Ecology Field Guide

Ecology Field Guide

A GUIDE TO WOLFTREES
WATERSHED SCIENCE EDUCATION PROGRAM
5th Edition
Central Oregon: 215 North Cedar Street PO BOX 524 Sisters, Oregon 97759
541.549.1549
Western Oregon: PO BOX 646 Beavercreek, Oregon 97004
503.730.5999
www.beoutside.org
Ecology Field Guide
Ecology Field Guide
A guide to
Wolftrees wATERSHED science programS
2004 Wolftree, Inc.
How to Use the Guide INTRO 1
Introduction INTRO 2
Benchmarks INTRO 4
Educational Approach to Science Ed. INTRO 6
Wolftree and Safety INTRO 7
Teacher Responsibility Checklist INTRO 8
Mentoring INTRO 10
Mentor Guidelines INTRO 11
The Name Wolftree INTRO 12
Science Inquiry INTRO 13
Ecological System EC 1
Disturbance (Change) EC 5
Food Web EC 8
Adaptation EC 10
Species Relationships EC 13
Habitat and Species Diversity EC 15
Field Studies FIELD 1
General Field Procedures FIELD 2
Standard Field Equipment FIELD 4
Field Journaling FIELD 5
Science Inquiry Planning Form FIELD 8
Getting a Representative Sample FIELD 9
Terrestrial Invertebrates FIELD 15
Wildlife Ecology FIELD 26
Forest Ecology FIELD 37
Plant Ecology FIELD 49
Lichen Ecology FIELD 67
Aquatic Invertebrates FIELD 79
Water Chemistry FIELD 90
Temperature FIELD 91
pH FIELD 95
Dissolved Oxygen FIELD 100
Turbidity FIELD 104
Streamflow FIELD 112
Wetland Ecology FIELD 121
Glossary GLOS 1
Bibliography BIB 1
contents
The most beautiful
experience we can
have is the
mysterious. It is
the fundamental
emotion that
stands at the
cradle of
true art and
science.
--Albert Einstein
The Ecology Field Guide is designed to be a
concise and user-friendly guide that serves
a wide variety of ages, grades, skill levels and
learning styles. A majority of the text is
supported by pictures, graphics and charts.
We have also included real world applications
for relevance.
Introduction. The introduction lays out the
goals and student outcomes of the guide
and the overall programs. It also puts forth
our educational approach, addresses
teacher and mentor responsibilities, dis-
cusses tips for mentoring in the field and
the science inquiry process.
Ecological Concepts. This section provides
important background information on the
study of ecology and how to investigate it.
These core ecological concepts will be
emphasized and weaved throughout the field
study.
Program Field Activities. For each field
activity, we have provided background
information, general procedures for field
studies, data sheets, key questions, tips for
teaching, calculation sheets, and resources
for learning more. Each activity section has
a thematic icon, for example rain drops for
water chemistry, for ease of use in the
classroom and in the field.
Bibliography and Glossary. A bibliography of
resources that were used in the creation of
this guide, and a comprehensive glossary of
terms are included.
How to use
the guide
INTRO 1
Science is a creative and
exploratory field that
draws upon many
kinds of knowledge.
-- Karen Gallas
Author, Elementary School
Teacher and Professor at
the Univ. of Maine
introduction
INTRO 2
Wisdom begins in wonder.
--Socrates
Wolftree's award winning Watershed Science
programs give participants the opportunity
to experience the wonders of the natural
world while being challenged with rigorous field
studies. Dynamic programs range from one-
day field trips that introduce students to
inquiry driven ecological science to multi-day
summer research camping expeditions. Our
long term Enrichment project begins at the
fourth grade with basic science skills, know-
ledge, and comprehension and builds to more
sophisticated and rigorous scientific applica-
tion and analysis as they progress through
school on into adulthood.
The Ecology Field Guide is an integral part of Wolftrees programs. It is
designed to provide students, teachers and mentors with the necessary
background content and program information to prepare for field
experiences. The guide also allows participants to extend their ecology
studies in their own communities.
Goal:
Wolftrees Watershed Science programs seek to INCREASE SCIENCE LITERACY*,
Student Outcomes
Upon completion of a Wolftree Watershed Science program, students are
able to:
1. Demonstrate an understanding about the structure and functions of
watersheds;
2. Apply advanced observation and awareness techniques;
3. Formulate testable questions or hypotheses based on observations;
4. Design an investigation to test their hypotheses.
5. Collect watershed data using contemporary scientific tools and
technology;
6. Analyze, organize, and summarize their data;
7. Answer their scientific questions or assess whether their hypothesis
is supported by data;
8. Effectively communicate their observations and conclusions; and
9. Fulfill national and state requirements for science and science inquiry.
*According to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, science literacy requires citizens
to have the ability to: (A) Grasp what science, engineering, technology and math are about; (B) Understand
how the natural and designed worlds work; (C) Critically and independently think to recognize and weigh
alternative explanations of events and design trade-offs; and (D) Deal sensibly with problems that involve
evidence, numbers, patterns, logical arguments, and uncertainties.
WATERSHED SCIENCE
CORE ELEMENTS
To accomplish our goal, Wolftree
provides programs that have the
following core elements.
FIELD BASED. Students explore the
natural world at several diverse
field sites located throughout the
Pacific Northwest.
EXPERIENTIAL. Teams use contemp-
orary scientific research tools,
technology and techniques to
collect and analyze scientific data.
SMALL TEAMS. Research teams of usually seven, five students and two
mentors, immerse themselves in the study of ecology.
INQUIRY DRIVEN. Students learn how to make observations, develop
questions and hypotheses, design investigations to test their
hypotheses and present their conclusions.
GUIDED BY SCIENTIST MENTORS. Over 250 professional scientists from nearly
70 public and private organizations support Wolftree students.
Mentors are trained to engage students with challenging questions,
encourage critical and creative thinking, and guide students towards
meaningful conclusions.
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES AND MATERIALS COMPLEMENT FIELD STUDIES. Wolftree
staff and mentors facilitate pre and post classroom activities to
provide a seamless link between the classroom and the field. Teachers
are provided with a host of supplemental instructional materials
including this Ecology Field Guide.
ACCOMMODATES THE FULL RANGE LEARNING ABILITIES AND CULTURES. Females and
minorities are especially encouraged to succeed through special
projects.
TIED TO NATIONAL AND STATE STANDARDS AND BENCHMARKS. All our programs
provide students the opportunity to fulfill school benchmark
requirements, especially regarding science inquiry.
INTRO 3
INTRO 4
Oregon science
benchmarks
Identify & explain patterns of change as cycles and trends.
Identify a systems inputs & outputs. Explain the effects of changing the
systems components.
Use a model to make predictions about familiar & unfamiliar phenomena in
the natural world.
Describe & explain the theory of natural selection as a mechanism for
evolution.
Based on observations & scientific concepts, ask questions or form
hypotheses that can be explored through scientific investigations.
Describe & explain the structure and functions of an organism in terms of
cells tissues and organs.
Identify and describe the relationship between structure and function at
various levels of organization in life, physical or Earth/space science
Explain how equilibrium can be achieved through the interaction of forces &
changes.
Identify and explain evidence of physical and biological changes over time.
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about Benchmarks : Wolftree's programs are designed to be vehicles
to help students achieve benchmarks in science and science inquiry by creating
a learning environment rich with possibility. Teachers, please use this chart to
assist you and your students in achieving benchmarks.
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Design a scientific investigation to answer questions or test hypotheses.
Collect, organize, & display sufficient data to support analysis.
Summarize & analyze data including possible sources of error. Explain
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Identify & describe the factors that influence or change the balance of
populations in their environment.
(Updated February 2002)
Oregon science
benchmarks
Define a system by specifying boundaries and subsystems, indicating its
relation to other systems, and identifying its inputs and outputs.
Use conceptual &/or mathematical models to explain natural systems.
Explain how change occurs over time arising from materials & forms of the
past.
Collect, organize and display sufficient data to facilitate scientific
analysis and interpretation.
Summarize & analyze data, evaluating sources of error/bias. Propose
explanations that are supported by data & knowledge of scientific terms.
Based on observations & scientific concepts, ask questions or form
hypotheses that can be answered/tested through scientific investigations.
Describe & explain the structure and functions of an organism in terms of
cells, tissues, and organs.
Analyze how physical, biological, or geological systems can maintain
equilibrium.
Describe & analyze the effect of species, including humans, on an
ecosystem.
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about Benchmarks : Wolftree's programs are designed to be vehicles
to help students achieve benchmarks in science and science inquiry by creating
a learning environment rich with possibility. Teachers, please use this chart to
assist you and your students in achieving benchmarks.
INTRO 5
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Design a scientific investigation that provides sufficient data to answer a
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(Updated February 2002)
Wolftrees
approach to
Science education
Our educational goal at Wolftree is to accommodate the full
range of learning abilities, attention spans, cultures, and
ages through rigorous science in the outdoors. We challenge
students to use their creative and critical higher order
thinking skills, instill an intense interest in science and nature,
and inspire all participants to be life-long learners.
Wolftree staff, mentors and teachers have developed science
programs that actively involve students in real world science.
Our programs focus on the science of ecology and its core
concepts. Students learn through inquiry, testing their ideas
and critiquing their results. Guided by mentors, students
are empowered to take initiative and assume responsibility
for their own learning. Students are encouraged to
construct and interpret their own meanings about their
discoveries.
The heart of our programs lies in the efforts of mentors that
guide small teams of students (our programs average a 5:1
student to mentor ratio). Professional biologists and educa-
tors, trained as mentors, support student investigation and
analysis. Mentors work alongside students to help them
examine their findings and draw their own conclusions.
Mentors engage students in dialogue that aims to uncover,
examine and discern truth about their studies. Students
share their questions about how the natural world works and
mentors guide the "testing" of these questions for clarity,
precision, accuracy, logical coherence and relevance.
Bringing students out of the confines of the classroom and
into wild places allow them to observe the world in a different
light. We take this opportunity to awaken, exercise and
ultimately sharpen sensory awareness skills. We encourage
students to carefully observe and listen. For many students,
this will be their first opportunity to use their multitude of
senses to experience the richness of nature.
Education
is, at its
essence,
learning
about life
through
participa-
tion and
relationship
in
community,
including not
only people,
but plants,
animals, and
the whole of
nature.
-- Dr. Gregory
Cajete,
Tewa Indian
Educator and
Artist
INTRO 6
Wolftree & Safety
Safety is Wolftrees highest priority. We believe very
strongly that students learn more when they are in a
safe environment. Because of this, Wolftree has
developed the following safety policies for our field
programs.
1. All Wolftree staff are First Aid/CPR certified and
trained to administer epinephrine in the event of an
anaphylactic reaction. At least one Wolftree staff
person with Wilderness First Aid or Responder
certification will be on every field day.
2. Wolftree works closely with teachers to ensure that students arrive
from the field day prepared for outdoor studies. Students are
instructed to: dress in layers, bring rain gear, wear long pants and shirts,
have closed toed shoes, bring a full water bottle and adequet food. We
have extra clothes on hand for student use.
3. Wolftree staff rigorously inspect each site before students arrive.
Any safety hazards discovered are eliminated or made off limits.
4. Every Wolftree site has a specific emergency action plan. Within this
plan are detailed instructions of everyones role in the case of an
emergency situation.
5. Each Wolftree program begins with a safety talk for all staff, interns,
and mentors who will be out in the field with students. This meeting
addresses safety precautions, site and activity specific hazards, and
emergency protocols.
6. All Wolftree affiliated adults are instructed to never to be alone with
a student.
7. All staff on site, including Wolftree employees, mentors, and teachers,
communicate via short wave radio. The Wolftree Program Manager
always has a cell phone.
8. Wolftree staff leaders carry extensive first aid kits. All mentors have
field first aid kits appropriate for minor injuries.
9. All injuries are documented and reviewed by the Wolftree Safety
Committee. This committee analyzes safety protocols, sites, and
curriculum to ensure safety.
INTRO 7
It is the responsibility of Wolftree teachers to:
Secure Transportation. Well in advance of the field day,
arrange for transportation to and from the field study
site (bus, vans, carpools, etc.). If field trip transportation
funds are not available from your school, contact Wolftree.
Bring full classes. We put a great deal of effort into
recruiting mentors and securing funds to serve 30
students. If only 19 students show up, mentors and funds
are not effectively utilized. If you have a small class, then
combine classes, incorporate students from another
teachers class, involve Ecology/Science Club students,
etc. in order to bring your number up to 30.
Review confirmation email. After scheduling your field day, the Program
Manager will send you a confirmation email with the location, date, time and
other essential details of your trip. Please review these very IMPORTANT
DETAILS very carefully to make sure we are all planning for the same thing.
Communicate. It is very important to keep in close contact with your
Wolftree Program Manager. If there are any changes or issues that come up
with regard to your field trip, please contact us immediately at 503-239-1820
(Wolftree office). Please be sure to get the Program Managers cell phone
number as well.
Prepare students. Use the Ecology Field Guide to make sure students are
ready for the field study (we strongly recommend that you review the Science
Inquiry and Ecological Concepts sections). We have observed that the more
familiar students are with the information prior to the field day, the higher
quality experience they have.
Distribute and collect permission slips. A Wolftree permission slip, signed by
teacher and parent for all students attending the field day, is mandatory.
(School permission slips will not suffice - sorry!) Please make sure the correct
number and names of people correspond with the class list and both are handed
to the Program Manager at the beginning of the field day.
Complete Wolftree class list. Include names of all attending students and
adults. (There is also a Wolftree Permission Slip check off space.)
CONTINUED-->
teacher responsibility
checklist
INTRO 8
Let nature be your teacher.
--William Wordsworth
Form teams. Program Managers will inform you how
many teams and how many students in each team.
Prior to the field day, divide your students into
WORKABLE and COOPERATIVE teams. Please do not
allow students to form their own teams.
Inform Wolftree about special needs students.
Wolftree staff need to know about students with any
medical issues (like allergies to bee stings) that may
be of concern during the field day. Also, inform us
about any physically, academically or behaviorally
challenged students, and provide instruction as to
how we might accommodate them. If you have English
Language Learner students, we will try our best to
provide mentors with relevant language skills (NOTE:
Only our Wildwood site is wheelchair accessible).
Provide support. On the field day, we ask teachers to float. This provides
you with a great opportunity to observe your students in a unique setting and
to observe, perhaps, new scientific and teaching approaches. You will be given a
radio for the day, so that all mentors and Wolftree staff can communicate with
you. If a behavior issue does arise, we ask that you intervene.
Complete Program Evaluation. A Program Manager will provide you with a
Program Evaluation form at the end of the field day. It is MANDATORY that
you complete and return a Program Evaluation within TWO WEEKS of your field
day. We improve the program based on these evaluations, and it is a require-
ment from our funders that we have all teachers comply.
Send Thank Yous to mentors and funders. Within a week of your field day,
you will receive a post card in the mail with the addresses of the scientists who
mentored your students, and of the funders who helped sponsor your field day.
Direct recognition and appreciation from program participants is invaluable to
them and Wolftrees future.
Implement Service Learning. Our Watershed Ecology programs are designed
to be either a springboard to, or a culmination of, inquiry-based ecology field
studies and research at your school or in your community. Please inform us of
service learning projects in which your class is involved. We like to highlight
service learning projects on our website and/or in our membership newsletter.
Also, please let us know if you need any assistance. Wed love to help if we can!
Become a Wolftree member. Annually, Wolftree serves
thousands of Pacific Northwest students through our award-win-
ning programs free of charge. Approximately 80% of the schools we
work with are designated as under-served, with little or no access
to quality science programs. Demand for Wolftrees programs is far
greater than our current capacity. In addition, education reforms
continue to emphasize hands-on, experiential and community-based
learning in the natural resources. Please become a Wolftree member
so that we can continue to offer valuable science education and
research programs in the outdoors to students like yours. To join
call 503-239-1820 or go to www.beoutside.org/membership.
INTRO 9
Mentoring
Live with wolves, and you learn to howl.
--Spanish Proverb
INTRO 10
A cornerstone of our programs is mentoring. Professional biologists, natural resource
specialists, and individuals who enjoy working with young people guide field activities
and get students excited about science and learning. Our mentors provide support to
students through education, data collection and safety. Our student-to-mentor
ratios consistently range from 2:1 to 5:1, which provide excellent learning environments.
Responsibilities of a Wolftree Mentor:
Get Trained. We ask that all new mentors attend a training session. If you are
unable to make it, we ask that you spend a day in the field shadowing a Wolftree staff
person or seasoned mentor.
Be Prepared. Before the field day, please review the appropriate sections in the
Ecology Field Guide (Ecological concepts and specified activity).
Arrive on Time. Mentors are scheduled to arrive at the field site at least one hour
before the students arrive (staff, interns, and capstone students arrive two hours
before students). During this time, you are briefed on the days participating class,
program themes, safety protocols and other key information. Times are posted on our
website: www.beoutside.org.
Guide. Experience has shown that the best way to mentor is to assist and support
students learning experience. Students are expected to lead the scientific
investigation. Facilitate this by asking leading questions, making helpful suggestions,
infusing valuable information and encouraging inquiry. Work and co-learn with
students, guiding their experience in the field with enthusiasm.
Require Safety. Demonstrate and explain appropriate and safe use of field equip-
ment. Read and know safety protocols, and provide safety leadership and awareness
and model expected behavior (especially around water!).
Facilitate Presentation Preparation. Help students organize and make sense of
their data and prepare them to present findings to their classmates, teachers and
mentors.
Wrap-up & Debrief. Please plan to stay the entire time scheduled, including the wrap
up presentation and the debriefing session that Wolftree staff hold after the
students leave. This debriefing session is key to improving the program, as well as
discussing with other mentors how things went, and how we all can improve our
teaching skills.
Mentor GUIDELINES
INTRO 11
Ideas...start with sense impressions;
and all learning comes from making
connections among observations and ideas.
