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2
max increased (Table 2). Mean body weight, BMI, percentage
body fat, fat mass, fat-free mass, and waist and hip circumferences
all significantly decreased after the intervention (Table 2).
Blood glucose concentrations
Bloodglucose concentrations before andafter the intervention
are summarized in Figure 1. Although the 12-wk nutrition and
exercise program did not significantly alter the blood glucose
AUC (Table 3), it significantly lowered the fasting glucose
concentrations from4.6 0.1 to 4.0 0.1 mmol/L. Ingestion of
FIGURE 1. Mean (SEM) blood glucose concentrations in response to
an oral-glucose-tolerance test. Caffeine was administered at 0 min, and 75 g
glucose was administered at 60 min. F, preintervention placebo; E, prein-
tervention caffeine; , postintervention placebo; , postintervention caf-
feine. n 9. There was a significant decrease in fasting blood glucose after
the intervention (P 0.05; PROC MIXED procedure in SAS followed by
paired t tests).
TABLE 1
Dietary analysis of self-reported dietary intakes recorded before and
during the 12-wk intervention
1
Diet component Before intervention After intervention
Energy (kJ) 11046 435 9372 385
2
Fat (% of energy) 31 2 26 1
2
SFAs (% of energy) 11 1 8 0.5
2
MUFAs (% of energy) 10 1 8 0.5
PUFAs (% of energy) 4 0.5 4 0.5
Cholesterol (mg) 290 45 276 24
Carbohydrate (%) 50 3 53 1
Fiber (g) 19 1 22 1
2
Protein (% of energy) 16 1 19 1
1
All values are x SEM; n 9. SFAs, saturated fatty acids; MUFAs,
monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFAs, polyunsaturated fatty acids.
2
Significantly different from before intervention, P 0.05 (paired t
tests).
TABLE 2
Maximum oxygen consumption (V
O
2max
) and body-composition
measurements
1
Before intervention After intervention
V
O
2
max (mL kg
1
min
1
)
36.9 2.1 45.6 2.3
2
Body weight (kg) 103.4 4.7 94.8 4.6
2
BMI (kg/m
2
) 34.0 1.0 31.2 1.0
2
Body fat (%) 29.3 1.2 26.5 1.2
2
Fat mass (kg) 30.5 2.2 25.5 2.4
2
Fat-free mass (kg) 72.9 2.9 69.4 2.6
2
Waist circumference (cm) 104.4 3.4 98.3 2.9
2
Hip circumference (cm) 114.2 2.5 108.4 2.0
2
Waist-to-hip ratio 0.92 0.03 0.91 0.02
1
All values are x SEM; n 9. V
O
2
max, maximumoxygen consump-
tion.
2
Significantly different from before intervention, P 0.05 (paired t
tests).
24 PETRIE ET AL
caffeine did not elicit any significant changes in blood glucose
concentrations before administration of the glucose beverage
during either OGTT nor was the AUC for blood glucose signif-
icantly affected.
Serum insulin concentrations
Insulin concentrations before and after the intervention are
summarized in Figure 2. The intervention resulted in a decrease
(P0.05) infastingseruminsulinconcentrationfrom89.56.5
to 53.4 3.6 pmol/L. Although the 36%decrease in the AUCfor
insulin (Table 3) in the placebo conditions was not significant
(P0.08), the ISI increased significantly as a result of the 12-wk
intervention (Table 3). There was a significantly greater insulin
response to the OGTT in the caffeine group than in the placebo
group both before and after the intervention (Table 3).
Serum C-peptide concentrations
Fasting serumC-peptide concentrations decreased (P 0.05)
after the intervention. The C-peptide response to the OGTTs,
before and after the intervention, are illustrated in Figure 3.
There was no significant effect of caffeine on the AUC for
C-peptide (Table 3). However, similar to the observation for
insulin, there was a trend (P 0.07) for a decrease (35%) in the
C-peptide response to glucose ingestion after the 12-wk program
(Table 3).
Serum proinsulin concentrations
After the 12-wk intervention, the proinsulin concentration de-
creased (P 0.05) at the 60-min time point (Table 4), but the
proinsulin-insulin ratio did not change significantly before or
after the intervention. There were no significant differences in
proinsulin concentrations between the placebo and caffeine
groups before the OGTT. During the OGTT, the proinsulin con-
centration increased (P0.05) 30 min after all 4 treatments, and
the proinsulin-insulin ratio increased (P 0.05). The interven-
tion did not significantly affect this ratio, but it was lower (P
0.05) with caffeine.
