation
factors are used in the discrete systemof equations to maintain the stability of
thecomputations. Standardrelaxationfactors(0.3pressureand0.7for momentum
equation) together with thesecond-order formulations for pressureand velocity
variablesisusedincomputation. TheprobleminFigure12.13isdescribedbyone
Serpentine: No extrapolation
velocity vectors colored by velocity magnitude (m/s)
May 23, 2007
2.24e00
2.13e00
2.02e00
1.91e00
1.79e00
1.68e00
1.57e00
1.46e00
1.35e00
1.24e00
1.13e00
1.02e00
9.05e01
7.93e01
6.82e01
5.71e01
4.60e01
3.48e01
2.37e01
1.26e01
1.48e02
Z
Y
X
Figure12.14. Vectoreldinincompressibleowplottedinthemiddleplaneof the
serpentinegeometry.
inowboundaryconditionprescribedasavelocityinlet, oneoutlet boundarycon-
dition prescribed as an uniformpressureoutlet, and no-slip walls. Problemwas
discretizedusinghexagonal 8, 900nitevolumes. Systemof discretizedequations
for thepressureandvelocity variableswassolvedusingimplicit formulationthat
forms four systems of linear equations that are solved using theAMG method
[18,19] inasegregatedmanner andvelocityvectorsonthemiddleplaneareshown
inFigure12.14. Convergencecriterionwasset for all equationstobe1E 14for
thenormof residualsandtheresultsof thecomputationsareshowninFigure12.15
whereit canbeseenthat it takescloseto2, 500iterationstoreachtheprescribed
level of convergence. The accelerated case is shown in Figure 12.16 where the
RRE algorithmresultsinapproximately1, 000iterationsrequiredtoreachthepre-
scribedlevelsof residuals. Asinthecaseof explicit density-basedsolver, thesize
of arestart spaceis25andRRE storedevery10thvector inorder toobtainuseful
basisof Krylovsubspace.
12.4.4 RRE acceleration of coupled pressure-based solver
Thesetof governingequations(38) and(39) fortheincompressibleowcanbedis-
cretizedandsolvedsimultaneouslyresultinginaso-calledcoupledpressure-based
solver. In contrast to thesegregated solver, matrix coefcients obtained through
coupleddiscretizationresult inapoint coupledsystemwherethreevelocitiesand
Serpentine: No extrapolation
scaled residuals
May 23, 2007
Iterations
4,000 3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0
1e02
1e00
1e02
1e04
1e06
1e08
1e10
1e12
1e14
1e16
z-velocity
y-velocity
x-velocity
continuity
Residuals
Figure12.15. Residual historyof thebaselinerun(noacceleration) of theincom-
pressiblelaminar owintheserpentinegeometry usingsegregated
pressure-basedsolver.
Serpentine: With extrapolation
scaled residuals
May 23, 2007
Z
Y
X
Iterations
4,000 3,500 3,000 2,500 2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0
1e02
1e00
1e02
1e04
1e06
1e08
1e10
1e12
1e14
1e16
z-velocity
y-velocity
x-velocity
continuity
Residuals
Figure12.16. Residual historyof theacceleratedrunof theincompressiblelaminar
ow in the serpentine geometry using segregated pressure-based
solver.
Z
Y
X
Sphere
Grid
May 24, 2007
Figure12.17. Computational gridinthemiddleplaneof asphereinafreestream
owat Re=250.
onepressureis storedinablock coefcient for eachnitevolumecell [19]. This
systemof equationsissolvedusingagaintheAMGmethodwiththemodications
for blockcoefcients.
TheRRE method of acceleration was applied to thecaseof spherein afree
streamowconditions withReynolds number equal to 250. Thegridconsists of
1.2E 06 nite volume cells of a tetrahedral shape as shown in Figure 12.17.
Stability of thecomputational runwas controlledby theCFL number whichwas
chosentobe200inthiscase.Theowislaminarandthecontoursof thepressureand
vectorsof thevelocityeldareshowninFigures12.18and12.19, respectively. The
convergencehistoryof baselinerunwithout accelerationisshowninFigure12.20
wheretheslowconvergenceisobserved. Convergencebehavior for theaccelerated
caseisshowninFigure12.21wherefaster convergenceisobserved. Asinthecase
of density-based implicit solver, restart baseis selected to be25 and correction
vectorsarecollectedafter eachnonlinear iteration.
12.5 Conclusion
Wehavedemonstratedtheapplicationof theRREmethodasanaccelerationmethod
for thenonlinear solversinCFD. TheRRE methodreliesontherecursiveproperty
of thexed-pointalgorithmsusedinCFDtoformthebasisof theKrylovsubspace
thatcontainsthesolutiontotheproblem. Duetothenonlinearityof thexed-point
PBCS Sphere: With extrapolation
contours of static pressure (pascal) May 24, 2007
4.98e01
4.59e01
4.19e01
3.79e01
3.40e01
3.00e01
2.60e01
2.21e01
1.81e01
1.41e01
1.02e01
6.21e02
2.24e02
1.72e02
5.69e02
9.66e02
1.36e01
1.76e01
2.16e01
2.55e01
2.95e01
Z
Y
X
Figure12.18. Pressureeldinthemiddleplaneof asphereinafreestreamow
at Re=250usingcoupledpressure-basedsolver.
PBCS sphere: With extrapolation
velocity vectors colored by velocity magnitude (m/s)
May 24, 2007
1.18e00
1.12e00
1.06e00
1.00e00
9.46e01
8.87e01
8.28e01
7.69e01
7.10e01
6.51e01
5.92e01
5.33e01
4.74e01
4.15e01
3.56e01
2.97e01
2.37e01
1.78e01