--Kathleen Dean Moore,
American Author
Set a respectful tone from the beginning
Establish clear expectations
Foster team unity
Challenge students to lead
Inspire through encouragement
Model behavior you seek
Build upon what students know
Engage with challenging questions
Excite with fascinating facts and compelling stories
Encourage critical and creative thinking
Guide students to discover new meaning
Practice safe and ethical science
Effectively manage time
Co-learn with students
Be scientifically unbiased and use non-value laden language
Take advantage of teachable moments
Have fun!
the name
wolftree
Wolftree is a foresters term for remnant
old-growth trees growing in an emerging
forest. They grow without the buffering
effect of neighboring trees and are often
sculpted by wind, lightning, snow and other
forces of nature. They often look like they
have weathered many storms. Wolftrees
stand out above the rest of the trees on
the landscape. They received their name
because foresters once thought they
resembled lone wolves.*
Wolftrees are left alone by loggers,
because so many limbs left many knots and
poor lumber quality. They have had little
competition from neighbors, allowing them
to grow quickly, with their branches
reaching out in all directions and all the way
to the ground. This state of being is what
foresters call free to grow. Little
prevents them from growing at their
fullest capacity. Today, biologists herald
wolftrees as the keystones of developing
forests because they provide pockets of
seasoned refuge for wildlife and supply the
landscape with seeds for a new emergent
forest.
We hope to instill wolftree characteristics
in our program participants -- enable them
to stand out amongst their peers, weather
many storms, reach out in all directions,
realize their maximum potential... be free
to grow.
*The term lone wolf came into use at a time when
people believed wolves to be solitary creatures.
Since then, we have come to understand that
wolves live in complex social systems.
INTRO 12
Science
Inquiry
INTRO 13
Science inquiry is a process to help under-
stand and investigate how the world works.
It is an approach that involves an exploration
of the world that leads to asking questions
and making discoveries in search for new
understandings. Science inquiry requires you
to puzzle through problems, seek multiple
ways of finding solutions, gather and weigh
evidence, and apply and test scientific ideas.
Science inquiry is not necessarily a straight
and narrow pathway. It is often a back-and-
forth, or a circular series of events, where
more observations and questions emerge
along the way. The process forges the
opportunity for the construction of a new
way of looking at the world, and a deeper
understanding of how the world works. It
also helps keep wonder and curiosity alive.
What is a
hypothesis?
Observations give us
answers to
questions about the
world, but they
almost always give
rise to still more
questions. When a
scientist wants to
know the answer to a
very specific
question, forming a
hypothesis that can
be tested is usually
the best way to find
the answer. A
hypothesis is a
testable explanation
for an observation.
Often a hypothesis is
called an educated
guess or a prediction.
In spite of all our scientific
advances, we are only just beginning
to understand how ecosystems
work
-- Dr. David Suzuki, 2004
If you notice anything
it leads you to notice
more and more.
-- Mary Oliver
American Poet
HERES HOW SCIENCE INQUIRY WORKS:
BE CURIOUS. The inquiry process is driven by
curiosity and an interest to understand an
observation or solve a problem.
OBSERVE. Make observations of your surroundings using
all your senses. Pay attention to what you see, hear, smell,
and feel. Notice things that intrigue or surprise you, that
bring about questions, or challenge your understanding of
the world. Write about or sketch observations in a journal
as a way to remember what youve experienced.
FORMULATE. Ask lots of questions about your observations and then
focus on the one question or develop one hypothesis that you are most
interested in. Make sure that it is clear, simple and testable.
DESIGN AN INVESTIGATION. Use your creativity to
design a method for collecting data to answer your
question or determine whether or not your
hypothesis is correct.
COLLECT & RECORD DATA. Conduct your investigation
and gather data. Continue to record observations,
raise questions, make predictions, and create theories.
Often the process of answering a question leads to
more questions.
MAKE SENSE OF YOUR DISCOVERIES. Organize, categorize, analyze
and interpret what you found so that you can answer your question or
confirm your hypothesis. Draw upon as many resources as you can, such
as field guides, the expertise or insights of others, websites and/or ref-
erence materials.
COMMUNICATE. Tell people about your discoveries and conclusions. Use
multiple ways of communicating - make models, use pictures, graphs,
charts, photos, maps, or poetry. Discuss with others their findings.
Make comparisons and connections.
FOLLOW UP. Giving meaning to the inquiry experience requires continued
reflection, conversations, and comparisons of findings with others.
INTRO 14
To learn more about science inquiry visit the Institute for
Inquirys website at www.exploratorium.edu/IFI/index.html
"The important thing
is not to stop
questioning."
--Albert Einstein
Science Inquiry approach
(Chart based on Oregon Science Inquiry CIM Benchmarks and
Washington Science Inquiry Essential Academic Learning Requirements)
INTRO 15
Inquiry is driven by a
desire to know &
understand more
Use scientific tools and
technology to conduct
investigation.
Collect &
Record Data
Design
Investigation
Build Models
Display results using
math, computers, maps,
charts, etc.
Be Curious
Form
Questions/Hypotheses
Create clear, concise &
testable questions/
hypotheses
Make Sense of
Discoveries
Observe
Communicate
Express ideas and
present conclusions
to others.
Multisensory observa-
tions are the basis for
question/hypothesis
formation.
Design method for
gathering information
Organize, analyze and
interpret results.
the
Ecological
System
Ecology
The word ecology is from the Greek
root oikos, meaning house.
Simply put, ecology is the study of
houses or habitats, or more broadly,
of organisms and their relationships
to their environment. The modern
scientist defines ecology as the
study of the structure and function
of nature.
Ecosystem
An ecological system, ecosystem,
includes all the different organisms
living in a certain area, along with
their physical environment. While
eco refers to environment,
system refers to a collection of
related parts that work as a whole.
Some parts in an ecosystem are
abiotic, or non-living, such as solar
energy, water, rock, and minerals
(chemical and physical components).
Other parts are biotic, or living, such
as plants and animals (biological).
The ecosystem is the place where
abiotic and biotic parts interact.
Ecosystems are dynamic and
complex. They change over time
and space.
ec 1
BI OTI C
ABI OTI C
I go to Nature to be
soothed and healed,
and to have
my senses put
in tune once more.
--John Burroughs
(1837-1921)
American Naturalist
components of an ecosystem
The major components of an ecosystem are: solar
energy; producers (plants); consumers (of plants,
insects and animals); decomposers (bacteria and
fungi); and nutrients important for growth (carbon
dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, minerals). For example,
nutrients flow through plants and animals and
return to the soil, air, and water (see Food Web to
learn more).
Ecosystem Structure and Function
Abi ot i c Chemi c al s
(c ar bon di ox i e,
ox yegen, ni t r ogen,
mi ner al s)
Consumer s
(her bi vor es,
c ar ni vor es)
Dec omposer s
(bac er i a, f ungi )
Sol ar
Ener gy
Heat Heat
Heat
Heat
Heat
CO
2
N
2
O
2
Pr oduc er s
(pl ant s)
CO
2
CO
2
CO
2
O
2
O
2
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Abiotic Chemicals
(carbon dioxide, oxygen,
nitrogen, minerals)
Producers
(plants)
Decomposers
(fungi, bacteria & insects)
Species and their Habitats
Biologists examine the biotic parts of an ecosystem as species, their
habitats, populations, and communities. A species is the smallest unit of
classification for biological organisms. Individuals of a species are alike in
structure and function. Individuals of the same species can successfully
breed with each other. Each species needs specific conditions to survive
and reproduce. The place or location where an organism can meet these
needs is called its habitat. Habitat can be described in terms of its
structure. Habitat structure describes the shape, size and placement of
abiotic and biotic features of an ecosystem. Because these non-living and
living features change over time, so will the habitat structure.
When Species Come Together
A group of individuals of the same species that live in a particular habitat
are called a population. Different populations of species exist together in
overlapping habitats in a community. Several different complex
communities mix together creating an ecosystem.
FOR EXAMPLE:
Consider a Douglas-Fir tree (individual). The tree captures sunlight and
uses water and soil nutrients to grow. The tree makes seeds in
cones to reproduce, creating other Douglas-Fir trees (population).
Other organisms that live on/in/off/with the Douglas-Fir that are
tolerant of shade can grow and reproduce in the understory, below
the Douglas-Fir tree (community). The Douglas-Fir trees, understory
plants, and other organisms are part of the forest (ecosystem).
I ndi vi dual
Ec osyst em
Communi t y
Popul at i on
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niches
The way of life a species pursues within its habitat is called a niche. In
other words, a niche is the role a species plays in its habitat. An
organisms niche is composed of both biotic and abiotic parts. Some
biotic factors that help define a niche are food sources and predators.
Each species needs a specific types of food, such as insects or a species
of plant. Temperature, the amount of sunlight and water are abiotic
factors. All the biotic and abiotic factors taken together help define the
organisms niche.
Within a niche, a species satisfies its basic needs in four specific
categories (there may be others as well, like space):
FOOD, WATER , SHELTER AND REPRODUCTION
An organisms niche includes how much water it
needs, what it eats, where it lives, what it uses for
shelter from enemies and the elements, when and
how it reproduces, how it raises its young and other
such factors that make up its life. Some animals
have very broad niches, like black bear. Black bear
are generalists that eat a wide variety of plants
and animals and can find food and water in a wide
range of environments. Some niches are very
narrow like the Lynxs. At times, this specialist will
feed exclusively on snowshoe hares, thus limiting
where it can live, reproduce and rear its young.
What do you think happens when two species try to
share the same niche in the same habitat?
Loose Boundaries
Because some organisms can move
among ecosystems, it can be difficult
to define the boundaries of an
ecosystem. However, defining an
ecosystem with loose boundaries may
help us better understand how the
natural world works.
For example, frogs generally repro-
duce in a wetland ecosystem, but may
also live in a forest ecosystem. The
wetland ecosystem serves as breeding
habitat and the forest ecosystem is
important for rearing habitat.
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Disturbance (change)
What is a disturbance?
An ecological disturbance is a change in
an ecosystem caused by an event that
disrupts or changes all or part of an
ecosystem. This change can have many
affects on both the abiotic, non-living,
and biotic, living. Disturbances can be
large scale, like volcanic eruptions,
floods, or fire. They can also be less
obvious and small scale, like a leaf falling
into a stream, the gradual erosion of a
hillside, a slight change in the tempera-
ture of a river, or the introduction of
nutrients to soil or water. Over time,
these minor changes may have a
significant influence on the ecosystem.
ecosystem change
Events that cause disturbance alter
the structure and function of
ecosystems. They can change the
species present in the ecosystem, the
size and stability of populations, and
the area where communities are
located. Some organisms will thrive in a
changed area, others will be displaced,
or killed. When you study an ecological
disturbance, consider:
TYPE
(of disturbance)
FREQUENCY
(how often it occurs)
INTENSITY
(how severe the changes)
The types, intensities and frequencies
of past disturbance events provide key
information about why an ecosystem
looks the way it does today, and how it
might develop in the future.
Evidence of Disturbance
What disturbances could be
indicated by the following pieces
of evidence?
charcoal in soil
jagged edged stumps
compacted soil
fresh sand or silt deposits
rounded rocks
single plant species in the forest
burn scars on trees
numerous snags
pole-sized trees bent over
group of dead or dying trees
debris in streamside vegetation
ash and pumice mixed in soil
even-aged trees
tree tops missing
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Looking for disturbance
Consider how types of disturbances may have
arranged, destroyed, removed or added
different biotic components - such as the
plants, soil, animals and insects - in the
ecosystem that you are studying. Also,
consider how the abiotic components have
changed - such as the rocks, water, light,
temperature - as a result of the disturbances.
How would a large fire that burns all the trees
in a forest be different from the harvesting of
trees (clearcut)? How would organisms
respond in an ecosystem that is regularly
disturbed? How would the structure of a
habitat change in the absence of a
disturbance?
disturbance and succession
Change is a fact of life in all ecosystems, and
living things respond to change in different
ways. As an ecosystem changes, the
community living in that ecosystem changes
as well.
Consider the devastation on Oregon Coast
Range forest ecosystems during the series of
massive fires (1933, 1939, 1945 and 1951)
called the Tillamook Burn. After the flames
and smoke dissipated, leaving a charred land-
scape, organisms moved into this devastated
habitat almost immediately. These
communities sprouted from charred stumps
or root crowns, or grew from seeds well-
adapted to withstand intense heat. These
first organisms were followed by others
brought in by wind and wildlife. Fast-growing
grasses and non-woody plants were followed
by larger shrubs. Fast-growing trees, like
Douglas-fir, then crowded out the shrub
community. Succession is a pattern of
changes in the types of species in a
community over time. Many describe this as a
series of steps towards a final destination
while others consider succession to be a
process or a cycle with no end or beginning.
One description is linear while the other is
circular.
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2-5
year s
Gr ass For b
Meadow
3-30
year s
Shr ubs
10-35
year s
Mi xed
Dec i duous
w / Young
Coni f er
30-80
year s
Mi xed
Coni f er
Toppi ng
Dec i duous
80-250
year s
Coni f er
For est
250
year s
Ol d
Gr ow t h
For est
CHANGES IN A FOREST COMMUNITY OVER TIME
1
I mmat ur e For est Communi t y
Mat ur i ng For est Communi t y
Disturbing Questions:
What natural event in May 1980 caused major disturbance in a large area
of Washington state? How did that event change the biotic and abiotic
components of ecosystems in the region? How could the event have
changed ecosystems all over the world?
What major event in 1996 resulted in changes to many local stream
ecosystems? How did that event change the biotic and abiotic parts of
ecosystems in the region? How could the event have changed
ecosystems all the way down to the ocean?
What natural and human disturbances have occurred in the last ten years
in your area?
What disturbances might occur in a natural grassland on the plains of
South Dakota? In a suburban backyard lawn?
1
Note: this is a simple description (model) to
help illustrate a complex process. In nature,
there may be numerous variations of this theme.
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food Web
The Transfer of Energy
A food chain is defined as the
one-way transfer of energy from
one organism to another in an
ecosystem. Food chains are
described using trophic levels.
A trophic level is a category of
organisms classified by what they
eat.
A food chain begins with the transfer of energy from the sun, which is
made into food by primary producers. Plants are usually the PRIMARY
PRODUCERS that make up the first trophic level. The next trophic level
is made up of FIRST LEVEL CONSUMERS, or plant-eaters, called
herbivores. The next trophic level is made up of animals that feed on
herbivores and are called carnivores. Animals in this trophic level are
called SECOND LEVEL CONSUMERS. The next trophic level is made up of
animals that eat other carnivores and are called THIRD LEVEL
CONSUMERS. Organisms that receive energy from recycling nutrients by
eating dead organisms are called detritivores or decomposers.
E
N
E
R
G
Y
E
N
E
R
G
Y
E
N
E
R
G
Y
E
N
E
R
G
Y
E
N
E
R
G
Y
PRI MARY
PRODUCERS,
pl ant s
FI RST TROPHI C
LEVEL
CONSUMERS,
her bi vor es
DECOMPOSERS,
det r i t i vor es
THI RD TROPHI C
LEVEL
CONSUMERS,
c ar ni vor es
SECOND TROPHI C
LEVEL
CONSUMERS,
c ar ni vor es
A FOOD CHAIN
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Chains Connect to Make Webs
Food chains are connected to other
food chains, usually by upper level
carnivores. The interlocking, complex
pattern of food chains is defined as
the food web. A food web is often
used to describe the flow of energy
and nutrients among all the
organisms in an ecosystem.
Changes in the population of one
organism can affect many other
populations within the food web.
A food web can have an infinite number of trophic levels. Some organisms can
exist in many different trophic levels. For example, consumers that eat both
plant and animal material, omnivores (like bears and raccoons) can be first and
second level consumers. Animals that recycle nutrients by eating dead animal
and/or plant materials (scavengers) also exist in many different trophic levels.
We do not weave the web of life;
We are merely a strand in it.
Whatever we do to the web,
we do to ourselves...
--Chief Seattle (1788-1866)
Native American (Suquamish) leader
World Wide Web
Suppose you ate an
adult chinook salmon
that you caught in a
local river. Describe
the possible
organisms in your
food chain (begin at
the bottom with
plants and end with
yourself.)
Trace your food chain
for the following:
a medium-rare
New York steak
a bowl of Sugar
Frosted Flakes
a steaming plate of
sauteed Morel
mushrooms.
a simple food web
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adaptation
What is adaptation?
An adaptation is a characteristic
that may help organisms survive
and reproduce in their environment.
Adaptations can be genetic or
learned.
Adaptations may occur
to an organisms:
BEHAVIOR
BODY STRUCTURE
BODY PROCESSES
COLOR
For example, if an ecosystem has
long, cold winters, a species may
hibernate (a behavioral adaptation),
have thick fur (a body structure
adaptation), or have the ability to
store a lot of fat (a body process
adaptation). Animals that live in a
snowy environment, like the snow-
shoe hare, become white in winter,
to provide them camouflage from
predators (a color adaptation).
The characteristics of plants
and animals offer great insight
to the physical and biological
conditions of the ecosystem.
Natural selection
and evolution
Charles Darwin, an English
naturalist, proposed that the
environment has a strong influence
over which individuals have off-
spring. Some individuals, because
of certain traits, are more likely to
survive and have offspring than
other individuals. He used the term
natural selection to describe the
unequal survival and reproduction
that results from the presence or
absence of particular traits. Darwin
further proposed that over many
generations, natural selection
causes the characteristics of
populations to change. A change in
the genetic characteristics of
populations from one generation to
the next is known as evolution.
According to Darwins theory, the
process of natural selection is
responsible for evolution.
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PLANTS that experience drought (water
or heat stress), like cacti, usually have
some or all of the following
characteristics:
examples of species adaptation
Some aquatic INSECTS, like mayflies, have
adapted to live in fast-moving water. They
have:
Thick leathery evergreen leaves
Reduced leaf area
Deep root systems
Thick white hair or wax on their leaves.