Blood lactate concentrations
There was no significant effect of the 12-wk intervention on
the blood lactate AUC(Table 3), yet there was a small (P0.05)
FIGURE 2. Mean (SEM) serum insulin concentrations in response to
an oral-glucose-tolerance test (OGTT). F, preintervention placebo; E, pre-
intervention caffeine; , postintervention placebo; , postintervention caf-
feine. n 9. There was a significant decrease in fasting seruminsulin (0 min)
after the intervention (P0.05). The insulin response during the OGTTwas
significantly higher in the caffeine group than in the placebo group, both
before and after the 12-wk intervention (P0.05; PROCMIXEDprocedure
in SAS, followed by paired t tests); this was confirmed in the area under the
curve analysis, as presented in Table 3.
FIGURE 3. Mean (SEM) serum C-peptide concentrations in response
to an oral-glucose-tolerance test (OGTT). F, preintervention placebo; E,
preintervention caffeine; , postintervention placebo; , postintervention
caffeine. n 9. There was a significant decrease in fasting serum C-peptide
(0 min) after the 12-wk intervention (P 0.05; PROCMIXEDprocedure in
SAS, followed by paired t tests).
TABLE 3
Area under the curve data for glucose, insulin, C-peptide, lactate, free fatty acids, and glycerol and the insulin sensitivity index in response to an oral-
glucose-tolerance test in subjects who received caffeine or placebo before and after a nutrition and exercise intervention
1
Substrate
Before intervention After intervention
Placebo Caffeine Placebo Caffeine
Glucose (mmol L 2 h) 234 62
a
258 41
a
191 52
a
242 61
a
Insulin (nmol L 2 h) 51.14 9.93
a
58.41 7.6
b
32.50 4.36
a
48.62 5.90
b
C-peptide (nmol L 2 h) 1573 187
a
1522 157
a
1027 178
a
1335 266
a
Lactate (mmol L 2 h) 18 7
a
24 13
a
21 7
a
39 9
a
Free fatty acids (mmol L 2 h) 33.01 5.02
a
54.62 7.63
b
21.85 4.31
c
49.60 8.35
b
Glycerol (mol L 2 h) 2684 1142
a
3226 862
a
1982 290
a
5259 1366
a
ISI 5 1
a
4 1
b
8 1
c
6 1
d
1
All values are x SEM; n 9. Means in a rowwith different superscript letters are significantly different. P0.05 (PROCMIXEDprocedure followed
by Tukeys test for multiple comparisons).
OBESITY AND CAFFEINE-INDUCED INSULIN RESISTANCE 25
decrease in fasting blood lactate concentrations (data not shown)
by the end of the 12-wk program. Ingestion of caffeine did not
elicit a significant change in fasting blood lactate concentrations
or in the blood lactate response to the OGTT.
Serum free fatty acid and glycerol concentrations
Fasting serumFFAs (Figure 4) and glycerol (data not shown)
concentrations increased (P 0.05) in the hour after caffeine
ingestion. This elevation did not significantly differ before or
after the intervention (P 0.05). At time 60, when the OGTT
began, serum insulin concentration began to rise, which coin-
cided with decreases in serumFFAs and glycerol concentrations
to below fasting concentrations. Because of the suppression of
lipolysis by insulin, the AUC for FFAs and glycerol were nega-
tive (Table 3). The AUC for FFA was significantly more pro-
nounced during the caffeine trials, both before and after the
intervention, but this finding appeared to result from the initial
elevation in FFAconcentrations at 60 min, because subsequently
the FFA concentrations decreased similarly during both the caf-
feine and placebo trials (Figure 4). Although the fasting serum
FFA concentration did not change as a result of the 12-wk pro-
gram (P 0.05), the serum FFA response to the placebo OGTT
was more pronounced as a result of the 12-wk program (Table 3
and Figure 4). No significant effect of caffeine on the AUC for
serum glycerol, before or after the 12-wk intervention, was ob-
served (Table 3).
DISCUSSION
The purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of
caffeine on glucose and insulin homeostasis in an obese, seden-
tarypopulationbefore andafter a 12-week, nutritionandexercise
weight-loss intervention. We hypothesized that caffeine inges-
tion before an OGTT would result in an exaggerated insulin
response compared with placebo. We also hypothesized that the
weight-loss program would lead to significant improvements in
glucose tolerance and an amelioration of the caffeine-induced
deterioration in glucose tolerance.
Our first hypothesis was supported. Before the 12-wk inter-
vention the estimated ISI was low and yet caffeine ingestion
decreased it significantly by 15%, and the insulin AUC was
significantly greater during the OGTT. Previously, studies (14,
15) of lean subjects have shown that caffeine ingestion followed
byanOGTTledtosignificantlygreater insulinresponses without
an accompanying decrease in blood glucose concentrations and
a similar relative decrease in the ISI. This hyperinsulinemia is
highly suggestive of insulin resistance, and studies using hyper-
insulinemic clamps and caffeine or theophylline have confirmed
that these methylxanthines depress glucose disposal (1618).
