Tsunami-induced large-scale scour-and-ll structures

in Late Albian to Cenomanian deposits of the

Grajau Basin, northern Brazil
DILCE DE FA

TIMA ROSSETTI*, ANA MARIA GO

ES, WERNER TRUCKENBRODT

and JOSE

ANAISSE Jr
*Museu Goeldi, Departamento de Ecologia, Av. Magalhaes Barata, 376, CP399, Cep 66040-170,
Belem, Para, Brazil (E-mail: rossetti@museu-goeldi.br)
Centro de Geociencias, Universidade Federal do Para, Campus do Guama S/N, Cep 66075-900,
Belem, Para, Brazil
ABSTRACT
Late Albian to Cenomanian upper shoreface deposits from the Grajau Basin,
northern Brazil, consist of well-sorted, very ne- to ne-grained sandstones
with swaley, trough, tabular and minor hummocky cross-stratication.
A striking feature of these deposits is the abundance of large-scale scour-and-
ll structures, which consist of regularly spaced, repetitive, very shallow
swales with either symmetrical or asymmetrical proles, arranged along an
undulose surface or as a succession of superimposed troughs. The sediment
lling these scours is characterized by very ne-grained sandstone with gently
undulose, near-parallel lamination to very low-angle dipping cross-
stratication intergraded with swaley and hummocky cross-stratication. The
nature of the scours and the sedimentary structures of their lls reveal
the action of combined ows, which are hydrodynamically similar to those
developed during storms. However, it is speculated that the combined ows
responsible for the genesis of these structures were formed by tsunami waves
enhanced by tsunami-induced ebb currents and/or tidal currents. This
interpretation is proposed on the basis of several lines of reasoning: (1)
palaeogeographic reconstructions of the study area during the late Cretaceous
show that it was outside the belt favourable for the development of storms; (2)
comparison of the scour-and-ll structures with stratigraphically correlatable
deposits exposed north of the study area, where similar features occur in
association with abundant seismically induced, soft-sediment deformation
structures; and (3) the presence of several styles of soft-sediment deformation
features (i.e. convolute lamination, bed collapse, large-scale folds, massive
bedding, sand-lled fractures and diastasis cracks) are suggestive of
synsedimentary seismic activity in Cretaceous deposits located in and near
to the study area. This study proposes that episodic, high-amplitude tsunami
waves, enhanced by tsunami-induced ebb currents, develop powerful ows
capable of producing complex patterns of erosion and sedimentation, which
may be represented by scour-and-ll structures similar to those described here.
Keywords Cretaceous, northern Brazil, scour-and-ll structures, tsunamis.
INTRODUCTION
Flows with both a unidirectional and an oscilla-
tory component (i.e. combined ows) control
sedimentation patterns in many shallow marine
settings during storms (Dott & Bourgeois, 1982;
McCrory & Walker, 1986; Duke et al., 1991; Cheel
& Leckie, 1993). Modern continental shelf and
Sedimentology (2000) 47, 309323
2000 International Association of Sedimentologists 309
nearshore sedimentary environments have been
investigated, and ume experiments have been
conducted in order to understand the dynamics
of combined ows (Bowen & Inman, 1969; Grant
& Madsen, 1979; Brevik & Aas, 1980; Swift et al.,
1983; Vincent et al., 1983; Davies et al., 1988;
Arnott & Southard, 1990; Southard et al., 1990).
These studies have led sedimentologists generally
to associate several styles of undulose lamina-
tions documented in the sedimentary record (e.g.
quasi-planar stratication, and hummocky and
swaley cross-stratication) with combined ows
(Harms et al., 1975; Brenchley, 1985; Nttvedt &
Kreisa, 1987; Yagishita et al., 1992; Arnott, 1993;
Cheel & Leckie, 1993). However, the characteris-
tics and hydrodynamic interpretation of the sedi-
mentary structures produced under combined
ows are still the focus of ongoing discussion
(e.g. McKie, 1994; Amos et al., 1996; Banerjee,
1996; Rossetti, 1997a), with particular emphasis
being placed on erosional structures (Myrow
& Southard, 1996). The origin of combined
ows in marine settings has commonly been
attributed to the interaction of oceanic waves
and unidirectional currents but, in areas affected
by earthquakes, high-amplitude tsunami waves
may be associated with currents in order to
produce powerful combined ows. Tsunami-
induced ows may reach sufcient magnitude to
transport large volumes of sediment (e.g. Shiki &
Yamazaki, 1996), but the sedimentary record
resulting from this process has not yet been
widely investigated.