These adaptations help reduce water loss,
increase heat loss and/or reduce the
amount of light absorbed by the leaf.
Flat bodies
Claws with hooks
These adaptations allow water to flow over
the insects and help them cling to rocks in a
swift current.
ANIMAL species that are often prey, like
rabbits, evolved to have:
Large ears that can point in all directions
Eyes located on the outside of their head
A low body profile when on all four legs
The ability to stand upright on large rear
legs
These adaptations give rabbits a keen
sense of hearing, great peripheral vision,
the ability to hide easily and stand upright
to scope out potential danger.
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species adaptations - Northern flicker
Flight takes an
enormous amount of energy.
Birds have a very high
metabolic rate - the speed
at which they can burn up
food and turn it into energy.
To survive in cold
temperatures at a high
altitude, birds have the
highest body temperatures
of all warm-blooded animals -
up to 110
o
F, compared with
98.6
o
F in humans.
Birds have to stay within
strict weight limits if they
are to be able to fly. They do
this with a lightweight
skeleton. The long bones of
flying birds are hollow and are
reinforced with light weight
internal supports.
Birds have more neck
bones than most other
vertebrate animals. A
bird needs a flexible neck
so that it can catch its
food and also reach all
parts of its body for
preening (cleaning).
Highly insulating
plumage (feathers)
keeps birds from losing
too much heat.
Birds have no teeth. The
digestive system has to
break down all the food. In
birds that eat plant
matter, the gizzard grinds
the food into a pulp.
The secret of birds
success in flying lies in
the design of their wings,
which are light, strong,
and flexible. They are
also slightly curved from
front to back, producing
an airfoil profile that pulls
the bird upward as it
flaps through the air.
A Northern Flickers long
tail is used for balance,
perching, and for
attracting the attention
of a mate.
Norther Flickers call a
loud kekekekeke for
territory advertisement.
During courtship they
sing woikawoikawoika in
addition to drumming,
wing and tail flashing,
billing and bobbing.
Woodpeckers, like the
Northern Flicker, have
feet with two toes
pointing forward, and two
pointing backward. This
toe arrangement helps
to anchor them onto
tree trunks and branches.
Northern Flickers are a
type of woodpecker.
Woodpeckers use their
pointy beaks to pick large
insects out of tree and
ground crevices. Their long
tongues have spear-like
tips that are used for
stabbing their prey.
Birds have good hearing.
They can distinguish notes
that are far too fast for
humans to separate.
Birds sense of vision is
highly developed to
pursue food and avoid
predators.
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species
relationships
How species get along
Organisms of the same species and of
different species are constantly interacting.
The relationships between species have a
large effect on the size of populations and
how communities change over time. Species
relationships can be investigated based on
the effect the relationship has on each
species. Some effects encourage the growth
and reproduction of a species and other
effects inhibit the growth and reproduction
of a species. Some species relationships
have little or no effect on one or both of the
species.
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examples of species relationships
(Note: These are examples of relationships between individual organisms over a
short period of time)
PREDATION
Along a river, an osprey flies down and takes a
steelhead trout out of the water and eats it. In
predation, one organism kills and eats another. The
organism being eaten is called prey (the steelhead),
and the one that does the eating is called the
predator (the osprey).
COMPETITION
White bark pine trees produce large seeds within their cones.
These seeds are collected and consumed by squirrels and
grizzly bears. When the demand for the seeds is greater than
the amount produced by the trees, these two organisms will
compete for the same food resource. This is competition.
Competition occurs when two or more organisms of the same
or different species attempt to use the same limited
resource. Anotherexample of of competition is the
relationship between two plants competing for the limited
amount of sunlight that reaches the forest floor or that are
in competition for the same pollinators.
MUTUALISM
A honey bee is feeding on flower nectar. While the
bee flies and eats from different flowers, it
transfers pollen from one plant to another of the
same species. While the bee pollinates the flowers,
the flower provides a food source for the bee. Both
species benefit. This is mutualism.
COMMENSALISM
A lichen attaches itself to the trunk or branch of a
tree. The lichen enjoys a place to capture light, feed
on nutrients from the air and receive moisture from
water running down the tree. Although the tree
provides resources for the lichen, the tree is
unaffected. One species has benefitted and the
other is neither harmed nor helped. This is
commensalism.
PARASITISM
The tick, a small arthropod, lives on the skin of some
species of mammals such as mice, deer and chip-
munks. The tick bites through the mammals skin and
eats the blood. The tick swells with the blood and
falls off. The tick itself does not usually kill the host
mammal. This is parasitism. The key difference in
this relationship is that unlike predation, the
parasite gets resources from its host without
immediately killing it. The organism the parasite
takes its nourishment from is known as the host.
ec 14
Two trees are growing next to each other in the forest. They are the same
height and their branches are growing into each other.
You are at a lake in the late afternoon. You notice fish rising to the surface
to eat insects.
A mosquito begins to suck blood from your arm. You grab it and eat it. Is
this parasitism, predation, cannibalism, all of these? (Hint: You are eating
human blood).
Name that
Relationship
habitat & species
diversity
What is habitat diversity?
Habitat diversity refers to the variety of
different places for organisms to live
within an ecosystem. Habitat diversity is
often determined by the types and
arrangement of plant species, soil types,
bodies of water and landforms (cliffs,
rocky outcrops, etc.).
What is species diversity?
Species diversity is the variety of species in
an ecosystem. There are two important
components of species diversity: richness
and evenness. Species richness refers to the
number of species in an ecosystem. Species
evenness is determined by comparing the
numbers of individuals within each species.
An ecosystem with a similar number of
individuals of many species is considered to
have high richness and high evenness. An
ecosystem with only a few species, but equal
numbers of individuals per species, is
considered to have low richness and high
evenness. Low evenness occurs when some
species have many individuals, and some
species have few.
You are standing in your back-
yard watching about 50 birds.
You determine that there are
four small black-speckled birds
(starlings), one large blue bird
(scrub jay) and 45 pigeons.
Is this high or low species
richness? Evenness? Why?
You are surveying plants in a
wetland community. At the
end of the survey, you have
recorded:
10 species of aquatic grasses
3 species of algae
8 species of aquatic shrubs
5 species of wetland trees.
There are between two and five
individuals of every species. Is
this high or low species
richness? Evenness? Why?
Diverse
Populations?
SEE CHART ON NEXT PAGE-->
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High and low diversity
Different habitats provide food and shelter for many different species.
Therefore, ecoystems with high habitat diversity often have high species
diversity. An ecosystem with few habitat types may support a lower
species diversity.
diversity and ecosystem stability
Species diversity helps determine the stability of an ecosystem. Each
species differs in its ability to survive. Some species may be more well-
suited to conditions after a disturbance or may even require a
disturbance to exist. A diverse community is often able to recover more
quickly from disturbance.
High Richness & High Evenness
Low Richness & High Evenness
High Richness & Low Evenness
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field studies
CONTENTS FOR THIS SECTION:
field 1
General Field Procedures Field 2
Standard Field Equipment Field 4
Field Journaling Field 5
Science Inquiry Planning Form Field 8
Getting a Representative Sample Field 9
Terrestrial Invertebrates Field 15
Wildlife Ecology Field 26
Forest Ecology Field 37
Plant Ecology Field 49
Lichen Ecology Field 67
Aquatic Invertebrates Field 79
Water Chemistry Field 90
Streamflow Field 112
Wetland Ecology Field 121
"Must we always teach our children with books? Let them look at
the mountains and the stars above. Let them look at the beauty
of the waters and the trees and flowers on earth. They will then
begin to think, and to think is the beginning of a real education."
--David Polis
for all modules
(1) Get to know your team. Find out about any
health concerns. Make sure everyone has food,
water and appropriate clothing.
(2) Distribute scientific equipment. Discuss
equipment care and safety .
(3) Gain a sense of place. Start
with a general discussion about where you are in
the geographical big picture (planet, continent,
country, state, region), then use maps and
aerial photos of the site to determine your
specific location (watershed, elevation,
latitude/longitude, etc.) and characteristics
of the topography (shape and contours).
Identify significant landforms nearby, like rivers,
mountains and lakes.
(4) Practice using a compass in conjunction with
maps and aerial photos as you explore the area.
(5) Take time throughout the day to use all senses
and record your observations in journals (refer
to page FIELD 5).
(6) Use scientific tools, taxonomic keys and field guides to
make observations, identify specimens, and collect data.
Record data on sample data sheets.
(7) Based on observations, brainstorm
questions about your focus area of study
(plants, lichens, wildlife, inverts, etc.) and the
ecology of the area. Record questions on to
Science Inquiry Planning Form (page FIELD 8).
(8) (if time permits) Set up a practice plot or a
transect to get a representative data
sample from the area (refer to page FIELD 9).
field 2
General Field procedures
(9) Record any more questions that come
up. As a team, decide which question is the
most interesting and testable given your
equipment and time constraints. Turn the
focus question into a clear, concise and
testable hypothesis. Record the hypothesis
onto the Science Inquiry Planning Form.
(10) Design an investigation to test your
hypothesis. Make sure to control your
variables by using measured plots, time
windows, etc. Consider fieldwork time con-
straints. If necessary, create your own
data sheets that will help you efficiently
and effectively record your data.
(11) Conduct your investigation.
Collect and record data.
(12) Organize, analyze and interpret your data. Come to
conclusions about your hypothesis. Use field guides to
identify specimens.
(13) Create visual displays to explain your experiment and to
show the results of your investigation. You may use charts,
graphs, tables, maps, profiles/transects, specimen examples
and/or sketches, and include the scientific tools used to
collect and record your data.
(14) Develop a team presentation using your visual displays
and clear verbal communications. Make sure your
presentation:
Gives all team members an opportunity to participate;
Has a logical and coherent introduction,
body and conclusion; and
Is completed within the allocated time.
(15) Deliver presentation to fellow
scientists. After your presentation,
respond to questions and make connections
to the discoveries of other teams.
(16) Collect all equipment.
field 3
standard
field equipment
for all modules
Calculators
Clip Boards
Compasses
Field Guides
First Aid Kit
Flagging
Hand Lenses
Hand Sanitizer
Journals
Pencils
Rulers
Sample Data Sheets
Science Inquiry Planning Form
Specimen Bags & Containers
Site Aerial Photos
Site Maps
Tadem
Tape Measure
Two-Way Radio
Whistle
field 4
field journaling
guidelines & techniques
A field journal is essential to a scientist's
fieldwork. Humans have kept field journals
for centuries. The classic journals of Lewis
and Clark, Henry David Thoreau, John Muir,
Aldo Leopold, Ann Zwinger, and Edward
Abbey are priceless records that teach us
much about the natural world.
Part of the appeal of field journaling lies in its flexibility. There are as
many ways to keep a field journal as there are people who keep them.
Some people prefer to make precise scientific observations with charts,
lists and labels, while others will write long, detailed descriptions. Others
use poetry or prose to record their views of nature. Still others draw
what they see. Perhaps field journals reach their full potential when they
combine all of these ingredients.
Field journals can be in whatever language you are most comfortable with,
and correct spelling and complete sentences should not be a worry. No
one else needs to see what you put in your journal. You can even take
your journal pages home with you if youd like.
The PURPOSE of keeping a field journal on a Wolftree field day is to:
Make observations, gather evidence and information
Jot down questions, ideas, thoughts and theories
Record scientific data
Creatively express ones self
field 5
FIELD JOURNALLING GUIDELINES:
Before journaling, be sure to move away from the
other groups and get to a natural area where you
likely will begin your field studies.
Before putting pencil to paper, take several
minutes to stop, close your eyes, take some deep
breathes, listen, smell, feel, and then look around
for a while - awaken your senses and shut out
distractions.
Start with a title page that includes your name, the date, time, site
and general weather conditions.
The initial journal time is primarily designed to get in tune with the
natural world and to get all the senses going. For this time, consider the
five Ss: (1) Safe Spot, (2) Sit, (3) Silence, (4) Solitude, and (5) Senses.
Often, a field journal is a tool for remembering some of the details of a
particular plants, rocks, insects, wildlife sign, etc. that you encounter
throughout your day. This allows you to then use field guides and/or
reference books later to learn more. With whatever you are examining,
write down specific details about the organism or object, like color,
texture, shape, patterns and markings. Make sketches and include lots
of arrows pointing out these details. Be sure to include measurements.
Use descriptive language that vividly tells the story of the sounds,
smells, characteristics, and structure. This will allow you to accurately
trigger your memory when you refer to your journal later.
field 6
field 7
Focused Journal Activity Examples:
SOUND MAPPING
Put a dot in the middle of your journal page
to represent yourself. Draw two or three
circles around the dot. Listen carefully to
what you hear surrounding you. When you
hear something (wind, bird, airplane, etc.)
mark on the map approximately where you
heard it. Use symbols to represent what
you heard.
BLIND CONTOUR DRAWING
When making a blind contour drawing, the eye is not watching the hand as
it draws on the paper. Contour drawing trains your eye to draw what it
sees rather than what it thinks it sees, thus challenging you to carefully
observe the subject. You will be surprised at how accurate these
drawings can be.
FIRST PERSON OBJECT
Write as if you are the object or organism that you are observing, like a
tree, frog, or rock. What do you see, feel, hear, sense? What is your
personality like? Who are your friends? Who are your enemies? From
where do you get your energy? What is your life cycle? Another related
activity is to write a biography of a subject you are observing.
SENSORY EXPLORATION
You can do a broad exploration of the senses. What do you see, smell,
feel, hear, taste (can be figurative) around you? Or, you can focus on a
subject and describe what it looks like, feels like, smells like, sounds like,
and, perhaps, even tastes like.
SKETCHING FROM MEMORY
Closely observe a subject and then walk away from it until it is out of
sight. Sketch the subject from memory. Go back and look to see how you
did. You may choose to modify the drawing. Continued practice sketch-
ing by memory will improve your observational skills.
TIMELINE
Describe the place around you: the
plants, wildlife signs, weather, light, etc.
What do you think it will be like in five
hours, five days, five months, five years,
fifty years, or five hundred years? You
can also go back in time.
science inquiry
planning form
Team____________________________________________________________
Date______________ Site_________________________________________
field 8
Hypothesis:
Key Questions:
Investigation Design:
Getting a
REpresentative sample
To answer these questions, counting or measuring all points in a large
area usually takes too much time. Therefore, scientists make
observations and draw conclusions based on a representative sample or
a portion of the focus item (plant, tree, insect, etc.) of an area - a piece
of the pie! In addition, when comparing items from two different areas,
methods are needed to sample a representative number of items from
each area (controlling variables!).
There are three methods of selecting representative samples:
(I) Transect - A linear sample, usually of a specified length, often
constructed by laying out a cloth measuring tape in a straight line
across the area being sampled. The tape is usually laid out in a specific
direction using a compass.
(2) Fixed-Area Plot - A sample area of specified size with defined
boundaries. Although it can be any shape, the most common shapes are
circles, triangles, and rectangles. Boundaries of triangles and rectangles
are often marked by cloth tapes used to measure them, or they can be
marked with string or flagging. The boundaries of plots larger than 1/100
acre need to be constructed using a compass.
(3) Random Selection- A sample consisting of randomly selected
points (individual trees, plants, etc.) throughout an area. This is the
most difficult method. Three major difficulties of this method include:
(a) If sample locations are not random, the data may not be
representative of the overall area; (b) samples may be difficult to
quantify; (c) Locating and traveling between single points is often too
time consuming.
Getting a representative sample is
like examining a piece of pie that
represents the whole pie.
While exploring an ecosystem, one might ask:
How many trees are in the forest?
What percentage of standing trees are
dead?
Is there more lichen diversity near the
stream or in the uplands?
Are there more wildlife sightings and signs
below 1000 ft. elevation or above?
How does the vegetation change moving
from a wetland meadow to the dense forest?
What percent of the forest floor receives
sunlight?
field 9
TRANSECTS
Transects are most useful in sampling along linear areas, such as stream
corridors. They are also useful in documenting change as you move from
one land condition to another (like from the forest edge towards the
center of the forest-or from lowland towards upland).
A. LINE INTERSECT METHOD
One use of this method would be to estimate what proportion of a given
area is covered by the foliage of specific plant species-such as dwarf
Oregon grape.
Steps:
1. Lay a cloth tape along the ground for a specific length, 100 feet for
example.
2. As you walk alongside the tape, measure the length (number of feet) of
dwarf Oregon grape foliage that intersects the tape.
3. Continue measuring and recording this data for each plant or cluster
of plants that you encounter along the transect.
4 Calculate the total length of foliage that covers the transect by
adding all the lengths you recorded.
5. To determine the proportion of the area covered by this species: divide
the sum of foliage lengths by the total transect length (e.g., sum of
lengths 100).
9.5ft. +8.5 ft. +2.2 ft. +4.7 ft. =24.9 ft.
24.9 ft. / 100 ft. =.249 x 100 =24.9% covered by dwarf Oregon grape
field 10
9.5 8.5
2.2
4.7
measuring tape
dwarf Oregon grape
B. LINE INTERSECT/POINT SAMPLE METHOD:
One use of this method would be to estimate what proportion of an area
is shaded by tree foliage for trees taller than 6 feet.
Steps:
1. Lay out a line of any length.
2. Stop every 10 feet along this line,
3. Look straight up and record whether there is tree foliage directly
above.
4. Determine the proportion of the area covered by foliage by dividing the
number of tree foliage cover stops by the total number of stops.
Alternative steps:
1. Walk a straight line following compass bearing.
2. Stop every ten steps,
3. Look straight up and record whether there is tree foliage directly
above.
5. Determine the proportion of the area covered by foliage by dividing the
number of tree foliage cover stops by the total number of stops.
F
9 Foliage stops
6 No Foliage stops 9/15 =.600 x100 =60.0% cover by foliage
15 Total stops
0 50
1 ruler
2
field 11
F F F F F F F F N N N N N N
C. WIDE TRANSECT METHOD (or a long rectangular plot):
One use of this method would be to estimate plant diversity (such as lichens)
along a stream.