The present study showed that obese men, a population that is
already prone to insulin resistance, respond to caffeine similarly
before and after the intervention, even after weight loss and
increased aerobic fitness.
In contrast with previous work (14, 15), the serum C-peptide
response to the OGTTdid not significantly increase as a result of
caffeine ingestion. These prior studies examined lean, moder-
ately active men, whereas the present study examined sedentary,
obese men. C-peptide and insulin are secreted in equimolar
amounts and, hence, their presence in the serumusually changes
in parallel (34). Obese persons can experience elevated serum
insulin concentrations because of both increased insulin secre-
tion and decreased insulin clearance. Decreased hepatic binding
andextractionof insulinoftencharacterize insulinresistance (35,
36). This could explain the lack of concordance between the
serum C-peptide and insulin responses to caffeine ingestion in
this group.
Caffeine could increase the insulin response by stimulating a
more rapid absorption of glucose (37). This is highly unlikely;
caffeine was ingested 60 min before glucose ingestion, and caf-
feine absorption has been shown to be complete within 45 min of
ingestion (38). Furthermore, if enhanced absorption was the ma-
jor cause of the greater insulin concentration, the blood glucose
response would be reduced.
FIGURE 4. Mean ( SEM) serum free fatty acid (FFA) concentrations
in response to an oral-glucose-tolerance test. F, preintervention placebo; E,
preintervention caffeine; , postintervention placebo; , postintervention
caffeine. n 9. There was a significant increase in FFA concentrations 60
min after caffeine ingestion (at 0 min) (P 0.05; PROC MIXED procedure
in SAS, followed by paired t tests). The magnitude of the increase was not
significantly different after the 12-wk intervention.
TABLE 4
Serum proinsulin concentrations and the proinsulin-insulin ratio in
response to an oral-glucose-tolerance test in subjects who received
caffeine or placebo before and after a nutrition and exercise intervention
1
Proinsulin Proinsulin:insulin
pmol/L
60 min
Before intervention
Placebo 7.7 0.1 0.11 0.01
Caffeine 9.9 0.8 0.12 0.01
After intervention
Placebo 6.1 0.4
2
0.14 0.02
Caffeine 7.3 0.8
2
0.12 0.01
90 min
Before intervention
Placebo 30.0 5.5 0.50 0.01
Caffeine 28.2 4.0 0.46 0.01
3
After intervention
Placebo 17.6 3.0
2
0.50 0.01
Caffeine 19.8 2.6
2
0.40 0.01
3
1
All values are x SEM; n 9.
2
Significantly different from the corresponding value before interven-
tion, P 0.05.
3
Significantly different from the corresponding placebo value, P
0.05 (paired t tests).
26 PETRIE ET AL
It has been reported that pharmacologic concentrations of caf-
feine could directly stimulate the cell secretion of insulin (39).
To examine whether caffeine could alter the manner of cell
secretion, we measured proinsulin concentrations. Normal cell
secretion is composed of 98% insulin and 2% proinsulin-like
compounds (4042). However, because of differences in clear-
ance rates, the proinsulin-insulin ratio is commonly 0.100.15
in both lean and obese subjects (4043), and it is dramatically
elevated in type 2 diabetes because of secretion of immature
vesicles (44, 45). Fritsche et al (40) recently concluded that the
ratio at rest, and particularly that at 30 min of an OGTT, is an
accurate reflection of cell secretion. To the best of our knowl-
edge, caffeines possible actions on these processes have never
been examined. Caffeine had no significant effect on the
proinsulin-insulin ratio before the OGTT, and during the OGTT
it resulted in a significantly lower ratio than the corresponding
placebo value. If caffeine was interfering in the processing of
proinsulin or enhancing the secretion of immature vesicles, then
the secretion of proinsulin and the ratio should increase. The
decreased ratio strongly suggests that caffeine did not alter cell
secretion negatively. Rather, the data support the previous find-
ing (1418) that caffeine ingestion resulted in insulin resistance.
The 12-wk intervention significantly improved aerobic capac-
ity and decreased body weight, body fat, and fasting blood glu-
cose (13%), serum insulin (40%), C-peptide (33%), and proin-
sulin (21%) concentrations. During the placebo OGTTs, the
AUC for insulin decreased 37% (nonsignificant), and the ISI
increased 69% (significant) after the intervention. A further in-
dication of improved carbohydrate homeostasis was the obser-
vation that, before the intervention, 2 of the 9 subjects were
classified as having IGT (4) and neither subject fell into this
classification after the intervention. The proinsulin-insulin ratio
of these 2 subjects was lower than the group mean both before
and after intervention, which suggests that cell secretion was
not the problem. Rather, they may have been insulin resistant.