1.19e01
6.04e02
1.33e03
Z
Y
X
Figure12.19. Velocityvectorsinthemiddleplaneof asphereinafreestreamow
at Re=250usingcoupledpressure-basedsolver.
PBCS sphere: No extrapolation
scaled residuals
May 24, 2007
z-velocity
y-velocity
x-velocity
continuity
Residuals
Iterations
250 225 200 175 150 125 100 75 50 25 0
1e01
1e00
1e01
1e02
1e03
1e04
1e05
1e06
1e07
1e08
1e09
Figure12.20. Residual historyof thebaseline(noacceleration) runof aspherein
afreestreamowat Re=250usingcoupledpressure-basedsolver.
PBCS sphere: With extrapolation
scaled residuals
May 23, 2007
Iterations
250 225 200 175 150 125 100 75 50 25 0
1e02
1e00
1e02
1e04
1e06
1e08
1e10
1e12
1e14
1e16
1e18
z-velocity
y-velocity
x-velocity
continuity
Residuals
Figure12.21. Residual history of theacceleratedrunof asphereinafreestream
owat Re=250usingcoupledpressure-basedsolver.
function of CFD algorithms, restarted algorithmis used to make the algorithm
memory efcient and to rely on local linear properties of the restarted Krylov
subspaceto represent thesolutioncorrectly. Theproposedalgorithmis shownto
benonintrusiveand applicableto awiderangeof solvers including explicit and
implicit formulations of pressure- and density-based algorithms. TheRRE algo-
rithmrequiresonlythestorageof correctionvectorsanddoesnotrequireevaluation
of theresidualswhichmakesthisalgorithmeasytoimplement for thesolversthat
donot formresidual vector. Improvedcouplingof thesystemsof equationswhen
usedwiththeRRE algorithmisdemonstratedandshowntoimproveconvergence
propertiesof segregatedsolvers.
References
[1] Wesseling, P. Principles of Computational Fluid Dynamics, Springer-Verlag, New
York, 2000.
[2] Patankar, S. V. Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow, McGraw-Hill, NewYork,
1980.
[3] Chorin, A. J. A Numerical Method for Solving Incompressible Viscous Flow
Problems, Journal of Computational Physics, 2(1), pp. 1226, 1967.
[4] Ferziger, J. H., andPeri c, M. Computational Methodsfor FluidDynamics, Springer,
Berlin, 1996.
[5] Hirsch, C. Numerical Computation of Internal and External Flows, 2, J ohnWiley,
Chichester, 1990.
[6] Laney, C. B. Computational Gasdynamics, CambridgeUniversityPress, Cambridge,
1998.
[7] Allgower, E. L., and Georg, K. Introduction to Numerical Continuation Methods,
SIAM, Philadelphia, 1987.
[8] Deuhard, P. NewtonMethodsforNonlinearProblems, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2004.
[9] Wilcox, D. C. TurbulenceModelingfor CFD, DCWIndustries, 2006.
[10] Brezinski, C., andZaglia, M. R. ExtrapolationMethodsTheoryandPractice, Elsevier
SciencePublishing, Amsterdam, 1991.
[11] Saad,Y. IterativeMethodsfor SparseLinear SystemsSIAM, Philadelphia, 2004.
[12] J ameson, A., Schmidt, W., andTurkel, E. Numerical Solutionsof theEuler Equations
byFiniteVolumeMethodsUsingRunge-KuttaTimeStepping, AIAA Paper 811259,
1981.
[13] Sidi, A., and Celestina, M. L. ConvergenceAcceleration for Vector Sequences and
Application to Computational Fluid Dynamics, NASA Technical Memolen, 101327
(ICOMP-88-17).
[14] Washio, T., andOosterlee, C. W. KrylovSubspaceAccelerationfor Nonlinear Multi-
grid Schemes, Electronic Transactions on Numerical Analysis, 6, pp. 271290,
December 1997, ISSN1068-9613. Institutefor Computational MechanicsinPropul-
sion, LewisResearchCenter, Clevland, OH.
[15] J aschke, L. PreconditionedArnoldi Methods for Systems of Nonlinear Equations,
PhDThesis, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland, 2003.
[16] Andersson, C.SolvingLinearEquationsonParallel DistributedMemoryArchitectures
by Extrapolation, Technical Report, TRITA-NA-E9746, Department of Numerical
AnalysisandComputer Science, Royal Instituteof Technology, Sweden, 1997.
[17] J emcov, A., Maruszewski, J. P., andJ asak, H. PerformanceImprovementof Algebraic
MutligridSolver byVector SequenceExtrpolation, 15th Annual Conference of CFD
Society of Canada, May2731, Toronto, 2007.
[18] Briggs, W., Henson, V. E., and McCormick, S. A Mutligrid Tutorial, SIAM,
Philadelphia, 2000.
[19] Fluent Inc., Fluent UsersManual, Fluent Inc., 2006.
[20] Pope, S. B. Turbulent Flows, CambridgeUniversityPress, Cambridge, 2000.
...for scientists by scientists
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Advanced Computational Methods in Heat Transfer XI
Edited by: B. SUNDN, Lund University, Sweden, . MANDER, University of Tartu, Estonia
and C.A. BREBBIA, Wessex Institute of Technology, UK
Research and development of computational methods for solving and
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Fuel cells are expected to play a significant role in the next generation of
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C CC CComputational Fluid Dynamics omputational Fluid Dynamics omputational Fluid Dynamics omputational Fluid Dynamics omputational Fluid Dynamics