Steps:
1. Lay out a cloth tape on the ground for a specific length, 50 feet for example,
along the stream.
2. Using a 12-inch ruler, search a 1-foot wide area on each side of the tape for
different lichen species.
3. Plant diversity, in this example, can be determined by counting the number
of different lichen species recorded.
1 ruler
Deer Creek
FIXED-AREA PLOTS
Fixed-area plots are often used to make area estimates such as: (a) the
number of trees per acre, or (b) the number of plants per square foot.
They are also used to (c) compare different areas.
All three methods below can be used to investigate this same example
question: How many trees larger than 5 inches in diameter are in the
forest?
field 12
Area
1 acre
1/4 acre
1/5 acre
1/10 acre
1/24 acre
1/100 acre
1/300 acre
Radius in Feet
117.8
58.9
52.7
37.2
24.0
11.7
6.8
CIRCULAR PLOT DIMENSIONS:
A. CIRCULAR PLOTS
(easiest to establish)
Steps:
1. Select a plot size. (1/10 acre
has a radius of 37.2 feet, for
example).
2. Mark the center of the circle.
3. Use a cloth tape to record
every tree larger than 5 inches in
diameter within 37.2 feet of the
center.
4. Every tree recorded
represents 10 trees per acre.
field 13
B. TRIANGULAR PLOTS
(next easiest to establish.)
Steps:
1. Select a plot size (1/24 acre, for
example).
2. Use a cloth tape and compass to
measure and mark the base of the
equilateral triangle (1/24 acre plot
has a base of 64.8 feet).
3. In the middle of the base use a
compass and cloth tape to lay out
the altitude of the triangle perpendi-
cular (90 degrees) to the base (1/10
acre plot has an altitude of 56.1
feet).
4. Mark the altitude.
5. Use additional cloth tapes to mark
the two sides of the equilateral
triangle by connecting the ends of
the base to the altitude.
6. Record every tree larger than 5
inches in diameter.
7. Every tree recorded represents 24
trees per acre.
Area
1 acre
1/4 acre
1/5 acre
1/10 acre
1/24 acre
1/100 acre
1/300 acre
Base in Feet
317.2
158.6
141.8
100.4
64.8
31.8
18.3
Altitude in Feet
317.2
158.6
141.8
100.4
64.8
31.8
18.3
EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE PLOT DIMENSIONS:
C. RECTANGULAR PLOTS
(usually squares)
Steps:
1. Select a plot size (1/5 acre has sides of 93.3 feet, for example).
2. Use a cloth tape and compass to measure and mark the sides of the
square.
3. Record each tree larger than 5 inches in diameter.
4. Each tree recorded represents 5 trees per acre.
Area
1 acre
1/4 acre
1/5 acre
1/10 acre
1/24 acre
1/100 acre
1/300 acre
Side of Square
in Feet
208.7
104.4
93.3
66.0
42.6
20.9
12.0
SQUARE PLOT DIMENSIONS:
field 14
Additional Notes:
The length and number of transects or the size and number of plots
should depend on what is being sampled and how variable or uniform its
occurrence is. In reality it will be determined by how much time you have.
One rule of thumb for plants is that the plots should be twice as large as
the canopy of the largest species.
Plots can be located randomly or along a transect.
terrestrial
invertebrates
terrestrial invertebrate groups
Insects, spiders, centipedes, millipedes,
worms and slugs are all terrestrial
invertebrates. Terrestrial invertebrates
lack a backbone and live on land and are
divided into several groups or phylums. We
will be focusing primarily on a group called
Arthropods (Phylum Arthropoda).
Arthropods have more than one body
segment, jointed legs and a hard body (or
exoskeleton). Arthropods frequently
encountered in the field include insects
(Class Insecta), spiders and mites (Class
Arachnida), centipedes (Class Chilopoda)
and millipedes (Class Diplopoda). Insects
are the most common and make up more
than half of all known species of organisms.
Their small size allows them to fit into a
huge number of niches in an ecosystem.
Insects wont inherit the
earth: they own it now.
--Dr. Thomas Eisner,
Cornell University.
Adul t I nsec t s
usual l y have:
3 pai r s of l egs
2 set s of w i ngs
3 body sec t i ons
1 pai r ant ennae
Spi der s
usual l y have:
4 pai r s of l egs
no w i ngs
2 body sec t i ons
no ant ennae
Cent i pedes
usual l y have:
1 pai r of l egs per
segment
1 pai r of ant ennae
More than 80%
of the earths
animal species
are arthropods.
In terms of
biomass, ants
outweigh humans.
Invertebrates
outnumber humans
200 million to one.
Field 15
insect Anatomy
Generally, insects are characterized by having three pairs of legs, two
sets of wings during some part of their life cycle and three body sections
- head, thorax and abdomen. Insects possess a wide array of types of
antennae and mouthparts. These structures have fascinating forms
that reflect how the organism relates to its environment.
Wi ngs
Thor ax
Head
Mout hpar t s
Ant enna
Abdomen
c er c us (t ai l )
Tar sus
Field 16
How do individual body parts help the invertebrate
adapt to or function in its environment?
feeding groups
Invertebrates play a major role in ecosystem function because they
occupy many places in the food web. They may be herbivores,
decomposers, scavengers, predators, nectivores or parasites.
Decomposers feed on dead and dying plant material. They help
break down these materials, returning nutrients to the soil to be
used by plants. Termites are common decomposers.
Scavengers feed on dead and dying animals (including other
invertebrates). They help break down these materials, returning
nutrients to the soil to be used by plants. Flies are common
scavengers.
Parasites feed on living animals called hosts. Parasites may
often harm their hosts. However, successful parasites do not kill
their host so they can continue to feed on it. Ticks, mites and
fleas are common parasites.
Predators actively hunt and kill other animals (insects, fish,
frogs, and more). Because of the high reproductive rates of
insects, predators are important in balancing insect populations.
Spiders, ground beetles, and centipedes are common predators.
Field 17
Herbivores feed on living plants. Some may kill the plants, which
are then recycled by decomposers. Others may feed on parts of
plants without killing them. The parts that are fed upon are put
back into the system as nutrients through invertebrate
droppings. Caterpillars, aphids, grasshoppers and bark beetles
are common herbivores.
Nectivores feed on the nectar of living plants. While doing so,
they often also help pollinate these plants. Butterflies and bees
are common nectar feeders and pollinators.
invertebrate Relationships
Invertebrates are an abundant food source for
many animals, from other invertebrates to
birds and large mammals. Invertebrates also
strongly influence the food web because of the
way they help and harm plants. Invertebrates
consume huge amounts of plant material,
which limits the primary production of energy
in the food web, yet invertebrates help to
pollinate plants and disperse seeds as they
feed on plant materials.
Careful examination of
invertebrates reveals
many examples of species
relationships among each
other and other living
organisms. Their
specialized adaptations
reflect their roles in the
ecosystem.
Great Resources to
Learn More About
invertebrates:
Websites:
www.natural partners.org/
Insect Zoo/
Orkin Insect Zoo. National
Museum of Natural History.
Smithsonian Institute.
www.colostate.edu/Depts/Ent
omology/www.-sites.html.
Provides a long list of entomology
websites.
www.insects.org
Bug Bios. Shameless
promotion of insect
appreciation.
Books/Field Guides:
The Practical Entomologist by
Rick Imes. An excellent introduc-
tion to the world of insects with
glossy photos.
National Audubon Society First
Field Guide: Insects by Christina
Wilsdon. Provides much of what a
beginning entomologist might
want to know about insects.
Bugs of Washington and
Oregon
by John Acorn, Ian Sheldon.
Bright colors stair-stepped along
the fore edge of this easy-to-use
introductory insectopedia
Acorn, a bug enthusiast, has cho-
sen the biggest, most colorful,
hardest to miss, or weirdest 125
of the approximately 25,000
species thought to inhabit
Washington and Oregon.
The Guide to Butterflies of
Oregon and Washington by
William Neill, et al . A good book of
100 common species of the
Northwest.
Field 18
Evidence of invertebrates
On cold and/or wet days in the field,
invertebrates may not be easily observed or
collected. However, careful exploration usually
reveals evidence, or signs, that invertebrates
are around. Think about what kinds of
invertebrates might leave these common signs:
Chewed leaves
Empty exoskeletons
Trails, or galleries, in wood under bark
Sawdust
Small holes in trees
Small hills
Webs
Collection Tools
& methods
SWEEP NET: Use this tough canvas
net with a sweeping motion along
brush, grass, and short vegetation.
AERIAL NET: Use this
delicate nylon mesh net to catch
flying invertebrates with a similar
motion as the sweep net, but in
open areas, away from vegetation.
(To prevent invertebrates from getting out
of sweep and arial nets, close the opening
of the net by giving the handle a quick half
turn)
BEAT TRAY: Assemble the tray by
placing each stick in opposite cor-
ners of the white square. Place the
tray beneath vegetation and and
shake the branches and stems.
PIT TRAPS: Each plot has two pit
traps located near flagging.
Remove the cover, pull the top cup
from the ground and pour onto
cover to check for invertebrates.
Put the cup back into the cup still
in the ground. Replace the cover,
making sure it is propped up just
high enough for invertebrates to
pass beneath.
Terrestrial
invertebrates
in the Field
invert field
equipment:
standard field gear
field vests
collection tools
invertebrate traps
trowel/shovel
terrarium
kill jars & ethyl
acetate
invert lab
equipment:
vials & ethyl alco-
hol
pins & pinning block
small invertebrate
boxes
labels
microscope
flashlight
probe
tweezers
identification keys
glue & scissors
Field 19
Collection guidelines
To collect specimens, divide into teams of
two or three. Share the variety of tools and
techniques for collecting. As one team
member collects, the other(s) assists with
getting the invertebrate into the kill jar or
terrarium. Small specimens must be in kill
jars at least 15 minutes before pinning. Large
specimens, like bumble bees, dragonflies, and
grasshoppers must be left in the kill jars at
least 25 minutes. Use the data sheet to
keep a running list of invertebrates collected,
the habitat where they were collected, and
what they were doing at the time of
collection.
k i l l j ar
Field 20
aer i al net
sweep net
lab guidElines
At the outdoor lab, record findings on data sheet. With a
microscope and hand lens, examine specimens. For invertebrates, use
the dichotomous key to determine the order of each invertebrate.
Record identification features, habitat, etc. of each specimen on
to the data sheet.
Madr as Hi gh School
spec i men name or i nsec t or der
9/20/06
Bear Spr i ngs
open gr assy f i el d
Field 21
PRESERVING AND DISPLAYING SPECIMENS:
For large hard bodied invertebrates, place
specimens on the pinning block (styrofoam) and
stick a pin just to the right side of center
through the specimens thorax.
For small hard bodied invertebrates, use
a dot of glue to mount each specimen at
the end of a paper point.
For butterflies and moths, make a
depression the size of the
specimens body in the pinning
block. Gently spread the wings out
and pin the ends of small strips of
paper to hold the wings in place.
For soft-bodied insects and spiders, preserve in a vial
with just enough ethyl alcohol to cover specimen
completely. Do not attempt to preserve slugs or snails.
For each pinned/preserved specimen, make a
label showing: school name, specimen name or
invertebrate order, date, site, and habitat.
invertebrate ecology
Teaching Tips
Students may question the killing of
invertebrates: Why do we do it? Does
it hurt the invertebrates?, etc. The
reasons we give are:
Education. Crawling, flying specimens
are hard to study.
Sheer numbers. There are more
invertebrates than any other
organism. Invertebrates outnumber
humans 200 million to one.
Massive reproduction rates and
relatively short life spans allow
populations to survive and thrive even
with our small impact.
Out of respect and necessity, we do
highly recommend that student groups
collect only one sample of each different
invertebrate.
It is important to remind students to
label specimens.
Be sure to allow at least an hour for
examination and preservation.
Safety Concerns:
Bee stings are more likely with
this activity. Ask students,
point blank, if anyone is allergic
to bee stings. If so, this is not
the activity for them.
Ethyl Acetate in kill jars is a
toxic substance. Do not
inhale!
Remind students that nets
are not to be used as weapons
against one another.
Remind students to sanitize
or clean hands after examining
inverts and before lunch.
Inquiring Minds Want to Know:
How has the sites disturbance history affected the invertebrates in the
area?
How do the invertebrates at the site fit into the overall food web of the
site?
How are the invertebrates at the site adapted specifically to their
habitat and to the types of food they eat?
How do the invertebrates interact with and affect the plant, wildlife and
tree species at the site?
Field 22
School_________________________________ Mentors_______________________________________
Field Study Team______________________________________________________________________
Date_______________________________ Site_______________________________________________
Weather________________________________________________________________________________
Specimen Collected
(Describe or sketch it if you
dont know what it is)
Example: metallic, green beetle.
Habitat/Ecosystem
Where did you find it?
Example: on the tip of a
blade of grass.
Activity
What was it doing? or What do
you think it was doing?
Examples: Eating, searching for
food, mating
wolftree
invertebrate ecology data
running field list
Field 23
wolftree
Invertebrate ecology data
Habitat Description:
Key ID Features:
size:
shape:
# of legs:
# of segments:
patterns:
colors:
wings:
tails:
mouthparts:
other:
Common Name:
Order:
Feeding type:
Sketch specimen (draw to scale):
Habitat Description:
Key ID Features:
size:
shape:
# of legs:
# of segments:
patterns:
colors:
wings:
tails:
mouthparts:
other:
Common Name:
Order:
Feeding type:
Field 24
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Sketch specimen (draw to scale):
wolftree
Invert ecology
calculation sheet
Field 25
= 100%
%
%
%
%
%
%
total # orders collected:
order:
order:
order:
order:
order:
order:
pie chart
Graph Specimen Feeding Types
# of herbivores
# of carnivores
# of others
# of others
Chart Invertebrate Orders: Graph top three habitats where inverte-
brates were found:
Diversity of Specimens Sampled:
Richness: Low High
Evenness: Low High
% of total:
% of total: % of total: % of total:
Total # of different species
found:______________
habitat:
11
10
9
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2
1
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3
2
1
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3
2
1
# of
specimens
collected
or
observed:
Wildlife
Ecology
When one tugs at a single thing
in nature, he finds it attached to
the rest of the world.
--John Muir
Field 26
Wildlife and adaptation
The diversity of animal species in an area depends on the existence of
different habitats in the system. Wildlife species adapt to survive in the
conditions of a specific habitat. A physical adaptation takes place over
many generations, while a behavioral adaptation can occur within an
animals lifetime. The claws and teeth of wildlife may adapt in response to
feeding behavior. Organisms that rely heavily on sight and hearing may
have large eyes and sensitive ears. The sounds that organisms make to
claim territory, attract mates and call for help is another way in which they
adapt. Individuals of a species also adapt in terms of their relationships
with other species, as in warning signals meant to deter predators.
Observing wildlife
Because most animals often hide or flee from
humans, wildlife observers look for signs of
wildlife in addition to directly observing an
animal. Wildlife species leave signs as they
move through their habitat, alter their habitat
in search of food, and leave droppings behind
after eating.
Wildlife signs
Tracks - Footprints, or tracks, are a sign left by wildlife as they move
through their habitat. Observe the number of toes and the presence of
claws as well as the size, shape, and placement of tracks to identify the
animals. Muddy and wet sandy areas are great areas to look for tracks!
Runs - Trampled vegetation in distinct paths, or runs, indicates a route
commonly traveled by animals. Observe the runs size, where its
coming from and where its going, to try and identify the animal
that made it.
Marks - Wildlife species may leave marks on tree trunks as they sharpen
claws, search for food, or rub their antlers.
Scat - Some animals are picky in choosing where they leave their droppings
or scat -- others will go anywhere. Bones and hair in dark colored scat may
indicate a predatory/carnivorous species; partially digested plant matter
and light color may indicate a herbivorous species.
Sounds - The sounds an organism makes are a great identifier. Bird
species usually have a distinct song and call, chipmunks and squirrels
chatter, elk bugle, coyotes howl, pikas chirp and bats squeak.
Beds - Beds are frequently-used sleeping areas. These may be found
in hollow logs, trees, rock piles, brush piles, grasses, or even out in the
open. Beds are characterized by well-worn depressions that can be
the size and shape of the animals body. They also may contain
fur - another clue to the animals identity.
Chews - Some of the most distinctive animal signs are left by the teeth on
trees, cones, grasses, and twigs. Noting the type of cut and estimating
the size of the teeth that made it, can help you identify the animal.
Holes - The size and shape of a hole in the ground or in a tree may be helpful
in figuring out the identity of the animal.
Field 27
Birding
Birds are wildlife that you most likely will be able to both hear and see in
your field investigation. Accurately identifying birds can be challenging,
but with a little preparation, some knowledge and experience, you can
quickly become a confident birder.
Although all birds share common features such as feathered bodies, the
sizes, shapes, colors and other characteristics differ from family to
family and species to species.
Important clues for identifying birds:
Color & Field Marks. Notice the
color of the birds head, body,
wings, and tail. Also, notice any
special patterns. Look for bars on
its wings, rings around its eyes,
stripes above its eyes, or patches
of color on its rump.
Sizes & Shapes. Most birds
have a shape and stance
that is characteristic of
their species or family.
Compare the size and shape
of the bird to those of other
common birds. Robins,
sparrows, and crows are
good reference birds.
Bills. The size and shape of a birds
bill are good clues to its diet. For
example, chickadees have tiny bills
for picking at insects, creepers have
longer slightly curved bills for
probing deep for insects, finches
have stout beaks for cracking and
shelling seeds, and meat-eating
kestrals have hooked beaks that
allow them to pull apart animals
that are too big to be swallowed
whole.
Songs & Calls. Most bird species
have songs that vary in melody
and tempo to attract mates and
claim territory; shorter, simpler
calls are often used to signal
danger or maintain contact with
other individuals in the community.