Several reports have shown that insulin resistance is not associ-
ated with an increase in this ratio (41, 43, 46).
The improvements in insulin sensitivity after the intervention
could be attributable to the various lifestyle improvements made
bythe subjects. The subjects significantlydecreasedtheir intakes
of dietary energy, total fat, and saturated fat and significantly
increased their intakes of fiber, all of which were previously
found to correlate with improved glucose tolerance and insulin
sensitivity (4751). The significant reductions in body fat are
also considered to be contributing factors (12, 13, 52). The sub-
jects also improved their aerobic fitness and refrained from in-
gestion of caffeine for 12 wk. Subjectively, there was no relation
between the degree of previous regular caffeine-consumption
habits and the degree of acute caffeine-induced insulin resis-
tance. All of the aforementioned factors could have affected the
results, and further studies are now required to address which of
the factors is most important.
We reject our hypothesis that a 12-week lifestyle intervention
would ameliorate the caffeine-induced insulin resistance ob-
served in the obese group studied. The effects of caffeine on
glucose, insulin, and C-peptide responses to the OGTT were not
significantly altered over time.
The caffeine dose (5 mg/kg) in this obese population was
equivalent to 34 cups of brewed coffee. However, it is im-
portant to note that the present study used pure caffeine rather
than a caffeine-containing beverage such as coffee and that the
caffeine challenge was given after a 2-d withdrawal from caffeine.
Coffee and other caffeinated products are composed of a myriad of
compounds. In fact, caffeine constitutes only 2% of coffees
chemical profile (53). The role of chronic coffee consumption is
controversial; a recent epidemiologic study reported that a high
coffee consumption is associated with a reduced risk of type 2
diabetes despite a high BMI, smoking, alcohol use, a low physical
activity, andanunfavorable diet (24). Incontrast, Knowler et al (25)
foundnoevidenceof arolefor coffeeconsumptionintype2diabetes
in a longitudinal population-based study. One should also realize
that there currently are novel caffeine-containing products such as
energy drinks and alcoholic beverages being marketed. Well-
controlled, prospective intervention studies are required to address
the long-termeffects of these various caffeinated products. It is not
known whether one habituates to the effects of caffeine on insulin
action, but it is noteworthy that, if habituation occurs, our present
data showthat it must be reversed within 48 h in subjects that have
consumed caffeine for many years.
The present study showed that acute caffeine ingestion signif-
icantly dampened whole-body insulin sensitivity in obese, non-
diabetic persons. A12-wk weight-loss program, which consisted
of the adoption of a healthy diet, regular aerobic exercise, and
caffeine withdrawal led to improvements in insulin sensitivity
but was unable to ameliorate the caffeine-induced deterioration
in insulin sensitivity. There was no evidence that caffeine di-
rectly affects cell secretion; rather, it appears that it directly or
indirectly causes peripheral insulin resistance, which in turn
stimulates greater insulinsecretion. The implications for caffeine
use by those who have preexisting hyperinsulinemic and hyper-
glycemic conditions, such as those with type 2 diabetes, remains
uncertain.
We thank the subjects for their valuable participation, our research assis-
tants, the staff of the Health and Performance Center and Human Nutraceu-
tical Research Unit at the University of Guelph, and Premila Sathasivamand
Patrick Sheridan for their technical expertise, time, and assistance.
HJP assisted with the development of the research study protocol, re-
cruited the subjects, cocoordinated the study, comanaged the research assis-
tants, performed the laboratory analyses, collected and interpreted data, and
wrote the manuscript. SEC assisted with the development of the research
study protocol, recruited the subjects, cocoordinated the research study,
comanaged research assistants, recruited the subjects, performed laboratory
analyses and collected data. LMB cocoordinated the research study, coman-
aged the research assistants, recruited the subjects, performed the laboratory
analyses, and collected data. AMD assisted with the supervision of data
collection, assistedwiththe data analysis andinterpretation, andassistedwith
the manuscript preparation. DHM established the assay for proinsulin, con-
ducted the analyses, and assisted with the data interpretation. JAC assisted
with the study design and supervised the data collection and analysis. TEG
designed the study, supervised the research, directed the data analysis and
interpretation, and assisted with the manuscript preparation. TEG was the
primary investigator of a research contract fromMuscletech Inc; he received
no personal financial support from the company.
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