This paper documents a type of scour-and-ll
structure exceptionally well preserved in Creta-
ceous deposits of the Grajau Basin, northern
Brazil. This structure bears some resemblance to
swaley cross-stratication (Dott & Bourgeois,
1982; Leckie & Walker, 1982; Allen & Underhill,
1989), because of the superimposed, shallow
scours draped by low-angle dipping laminae that
thicken from the margins into the troughs. How-
ever, the size and internal sedimentary features of
these mega-swales suggest that the physical
processes responsible for their genesis acted on
a much larger scale than those required for the
origin of ordinary swaley cross-stratication.
Based on detailed sedimentological analysis,
these large scour-and-ll structures are proposed
to be formed by strong bed erosion, followed by
deposition under the inuence of combined ow
conditions probably induced by high-amplitude
tsunami waves.
GEOLOGICAL SETTING
The Grajau Basin (Fig. 1A and B) was formed by
northward-dipping normal faults that developed
during the last stages of Gondwana break-up. The
basin is bounded (Fig. 1B) by the Xambioa-
Teresina Arch (south), the Rio Parnaba Linea-
ment (east) and the Tocantins-Araguaia Arch
(west). From the late Albian onwards, this basin
was connected to the north with the Sao Lus and
Barreirinhas Basins. The Grajau Basin was ini-
tially lled during Aptian time by dominantly
lacustrine black shales, anhydrites and lime-
stones of the Codo Formation, and uvio-deltaic
sandstones and conglomerates of the Grajau
Formation (Mesner & Wooldridge, 1964; Aguiar,
1971). These units overlay Palaeozoic sedimen-
tary deposits of the Parnaba Basin, as well
as metasedimentary and granitic rocks of the
Tocantins-Araguaia Belt and Sao Lus Craton
(Rodrigues et al., 1994). The Codo and Grajau
Formations are overlain by sandstones and minor
mudstones, traditionally referred to as Itapecuru
and Ipixuna Formations, which were previously
considered to be deposits of uvial and lacustrine
environments (Campbell et al., 1949; Francisco
et al., 1971). The age of these deposits is between
Albian and early Tertiary (?), based on their
stratigraphic relationship with the underlying
Aptian Codo Formation and the overlying Oligo-
ceneMiocene Pirabas and Barreiras Formations.
Cretaceous deposits are well exposed along the
CarajasSao Lus railroad, 15 km north-east of
Acailandia, Maranhao State (Fig. 1C). Although
the exact age of these rocks is unknown because
of the lack of biostratigraphic data, a possible late
Albian to Cenomanian age is inferred based on
correlation with the Alcantara Formation of the
Itapecuru Group in the adjacent Sao Lus Basin
(Rossetti & Truckenbrodt, 1997; Rossetti, 1997a).
Facies analysis suggests that the deposits exposed
in the study area record environments transition-
al from uvial to shallow marine (Fig. 2). The
marine inuence increases upwards in the sec-
tions, suggesting a transgressive nature. Similar
facies have been observed in the correlatable
Alcantara Formation, which has been attributed
to a transgressive incised valley ll (Rossetti,
1996). The sedimentary attributes of individual
facies associations will be described briey to
provide the palaeoenvironmental context for the
large-scale scour-and-ll structures that occur in
the shoreface deposits.
310 D. de F. Rossetti et al.
2000 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 47, 309323
DESCRIPTION OF FACIES
ASSOCIATIONS
A total of four intergrading facies associations
(AD) in the late Albian to Cenomanian sections
of the study area have been identied and
interpreted as deposits of uvial to nearshore
marine settings (Fig. 2; Table 1).
Facies association A consists of poorly sorted,
ne- to pebbly grained, kaolinized, feldspathic
sandstones interbedded with minor conglomer-
ates. The sandstone displays small- to large-scale,
Fig. 1. (A and B) Location map of the Grajau Basin showing the main structural elements dening its margins. (C)
Study area in north-eastern Ac ailandia, Maranhao State (IIII locate the proles shown in Fig. 2).
Tsunami-induced large-scale scour-and-ll structures 311
2000 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 47, 309323
tabular and trough cross-stratication with
north-east- to south-east-oriented azimuth dip
angles (Fig. 3A). Thin (i.e. few centimetres thick),
parallel-laminated strata internger locally with
the cross-stratied beds. The deposits are arranged
into mainly ning- and thinning-upward cycles
up to 6 m thick, which are characteristically
marked by erosional basal surfaces mantled
by quartz pebbles. Facies association A grades
locally into facies association D through an
Fig. 2. Representative lithostratigraphic proles of the Cretaceous deposits in the Ac ailandia area, with the inter-
preted depositional environments and location of the scour-and-ll structures discussed in the text (see Fig. 1 for
location of sections IIII). AD, facies associations.
Table 1. Summary of facies associations and interpreted depositional environments of late Albian to Cenomanian
deposits in the study area, near Acailandia.