Males & Females. In general, you can tell males apart from females of a
species, especially during the spring mating season. To attract a mate, male
birds usually are more colorful and do more singing than females.
Field 28
Wings & Flight. Notice the
wing shape and flight pattern
of flying birds. For example,
falcons and swallows have long
pointed wings. Quails and
certain hawks, on the other
hand, have shorter, rounder
wings. Also, pay attention to
the way the bird flies. For
example doves fly in a straight
line, woodpeckers dip up and
down, vultures soar in wide
circles and both ducks and
geese beat their wings
constantly during flight.
Habitat. Pay attention to where
you find the bird. Along a river
bank, high in the mountains, deep
in the forest, or swimming in a
wetland? Also, notice the specific
place you see the bird in its
habitat. Many juncos stay close
to the ground, where as kinglets
are usually found high up in the
tree tops.
Behavior. Notice the body language of the
bird. Is it swimming, flying, wading, or
perching? Nuthatches, creepers, and wood-
peckers all climb trees. Spotted sandpipers
teeter as they walk, dippers dip along
waterways, etc. Also, observe how the bird
is feeding - foraging on the ground, pursuing
insects in the air, or diving for fish in a river.
Field 29
Birding
Wildlife Ecology
in the Field
Field 30
Before launching your wildlife ecology investiga-
tion, spend some time practicing a few of the
following methods and techniques that will help
your team observe and be aware in nature.
These are adapted from Tom Brown Jr.s books
and field guides.
Stop - talking - become a tree, a rock, an animal...
Stop - when there is an alarm call.
Stop - when an animal looks at you.
Stop - learn to freeze.
Look - with splatter vision to see movement.
Look - at edges of fields and forests and water.
Look - for tracks and signs.
Look - deeply at patterns, shapes and shadows.
Listen - to what the birds are saying.
Listen - near and far for sounds.
Listen - for a rustle, swish or crunch...
Listen - with deer ears.
Move - with the fox walk.
Move - in slow motion.
Move - when an animal looks away from you.
Move - with the wind.
methods
Materials Needed:
standard field gear
binoculars
field vests
GPS (if available)
permanent marker
sound recorder
(if available)
TRACK CASTING MATERIALS:
plaster mix
plastic frame & clip
water
mixing bowl
stirring device
field 31
MOVING IN NATURE - THE FOX WALK
Watching our sly four-legged friends, we can
learn to effectively move through nature using
the following techniques:
sensory skillS and techniques
1. Stop talking.
2. Move in slow motion.
3. Shorten your stride.
4. Lightly touch your foot on the
ground before committing your weight.
5. Place the outside edge of your
foot on the ground.
6. Gently roll your foot
down (inwardly) flat.
7. Slowly move your weight forward
in a flowing motion.
8. Center your gravity at the
center of your hips.
Fox walkers should be able to feel exactly what they are stepping on. If
you feel a twig that might snap, you now have the ability to pick up your
foot and place it in a new spot without looking down.
In conjunction with the fox walk, learn and practice freezing and becoming
invisible. When you hear wildlife sounds, smell something, or sense
movement, enlist your skill to freeze and youll have a great chance of
observing wildlife.
HEARING IN NATURE -
DEER EARS
Focus your hearing by cupping
your hands around your ears,
making a shape like a deers ear.
By doing this, you can enhance
your hearing in one direction,
like deer, and pick up sounds
that would normally escape.
SEEING IN NATURE -
OWL EYES or SPLATTER VISION
This technique was used by Native Americans to
spot game, and is used by most animals to spot
danger. It entails looking toward the horizon and
allowing your vision to spread out. The effect
is a little like putting a wide-angle lens on a
camera. Suddenly your field of vision is greatly
increased.
Splatter visionaries should be able to notice the
things that are passing on the outmost fringes --
birds blinking, blades of grass moving, bugs
flying, etc.. You should be aware of almost
anything in your field of vision, without moving
your head or your eyes, just by choosing to see it.
1. Put your arms straight out in front
of you at shoulder level.
2. Point your fingers forward and
wiggle them.
3. Look straight ahead and slowly
move your hands out to your sides.
4. Stop when you can just barely
see your wiggling fingers while still
looking straight ahead.
5. You should now be seeing out of the
corners of your eyes.
field 32
casting a Track:
1. Do not alter track in any way before casting it.
Framing:
2. Use plastic strip to make a wall around track leaving at least one inch
of space between wall and track. Fasten plastic strip together with
paper clip. Do not disturb track when placing frame around it.
Mixing:
3. Pour enough water into a mixing bowl that will completely cover track
and fill plastic frame.
4. Ratio of plaster to water is about 2:1. Slowly add plaster to water
5. Stir quickly (Stirring starts a chemical reaction between water and
plaster). The mixture should be like pancake batter (The wetter the
mix,the longer it will take to dry).
Pouring:
6. Pour mixture slowly, but steadily filling
the lowest portion of framed area first.
7. Completely cover framed area to depth of
at least 1/2 inch above the highest point of
the track.
8. Tapping the top of the plaster with the
flat of the stirring device will flatten it out.
9. Wait approximately 30 minutes.
Releasing Cast:
10. When cast has hardened, carefully dig
away soil from its sides.
11. Gently pry beneath the thickest part of
cast with your fingers or a stick.
12. Lift and pull up until cast turns over or releases straight up. Clay
soils and fine mud sometimes require excavating beneath cast to
release.
13. Write the date, location, and species (if known) on back of cast.
14. Cast details are fragile for the first 24 hours - avoid extensive
cleaning. Leaving some soil on the cast can add to its appearance and
enhance some details.
field 33
Field 34
resources on
wildlife ecology
Websites:
www.dfw.state.or.us/
The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlifes
website offers hot topics on wildlife, areas to
see wildlife and wildlife education programs.
www.wa.gov/wdfw/
The Washington Department of Fish and
Wildlifes website offers outdoor recreation
sites, information on wildlife science and
habitat, and school programs.
www.PartnersInFlight.org/
The Partners in Flight website offers an
extremely comprehensive site on birds and bird
conservation.
www.audubon-pdx.org/
The Portland Audubon Societys website is
great for learning about the areas birds, bird
trips, field notes, conservation news and
classes.
Books:
All the DK, Eyewitness Books are excellent
resources with fabulous photography. Titles
include Amphibian, Bird, Mammal, and Reptile.
Tom Browns Field Guide to Nature and
Survival for Children by Tom Brown Jr. with
Judy Brown. Tom Brown is one of the
foremost trackers and tracking educators of
our time.
Atlas of Oregon Wildlife by Blair
Csuti, A. Jon Kimerling, Thomas A.
O'Neil, Margaret M. Shaughnessy,
Eleanor Gaines, and Manuela
Huso. From the OSU Press. The
Atlas of Oregon Wildlife makes
information on all of Oregon's
diverse terrestrial wildlife available
for the first time in a single, com-
prehensive volume.
Field Guides:
Animal Tracks of Washington and
Oregon by Ian Sheldon. A
compact guide that will help you
identify tracks of all sizes and
shapes. Includes detailed
drawings along with concise
descriptions of the animals.
National Audubon Society First
Field Guide to Birds. A guide for
young birders with over 450 color
photographs and illustrations.
Inquiring Minds Want to Know:
How has the sites disturbance history affected the wildlife in the area?
How do the wildlife you identified fit into the overall food web of the site?
How have the wildlife adapted specifically to their habitat?
How do the wildlife interact with and affect the plants, insects, trees
and water at the site?
School_________________________________ Mentors_______________________________________
Student Scientists____________________________________________________________________
Date_______________________________ Site_______________________________________________
Wildlife
Present
note: confirmed (C),
probable (P) or
Questionable (Q)
Sign/Evidence
Track, sound,
sight, scat, bed,
chew, etc.
Habitat/
Ecosystem
Where did you find
it?
Activity
What was it
doing? or What
do you think it
was doing?
Field 35
Use journals for sketching signs/wildlife and recording specific information!!
Wolftree
wildlife ecology data
Feeding
Type
herbivore
carnivore
omnivore
herbivore
carnivore
omnivore
herbivore
carnivore
omnivore
herbivore
carnivore
omnivore
herbivore
carnivore
omnivore
herbivore
carnivore
omnivore
herbivore
carnivore
omnivore
Wolftree
wildlife ecology
calculation sheet
Total # of wildlife species: = 100%
feeding type # sampled %
carnivore
herbivore
omnivore
pie chart
Calculate Percentages and Chart:
Graph top three habitats where
you found the most wildlife signs:
habitat:
Diversity of Organisms
Sampled:
Richness Low High
Evenness Low High
% of total
% of total
% of total
Graph wildlife types:
M R A B
#
M = mammal
R = reptile
A = amphibian
B = bird
14__
13__
12__
11__
10__
9 __
8 __
7 __
6 __
5 __
4 __
3 __
2 __
1 __
Field 36
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
# of
wildlife
signs
Diversity of Habitats:
Richness Low High
Evenness Low High
Forest
Ecology
Trees are often defined as single stemmed
woody plants greater than 15 feet in height
when mature. Trees serve as food, shelter,
clothing, transportation, fuel, and medicine.
Trees provide food and shelter for many
other living organisms such as squirrels,
woodpeckers, insects, fungus, lichens, and
other plants. The tree species that are
found in an ecosystem may depend on a
variety of factors including climate, geology,
and topography (the shape of the land).
Trees in the Forest
I like trees because they seem
more resigned to the way they
have to live than other things do.
--Willa Cather
Worldwide, there are
more than 20,000
species of trees.
The oldest living
tree is over
4,500 years old.
The worlds tallest
tree is a coast red-
wood in Northern
California. It stands
over 360 feet
(Taller than the
Statue of Liberty).
Tree inhabitants
Field 37
Forests are the
lungs of our land,
purifying the air
and giving fresh
strength to our
people.
--Franklin D. Roosevelt
(1882-1945)
U.S. President
Tree parts and terms
Generally, trees have similar parts. The trunk or
bole is the central support rod giving the tree its
strength and long shape. The outer layer of the
trunk is the bark, which is used for protection
from insects, diseases, and fires. Just inside the
bark is the phloem, a series of small tubes that
transport sap (food) from the leaves down to
the roots. The next layer is the cambium, which is
the part that adds thickness to the tree (see
How Trees Grow on the next page). Further inside
the tree is the xylem(sapwood), which moves
water and nutrients from the roots up to the
top of the tree and branches. The next part is
called the heartwood, which makes up the
majority of the tree (trunk). It is made up of
dead xylem cells that no longer carry water. The
heartwood is usually darker than other parts of
the tree and provides most of the support to
the tree.
Other tree parts include the leaves or needles.
The leaves are the food producing part of the
tree. They perform the process of
photosynthesis, which uses water, carbon
dioxide from the air, and sunlight to produce
sugar for food. The leaves then release oxygen
into the atmosphere through small holes called
stomata for use by other organisms.
c ambi um (invisible to naked eye;
between phloem & sapwood)
out er bar k
phl oem
x yl em (sapwood)
hear t wood
f i r e at t ack
Field 38
How trees Grow
Trees respond directly to light, water,
nutrients, humidity, temperature, and
other physical factors in the ecosystem.
When these conditions are sufficient for a
particular species, tree height and
diameter may significantly increase with
age. Drought, severe heat, early frost and
other physical stresses can slow tree
growth, as can interactions with other
organisms.
Trees grow in diameter when the thin layer
of cambium cells divide. The new cells
produced toward the center of the tree
become the xylem. The new cells added
toward the outside of the tree become
the phloem. In spring , xylem cells are large
with thin walls making them lighter in color
(springwood) than xylem cells produced
later in the summer which are smaller and
have thick walls (summerwood).
Annual rings are due to defined seasons
of growth and dormancy. Most trees in
North America have annual rings. Tropical
trees generally dont have annual rings
because there is no dormant season.
The width of tree rings document the
growth of a tree. Wider rings usually
indicate a fast growth rate. If a tree is
stressed by less than optimal conditions
in its environment, tree rings are often
narrow. Dendrochronology is the study of
climate variation and other past events
through the comparison of successive
annual growth rings. Tree ring analysis
provides insights into a variety of abiotic
and biotic factors such as climate,
disease, disturbance, management
activity, competition, and forest
productivity. Using this information in
conjunction with observations from the
rest of the system, researchers can
hypothesize about the cause of changes
in tree growth.
c or e sampl e
Field 39
Forest Structure
Forests are made up of vertical layers of plants. Each layer may
contain different plant and animal communities that have
different habitat requirements. The uppermost layer is often
called the canopy. The next layer down is called the understory or
sub-canopy. Continuing down is the shrub layer and then the herb layer.
Finally we reach the forest floor, which contains many organisms
including insects, fungi, moss, and lichen. It is important to remember
that these layers are not separate from each other. They usually
overlap and exist together through a complex series of relation-
ships (see species relationships concept for examples).
Crown class describes the position of the tree's height relative to the
other trees in the stand. Crown class indicates the result of competi-
tion between trees for sunlight, water, nutrients and physical growing
space. Dominant trees are the top of the canopy; the tops of inter-
mediate trees are just below the dominant trees; overtopped trees
grow below intermediate trees. By understanding crown class, the
habitat needs of certain trees becomes clear. To help improve your
knowledge of forest ecology it is helpful to take some measurements.
Crown class, total height, and diameter are three measurements used
to understand a tree's form and function. For instance, we sometimes
find Douglas-Fir trees growing in the canopy as dominant trees. They are
a sun loving species and may be the tallest and widest trees is a stand.
Western Hemlock trees can grow in the understory as suppressed trees.
They are shade tolerant and may be an equal in height to the dominant
trees or in the understory as a suppressed tree.
Field 40
overtopped dominant intermediate
tree function and forest diversity
In forest ecosystems, the function of trees as habitat has
direct effects on wildlife, insects and other organisms. Many
organisms have evolved their life cycles around a particular
tree species - specifically leaves, bark, or wood. The potential
for a forest to be home to a variety of organisms depends on
the diversity of tree species and their dimensions. From a
few basic observations and measurements, it is possible to
gain a greater understanding of the function of trees and
other organisms in a forest ecosystem.
natural life cycle of an oak tree
seed
spr out
sapl i ng
mat ur e
oak
snag
r ot t i ng
l og
Field 41
Forest Ecology
in the field
Materials
Needed:
standard field gear
clinometers
field vests
loggers tapes
increment borers
straws
Field 42
data collection methods
& techniques
MEASURING DIAMETER AT BREAST
HEIGHT (DBH): A logger's tape
measures standard feet on one side and
"diameter equivalents in terms of
circumference" on the other.
Measure the tree's diameter at 4.5 feet
height above the base. Wrap the logger's
tape around the tree using the side of
the tape that says "diameter
equivalents in terms of circumference."
Be sure the tape is straight and
perpendicular to the tree.
Record the DBH.
l ogger s t ape
MEASURING TREE HEIGHT.
Baseline distance: Using the standard feet
side of the logger's tape, back away from the
tree a convenient distance between 50 and
100 feet (make sure you can see the base
and top of the tree).
Hold a clinometer up to your eye and look
through the eyepiece. Site the top of the
tree and read the percent scale of the
clinometer. Then site the bottom of the tree
and read the percent scale. Add the two
percents together (note: this procedure may
vary on sloping ground).
Multiply the final percentage by the baseline
distance to get the total height.
Record tree height.
64%
6%
Baseline distance - 80 feet
For example, the baseline distance is 80 feet. The percent
to the top of the tree is 64% and the percent to the
bottom of the tree is 6%. The total percentage is 70%.
Multiply the total percentage with the baseline distance to
get the total tree height.
.70 x 80 feet = 56 feet.
The total tree height is 56 feet.
cl i nomet er
Field 43
eye piece
MEASURING TREE AGE AND
DETERMINING GROWTH PATTERNS.
Assemble the increment borer.
Extract the core sample from 4.5 feet up on the bole of the
tree. Making sure the borer is perpendicular to the tree,
screw the sharp end of the increment borer into the tree in
a clockwise direction. Continue to drill the borer into the
tree until you reach the pith (center). Complete two
revolutions past the pith of the tree. Insert the spoon into
the open end of the borer and apply firm but gentle
pressure to the spoon. Once the spoon is inserted all the
way into the borer, unscrew the borer one full revolution to
separate the core from the rest of the tree. Slowly remove
the spoon from the borer trying to prevent the core sample
from falling.
Determine the age of the tree. Count the rings on the core
sample. Add five years to the number of rings to account
for the time it took for the tree to grow 4.5 feet.
Further examine the core sample to determine the growth
patterns. Narrow widths between rings, usually mean
slower growth rates. Wider widths usually mean faster
What are possible factors for slow, fast and stable growth
rates?
Use straws to store the cores. Tape the ends closed with
masking tape and label the straw with the species. If the
core is too big for one straw, tape two straws together.
Record tree age and growth patterns.
i nc r ement bor er
Field 44
tips for teaching
forest ecology
Make this as multi-sensory as
possible. Have students touch, smell,
and hear trees to understand them.
Please do not let students try to
unplug an increment borer (put it
aside and Wolftree staff will take care
of it).
The loggers tape and increment borer
can be hazardous. Have students be
wary of the sharp edges and nail.
Have students really read and under-
stand the measurements on the log-
gers tape (division of standard side
feet into tenths of feet, not inches)
INQUIRING MINDS WANT TO KNOW:
How might the areas disturbance history have affected the trees you
examined?
How do the trees that you observed fit into the overall food web of the
site?
How are the tree species that you observed adapted to their habitat?
What are some relationships between the trees sampled and the plant,
wildlife and insect species in the area?
What are major influences on the growth of trees you examined?
How many different populations of life are the trees supporting?
Resources on
Forest Ecology
Books:
Northwest Trees: Identifying &
Understanding the Regions
Native Trees by Stephen Arno &
Ramona Hammerly. A comprehen-
sive and well-written guide.
