Innovations in Education and Teaching International

Vol. 45, No. 1, February 2008, 314

ISSN 1470-3297 print/ISSN 1470-3300 online
2008 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/14703290701757385
http://www.informaworld.com
Double blending: online theory with on-campus practice in
photography instruction
Shlomo Lee Abrahmov* and Miky Ronen
School of Design and the Instructional Systems Technologies Department, Holon Institute
of Technology, Israel
Taylor and Francis Ltd RIIE_A_275707.sgm
10.1080/14703290701757385 Innovations in Education and Teaching International 1470-3297 (print)/1470-3300 (online) Original Article 2008 Taylor & Francis 45 1000000February 2008 Shlomo LeeAbrahmov artman2002@gmail.com
This paper presents a blended learning model in which the online component is not used to
replace some of the traditional on-campus activities of a course but to introduce new teaching
objectives that would not have been possible to achieve, because of class time limitations and
the nature of the course. The instructional model was aimed at integrating a theoretical layer
of visual literacy in a traditional practical photography course, using various online individual
and collaborative activities. The paper presents the model, details the instructional design of
the web-based elements and their integration with the practical on-campus activity, and
summarises an evaluation study performed with three classes. We suggest that this double
blending approach combining online theory with on-campus practice could be used to cope
with similar instructional challenges in other subject matter domains.
Keywords: Visual literacy; photography instruction; blended learning; web-based teaching
Introduction
Basic photography instruction is traditionally carried out in a purely practical course, in which the
students learn photographic skills by shooting, developing and printing black and white materials
(Sartorius 2000). Newbury (1997) pointed out that the traditional approach to teaching photogra-
phy lacks a broader intellectual significance, and argued for the need of such education to achieve
more than a set of practical skills. With the advent of photography as a cultural and social
medium, there are additional challenges to photography education, such as teaching photogra-
phers to be visually literate (Goin 2001). Robbins (2000) stressed that photographic education
must endeavour to redefine itself in order to retain its relevance to contemporary culture. With
this perspective, photography instruction could be used to introduce the students to the basic skills
of visual literacy which involves both the reading and writing of images. As a basic course of
introducing the students to the various aspects of practical photography, the duration of one
semester poses a challenge for the instructor who had many learning outcomes to achieve in a
limited period. Our goal was to include a theoretical element in the practical course, which will
enable the students to gain the basic skills of reading photographs and in doing so introduce the
concept of visual literacy within practical photography instruction.
The challenge
Photography can be compared to writing, a medium that could be used in various levels of mean-
ings: to produce a shopping list, a journalistic account or to create an intricate work of literature.
*Corresponding author. Email: artman2002@gmail.com
4 S.L. Abrahmov and M. Ronen
The ultimate goal of photography instruction is to teach the literature level of photography.
Therefore, an effective instruction requires the development of reading skills as well as the prac-
tice of writing skills in which both the reading of images and the making of them are regarded
as informed activities. Clarke (1997) claims that instead of looking at photographs, which implies
a passive act of recognition, we should insist on reading them. The act of reading involves an
active and complex comprehension of relationships and the assignation of meanings, as well as
the exploration of the interaction between the reader and the image, in a similar fashion to our
activity when reading text. Tagg (1993) posited that we should explore the meaning of a photo-
graph more like the reading of a complex sentence than the reading of a single word. Trachtenberg
(1988) suggests that we should enter the photograph, negotiate its intricate passages and by doing
so we can begin to sort out its implications, its explicit intentions and those that remain hidden.
Sayre et al. (1999) described visual language as a silent language which is not easily trans-
lated into the verbal, thus, they explained, it can be difficult to discuss, critique, prove or teach.
Photography as a visual language is difficult for many people to perceive, because they are used
to photographs as being unary, or transparent windows to the world. If photographs are transpar-
ent (Cohen and Meskin 2004; Lopes 2003; Walton 1984), we do not have to look at a photograph
to get specific insights, or need to engage special reading skills, because transparency means that
there are no significant differences between the way we perceive photographs and the way we
perceive their referents. This factual approach to photographs is common to novice photogra-
phers and it creates problems in teaching when we want the students to leave the tangible world
of facts in order to accept the poetic or symbolic quality of the image (Sayre et al. 1999). Thus,
the first concern to address is the students initial perception of photography, as a medium with a
factual level of meaning only. The pedagogy constructed in the theoretical part of this course is
aimed at changing this perception of photography and achieving an understanding of photo-
graphs as having an additional interpretive level of meaning which is interlinked with their
factual level. This approach stresses the relation between practical aspects of photographs
creation with how these aspects influence the content of the photographs.