Facies
association Description environment Depositional
A Poorly sorted, ne-sand to pebbly sandstone with tabular and trough
cross-stratication, basal erosive surface with lags, and ning/thinning
upward cycles
Bedload-dominated
uvial channel
B Sharp-based, moderately sorted, ne- to medium-grained sandstone with
bidirectional trough and tabular cross-stratication characterized by
reactivation surfaces and mud drapes
Tidal channel/inlet
C Horizontally laminated, heterolithic beds with rootlets and lenses of ripple
and climbing ripple cross-laminated sandstone
Lagoon complex
D Well-sorted, very ne- to ne-grained sandstone with large-scale scour-and
-ll structures that internally display intergrading undulose to low-angle
truncation lamination, swaley, trough, tabular and hummocky cross-
stratication and parallel to subhorizontal lamination. The trace fossils
Ophiomorpha, Skolithos, Planolites and Thalassinoides are present in this
facies association
Nearshore
312 D. de F. Rossetti et al.
2000 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 47, 309323
interval of low-angle, sigmoidal cross-stratied
sandstones.
Facies association B consists of moderately to
well-sorted, ne- to medium-grained, kaolinized,
feldspathic sandstone beds with sharp basal
surfaces draped by lags of quartz pebbles and
mud intraclasts. The sandstone displays either
south-east- or north-west-oriented (Fig. 3B)
trough and tabular cross-stratication with abun-
dant reactivation surfaces and mud drapes that
dene 2- to 5-cm-thick foreset packages. Set
thickness ranges from a few centimetres up to
5 m. Large-scale sets form compound cross-strat-
ication characterized by superimposed, small- to
medium-scale cross-beds. Grain size and set
thickness commonly decrease upwards.
Facies association C can be subdivided into: (a)
heterolithic beds; and (b) mudstone with lenses of
very ne-grained sandstone. The heterolithic beds
are up to 2 m thick and arranged into horizontal-
laminated mudstone that alternates with siltstone
andvery ne- to ne-grainedsandstone. Mudstone
layers contain desiccation cracks. The uppermost
part of the heterolithic beds is massive and
contains rootlets. The mudstone facies either
displays horizontal lamination or is massive.
Bioturbation is locally so abundant that individual
trace fossils could not be identied. Soft-sediment
deformation structures are also very common
locally. The sandstone lenses that occur within
the mudstone are, in general, less than 05 m thick
and grade into either ning- or coarsening-upward
successions showing abundant trough and climb-
ing cross-lamination. These lenses also show
undulose to low-angle cross-lamination and
medium-scale, swaley cross-stratication; sym-
metrical ripple marks are present locally.
Facies association D is characterized by
well-sorted, very ne- to ne-grained sandstone
with a variety of intergrading structures, includ-
ing swaley, trough, tabular and minor hummocky
cross-stratication, as well as undulose to low-
angle truncating lamination. These beds grade
into ne- to medium-grained, subhorizontally
laminated sandstones, forming packages up to
20 m thick. Trace fossils (e.g. Ophiomorpha,
Skolithos, Planolites, Thalassinoides) are rare
within these beds, although some sandstone beds,
12 m thick, possess pervasive burrowing so that
the original structure has been completely
destroyed. Palaeocurrent data from the swaley
cross-sets indicate north-east-oriented palaeo-
ows (Fig. 3C).
INTERPRETATION OF THE
DEPOSITIONAL SETTING
A depositional setting ranging from uvial to tide
and shallow marine is proposed for the deposits
of the study area. Within this depositional setting,
four facies associations have been recognized.
Facies association A is attributed to bedload-
dominated channels based on the poorly sorted
and coarse-grained deposits, their original felds-
pathic (now kaolinitic) composition, internal
arrangement in ning-upward cycles and basal
erosional surfaces mantled by lags. The sigmoidal
beds that occur laterally between uvial and
marine deposits are interpreted as deltaic lobes
Fig. 3. Palaeocurrent distribution for the Cretaceous deposits near Ac ailandia measured from (A) uvial cross-
stratication; (B) tidal cross-stratication; and (C) swaley cross-stratication.
Tsunami-induced large-scale scour-and-ll structures 313
2000 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 47, 309323
that entered into the nearshore setting. The main
north-east/south-east orientation of uvial cross-
strata suggests a local, roughly north- to south-
oriented palaeoshoreline.
Facies association B is attributed to a tidal
setting, as suggested by the trough and tabular
cross-beds with abundant reactivation surfaces
and mud drapes (e.g. Kreisa & Moiola, 1986;
Leckie & Singh, 1991; Nio & Yang, 1991). These
features, together with the sharp base with lags
and the internal sedimentary architecture, suggest
a tidal channel or inlet depositional setting. The
compound cross-stratication with opposing
cross-sets is attributed to the migration of large-
scale bedforms within the channels during alter-
nating dominant and subordinate tidal currents
(e.g. Allen, 1980). The south-east and north-west
orientation of these cross-sets reinforces the
proposed NS palaeoshoreline orientation, given
a simplied model in which the tidal currents are
normal to the coastline.