Field Guides:
Trees to Know in Oregon from the
OSU Extension Service and Dept.
of Forestry. An inexpensive and
user-friendly guide to identifying
Field 45
Extension Activities:
With a dead tree, pull away the bark to look for beetle galleries. Discuss
how wood boring beetles fit into the overall food web. The concept of
species relationships can also discussed.
Have students sketch a side view of the transect including downed
woody debris and layers.
Have students measure the organic matter or duff layer at several
different areas. Compare, contrast, and discuss.
School________________________Site_________________________________Date____________
Study Team_________________________________________________________________________
Weather_____________________________________________________________________________
Tree Identification
Sketch General
Tree Shape to Scale
Sketch Branch with Leaves
to scale
Sketch or Describe Cone or Fruit
to scale
Describe Bark (Color, Texture, etc.):
Species Common Name:
Measurements with Units
DBH____________ Height____________ Age____________
Field 46
Wolftree
forest ecology data
Evergreen Deciduous
Tree core sample
Accurately draw in growth lines:
Explain growth patterns (use arrows to point to specific patterns):
Field 47
Wolftree
forest ecology data
Tree Ecology
Crown Class:
Dominant Intermediate overtopped
Evidence of Insect Activity: Yes No
Describe the type of relationship* with tree:
Moss Present: Yes No
Describe the type of relationship* with tree:
Evidence of Wildlife Activity: Yes No
List species and describe the type of relationship*
with tree:
Fungus Present: Yes No
Describe the type of relationship* with tree:
Lichens Present: Yes No
Describe the type of relationship* with tree:
Evidence of Disturbance near tree:
Fire Yes No
Flood Yes No
Wind Yes No
Lightening Yes No
Harvesting Yes No
Recreation Yes No
Other _____________ Yes No
Explain how disturbances have impacted the area:
Examine the Forest Floor near the tree:
% living material:
% non-living material:
List the roles and functions of downed woody
debris in this forest ecosystem:
pie charts
% shade:
% sun:
*There are several types of relationships: Mutualism (both species benefit), commensalism
(one species benefits, the other is not affected), competition, predation, and parasitism.
Total # of trees sampled: = 100%
Tree species # sampled %
pie chart
Tree Measurements:
Tree species
Calculate Percentages and Chart:
Graph Crown Class:
Dominant Intermediate Overtopped
Diversity of Trees
Sampled:
Richness Low High
Evenness Low High
field 48
% of total
% of total % of total
Wolftree
forest ecology
calculations sheet
avg. height avg. age avg. DBH
Total Averages
# of
tree
species
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
plant
Ecology
plants and place
Examining plants can reveal many
secrets about an ecosystem. Plants
need unique combinations of light,
temperature, moisture, nutrients,
and soil conditions for germination
(sprouting), growth, and
reproduction.
With the exception of a few species,
plants share one significant
characteristic - the ability to perform
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is
the ability to produce food in the form
of sugars from carbon dioxide, water
and sunlight. The adaptations of each
plant species allow them to
photosynthesize in specific biotic
(living) and abiotic (non-living)
"Earth laughs in flowers."
--Ralph Waldo Emerson
Over 260,000
species of plants
have been identified.
One square meter of
soil may hold up to
2000 earthworms
and 40,000
insects.
Shr ub -
Or egon
Gr ape
Her b -
Shoot i ng
St ar
plant variety
Plants are complex organisms that
often differ greatly in structure. In
studying plants, you may discover
woody-stemmed shrubs, flowering
herbs, and ferns, all of which are the
same in some ways, but different in
others.
Field 49
Field 50
Plant reproduction
Plants have lived on the earth for 400 million years. At first they were
all very similar but as the land changed, so did the plants. They adapted
to reproduce in a variety of different ways.
Asexual Reproduction
The earliest types of plants were seedless
plants commonly called mosses. Mosses
are usually small in size and grow near
water. They grow near water because the
male reproductive cells(sperm) must swim
to the female reproductive cells(egg) in
order to fertilize. After fertilization, the
egg matures into a stalk filled with spores.
When the stalk stops growing, the spores
are released into the air. The spores land
and begin to grow into new plants. It is
important to note that the egg and sperm
of the same plant can fertilize each other.
This means that the plant can fertilize
itself, which is called asexual reproduction.
As plants continued to adapt to life on
land, their reproductive methods adapted
also. The next main group of plants were the
seedless vascular plants. We commonly call
these plants ferns, horsetails, and club
mosses. They differ from mosses in that
they have a vascular system. The vascular
system consists of a series of long tubes
that transport both water and nutrients
throughout the plant. This allowed plants
to grow taller. These types of plants, like
mosses, also need a moist environment to
allow the sperm to swim to the egg. For
example, all ferns have leaves called fronds.
Once a fern is fertilized, the plant grows
special reproductive leaves with spots on
the bottom. These spots are called sori and
are filled with spores. After the leaves
mature, the spores are released and the
spores grow into a new fern. Ferns are also
asexual reproducers.
sor us on t he
under si de of a f er n
f r ond
Sexual Reproduction
As plants adapted further, they became
seed plants, called gymnosperms. These
plants produce uncovered seeds. The
most common types are conifer (cone
producing) plants. In these plants, the
male (sperm producing) and female (egg
producing) reproductive parts are
separated. For example, conifers like a
Douglas-Fir, have both a male and female
cone. The female cone holds many eggs
and the male cone holds many sperm
called pollen. When the male cone is
mature it releases the pollen. The pollen
is carried by the wind, water or animals
to the female cone. Once fertilization
occurs, the fertilized egg becomes a
seed. The seed is then released and
carried by the wind to grow into a new
tree. Unlike mosses and ferns, the egg
and sperm of most gymnosperms cannot
fertilize themselves; they must fertilize a
different plant. This is called sexual
reproduction.
Like gymnosperms, most angiosperms
reproduce sexually. Angiosperms produce
seeds enclosed in fruits. Flowering plants are
the most common and diverse plant group,
with over 250,000 species. The flower is the
reproductive part of flowering plants and it
contains both the male and female parts. The
male part holds the pollen and the female part
holds the eggs. Some plants are fertilized
with the help of birds, insects, or wind, which
carry the pollen(sperm) to other plants where
it comes into contact with the female egg.
Once this happens, the fertilized egg develops
into a fruit. Within the fruit are the seeds.
Some seeds may be dispersed by animals,
water and wind.
Field 51
Soil and plant growth
Plants make their own food using energy from
sunlight and essential nutrients in the form of
chemical elements. Plants require some
nutrients in large amounts for rapid growth.
These nutrients include: carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
Plants get carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen from
water and air and get nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium from the soil.
Water, entering the soil, dissolves nutrients in
the soil, forming a soil solution. Plant roots
absorb dissolved nutrients from the soil solution
which is transported throughout the plant.
Often nutrients are present in the soil, but not in
a form that plants can use. Many factors affect
the availability of soil nutrients. One important
factor is soil pH.
Col umbi a or
Ti ger Li l y
Red Col umbi ne
Soil pH and plants
pH is a measure of how acidic or basic things are
on a number scale from 0 to 14.
A pH less then 7 is acidic. Vinegar is acidic with
a pH of about 3.5. A pH above 7 is basic.
Ammonia is basic with a pH of 10. When soil pH
is basic, it is usually called alkaline.
When soil is too acidic or too basic, essential soil
nutrients, like nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium, may not be available to plants.
Most plants prefer neutral or slightly acidic
soils in the pH range of 6.0 - 6.8.
(SEE pH SCALE FOR SOILS AT
THE END OF THIS SECTION)
0
7 14
ac i di c basi c neut r al
field 52
plants and the food web
Since plants make their own food, they are the PRIMARY
PRODUCERSin the food web. Herbivores (plant eaters) including
many insects, have adapted to eat the leaves, seeds, fruits,
flowers, pollen, wood, sap, and other parts of plants. The types
of plant species that exist in an ecosystem can determine what
organisms may feed and live there.
Decomposers (often referred to as the FBI--fungi, bacteria,
and insects) break down organic and non-organic matter into
nutrients needed by plants. A conifer needle usually passes
through several organisms bodies before its carbon and
nitrogen are available to plants.
a green habitat
The chlorophyll in plants gives them their green color (chloro-
phyll is also necessary for the process of photosynthesis).
Green leaves shelter many organisms from harsh weather
and predators. Many birds, insects, and wildlife make their
homes in, on, under, and around plants. The type of habitat
that plant communities provide may be described in terms of
habitat structure. Habitat structure is the shape, size, and
placement of vegetation--understory, mid-section, and over-
story. As plant communities in a given area change over time,
so do the organisms that live there.
The flower is the poetry
of reproduction. It is an
example of the eternal
seductiveness of life.
--Jean Giraudoux
(1882-1944)
French Author
Field 53
disturbance and diversity
Changes in plant communities may
result from disturbance. Some plants
quickly move in and thrive in recently
disturbed areas, while others slowly
take root as the ecosystem recovers.
Disturbances such as clear-cutting,
windstorms, landslides or fire usually
alter the lifeforms found in soils too.
Such changes often affect the
diversity of plants, which in turn may
affect the diversity of other
organisms present.
Reed Canar y Gr ass -
an i nvasi ve pl ant
invasive plants
Invasive, exotic, introduced and non-
native plants are terms that apply to
plants that do not occur naturally in an
area. Some examples found in the
Pacific Northwest are Reed Canary
Grass, Scotch Broom, Himalayan
Blackberry and English Ivy. Non-natives
may enter ecosystems on the fur of
wildlife, through the intestines of birds,
flooding, trains livestock, or by plant-
ings of exotic species. These invasive
plants may adversely affect native
plants by competing for resources
such as space, nutrients, or moisture.
Many invasive plants lack natural
enemies and are adapted to
disturbed conditions, thus making
them difficult to eradicate. The
invasion of non-native plants into
ecosystems is a complex issue, and is
currently the focus of many
management activities.
Common Fox Gl ove -
t hr i ves i n di st ur bed ar eas
field 54
plant Ecology
in the Field
Materials Needed:
standard field equipment
clippers
densiometer
digital camera (if available)
field vests
GPS (if available)
Hellige-Truog Soil Reaction
(pH) Test Kit
leaf rubbing materials:
charcoal pencil & tracing paper
plant presses
Plant Transect Map
shovel
soil auger
trowel
field 55
methods and techniques
COMPLETING A PLANT TRANSECT MAP
Record azimuth. Fill in rosette with
cardinal directions (N,S,E,W). With numbers,
record where you collect each specimen and
the characteristics of that spot (Remember
to record the length of the transect). See
example below.
COLLECTING AND PRESSING PLANTS*
Number plants in your presses to match your
transect map. Collect specimens (using the 1 in
20 rule**) that grow in various habitats and rep-
resent different kinds of plants (herbs, shrubs,
etc.). Record the habitats along the transect.
* Before beginning collection, discuss local
endangered/threatened/rare species to observe,
but not collect.
** The 1 in 20 rule means that if there are more
than 20 species of a plant in an area, then you
may take a sample. If there are less than 20,
sketch it.
field 56
COLLECTING A SOIL SAMPLE
Use a trowel, shovel, or soil auger to collect a
soil sample from a depth of 2-6 inches.
On your Soil Data Sheet, describe the:
Soil Sample Area.
What kinds of plants (if any) are growing there?
Is the area sunny or shaded? sloping or flat?
etc.
Soil Color (see chart).
This information helps to determine whether
the soil is fertile or aerated.
soi l auger
SOIL COLOR AND PLANT GROWTH
The color of the soil is affected by organic matter, minerals,moisture,
oxidation, weathering, decaying plant and animal material. Soil fertility
refers to the ability of the plant to grow (affected by the amount of
organic material). Soil aeration is the ability of air to penetrate the soil,
and thus water, which also affects the ability of the plant to grow. Dark
soils are usually rich in plant nutrients. Grey soils may contain more clay
or indicate waterlogged soil. Light brown soils may contain more sand.
Red or orange colors may show that iron in the soil has reacted with air
or water.
field 57
Soil Color Aeration Fertility
Dark (grey or brownish black)
Moderately Dark (brown to yellow-brown)
Light (pale brown to yellow)
High
Low
Medium
Low
High
High
SOIL PH TESTING
USING THE HELLIGE-TRUOG SOIL REACTION (PH) TEST KIT
(1) Place a small amount of dry soil from your sample in a test
plate cavity, filling it one-fourth full.
(2) Add about two drops of the Triplex Indicator solution to
the soil, until the soil sample is saturated but not flooded.
(3) Use the spatula to mix the solution and soil. Move the
soil to one side of the cavity, smoothing the sloping surface
with the spatula. A film of solution should be present on the
soil surface and a trace of solution should rest at the
bottom of the cavity. If more than a trace of solution
appears in the cavity bottom, mix in more soil from your
sample to absorb the excess solution.
(4) Immediately cover the moist soil surface with a
dusting of Soil Reaction Powder, adding just enough to
uniformly cover the soil surface and completely hide the soil
color.
(5) Wait for two minutes, then compare the color of the
reaction powder to the Color and pH Scale. Make the
closest match possible to estimate the pH of your soil
sample. Record your data. Refer to pH Scale for Soils Chart.
(6) Discard the soil sample in a waste container.
Texture Particle
Size
Type
Water
Availability
Air
Spaces
sticky
smooth
gritty
varies
fine <.002
small .002 to .05
mm
large .05 to 2mm
varies
clay
silt
sand
loam
few & tiny
many fair to small
many large
varies
Fertility
high
medium
low
high
low
mod. to high
low
high
field 58
SOIL MOISTURE CONTENT
Is the soil wet, damp or dry? The amount of water and its
ability to move through the soil affects plant growth and
development.
SOIL TEXTURE
Soil contains small particles of weathered rocks and minerals.
The size and mixture of these particles affects the movement
of water and air in the soil. The three kinds of particles are
called sand, silt, and clay. Sand particles are coarse, silt
particles are somewhat smaller and smoother, and clay
particles are very small and fine.
Sand helps water and air move through soil by creating space
between the grains. Clay increases the amount of water and
nutrients the soil can hold. Silt and clay help to hold the soil
particles together.
How does the soil feel? Sand particles feel gritty. Silt particles
feel smooth or silky, like powder or flour, even when moist. Clay
particles feel sticky when moist and can be pressed or squeezed
into small ribbons between your thumb and finger.
In addition to organic matter, most soils contain a mixture of all
three types of these particles, but may have more of one type
than the others. If a sample has equal amounts of all three
particles, it is called loam. Loam is considered the best type
of soil for growing most plants.
Inquiring Minds Want to Know:
How has the sites disturbance history affected the plants
in the area?
How do these plants fit into the overall food web of the
ecosystem?
How are the plants at the site adapted specifically to the
biotic and abiotic conditions?
How do the soil characteristics affect the plants that grow
in the immediate area?
How do the plants affect the insect and wildlife species at
the site?
How much effect do invasive plant have on the area?
field 59
plant ecology
Teaching Tips
Remind students that plant clippers
and soil auger are potentially
dangerous with sharp edges and
must be used safely.
Bee stings are a greater possibility
with this activity. Ask students,
point blank, if anyone is allergic to
bee stings. If so, this probably is not
the team for them.
Remind students to sanitize hands
after examining plants and soil and
before eating.
Leading Questions to ask students:
What animals and insects use plants
for food? For habitat? For shelter?
How do herbivores influence plant
growth? Carnivores?
How do different leaf adaptations
affect intake of sunlight? Moisture?
How do slope and ground cover
affect soil erosion?
Why do invasive species often
overtake native plants? How did the
invasives arrive?
How do plant communities under the
canopy differ from those growing in
open fields? Why?
Are there patterns in the way plants
are distributed in a habitat?
Random? Clumped? Uniform?
What do think is the most
important management issue for
plants in a terrestrial ecosystem?
Resources to
Learn More
About plants:
Websites:
http://district.gresham.k1
2.or.us/ghs/nature/plants/
flwrid.htm Simple flower id
key with bright, beautiful
photos ~ very easy to use.
http://www.id.blm.gov/iso/
931/soil/soil.htm The dirt
on Dirt ~ and it really is! Soil
basics, including food web, as
well as advanced information.
Books/Field Guides:
Plants of the Pacific
Northwest Coast Edited
by Pojar and MacKinnon.
Great details and photos of
each plant, with a section on
native/historical uses.
Oregon Wildflowers: A
childrens guide to the
states most common
flowers by Beverly Magley &
DD Dowden. A beautifully
illustrated guide!
First Field Guide:
Wildflowers by the National
Audubon Society.
Curriculum:
Celebrating Wildflowers: An
Educators Guide to the
Appreciation and
Conservation of Native
Plants of Washington by
Wendy Scherrer & Tracie
Johannessen. Obtain
through the North Cascades
Institute.
field 60
____
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Field 61
Plant Description Habitat/Ecosystem Description
wolftree
plant ecology data
running field list
Plant
#
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Field 62
field 63
School_______________________________Site_____________________________Date____________
Plant Team____________________________________________________________________________
Weather Conditions____________________________________________________________________
wolftree
plant ecology data
Plant I.D. #:
Sketch plant or plant part to scale:
Key Identification Features:
Evidence of Wildlife Activity on Plant?
Yes No If yes, describe:
% Shade Cover_______________
Evidence of Insect Activity on Plant?
Yes No If yes, describe:
Common Name:
Native or Invasive?
Describe how the plant has adapted to survive
in this habitat?
Method of Reproduction
Asexual
Describe:
Sexual: Gymnosperm Angiosperm
Describe:
Method of Dispersal (i.e. wind, wildlife, etc.):
__
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field 64
SOIL SAMPLE 1 SOIL SAMPLE 2
Descri be soi l
sampl e area
i n detai l .
(Pl ants
present,
sun/shade,
sl ope, etc. )
I s soi l erosi on
occurri ng?
Why or why
not?