Photography teaching as presented in this article commences the process by which photogra-
phers gain the ability to be visually literate. This kind of visual literacy has to do with critical
knowledge that includes awareness of the intentionality of how an image is constructed in order
to offer a particular response or experience (Kellner 2002; Raney 1999). When one talks about
theory of photography the intention is not theory of optics, films structures etc. but critical
theory which explores meanings in photographs. This theory is based upon adapting an approach
to photographs that explores interrelated levels of meanings. In his Camera Lucida, Barthes
(1981) talked about a photograph as being unary when it does not transform the reality of its
origin in some significant fashion. Conversely, a photograph becomes richer in its implications
when it possesses more than one layer of meaning. Barthes, in his essay The Photographic
Message (1977), discussed two kinds of messages in a photograph; one is the denotative
message and the second is the connotative message. Feinstein (1996) described these two levels
as the literal and the non-literal or metaphoric levels of interpretation. In order to clarify the
distinction between them we can call the first the factual level and the second the interpretive
level. Barthes schema of denotation and connotation offers a simple and powerful method of
reading and interpreting images (Barrett 2003). The theoretical underpinning for this course,
then, is based on teaching the students to explore the development of these two layers of mean-
ing in photographs.
In addition, the theoretical layer is intended to enhance the use of professional terms and crite-
ria that are specific to photography and other visual media. The terms used for reading images,
or for basic visual literacy, are developed from the perspective of the visual practitioner in
photography. The idea is to create a similarity between the terms used to create photographs and
Innovations in Education and Teaching International 5
the terms that are used to read them. The use of common criteria is significant because as the
definition of full visual literacy includes both the reading and the writing of images, common
criteria help the students perform in both of these activities. With this perspective, the parallel
activities in this course, one theoretical and the other practical, are intended to enrich each other.
It seems that this approach to the enhancement of the use of terms could be applied successfully
in other educational situations where such a challenge is encountered.
Web-based teaching of photography
As in all other subject domains, the web is also used for the teaching of practical photography.
Typical examples are the online diploma photography studies described by Hamilton (2003) and
the Virtual Studio (Brown and Cruickshank 2003). While these courses offer a web alternative to
the on-campus teaching, their contents and instructional approach are very similar to the tradi-
tional courses, focusing mainly on the practical and technical aspects of photography.
Nowadays, many higher education courses adopt a blended model, which combines online
and face-to-face instruction. This model usually refers to a hybrid approach in which the online
component replaces part of the on-campus traditional activities (Dean et al. 2001; McDonald and
McAteer 2003; Murphy 2003; Myint and Atputhasamy 2003; Voos 2003). The incorporation of
online elements into academic courses offers various ways of implementing traditional instruc-
tional methods, as well as the ability to incorporate new strategies made feasible by this medium.
Nevertheless, each delivery method should be chosen for what it can deliver best (Zenger and
Uehlein 2001).
Our goal in using the web was not to replace the traditional activities in this course but to
introduce the new teaching objectives that would not have been possible to achieve because of
class time limitations and the definition of the course as practical by nature.
The double blending instructional model
The photography course is part of the mandatory core requirements for the Bachelor of Design
degree. The traditional course included lectures, practical class activities and discussions, personal
assignments, class critiques of practical assignments, a final project and a peer-evaluation activity
of the final project. The new revised course consists of two parallel layers that are performed
simultaneously (Table 1): the on-campus part followed a traditional black and white photography
Table 1. Course activities and assignments.
Practical (writing skills) on campus Theoretical (reading skills) online
1. Practise manual camera exposure
2. Practise use of depth of field
3. Development of black and white films
4. Printing black and white photographs
5. Portrait photography
6. Quality of light
7. Still life
8. Street/on location photography
9. Self-portrait as
10. Primary colours slides film photography
11. Model in the studio artificial lighting
12. Final project
1. My personal choice of a photograph
2. Focal points
3. Observe a portrait
4. Peer evaluation of portrait assignment
5. The editors choice
6. Analysis of a photograph
Peer evaluation of the nal project
6 S.L. Abrahmov and M. Ronen
introductory course structure, where the students perform various practical assignments in order
to gain elementary camera and photographic skills; and the web-based activities aimed at offering
the introduction to critical study and discussion that are necessary in order to develop the basic
skills of visual literacy.