The genetic relationship of facies association B
with facies association C suggests that the tidal
channels/inlets were probably surrounded by
lagoonal deposits. The mudstone in facies asso-
ciation C is interpreted as representing low-
energy, lagoonal conditions, while the internal
sandstone lenses probably formed as a result of
tidal deltas and wash-over fans during storm
events (e.g. Carter et al., 1989; Murakoshi &
Masuda, 1991). The associated laminated hetero-
lithic deposits with desiccation cracks and root
marks are interpreted as recording sedimentation
on tidal ats that surrounded the lagoon.
Facies association D corresponds to more open
marine conditions. The abundance of swaley and
minor hummocky cross-stratication point to a
high-energy, upper shoreface environment (e.g.
Dott & Bourgeois, 1982; Walker, 1984; McCrory &
Walker, 1986; Hadley & Elliot, 1993). Minor
deposition under foreshore conditions is also
suggested by the occurrence of parallel to sub-
horizontal laminated sandstones. The large-scale
scour-and-ll structure, which is typical of
this facies association, is attributed to sea bed
erosion and subsequent deposition under severe
combined ow conditions, as shown in the
following discussion.
DESCRIPTION OF THE SCOUR-
AND-FILL-STRUCTURE
A distinctive sedimentary feature of facies asso-
ciation D is the large-scale scour-and-ll struc-
tures (Fig. 4), which form the main focus of this
paper. The scours occur either distributed along
an undulose surface or, more commonly, as a
succession of superimposed, intercutting troughs
(Fig. 5A and B). The scoured surface is charac-
terized by a series of regularly spaced, large-scale
troughs separated by intervening hummocks with
sizes similar to the adjacent scours. Trough-to-
trough or hummock-to-hummock distances
average 1520 m, although scours up to 40 m
wide were observed in several localities (Fig. 5A).
The relief produced by the scours and hummocks
along the surface ranges from approximately 03
to 12 m; thus, wavelength to height ratios are up
to 50. The complete geometry of the scours could
not be dened, as three-dimensional exposures
were not available. In the sections studied, the
scours show either symmetrical or asymmetrical
shapes. The latter is far more common, being
characterized by an abrupt side, dipping at angles
that range from 20 up to 30, and an opposite,
more gently dipping (1015) side. Both the oor
of the scours and the top of the hummocks show
superimposed smaller scale scours (Fig. 6), which
are either symmetrical or asymmetrical in shape
and have a wavelength and height averaging
07 m and <01 m respectively. A striking feature
Fig. 4. Large-scale scour-and-ll structures that occur near Acailandia, northern Brazil (dashed lines indicate the
undulose surface at the base of these structures).
314 D. de F. Rossetti et al.
2000 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 47, 309323
of the large-scale and superimposed, smaller
asymmetrical scours is that, in both cases, the
gently dipping sides dip in the same, north-
eastward direction.
The sediment that lls the scours is well sorted
and characterized by subrounded to well-roun-
ded, very ne sand. The main sedimentary
structure consists of gently undulose, horizontal
to very low-angle dipping laminae that typically
thicken into troughs and thin towards the hum-
mocks (Fig. 5A and B). The undulose lamination
closely follows the morphology of the scours,
giving the impression that internal laminae are
virtually continuous and parallel to the basal
surface. However, close observation reveals that,
although individual laminae drape the hum-
mocky topography conformably, they gently
onlap against the basal troughs. The undulose
laminae are marked by a large number of very
gently dipping erosional surfaces that truncate
the underlying lamination and are mantled by
laminae that are conformable to, or end against,
such surfaces (see u in Fig. 7; Fig. 8). These
truncation surfaces eventually become more
continuous and undulose until they become
parallel to bedding.
A striking feature of the sediment inll is its
internal arrangement into cycles, each up to 15 m
thick and consisting of undulose lamination that
grades upwards into small- to medium-scale,
nearly north-eastward dipping, low-angle cross-
stratication. Some of these cross-sets have tops
marked by either symmetrical or asymmetrical
ripples (Fig. 9). Where cycles are absent, the
undulating lamination forms amalgamated sets
bounded by sharp surfaces.
The undulose laminae merge laterally into
nested, small and medium-scale swaley, trough
and minor, hummocky cross-stratication (Fig. 7).
