PS304 TOPICS

Box 11
Rubbing plastic rod with fur caused a build-up of what we termed electrical charge on the rod which can be checked with
the electroscope. We infer that identical charge tends to repel itself.
However, if we charged the rods with different materials, they would sometimes be attracted. herefore, there must be at
least two types of charge.
here was also an attraction between a charged ob!ect and an uncharged ob!ect. " repulsion was never observed. We
concluded that all matter does contain charge and came up with the picture of the normally balanced charges in the
uncharged ob!ect separating.
#agnets do not register on the electroscope. hey are attracted by a charged ob!ect like any other material though.
Box 12
$s current lost after it flows through a lightbulb% &o.
he sum of the currents in each of the branches e'uals the total coming from the battery.
#ore current flows in the circuit with two parallel lightbulbs as opposed to the circuit with one lightbulb.
(ess current flows in the circuit with two lightbulbs in series as opposed to the circuit with one lightbulb.
)urrent can split, but the total remains the same.
Resistors in series* otal resistance is sum of individual resistances. +ach resistor carries the total current, but they share
the voltage.
Resistors in parallel* otal resistance is less than either individual resistance. +ach e,periences the total voltage, but they
share the total current.
-attery.s voltage is completely used up after traversing the circuit.
-atteries in series give you a total voltage which is the sum of the two.
-atteries in parallel give you the same voltage, but each will deliver only a share of the total current in the circuit.
Water analogy.
We observed that increase the voltage increased current, while increasing resistance decreased current. hus we are led to
the e'uation I = V / R. /0hm.s (aw1
0hm.s law works in each branch of a parallel circuit independently. $t also holds for the whole circuit.
#ore precisely, the voltage used for the V in 0hm.s law is the voltage lost or consumed by the resistor in 'uestion.
2ower is the rate of energy flow or consumption /units* !oules per second1. We measured this 'ualitatively by turning the
hand generator. $t was very easy to turn when not connected to anything, since then we are not providing any energy. We
found that it was easier to turn when connected to a larger resistance. 3sing this observation, and matching units, we found
that the formula P = V
2
/ R would work. -y 0hm.s law, we can convert this into the e'uivalent forms P = I V or P = I
2
R.
Why do these formulae make sense%
)apacitors can be charged and will hold electrical energy. "s they charge, the voltage across them increases until it matches
that of the battery, and the current gradually drops to 4ero.
"s they discharge, both the voltage and current gradually drop to 4ero as the capacitors empty.
Box 14
We observed three types of materials with respect to their magnetic interactions. 5ome generate magnetic fields, some
merely respond to them, and some do nothing. his is somewhat similar to the electrical case.
-y observing the interactions of different sides of several magnets, we deduced that similar poles attract and opposites repel.
#agnetic fields in every case that we have observed have lines which reconnect and do not e,tend away indefinitely.
+lectric fields of a single type of charge may e,tend indefinitely.
"n electrically charged ob!ect does not /necessarily1 have a magnetic field, and a ob!ect with a magnetic field does not
necessarily cause a response in the electroscope, that is, is not necessarily charged electrically.
We found that a current, which is charge in motion, does generate a magnetic field. We mapped out the magnetic field of a
straight conductor, and a coil.
he magnetic field generated by a current is perpendicular to the current. #agnetic fields only produce forces on currents
which are perpendicular to them. We can establish the direction with the right-hand rule. he rule is reversed for
specifically negative currents.
)urrents in the same direction attract, and vice versa.
6lu, is the amount of magnetic field passing through a loop. he most general statement we can make is that a change in
flu, causes a current to flow in the corresponding loop. he direction will be such that the secondary magnetic field
generated by the induced current will oppose whatever you are trying to do. his is how you pay for the power you are
generating.
&ote that having more loops increases your ability to catch flu,. ransformers are two coils which are coupled through a
magnetic field. 7ue to the dependence of flu, on the number of loops, the side with more loops will have greater voltage.
2ower is not created or destroyed, so that side will also have less current.
Box 15
Waves are traveling disturbances in a medium. )an be transverse or longitudinal.
6re'uency, speed, and wavelength are related by the e'uation v = f w.
Box 16
-y convention, we measure all angles with respect to a line that is perpendicular to the surface in 'uestion.
" beam of light will reflect off a surface with e'ual incoming and outgoing angles.
$n general, the angle on the outside of a material will be greater than the angle on the inside. his is refraction.
)learly the greatest possible angle is 89: for any beam. 5ome angle on the inside will correspond to this ma,imum angle on
the inside. "ny angle beyond this point will then fail to refract, since there is no room left on the outside to bend farther.
We observed that what was initially white light appears as a rainbow after it is refracted, indicating that white light actually
contains all colors, and the each color refracts in a slightly different manner.
(ight rays tend to spread out from their source. hat is why you do not see a clear image of everything in the vicinity on a
screen. he light rays spread out and thus appear as a blur on the screen rather than a sharp image. o see a clear image, we
would need to force the light rays to converge. We found that this could be achieved with a concave mirror, or a conve,
lens. he image is seen if the screen is placed at the point where the rays converge. $n general, we need to be able to ad!ust
the positions of the lens or screen in be able to image an arbitrary ob!ect.
5ince light is transverse, it can have various polari4ations. )ommon light sources produce unpolari4ed light. " polari4er
allows light to pass completely only when polari4ed in one direction. +lse it is dimmed or totally killed. We know that light
is polari4ed after passing though. We also saw that light was polari4ed at least partially after reflection.
When light passed through a very small opening, we noticed that it appears to spread out into a band or bright and dark
spots. his is a phenomenon called diffraction which is observed with any kind of wave. #ore diffraction occurs with
smaller openings and to waves with a greater wavelength.