Theux-vector schemeavoids thecoefcient matrix operation and omits any

Thecomputation shows that thepresent schemehas asimilar convergent rate

Theux-vector methodhasseveral meritssuchasgoodconvergenceandoverall

valueswithinasmall level, especiallyclosetothecorner

/j) contoursat midplaneof volute.

. Hencewemust imposeequation(30) for

intothegoverningdifferential equationcreatingaresidual, R(x

Figure4.25. Basisfunctioninlinearpolynomialsforapatchof triangularelements.

is the transient and advection coefcient, I

is the diffusion coefcient,

For convergencesolution, theinertial termhas no affect on thenal solution

C if inlet velocity is 0.001m/s, while for

Cif inlet velocityis0.01m/s. Relativelyregular velocity

C. Thenumerical oscillationof thetemperaturesolution

isthethermal expansioncoefcient. ThereferencevelocityU

isatime-dependent temperaturegradient, and

), where x =(x, y, z) and

is the Reynolds number based on the friction velocity u

for constant temperatureandconstant heat ux boundary conditions,

=const. Typically, thegridmetrics arecalculatedusingappropriatesecond-

block facewithcoordinateaxes perfectly aligned

faceof another block.

A isthedata-vector (of sizeequal tothenumber of nodesinthesurface) to

=180. TheresultsarecomparedtotheDNSdataof Kimet al.

=50and100, withresolutionsof 641480, 48964, and

=50, thenormal andshear stressesexhibit discontinuities

=180for different pressureformulations.

=5andtowardthecenter of thechannel aty

=180for different pressureformulations.

) and the log-

)5.5, together with predictions of kinetic energy

=5.6, andthird-ordermomentorskewnessof thecross-streamvelocity,

=180 at a resolution of 12896128.

denotesthenormalizedvariable. For example, anSOCdifferenceapprox-

=180. (a) Mean velocity prole in

6,667 6,667 6,667 6,667

Increasedoatingpoint performancebyafactor of 2to3.

Decreasedtheoverall CPU timebynearlyanorder of magnitude.

=460. Implicitmodel isusedformodelingtheSGS

for athermal eld, where

theintensity of uctuatingtemperatureandits dissipationrate, respectively) and

) is the instantaneous velocity in

(=,LO) is the instantaneous temperature. These are

, thechannel half width, , andthetemper-

, andPr=,, where isthekinematic diffusivity

areextratermstocorrectthenear-wall behaviorsof and

arerotation-inuencedadditional terms. Notethat, intherotational coordi-

Figure8.2. Channel withtransverse-ribroughnessandcoordinatesystem.

H,. InCasesbandc, theheightof theribs

. Ontheother hand, Casebisnotregardedastheexactd-type, but

.15. Inordinary wall turbulencewithout external force,

Figure8.24. Distributionsof meantemperatureO andtemperatureuctuationk

Figure8.26. Distributionsof meantemperatureO andtemperatureuctuationk

istheunitvectorinthespanwisedirection. Model constantsandfunctions

NaganoandHattori [38] (hereinafter referredtoasNLHN)

SugaandAbe[43] (hereinafter referredtoasNLSA)

Youniset al. [44] (hereinafter referredtoasNLYSC)

[see equations (9) and (11)] are

Figure8.46. Predictionsof meantemperature(Case2).

=590, Phys. Fluids, 11, pp. 943945, 1999.

is theaveraged sourcetermover thewall-adjacent cell P. Notethat x