Palaeocurrent measurements from the swaley and
trough cross-stratication indicate a dominant
north-eastward (i.e. offshore) ow orientation
(Fig. 3C). Occasionally, cosets of small- to me-
dium-scale cross-stratication, with a number of
reactivation surfaces, mud drapes and/or mud
chips, also internger with the undulating lami-
nae. These cross-sets indicate palaeocurrent ori-
entation similar to that of the structures with
Fig. 5. Lateral sections with large-scale, scour-and-ll structures showing (A) symmetrical to slightly asymmetrical
scours distributed along an undulose surface (arrows); and (B) a superimposed intercutting relationship between
scours and lls. Note the undulose lamination (u) of the sediment ll.
Fig. 6. Detail of the large-scale
scours with superimposed, sym-
metrical and asymmetrical smaller
scale scours (arrows). See Fig. 5A
for location.
Tsunami-induced large-scale scour-and-ll structures 315
2000 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 47, 309323
reactivation surfaces and mud drapes observed in
facies association B.
COMBINED FLOW GENESIS OF THE
SCOUR-AND-FILL STRUCTURE
Disregarding the scale and internal ll, these
scour-and-ll structures resemble swaley cross-
stratication, which was formally dened by a
series of superimposed, shallow scours about 05
20 m wide and a few tens of centimetres deep
(Leckie & Walker, 1982). Although the physical
processes responsible for generating swaley cross-
stratication are still debated (e.g. Nttvedt &
Kreisa, 1987; Allen & Underhill, 1989), this
structure has generally been interpreted as a
variety of hummocky cross-stratication (e.g.
Leckie & Walker, 1982; Duke, 1985; McCrory &
Walker, 1986) formed by migration of low-relief
bedforms under combined ows in which the
unidirectional component was more effective
than the oscillatory component (e.g. Arnott,
1992).
Several features, including the depositional
context, the nature of the scours and the varied
features of their sediment inll, strongly suggest
that the scour-and-ll structures described here
Fig. 7. Superimposed large-scale, scour-and-ll structures illustrating their internal features represented by undu-
lose lamination (u) with several internal low-angle truncation surfaces (arrows), swaley (s) and hummocky cross-
stratication. The photograph and its line drawing show details of hummocky cross-stratication (arrows above the
hammer).
Fig. 8. Detail of a deposit lling a
large-scale scour, illustrating the
undulose lamination with gently
dipping truncation surfaces
(arrows). The dashed line at the
lower portion of the photograph
marks the base of the scour (hammer
as scale on the left of the
photograph).
316 D. de F. Rossetti et al.
2000 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 47, 309323
also had an origin related to combined ows.
Hence, the regular spacing, repetitive nature, co-
existence of asymmetrical and symmetrical ge-
ometries and intercutting relationships of the
scours are attributed to the erosive effect of waves
enhanced by current action. However, despite the
resemblance to swaley cross-stratication (Dott &
Bourgeois, 1982; Leckie & Walker, 1982; Allen &
Underhill, 1989), the scale of these scour-and-ll
structures up to 40 m wide suggests waves with
magnitudes several times greater than those
necessary to form ordinary swaley cross-strati-
cation.
Many modern and ancient shallow marine
deposits record the enhancement of storm waves
by either local or storm-generated currents (e.g.
Dott & Bourgeois, 1982; Nttvedt & Kreisa, 1987;
Snedden et al., 1988; Duke et al., 1991; Cheel &
Leckie, 1993). However, as discussed in detail in
the next section, the combined ows responsible
for the scour-and ll-structures described in this
paper are attributed to the interaction of currents
and high-amplitude tsunami waves. Despite this
proposed alternative mechanism, the scour to-
pography is similar to that produced by storm (i.e.
oceanic pressure gradient) ows (Swift et al.,
1983). Thus, the ow hydrodynamics of tsuna-
mi-induced scours may be understood by com-
parison with storm-generated combined ows. At
storm peak, when strong erosion is promoted by
the effect of storm waves touching the bottom,
their impact on the shoreface causes maximum
bed shear stresses, resulting in frequent and deep
bed erosion (Amos et al., 1996). For instance,
storm-related erosion in the modern shoreface off
Fire Island (Long Island, New York, USA) has
resulted in sea-oor scouring in the range of 1
2 m (Kumar & Sanders, 1976). This is nearly the
depth of erosion recorded by the scours in the
present study area. Hence, independent of
Fig. 9. Large-scale, nearly symmetrical scour-and-ll structure with internal cycles of undulose lamination and low-
angle, ripple cross-stratication. Note, in the uppermost line drawing, the undulose lamination displays a large
number of very gently dipping truncation surfaces (t), which grade laterally into swaley cross-stratication (s). The
photograph in the centre and the lowermost line drawing show details of the cycles with undulose lamination (u)
and low-angle cross-stratication (rs). Note that individual cycles are marked by long, vertical arrows on the line
drawing. Note also that some of the cross-sets have tops marked by either symmetrical or slightly asymmetrical
rippled morphology (short arrows in the line drawing).