The online assignments
The instructional approach we adopted can be described as pragmatic constructivism (Perkins
1999) allowing students to be active, social and creative learners in various contexts, while the
web-based layer was based on the combination of different modalities of learning for different
purposes (Carman 2002).
All web-based assignments were individual. Part of the online assignments were openly
submitted in the course website allowing students to learn from peer examples (Ronen and
Langley 2004) while others were performed using a post before viewing approach (Duffy,
Dueber and Hawley 1998). A group discussion board was available for continuous peerpeer and
teacherstudents communication and was used to support the theoretical as well as the practical
(on-campus) layer of the course.
We shall focus here on the theoretical, web-based activities. Following is a description of the
assignments (Table 1), their implementation format and the rationale underlying their instruc-
tional design.
1. My personal choice
The students were asked to choose a favourite photograph (from a recommended site or a site of
their choice) and to explain their selections.
Implementation format: open submission in a designated discussion group board.
Scaffolding: none.
This first online activity aimed to elicit intuitive reflection on a photograph in writing and to
familiarise students with the online submission procedures. Students were encouraged, but not
requested, to examine and respond to peers selections.
2. Focal points
The students were asked to choose a classical painting (from a recommended website), to mark
the main and the secondary focal points and their relation to each other, then to explain how this
arrangement affects and enhances the content of the work.
Implementation format: open submission as a file attached to a message in a designated
discussion group board.
Scaffolding: explanation and examples of the concept of focal points was hyperlinked to
the task page, as well as the opportunity to view peer examples.
The activitys intent was to introduce the concept of focal points, to develop the ability to iden-
tify the main and secondary focal points in an image, to promote awareness of the major role of
the focal points in forming an effective composition, and to realise the possible connection
between factual and interpretive elements in a work of art.
3. Observe a portrait (Figure 1)
The students were asked to choose a portrait (from the Masters of Photography site), then to:
Innovations in Education and Teaching International 7
(1) Analyse the factual content according to the following criteria:
(a) Quality and direction of light.
(b) Composition.
(c) Depth of field.
(d) Relationship between figure and background.
(2) Express their personal response to the portrait (associations and feelings it elicits).
(3) Explain why they chose this particular portrait.
Implementation format: open submission in a designated discussion group board.
Scaffolding: submission using a template. Explanation and examples of each term are
hyperlinked to the task and template page. The opportunity to view peer examples.
Figure 1. Assignment 3, the template and a sample student response.
8 S.L. Abrahmov and M. Ronen
Figure 1. Assignment 3, the template and a sample student response.
This activity introduces the basic factual terms and concepts which are directly related to practice.
It aimed to develop students ability to analyse (read) a photograph using these terms as common
criteria and to promote the awareness of the close connection between factual elements and inter-
pretive aspects of a picture. The use of the specific resource (Masters of Photography) was meant
to ensure exposure to photographs with a developed second level of meaning. This online activity
was performed in parallel with the practical portrait photography assignment.
4. Peer evaluation of portrait assignment
The students were asked to examine two peer submissions of the portrait assignment and to:
(1) Evaluate the factual analysis and add details, if necessary.
(2) Offer their personal response to the portrait.
(3) Observe and describe the development of a second level of meaning in this portrait.
Implementation format: each student examined the two peer submissions following his own
(in the group discussion board of assignment 3) and sent his evaluations as responses
threaded to each of the original messages.
Scaffolding: explanation and a reference to the second level of meaning in photographs
were hyperlinked to the instructions.
The intention of this activity was for the students to learn from their peer examples, to evaluate
an analysis of a photograph and to personally reflect and describe the second level of meaning in
a photograph.
5. The editors choice (Figure 2)
The students were presented with five photographs taken in the same time and place and were
asked to respond to the following question:
As an editor of a newspaper, which of the photographs would you publish? Explain your selection.
Figure 2. Assignment 5, the distribution of students responses (a class) and sample explanations.
Implementation format: post before viewing. Students selections and their explanations
were exposed only after all students completed the assignments. The results were used to
discuss the concept of framing and the functioning of images in different contexts as well
as the development of a second level of meaning in a particular photograph.