Col or
(Refer to chart
on page 46)
Moi sture
Texture
(Refer to chart
on page 47)
Dark
(grey or browni sh-bl ack)
Moderatel y Dark
(brown to yel l ow-brown)
Li ght
(pal e brown to yel l ow)
Wet
Damp
Dry
sti cky = cl ay
smooth = si l t
gri tty = sand
vari ed = l oam
pH
sti cky = cl ay
smooth = si l t
gri tty = sand
vari ed = l oam
Wet
Damp
Dry
Dark
(grey or browni sh-bl ack)
Moderatel y Dark
(brown to yel l ow-brown)
Li ght
(pal e brown to yel l ow)
wolftree
Plant Ecology
soil data
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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1
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field 65
field 66
wolftree
plant ecology
calculation sheet
Chart Native vs. Invasive
Diversity of Plants
Sampled:
Richness Low High
Evenness Low High
Total # of plant
species found
Total # of native
species found
Total # of invasive
species found
100%
Chart Seed/Spore Dispersal Strategy
self-
dispersal
fruit
(packaging)
strategy
# of plant
species
percentage
organism
(hitch-hiker)
wind
(glide)
water
(float)
pie
chart
Diversity of Habitats
Sampled:
Richness Low High
Evenness Low High
Lichen
Ecology
What are lichens?
At a distance, lichens (pronounced
like- ins) are often mistaken for
mosses or other simple plants grow-
ing on rocks, rotting logs and trees.
In fact, lichens are not mosses or any
other kind of plant, nor are they even
individual organisms. A lichen is a
fungi, which has formed a successful
alliance (a symbiotic relationship)
with a photobiont. A photobiont can
be an alga or cyanobacteria. This
alliance gives each the ability to thrive
as a result of their natural
cooperation.
lichen users
Lichens are fungi that have
discovered agriculture.
--Trevor Goward,
Lichenologist
Field 67
lichen FACTS
The deep ocean is the
only biome on Earth not
conducive to lichen growth
and reproduction.
Many lichens grow very,
very slowly, often less than
a millimeter per year, and
some lichens are thought
to be among the oldest
living things on Earth.
Lichens with slow growth
rates have been used to
estimate the dates of
geological events.
Some lichens are relatively
fast growing, and can
increase their biomass by
up to 1/4 per year.
FUNGI, and photobionts
FUNGI (Kingdom Fungi). The name
fungi comes from the Latin word
fungus, which means mushroom.
Fungi are organisms that obtain
food by decomposing organic
matter, like wood and leaves.
Fungi are not plants - they can-
not carry out photosynthesis.
PHOTOBIONTS contain chlorophyll and carry
out photosynthesis to produce food through
sunlight.
There are two photobionts that can ally with a
fungus to create a lichen:
ALGAE (Kingdom Protista) are simple, mostly
water, but also land dwelling, organisms. Algae
are so plentiful that they produce 90 percent
of the worlds atmospheric oxygen.
CYNOBACTERIA (Kingdom Monera) are a group
of blue-green bacteria that live throught the
world, mostly in water, but also on land. Some
cynobacteria carry out important nitrogen fix-
ation.
Some lichens contain both algae and
cynobacteria. These lichens then are made up
of members from three kingdoms!
How lichens work
The fungi usually gives the lichen its overall
shape and structure. The photobiont part,
usually in an inner layer below the lichen
surface, makes its food directly from sunlight
(photosynthesis) and shares it with the
fungus. In all cases, each partner provides
things the other could not get on its own.
A Lichen Love Story:
Frieda Fungi &
Alec Algae
Alec Algae was
wandering the forest
looking for a place to live.
Frieda Fungi had a nice
place to live, but did not
know how to cook. Alec
came upon Friedas house
in the woods. He told
Frieda that he was a
great cook. Frieda was
quite pleased and invited
him to cook up a meal.
So Alec cooked a
fabulous meal and
offered to provide all the
food for the two of them.
In turn, Frieda offered
him a place to live. Alec
and Frieda took a lichen
to one another and lived
happily ever after.
Field 68
From Hale, Univ. of Michigan
tough yet sensitive
Lichens live successfully in many different habitats
and some can live to be hundreds and even
thousands of years old. Lichens have a remarkable
resistance to drought. A dry lichen can absorb
from 3 to 35 times its weight in water in seconds!
Lichens can also absorb moisture from dew or fog,
even from the air itself if the humidity is very high
and the temperature is low. They also dry out
slowly, making it possible for the algae to make
food for as long as possible. This ability to quickly
absorb and retain water from many sources makes
it possible for lichens to live in harsh environments
like deserts and polar regions, and on exposed
surfaces like bare rocks, roofs and tree branches.
As tough as lichens are, many do not stand up very
well to changes in the condition of the air. Lichens
are like little sponges that absorb everything that
comes their way. They obtain most of their water
and nutrients from the air. As a result, they are
particularly sensitive to changes in air quality. The
death of sensitive lichens and an increase in hardier
or better adapted species in an area can be an
early warning, or indicator, that conditions in the
air are changing. Heavy metals, gasses, and acid
rain all effect lichens in one way or another.
NOTE: In the field you can often detect stressed out
lichens by dramatic increase of the number of their
reproductive structures (like apothecia).
Field 69
lichen habitat
Lichens can be found in almost any
natural habitat in the Pacific
Northwest. The surface that a
lichen grows on is called the
substrate. The substrate of lichen
is usually wood, rock or soil, but can
also be sand, animal bones, or metal,
and occasionally even free-living,
blowing in the wind.
Why like lichens?
Diversity. Lichens contribute to diversity in nature. There are
at least 1,000 known species in the Pacific Northwest, 3,600
in the United States and over 25,000 worldwide.
Food Web. Lichens provide food, shelter and nesting material
for wildlife such as deer, elk, moose, caribou, mountain goats,
bighorn sheep, squirrels, mice, bats, insects and birds. Among
invertebrates, katydids, grasshoppers, webspinners,
butterflies, moths, mites, spiders, snails, slugs and many
beetles live on, mimic or eat lichens. In deep snow conditions,
lichens provide important winter survival food for deer and
other mammals.
Pioneer Species. Lichens are pioneers on newly cleared rock
and soil surfaces, such as burned forests, volcanic flows and
newly exposed surfaces when a glacier retreats.
Erosion Control. In deserts, lichens stabilize soils and reduce
erosion.
Nitrogen Fixers. Some lichens make nitrogen in the air usable
to plants.
Usable. Lichens also produce an arsenal of more than 500
unique
biochemical compounds. Some of these are used by humans in
medicines, perfumes, and dyes.
Did you know that lichen extract in some underarm deoderants
helps us stay fresh smelling?
Field 70
f ol i ose
f r ut i c ose
c r ust ose
Growth forms
Lichens are roughly divided into three major growth forms: crustose, foliose and
fruticose.
crustose
foliose
fruticose
form
sensitivity to
changes in
air chemistry
Crust-like. Grow into the surface of their substrate.
Cannot be removed from the substrate without
destroying the body (thallus) of the lichen.
biological
complexity
characteristics
simplest
form
more
complex
most
complex
tolerant
intolerant
moderately
tolerant
Leaf-like. Have a definite top and bottom and are
generally two dimensional.
Fruit tree-like. Shaped like bushes, long hairs or stalks.
Three dimensional. They can usually be picked or plucked
easily. Round in cross section. No obvious top or bottom.
Field 71
REPRODUCTION AND DISPERSAL
Currently, there are several known ways in
which lichens can reproduce:
SEXUALLY
Commonly, the fungal partner produces
saucer-like fruiting bodies, called apothecia.
These disk-shaped structures produce fungal
spores, which are similar to seeds. However,
this only reproduces another fungus, which
can not live without its photobiont partner.
ASEXUALLY
Lichens also reproduce by making little
packages that contain both the fungus and
the photobiont. Sometimes the inner
stuffing of the lichen may become exposed
here and there at the surface as clusters of
tiny, powdery balls. In other cases, the upper
surface may bear tiny, wart-like outgrowths.
When these powdery balls, called soredia, or
wart-like outgrowths, called isidia, are carried
to new places, by birds for example, they may
grow into new lichens.
Field 72
Apothecium
Isidian ( icicle-like )
Soredia ( open sores )
Podetium
Lobe
All images on this page are from the Department of Botany, Oregon State University
structural features
Features commonly used to identify lichens
and distinguish species include shape, size and
color of the thallus, or body, and lobes, which
are branches or fingers of the thallus. The
apothecia of a lichen are the disk or cup
shaped structures on the end of the lobes
which bear spores. A podetiumis a thallus
shape which resembles an upright, hollow
column or stalk.
Field 73
Wolf Lichen
Wolf lichen (Letharia vulpina), a brilliant fluorescent
yellow green lichen, was the most widely used dye
lichen for native people in North America, especially
along the west coast.
Wolf lichen is poisonous because of vulpinic acid
within its yellow pigment. Its name reflects its
traditional use in northern Europe as a poison for
wolves, and the Achomawi used it (sometimes with
rattlesnake venom added) to make poison
arrowheads. Nonetheless, the Blackfoot and the
Okanagan-Colville took Letharia as a medicinal tea.
The Apache painted wolf lichen crosses on their feet
so they could pass their enemies unseen. Although
common and widespread, Letharia species suffer
from local harvesting for floral arrangements.
In another example of ritualistic use of lichens, the
Gitksan in British Columbia associated the lichen
(Lobaria pulmonaria) with frogs and used it an a
spring bathing ritual to bring health and long life.
Let har i a Vul pi na
Wol f Li chen
lichen Ecology
in the Field
Materials Needed:
standard field equipment
collection container
densiometer
digital camera (if available)
field vests
GPS unit (if available)
putty knife
Field 74
methods and techniques
COLLECTING LICHENS.
Most of your lichen specimens can be
easily collected on the ground from
litter fall or off of fallen branches. Only
when needed, carefully use a putty
knife to remove lichens (only foliose
and fruticose) from their substrate.
spec i men c ont ai ner
put t y k ni f e
As you collect foliose and fruticose
lichens, number each one. Use a hand
lens to examine the details. Record your
data on to the Lichen Data sheet first,
then place the lichen in the container in
the appropriately numbered slot. For
lichens too large for the container slots,
place into the large bag.
Assess your collection. After collecting,
bring your team back together. Remove
all duplicate lichens. Count the total
number of species found. How many are
foliose and how many are fruticose?
What was the most common substrate
where the lichens were found? What are
the similarities and differences of the
lichens found in your sample? Group like
lichens.
hand l ens
Field 75
IDENTIFY FOLIOSE AND FRUTICOSE LICHENS.
Foliose - Leaf- like. Lichens in this group have
a definite top and bottom and are generally
two dimensional. More complex form of
lichen and more sensitive to pollution.
Fruticose - Fruit tree-like. Lichens shaped
like little bushes, long hairs, or stalks. They
are three dimensional and stick up or hang
down and can be picked or plucked. Most
complex form of lichen and most sensitive to
pollution.
f ol i ose
l eaf -l i ke
f r ut i c ose
f r ui t t r ee-l i ke
Field 76
lichen Resources:
Web Sites
www.fs.fed.us/r6/ag/lichen
http://mgd.NACSE.ORG/hyperSQL/lichenland/
http://www.herb.lsa.umich.edu/Kidpage/lichens.htm
http://lichen.com/
Field Guide
Macrolichens of the Pacific Northwest by
Bruce McCune and Linda Geiser. Oregon State
University Press. Corvallis. 1997.
inquiring minds want to know:
How might the areas disturbance history affect the lichens
you collected and examined?
Did you notice any patterns to lichen growth and
distribution?
Any similarities or differences between the two plots?
How do the lichens you collected fit into overall food web of
the site?
How do you think the lichens that you collected are adapted
to their habitat?
What are some relationships between the lichens you col-
lected and the other organisms in the area?
What are the major influences on the growth of lichens?
Did the lichens you collected tell you anything about the con-
ditions of the air in the area?
Do lichens change as you look up and down in the canopy?
Field 77
School_________________________________ Mentors_______________________________________
Student Scientists____________________________________________________________________
Date_______________________________ Site_______________________________________________
Lichen
#
Growth
Form
Substrate Description or
Name
Wolftree
Lichen ecology data
Abundance
foliose
fruticose
foliose
fruticose
live wood
dead wood
soill
other________
litter fall
live wood
dead wood
soil
other________
litter fall
live wood
dead wood
soil
other________
litter fall
live wood
dead wood
soil
other________
litter fall
live wood
dead wood
soil
other________
litter fall
live wood
dead wood
soil
other________
litter fall
live wood
dead wood
soil
other________
litter fall
live wood
dead wood
soil
other________
litter fall
only one
less than ten
more than ten
only one
less than ten
more than ten
only one
less than ten
more than ten
Sensitivity
(If species is known. Use
Macrolichens Field Guide)
sensitive
intermediate
tolerant
sensitive
intermediate
tolerant
sensitive
intermediate
tolerant
foliose
fruticose
foliose
fruticose
foliose
fruticose
foliose
fruticose
foliose
fruticose
foliose
fruticose
only one
less than ten
more than ten
only one
less than ten
more than ten
only one
less than ten
more than ten
only one
less than ten
more than ten
only one
less than ten
more than ten
sensitive
intermediate
tolerant
sensitive
intermediate
tolerant
sensitive
intermediate
tolerant
sensitive
intermediate
tolerant
sensitive
intermediate
tolerant
field 78
Wolftree
Lichen Data
calculation sheet
= 100%
%
%
total # of different
lichens collected:
# at plot 1:
# at plot 2:
pie chart
Graph Substrate Type
# using live wood
# using dead wood
# using soil
# using other
Plot 1 vs. Plot 2 Lichen Collections
Diversity of Plot 1 Sample:
Richness: Low High
Evenness: Low High
% of total:
Graph lichen forms:
FO FR
#
FO = foliose
FR = fruticose
14__
13__
12__
11__
10__
9 __
8 __
7 __
6 __
5 __
4 __
3 __
2 __
1 __
Diversity of Plot 2 Sample:
Richness: Low High
Evenness: Low High
Many aquatic insects
lose their mouthparts
as adults and some only
live in that stage for a
few hours.
The waterstrider
walks across the
surface of water, using
hydrophobic hairs on
the end of its legs.
Prehistoric dragonflies
lived around 300 million
years ago. The wingspan
of this creature was
often wider than 3 feet!
aquatic
invertebrates
What are aquatic
invertebrates?
Aquatic invertebrates are organisms that
lack a spine and live in water. Examples of
aquatic invertebrates include worms,
crayfish, snails, clams and insects, such
as dragonflies.
Incomplete
Metamorphosis
(3 stages)
Complete
Metamorphosis
(4 stages)
Egg
Larva
Pupa
Winged Adult
(Flying or Aquatic)
nymph
Flying Adult
egg
field 79
Aquatic insect life cycles
Some aquatic invertebrates are insects. They
begin their life cycle as an egg, then go through
physical changes with each stage in their life
cycle (metamorphosis). Some invertebrates, like
caddisflies, have four stages in their life cycle,
called complete metamorphosis. Mayflies and
stoneflies are examples of insects that have
only three stages in their life cycle. This is called
incomplete metamorphosis. Insects forms and
function are different at each stage.
M
O
U
T
H

P
A
R
T
S
TAILS OR CERCI
LEGS
aquatic Invertebrate anatomy
Some body parts of aquatic invertebrates are similar to
terrestrial (land-based) insects. They have three body parts
(head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs of legs and a set of
antennae. Some larvae will have unique structures, like gills,
tails, claws and distinct mouthparts. These structures can
help you distinguish different groups of invertebrates. For
instance, many stoneflies have two tails and two claws on
each leg, while many mayflies have two or three tails and one
claw on each leg.
ABDOMEN
THORAX
ANTENNAE
HEAD
GILLS
GIANT STONEFLY
field 80
Some inverts, like some mayflies,
have large gill surface areas to
help them breath.
Some macros carry atmospheric
oxygen with them in tiny bubbles
attached to the end of their
abdomen, like this riffle beetle.
Organisms found in fast moving
waters may have a flattened,
streamlined shape.
Caddisflies build protective cases
around their bodies out of stones,
leaf material, or sticks. Cases also
help funnel oxygen in low oxygen
settings.
Where aquatic invertebrates live
In its underwater environment, an aquatic invertebrate
must be able to navigate moving water as well as the sub-
strate (stream bottom). Many found in riffles (fast,
white water areas) stick to rocks with suction devices.
Organisms found in glides (smooth, flowing water) may
have a flat shape to prevent being swept downstream. In
slow moving pools, many organisms have adapted to bur-
row in the sediments or developed bulky cases to provide
protection from predators.
In addition to navigating, aquatic invertebrates also need
to take in oxygen from the water. They use gills to breath
oxygen dissolved in the water.
field 81
Examples of invert adaptations
to Their environments:
aquatic inverts and the Food Web
In addition to moving and breathing, an aquatic
invertebrate must also get food in its underwater
environment in order to survive. Aquatic inverts can
be separated into four main feeding groups (refer to
chart below). Each feeding group has specific
adaptations for obtaining and eating food, and lives in
a specific part of the stream. What an inverte-
brate eats may determine its role in the food web.
For instance, plant life is eaten by a herbivorous
mayfly, who is eaten by a predacious stonefly. A fish,
in turn, eats the stonefly and an osprey eats the fish.
Collectors
(caddisflies,
mayflies)
Dissolved
organic
materials, such
as algae,
bacteria, feces,
& small plants.
Physically
gather food, or
construct net-
like structures
to catch food.
Shredders
(mayflies,
stoneflies,
caddisflies)
Leaves and
vegetation
that have fallen
into the water.
Use chewing
mouthparts
designed to
shred, cut, bite,
or bore.
Scrape algae
off of rocks.
Scrapers
(caddisflies,
mayflies)
Predators
(Stoneflies,
beetles,
dragonflies,
alderflies)
Use special
razor-like
mouthparts to
scrape across
hard surfaces.
Bodies
designed to
chase,
capture and kill
their prey.
Live organisms.
FEEDING
GROUPS
WHAT THEY
EAT
HOWTHEY
EAT
HABITAT
Substrate
(Stream bottom)
Areas with
lots of tree
canopy
cover.