Tsunami-induced large-scale scour-and-ll structures 317
2000 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 47, 309323
the mechanism inducing the combined ows,
these large-scale scours are most probably attrib-
utable to maximum erosion during periods of
strong combined ow conditions that are similar
to the ow patterns observed during storms. The
superimposed smaller scale scours developed on
the surfaces of the large scours record less intense
erosion, probably during waning ows.
Combined ows are further inferred from
several sedimentary features associated with the
sediment ll of these scours in the Grajau Basin.
These structures may also be interpreted in
comparison with combined ows developed on
modern storm-dominated settings (e.g. Kumar &
Sanders, 1976). Large volumes of sand eroded
from the shoreface at the storm peak either go into
suspension or are carried as a dispersed mass
near the bottom. After this period of maximum
ow strength, sediment settles out from suspen-
sion, resulting in aggradation and the formation of
gently undulose parallel lamination under upper-
regime ow conditions (e.g. Arnott & Southard,
1990). Experimental work developed by these
authors has shown that gently undulating parallel
lamination, which is a structure observed perva-
sively in the study area, records the equilibrium
combined ow bed conguration developed
under sheet ow when the oscillatory velocity is
larger than the unidirectional velocity compo-
nent. During waning ow stages, various types of
low-angle cross-stratication form by migration of
low-relief bedforms (e.g. Nttvedt & Kreisa, 1987;
Arnott, 1993; Amos et al. 1996). In the study area,
these structures are represented by laterally
intergrading swaley and minor hummocky
cross-beds, which, according to Nttvedt & Kreisa
(1987), reect the complex interaction of oscilla-
tory and unidirectional ow components. Similar
features from sandstone beds of the Lower Creta-
ceous Bootlegger Member in north-central
Montana, USA, have also been attributed to
combined ows by Arnott (1993). The lateral
passage from undulose lamination to various
types of low-angle cross-stratication suggests
gradually reducing ow velocities and aggrada-
tion simultaneous with migration of low-relief
bedforms (Dott & Bourgeois, 1982; Nttvedt &
Kreisa, 1987). Low-angle, swaley and hummocky
cross-stratication are generated, in this order, by
increasing oscillatory velocity relative to the
unidirectional velocity component (Arnott &
Southard, 1990). If this scheme of bedform
evolution is accepted, the abundance of swaley
and low-angle cross- stratication, added to the
paucity of hummocky cross-stratication, might
be attributed to the dominance of unidirectional
component over oscillatory motion. The amal-
gamated beds with undulose lamination, which
eventually lose the cross-bedded interval at the
top of their sets, formed as a result of either
pronounced erosion that was sufcient to destroy
the underlying waning ow cross-sets or main-
tenance of high-energy ow conditions between
periods of erosion.
The roughly north-eastward orientation of the
low-angle dipping and swaley cross-stratication
associated with the undulose lamination suggests
that the unidirectional component of the com-
bined ow was directed offshore slightly oblique
to the interpreted north- to south-oriented palae-
oshoreline. The second trend of south-east- to
south-west-oriented cross-stratication associ-
ated with the undulose lamination is attributed
to reworking tidal currents. The tidal signature is
suggested by the presence of abundant reactiva-
tion surfaces and/or mud drapes.
Thesuccessionof superimposedscours, together
with internal cycles of undulose lamination
and low-angle cross-stratication, implies that
the scour-and-ll structure was a product of
successive pulses of combined ow rather than
one specic event. The symmetrical ripple marks
at the topmost cross-sets of some beds reect
periods of prevailing orbital motion between
individual pulses.
DISCUSSION
Documentation of large-scale scours with lls
similar to those described here is rare in the
sedimentological literature. Vigorous storm ows
are claimed to have produced large-scale com-
pound swaley cross-stratication with superim-
posed smaller scale cross-stratication in the
Chungo Member, Wapiabi Formation, Alberta,
Canada (Arnott, 1992). These features, which
resemble the scour-and-ll structures described
here, were attributed to the migration of large-
scale, symmetrical to slightly asymmetrical bed-
forms with superimposed small-scale ripples
under combined ow conditions (Arnott, 1992).
However, the exceptional preservation of the
structures in the Acailandia area has permitted
more complete analysis, which reveals their
combined ow origin.
Similar scours attributed to storm processes
have been described by Cacchione et al. (1984),
Cheel & Middleton (1993) and McKie (1994).