The aim of this activity was to explore the concept of framing and its effect on the content of
a photograph. When a photographer lifts a camera and looks through its viewfinder, the first
thing he has to be aware of is how the photograph is to be framed and how it would influence
the creation of the image with regard to its composition, elimination of certain details, and rela-
tionship between the subject and the background. These factual considerations can have a criti-
cal influence on the creation of a second connotative level of meaning that transcends the
particularity of the photographs referent. The example used to demonstrate this issue is the
sequence of five frames Dorothea Lange photographed while creating her famous Migrant
Mother in 1936 (Levine 1988, 1617). In Langes sequence we can observe that the frame
which was published as Migrant Mother removes all references to the environment where this
photograph was taken, leaving only the mothers gaze with the children on her shoulders. Such
cropping creates a photograph which is detached from the time and place of its creation and
can thus gain a universal significance and meaning. In addition, this assignment demonstrated
how our attitude towards photographs can be influenced by the contexts in which they are to
function.
Innovations in Education and Teaching International 9
6. Analysis of a photograph (Figure 3)
Each student was assigned a specific photograph from a selection of five different photographs
and was asked to analyse its factual and interpretive levels, and to express a personal response to
the photograph.
Implementation format: post before viewing. Students analyses and responses were
exposed only after all students completed the assignments.
Figure 2. Assignment 5, the distribution of students responses (a class) and sample explanations.
10 S.L. Abrahmov and M. Ronen
Figure 3. Assignment 6, a sample student response (the factual terms used are highlighted).
This activity was aimed at summarising all aspects of the theoretical layer of the course: the
implementation of critical approach to observing photographs, the use of terms and common
criteria in analysing photographs without specific scaffolding, and identifying the connection
between the factual and the interpretive levels of meaning.
A content analysis was carried out in order to examine the use of terms and the ability to refer
them to the interpretive level of meaning in a photograph.
Peer evaluation of the practical work
For the final project the students had to create a series of four to six printed photographs on a
common underlying theme. The choice of subject for the series was left open for the students to
Figure 3. Assignment 6, a sample student response (the factual terms used are highlighted).
Innovations in Education and Teaching International 11
choose according to their personal preference, but it was explained to them that the main goal of
their project was to create photographs with a developed second level of meaning.
A peer evaluation was carried out during the last on-campus session of the course. Each
student was asked to evaluate two peer projects and submit his evaluation in writing. The students
were not specifically directed how to organise their evaluations. A content analysis of the
students responses was carried out in order to examine the use of factual terms and their ability
to relate to two levels of meaning in a photograph.
Implementation and evaluation
The instructional model was implemented with three courses during the academic years 2004
2005 (second year Interior Design, first year Industrial Design), with 2224 students in each
course. The courses were held on campus and were accompanied by a course website organised
within the HighLearn management system.
1
The evaluation study focused on examining:
The efficiency of the web-based component and the instructional design of the online
activities.
The impact of the theoretical web-based layer of the course on the students practical work.
Data sources
This evaluation study was based on the analysis of the data extracted from the following sources:
Students online activity and their performance in the theoretical tasks (content analysis).
Students performance in the practical final project.
The peer evaluation records of the final project (content analysis).
Students reflections as expressed in a questionnaire administered at the end of the course.
Interviews with a sample of students from each class.
In the following sections we shall present a brief summary of the main findings.
The use of factual terms
A detailed content analysis was performed on all students written responses in order to identify
the use of factual concepts before, during and at the end of the course. At the beginning of the
course (assignment 1) about 30% of the students used the term composition in their intuitive
photo analysis and few students mentioned light direction and framing.
During the course (assignments 25) the students became familiar with professional terms
used to characterise the factual elements of a photograph. These assignments were structured and
scaffolded by templates and additional explanatory materials.
As can be seen from Figure 4, most students were able to use and apply these concepts in a
non-scaffolded task (assignment 6). The awareness of the role of the factual aspects and the abil-
ity to apply them was evaluated again, in the written peer evaluations of the final project, and by
the reflective questionnaire administered at the end of the course.
Figure 4. Use of terms in the course of various activities.