The Silurian Whirlpool Sandstone of southern
318 D. de F. Rossetti et al.
2000 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 47, 309323
Ontario, Canada (Cheel & Middleton, 1993) con-
tains parabolic scours that share the following
characteristics with the scour-and-ll structures
detailed in the Ac ailandia area: (1) association
with upper shoreface deposits; (2) sharp, wavy
surfaces dened by repetitive, large-scale scours
with a relief of up to several decimetres; (3)
occurrence of both symmetrical and asymmetrical
shapes; and (4) symmetrical and asymmetrical
smaller scale scours superimposed on their sur-
faces. Although the geometry of the scours in the
Whirlpool Sandstone could easily be determined
in plan view, detailed analysis of the sediment
inll was not possible, and only one scour
showed a ll consisting of a basal lag of shale
overlain by faintly horizontal lamination and
unidirectional rippled cross-laminated sand-
stone.
Features similar to the scour-and-ll structures
of the study area are also known from both the
Late Permian Brotherton Formation, UK (McKie,
1994), and the Cretaceous deposits in the Sao
Lus Basin, northern Brazil (Rossetti, 1997a). In
the rst case, the repetitive nature of the scours
was not reported. The sediment ll of the scours
in the Cretaceous deposits from the Sao Lus
Basin is structurally different, as it consists of a
variety of large-scale, very low-angle dipping
cross-sets formed by the interaction of storm
ows with tidal currents. The present example
from the Grajau Basin is distinctive compared
with the others because of the arrangement of the
scours as a succession of intercutting large-scale
swales and the occurrence of internal sedimen-
tary structures forming cycles that are indicative
of successive combined ow events.
Therefore, the sedimentological data presented
in this paper and those by Arnott (1992), Cheel &
Middleton (1993), McKie (1994), and Rossetti
(1997a) are mutually complementary. Together,
they help to characterize and understand better
the variable record of combined ow structures.
However, determining the mechanism that
induced the development of the combined ows
responsible for the large-scale scour-and-ll
structures of the Acailandia area is problematic.
It is well known from observations in modern
seas that combined ows are commonly formed
during storms. In the study area, the palaeocur-
rent patterns obtained from the combined ow
structures, oblique to the proposed palaeoshore-
line, are consistent with geostrophic, wind-driven
storm ows in many modern and ancient settings
(e.g. Nttvedt & Kreisa, 1987; Snedden & Swift,
1991; Winn, 1991; McKie, 1994). In addition,
depositional settings dominated by storms are
naturally characterized by successive pulses in-
volving erosion and deposition, as recorded by
the scour-and-ll structures of the Acailandia
area. This information could suggest storms as the
primary mechanism inducing the development of
combined ows. However, several factors can be
used to propose an alternative genesis for these
scour-and-ll structures by tsunami-induced
combined ows, as discussed below.
The low palaeolatitudes (less than 10) of the
study area during the late Cretaceous (e.g. Scotese
et al., 1989) were not favourable to the develop-
ment of vigorous oceanic storms, because hurri-
canes and tropical summer storms are reported to
occur between 10 and 45, and winter storms
occur above 25 (Marsaglia & Klein, 1983; Duke,
1985; Barron, 1989). Thus, an alternative mecha-
nism probably induced the development of pow-
erful combined ows in this palaeoenvironment.
Tsunami waves caused by earthquakes are well
known as much more powerful events than storm
waves, and can be expected to cause an impact in
the sedimentation pattern even greater than that
resulting from storm processes. In addition, the
approach of tsunami waves towards the coast may
generate return (ebb) currents, which may reach
velocities of several metres per second (Shiki &
Yamazaki, 1996). These back-ow surges of tsu-
namis might cause ows characterized by com-
bined motions, with an oscillatory component
produced by the tsunami waves and a unidirec-
tional component produced by the tsunami-in-
duced ebb currents. Such ows would be several
orders of magnitude more powerful than storm-
induced ows and can move all available grain
sizes (Pickering et al., 1991).
Earthquakes are speculated as the possible
trigger mechanism for these high-energy com-
bined ow scour-and ll-structures because of
their similarities to sedimentary features from the
stratigraphically correlatable Alcantara Forma-
tion exposed in the eastern Sao Lus Basin, where
combined ow-generated deposits occur in
association with abundant seismic-induced struc-
tures. A seismically induced mechanism generat-
ing these features is supported by both their
occurrence nearby a major strike-slip fault zone
that was active during the late Cretaceous, and
their association with laterally continuous, highly
deformed intervals displaying faulted blocks,
fractures and a large variety of soft-sediment
deformed structures that occur between undis-
turbed deposits (Rossetti, 1997b). In the study
area, soft-sediment deformation features, including
Tsunami-induced large-scale scour-and-ll structures 319
2000 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 47, 309323
convolute lamination, bed collapse, large-scale
folds, massive bedding, sand-lled fractures,
intraformational breccia and diastasis cracks sim-
ilar to those described by Cowan & James (1992),
were observed locally within the deposits with
scour-and-ll structures (Fig. 10). Similar fea-
tures were also observed within stratigraphically
correlatable strata located only a few kilometres
north-east of the study area. Thus, it is intriguing
to invoke the possibility that tsunamis might have
inuenced the sedimentation patterns around
Acailandia as well, causing both soft-sediment
deformation and large-scale scour-and ll-struc-
tures.
It is proposed that dislocation of the sea oor
during fault reactivation in the eastern Sao Lus
Basin would have produced powerful tsunami
waves, which affected sedimentation patterns
over a large area (i.e. hundreds of kilometres)
from the earthquake epicentre. Studies in modern
settings suggest that activity on single strike-slip
faults may produce major earthquakes within
short time periods that range from hours to weeks
or decades to millenia (e.g. Crone et al., 1997).
Thus, rather than an isolated wave, tsunamis
produced by earthquakes have several pulses,
which result in episodic tsunami-induced ebb
currents (Shiki & Yamazaki, 1996). Although not
studied in detail yet, such complex ow patterns
may have tremendous impacts on sedimentation.
Therefore, the sedimentary record of tsunami-
induced ows is expected to be characterized by
successive pulses of erosion and deposition
within several time ranges, which may eventually
result in features similar to those described here.
Although not well documented yet, the cata-
strophic impact of successive tsunami waves has
been recorded increasingly in several modern and
ancient shallow marine and coastal settings (e.g.
Yeh et al., 1993; Bondevik et al., 1997). Conglom-
erates and high-energy laminated sandstones
conned within erosional troughs have been
reported in tsunami-induced deposits of the Chita
Peninsula, central Japan (Shiki & Yamazaki,
1996). The complex pattern of erosion and sedi-
mentation recorded by the superimposed scour-
and-ll structures of the study area might have
been formed under the inuence of tsunami
waves travelling on shallow shoreface waters.
The combined nature of the ow is thought to
Fig. 10. Deformational structures observed in association with the scour-and-ll structures of the study area, illus-
trating (A) vertical to subvertical, sand-lled diastasis cracks; (B) intraformational breccia; (C) convolute lamination;
and (D) locally massive (uidized) bed (labelled m).
320 D. de F. Rossetti et al.
2000 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 47, 309323
have been induced by the interaction of these
waves with either tsunami-induced ebb currents
or local (e.g. tidal) currents. The tsunami hypo-
thesis proposed here is consistent with the preser-
vation of thick (up to 20 m) deposits dominated
by combined ow-generated features, with little
reworking by tidal currents. The preferential
preservation of the deposits with scour-and-ll
structures in this shallow water setting might
therefore have resulted from the fact that sedi-
mentation rates were too high to keep pace with
tidal reworking. Violent ows promoted by the
passage of tsunami waves along the upper shore-
face would have generated very large quantities of
suspended sediment, which were then accumu-
lated during waning ow stages. Although the
tsunami hypothesis is appealing in explaining the
preservation of these large-scale structures, fur-
ther studies are still required to demonstrate its
inuence in the study area fully.
CONCLUSION
Late Albian to Cenomanian upper shoreface strata
from the Grajau Basin, northern Brazil, display
large-scale, combined ow-generated, scour-and-
ll structures represented by a series of regularly
spaced, shallow troughs distributed either along
an undulose surface or as a succession of super-
imposed swales. Although these scour-and-ll
structures resemble swaley cross-stratication,
the large scale of the scours, up to 40 m wide,
and the complex sedimentary inll, consisting of
undulose horizontal to low-angle truncating lam-
ination that intergrades with swaley, trough,
tabular and hummocky cross-stratication, sug-
gest much more vigorous and variable ow
patterns than those required to produce ordinary
swaley cross-stratication. The association of
sedimentary features points to the action of
combined ows. Strong sea bed erosion took
place at maximum ow strength and formed the
large-scale scours, while sedimentation that
occurred during the following waning ows
resulted in the lls with various types of high-
energy undulose laminations (i.e. gently undu-
lose horizontal to very low-angle lamination,
swaley and hummocky cross-stratication). The
palaeogeographic reconstruction in low latitude
areas, the association with different styles of soft-
sediment deformation and the similarities of
these scour-and-ll structures to other sedimen-
tary features formed in association with seismi-
cally inuenced deposits from the Sao Lus Basin
all point to an origin related to the interaction of
high-amplitude tsunami waves and tsunami-
induced ebb currents, rather than to pressure
gradient storm ows.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Federal University of Para (UFPA), the
Goeldi Museum (MPEG) and the National Coun-
cil of Scientic and Technological Development
(CNPq) are acknowledged for providing nancial
support for the eld work. We are also grateful for
the constructive thoughtful reviews by Dr Rick
Cheel, Dr Prave and Dr Jim Best, who made
substantial contributions to improving the manu-
script.
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