It is interesting to note that the term focal points was the concept most frequently mentioned
by students in the reflective questionnaire, when asked to list the most important aspects of
photography that they had learned. This can be explained by the fact that the concept of focal
points was revelatory to the students and that they found it most relevant to their design studies
and work. Indeed, many students specifically mentioned this concept when asked about the trans-
ferability of the theoretical knowledge to other areas or situations.
12 S.L. Abrahmov and M. Ronen
The contribution of the reading skills to the development of writing skills
In introductory practical courses students tend to focus mainly on factual factors (such as
composition, depth of field), as these elements are directly related to their practical work. Our
major challenge was to promote the awareness of the connotative level of meaning, and its rela-
tion to the factual aspects, in order to foster the understanding and creation of photographs that
express additional levels of meanings. Students awareness to the connotative level was tested
by examining their responses in their open reflection questionnaire; about 60% of the students in
each of the classes mentioned the importance of the second level of meaning in a photograph.
Furthermore, in the peer evaluation activity, about 60% of the students were looking for a
second (connotative) level of meaning in peers work and managed to relate it to the factual
elements of the photographs.
The final project emphasis was on the students creating work that has a second level of mean-
ing. It is typical for beginning students to initially approach their projects from a documentary
perspective. A personal consultation was carried out during the creation of the final projects. In
these consultations the students were advised how to approach their projects with a specific intent
beforehand. For example, a student who wanted to create a project which captured the interaction
between her divorced parents was advised to try to observe and capture the space between them
and in doing so reflect on the psychological space between her parents.
Most of the projects achieved the desired result of photographs that go beyond simple docu-
mentary photographs, that is, photographs with a developed interpretive level of meaning.
Was the quality of the practical work related to the parallel online study of the theoretical
aspects?
All students reported that the study of theoretical aspects of reading photographs had
contributed to the development of their practical skills, while most (70%) stated that it had a
significant impact on the photographs they have produced. Following are two sample comments:
I could see the difference and the process I went through from the first lesson to the final project, with
the contribution of the analysis I improved my work.
Photography is not only technical. It is based on theoretical aspects that without them it would have
been impossible to reach a satisfactory level.
Figure 4. Use of terms in the course of various activities.
Innovations in Education and Teaching International 13
Furthermore, the detailed analysis revealed that achieving a developed interpretive level in the
practical work was significantly correlated (R = 0.43, p = 0.02) with students awareness and
knowledge of the theoretical concepts as reflected in their replies to the questionnaire.
These findings demonstrate the beneficial contribution of the theoretical aspects when they
are integrated with practice.
Web-based learning aspects
At the end of the courses students were asked to reflect on various aspects related to the online
asynchronous activities conducted via the course site. All students reported that the online activ-
ities were effective and contributed to their ability to read photographs.
Students were specifically asked to reflect on the open submission approach and their use of
peer examples. Most students (60%) reported that they had examined peers work before
submitting their own; 50% reported that they had changed and improved their work as a result of
examining peer examples; about 25% of the students mentioned events in which they had
prepared their work but postponed submission in order to view more peer examples. These find-
ings confirm that ability to view peers work provides useful scaffolding to the students who
may need additional help.
Summary and concluding remarks
We have introduced a model in which the blending of face-to-face with online instruction enabled
an effective integration of theoretical aspects in the context of a traditional practical course. This
instructional model seems to address successfully two concerns. The first is how to include a
theoretical layer in the context of a practical course. The second is what would be a simple and
relevant theoretical content both to the practice of photography and to the introduction of basic
skills of visual literacy.
The web-based component enabled us to engage the students in individual activity, where
each student, in his own time, can develop his visual reading skills through a guided and focused
set of activities, while learning from peer examples.
We suggest that this double blending approach of online theory with on-campus practice
could be used to cope with similar instructional challenges of integrating theoretical aspects in
practical courses in other subject matter domains.
Note
1. HighLearn, Britannica Knowledge Systems (http://www.britannica-ks.com).
Notes on contributors
Dr. Shlomo Lee Abrahmov is an artist and lecturer on photography, visual literacy and visual culture in the
School of Design and the Instructional Systems Technologies Department, Holon Institute of Technology.
His research includes theory and practice in photography, and the development of teaching strategies in
visual literacy and visual culture.
Prof. Miky Ronen is the chair of the Instructional Systems Technologies Department at the Holon Institute
of Technology. Her research focuses on the instructional design of interactive learning environments and on
the incorporation of technology in the teaching and learning process.
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