Areas with
enough light
to make
algae grow.
All habitat
types.
field 82
What Aquatic invertebrates tell us about the water
Scientists often use aquatic invertebrate populations to learn more about a river
or stream. They are used as indicators of water conditions for several reasons:
1) They are easy to collect.
2) Many, called sensitive , cannot survive changes in stream conditions such as
the introduction of pollution, high levels of sediments, high water
temperatures, or low levels of dissolved oxygen (environmental stressors).
Other species of aquatic invertebrates, called tolerant , can survive in waters
with changes in stream conditions and environmental stressors.
3) Many stay in a small area most of their lives.
The sensitivity and feeding groups of macroinvertebrate samples offer clues
to how the aquatic system is functioning. For example, a sample taken from a
pool area with a sandy substrate is usually rich in insects that shred organic
materials. This sample may indicate that the pool area is functioning as a holding
spot for organic debris and sediments. The diversity of macroinvertebrates in a
sample also informs aquatic biologists whether or not the ecosystem can
support populations of amphibians, fish, birds, and other wildlife species.
Sensitive
Somewhat
Tolerant
Tolerant
Caddisflies
Stoneflies
Mayflies
Dobsonflies
Alderflies
Craneflies
Aquatic
Sowbug
Crayfish
Clams
Damselflies
Dragonflies
Midges
Black Flies
Riffle Beetles
Boatman
Backswimmers
Leeches
Aquatic
Worms
field 83
Sampling aquatic
invertebrates
Materials Needed:
two large nets
3 1-gallon white tubs
white ice cube trays
waders
waterproof gloves
turkey baster
tweezers
magnifying boxes
small nets
FOR FAST MOVING WATER:
life vests
throw rope
Methods and Techniques
Designate a section of the stream
to sample from.
Organize and become familiar with
equipment. Designate holding
containers (white tubs) according to
where you will be sampling from:
riffles, pools, and glides (This will
allow you to compare and contrast
macros from different areas of the
stream). Place 3-4 inches of
stream water in the containers.
In each of the spots that you
choose to sample, place the net on
the stream bottom, with the
opening of the net facing upstream.
The handle should be sticking
straight up from the water. Make
sure you take note of the stream
area type (riffle, pool or glide) that
you are sampling from. Collect from
an area the width of your net by 3
foot area upstream of your net.
There are two methods of collection:
field 84
UNDERSTAND SAFETY PROTOCOLS.
Before entering the water, make sure that your
team understands how to: use life vests, walk
carefully in moving water with slippery rocks and
work together to prevent injury. In fast-moving
rivers, there should always be a person in the
water downstream with a throw rope.
field 85
(A) Pick up the rocks, one by one. Hold
each rock upstream of the net opening,
and rub the surface to dislodge the
small insects that are clinging to the
rock's surfaces. Place the clean rocks
outside the sample area; OR
(B) Do the invert shuffle. Upstream of
the net opening, move the rocks and
substrate around with your boot, thus
dislodging the insects.
Remove the net from the water with a
forward scooping motion, so you dont
lose your sample.
Invertebrates can also be found
amongst aquatic plants and leaf packs.
Use the net to sweep through the leaf
debris and through the stands of
aquatic plants. In addition, inspect logs,
stumps or large boulders for macros.
Simply pick the insects off by hand.
Place samples in holding containers.
After sampling, turn your net inside out
and rinse all macros into a the appropri-
ate white tub (riffle, pool or glide). If
there are large pieces of organic debris
(leaves, sticks, etc.), wash them free of
insects, and then remove them from the
tub.
field 86
Sort your macroinvertebrates.
Using a turkey baster, eye dropper or forceps, carefully move individual
specimens into separate cube compartments of the ice cube trays.
Place similar-looking specimens into the same compartment to count
them.
Examine and characterize your specimens. On a data sheet, sketch to
scale and record key features for each of the most common inverte-
brates.
Identify the specimens.
Using field guides, record feeding group, pollution sensitivity and name of
the most common invertebrates in the sample.
Gently set them free.
These organisms are alive and very important in the aquatic system.
Gently return them to the area that they were collected.
TIPS FOR TEACHING
about aquatic inverts
Have each student choose an
invert to identify, then have
them teach the rest of the
group about their insect.
Have students describe spec-
imens in their own words
before using the field guides.
Use specimens to talk about
adaptations, diversity and
disturbance.
Inquiring Minds Want to Know:
How are the different aquatic invertebrates
you sampled connected to other organisms
in the aquatic ecosystem?
How do the different body parts of aquatic
invertebrates--their shape (skinny and flat,
or round and large), presence or absence of
wings, mouthparts, special appendages and
outside covering--relate to what they eat,
where they were found, and how they live?
How does stream velocity affect the kinds
of invertebrate species that live in different
parts of the aquatic system? The presence
or absence of overhanging vegetation?
Dissolved oxygen?
What does your aquatic invertebrate
diversity tell you about the types of food
(energy) available in different parts of the
system?
What does the pollution sensitivity of the
aquatic invertebrates tell you about the
system?
How do you think your sample of aquatic
invertebrates compares with those
collected in other habitats?
resources on aquatic
invertebrates
Field Guides
Guide to Pacific NW Aquatic
Invertebrates by Rick Hafele & Steve
Hinton. Published by Oregon Trout
(503-222-9091).
Websites
www.eosc.osshe.edu/~twelch/
aquaticinsects/aquinsect.htm
www.osf1.gmu.edu/~avia/stonefly.
htm
field 87
field 88
Wolftree
Aquatic invertebrate Data
School____________________________________ Site__________________________________
Study Team______________________________________________________________________
Date___________ Habitat Site (main river, stream, etc.)_____________________________
Key Identification Features
# of tails:
# of legs:
antennae?:
patterns:
colors:
location of gills:
worm-like? Snail like?
other:
Common Name
Order (mayfly, stonefly, etc.):
Species:
Feeding Group:
collector shredder scaper predator
Pollution Sensitivity:
sensitive somewhat tolerant tolerant
Sketch to Scale:
Collected in:
riffle pool glide wetland
Key Identification Features
# of tails:
# of legs:
antennae?:
patterns:
colors:
location of gills:
worm-like? Snail-like?
other:
Common Name
Order (mayfly, stonefly, etc.):
Species:
Feeding Group:
collector shredder scaper predator
Pollution Sensitivity:
sensitive somewhat tolerant tolerant
Sketch to Scale:
Collected in:
riffle pool glide wetland
Wolftree
aquatic invertebrate
calculation sheet
= 100%
%
%
%
total # collected:
# found in riffles:
# found in pools:
# found in glides:
pie chart
Graph Feeding Groups
# of collectors
# of shredders
# of scrapers
# of predators
Estimate and Chart Total Sample
(fast water only):
Graph sensitivity to changing water
conditions or environmental stressors:
Sensitive Somewhat
Tolerant
Tolerant
Diversity of Sample:
Richness: Low High
Evenness: Low High
% of total:
field 89
% of total: % of total: % of total:
Total # of species
found:______________
In the system that you were collecting from, what would a....
collector eat?_____________________________________________
shedder eat?_____________________________________________
scaper eat?_______________________________________________
predator eat?_____________________________________________
# of
macro
(orders):
total # of
orders
found:
__________
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
water
chemistry
the importance of
water chemisry testing
While collecting data on the physical
(stream flow) and biological (aquatic
invertebrates) components is vital to
evaluating a water system, testing the
chemical components is also important.
Evaluating the chemical make up of a water
system involves looking at the concentra-
tion of dissolved and suspended substances
in the water. Some of these substances
come from the atmosphere through
precipitation. Other substances are picked
up from soil, vegetation, and other sources,
and carried to streams from surface runoff.
Groundwater also picks up chemical
substances from contact with underground
rocks and sediment, and brings them to
water systems as subsurface runoff.
The concentration of substances in the
water depend on many factors both natural
and human. These concentrations vary from
system to system, from season to season,
from day to day and sometimes from hour
to hour.
You will test four areas of water chemistry
that will be explained and examined in the
following sections:
Water is the only
substance
necessary to all life.
Many organisms
can live without
oxygen, but not
without water.
Of all the water on
earth, only 3% is
fresh water, and
2/3 of the fresh
water is in glaciers.
In the U.S., the
average person
uses about 100
gallons of water a
day at home.
Temperature
pH
Dissolved Oxygen
Turbidity
Water is the driving force
of all of nature.
-- Leonardo Da Vinci
(1452-1519)
Italian Artist, Musician
and Scientist
field 90
Temperature
What is Temperature?
Temperature is the measurement of
moving molecules within a substance,
called kinetic energy. As the kinetic energy
in a substance, rises, the molecules move
faster, and the temperature rises.
What influences temperature
in an aquatic system?
AIR TEMPERATURE. Water temperature
will rise as air temperature rises.
DIRECT SUNLIGHT. The temperature of an
aquatic system rises as it absorbs
direct sunlight.
STREAMSIDE OR RIPARIAN PLANTS.
Riparian plants can block direct sunlight
and keep water temperatures cool.
Streams that lack overhanging trees and
shrubs receive high doses of sunlight and
tend to be warmer.
WATER LEVELS. Shallow bodies of water
heat up more readily.
STREAMFLOW. Slow-moving water in
lakes or wetlands heat up faster and
more readily than fast-moving water in
streams and rivers.
SNOW AND ICE. Melting snow and glacier
fields at the headwaters of a stream
provide cool water (subsurface inputs are
also important).
TURBIDITY. Water with suspended
sediments from things like soil erosion and
pollution absorbs more heat than clear
water.
The water is all I hear
As I watch it rush by
The trees stand tall
Like hands in the sky
Like theyre hiding
the wild river
Student Journal Entry 1999
field 91
Temperature ranges
Most aquatic organisms are cold blooded, which means they cannot
regulate their own body temperatures. Cold blooded organisms are
adapted to a narrow temperature range. Any deviations from this usual
range may cause them stress.
Because all organisms have a unique range of temperature in which they
flourish, water temperature can determine what kinds of organisms can live
in a particular ecosystem. For example, salmon species are adapted to
fresh water temperatures ranging from 50-60 degrees Fahrenheit.
Warmer temperatures increase the spread of fish diseases, cause eggs to
hatch prematurely and can harm their food supply. Also, as temperature
rises, water can hold less dissolved oxygen. Therefore, in warm water, the
respiration rates of fish will rise to obtain oxygen from the water (which
makes the fish work harder to stay alive).
212
194
176
158
140
122
98.6
86
68
50
32
14
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
100
o
C
o
F
water boils
human body
water freezes
20-25
o
C/68-77
o
F
bass, bluegill, bullheads,
carp, crappie,
pikeminnow, suckers
(warm water fish)
dragonflies, some
caddisflies, true flies
13-20
o
C/55-68
o
F
coho, chinook,
cutthroat, lamprey,
sturgeon, shad, dace,
stickleback, walleye,
sculpins
(cool water fish)
mayflies, caddisflies
5-13
o
C/41-55
o
F
coho, chinook, cut-
throat, chum, kokanee,
rainbow, sculpins,
sockeye, steelhead
(cold water fish)
mayflies, caddisflies,
stoneflies
Above 25
o
C/77
o
F
is lethal for
salmonids
o
C
o
F
Optimal Temperature Ranges for Aquatic Life
field 92
Procedures for measuring
temperature
(1) Measure air temperature. Hold the
thermometer in the shade (if sun is out).
Expose the thermometer bulb to the air in
the reading site for at least two minutes.
Read the thermometer, by holding the top,
and record the data.
(2) Repeat measurements. Take a few
more air temperature readings in different
locations or different times of the day to
note change.
(3) Measure water temperature. Submerge the
bulb of the thermometer into the water for at
least two minutes (Hold
on to it so it doesnt float away!).
Remove the thermometer from the water by holding the top of
the thermometer.
Read the thermometer immediately, by holding it by the top,
and record the data.
(4) Repeat measurements. Take a few more water temperature
readings in different areas and at different depths.
(5) Convert units of measure. If your thermometer reads in
degrees Fahrenheit (
o
F), convert to degrees Celsius (
o
C) and
vice verse. To convert:
o
F = (9/5 x
o
C) + 32
o
C = 5/9 (
o
F - 32)
(6) Compare your data to the temperature range chart.
Determine what your data tells you about your system.
temperature
testing in the
field 93
Materials Needed:
thermometer
inquiring minds
want to know
How are water and air temperature
related?
Why do water temperatures vary with
depth and with different bodies of
water?
What kind of human activities affect
water temperature in the watershed?
How do the ecosystem components at
your field site affect water tempera-
ture, such as velocity and streamflow?
water source? plant cover? substrate
materials?
How do you think water temperature
affects the presence or absence of
different aquatic organisms
(macroinvertebrates, fish, etc.)?
tips for teaching
temperature
Have students refer to
the chart, Optimal
Temperature Ranges for
Aquatic Life, to under-
stand the temperature
impact on different forms
of aquatic life.
Discuss with students
the effect temperature
has on Dissolved Oxygen
and pH.
Based on a scientific
study of the needs of
cold-water aquatic
species, the Oregon
Department of
Environmental Quality
(DEQ) recently developed
a new temperature
standard for Oregon
rivers. The new standard
set the temperature at
64
o
F statewide unless
there is cold-water fish
spawning or bull trout
habitat. These special
habitat areas have
standards of 55
o
F and
50
o
F respectively. The
temperature standard in
the lower Columbia and
Willamette rivers is set
at 68
o
F.
field 94
pH
What is pH?
A water molecule is made up
of one positively charged
hydrogen ion (H+) and one
negatively charged hydroxyl
ion (OH-). Acids and bases
are defined by the activity
of these two very reactive
ions. A solution that has
more hydrogen ion activity
than hydroxyl activity is
considered acidic; one that
has more hydroxyl ion
activity than hydrogen ion
activity is considered basic.
The Importance of pH
pH is an important limiting
chemical factor for aquatic life. If
the water in a stream is too acidic
or too basic, the H+ or OH- ion
activity may disrupt crucial
biochemical reactions, harming or
killing aquatic organisms.
The pH of aquatic systems
affects the diversity and produc-
tivity of aquatic life. Organisms
are adapted to specific ranges of
pH. The organisms cease to
function and reproduce when the
pH is outside their range of toler-
ance. Generally, fish can survive in
systems with a pH range of 5.0 -
9.0. However, low pH can impair
their sense of smell and prevents
eggs from hatching. pH levels
above 9.0 impairs the bodily
functions of many species.
field 95
What Affects pH?
Acids released during decomposition of dead plant or
animal material, called tannic acids, can cause the pH of
aquatic systems to decline.
Any input of an acidic solution such as typical rainfall at
a pH of 5.6 - can also cause a decrease in pH. Acid rain,
caused by air pollution can further reduce the pH of
aquatic systems.
Fertilizers and other human-made substances that
enter the aquatic system have varying effects on pH,
and usually tend to make waters more acidic.
Water naturally erodes the rock materials it travels
over. The charged particles in weathered rock (such as
magnesium (Mg++), calcium (Ca++) or sodium (Na+)) can
alter pH levels.
How pH is Measured
pH is expressed in a scale which ranges from
0 - 14. A solution with a pH of 7 is considered
neutral -- neither acidic or basic. Solutions below
7 are considered acidic (more H+ ions) and those
above 7 are considered basic (more OH- ions).
0 7 14
ac i di c basi c neut r al
mor e H+ i ons
mor e OH- i ons
field 96
logarithmic scale
Procedures for
Measuring pH
(1) Clean glassware. Rinse and
clean the two glass sample tubes.
(2) Collect a water sample. Fill
both tubes to the first white line
(5ml) with your water sample.
(3) Add six drops of pH indicator
solution to only one of the tubes.
Swirl to mix.
(4) Set up samples in color wheel.
Insert the tube with indicator
solution behind the clear window.
Insert the tube without indicator
solution behind the colored window.
(5) Determine the pH. Hold the
color wheel up to a light source,
such as the sky, or a white piece of
paper. Rotate the disc on the
color wheel until you see the clos-
est color match. When they
match, read the number indicted in
the scale window next to the
selected color. This number is the
pH of your water sample.
(6) Record data .
(7) Empty test tubes into waste
water container.
(8) Compare your pH data to the
pH chart. Determine what your
data tells you about your system.
pH testing
in the Field
Materials Needed:
Hach Wide Range
Indicater pH kit:
two sample tubes
pH indicator solution
color wheel
waste container
field 97
TIPS FOR TEACHING pH
Before the pH test, talk
with students about
common things that have
varying pH like bleach and
soda pop (Use the pH
Scale as a reference).
Discuss why swimming
pools and hot tubs are
checked for pH.
Discuss possible
influences on pH like
pollution, decomposition
of organic materials,
minerals, etc..
Discuss the effects of
high or low pH on aquatic
organisms.
Be sure to emphasize
holding the pH color wheel
up to a light source -
important for discerning
color differences.
Inquiring Minds
Want to Know
What processes at your study
site can affect pH?
How do you think your systems
pH would differ from other
systems? For example a river
from a wetland?
Is the pH at your study site
suitable for aquatic life? What
kind of aquatic life?
field 98
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
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3
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field 99
Dissolved
oxygen
What is dissolved oxygen?
Oxygen is as important to life in
water as it is to life on land. Most
aquatic animals require oxygen for
survival. The availability of oxygen
affects their growth, development
and overall condition. Dissolved
oxygen (DO) refers to the O
2
molecules that are dissolved in a
water solution (H
2
0). This O
2
is a
separate and different form than the
oxygen in a water molecule.
Water systems both produce and
consume oxygen. They gain oxygen
from the atmosphere and from
plants as a result of photosynthesis.
the importance of DO
DO levels are an important
measure of the condition of a
stream. Aquatic organisms
consume oxygen through their
gills, or directly through their
bodys outer layer. Oxygen is
essential to break down food,
and to maintain and build cells.
Most aquatic organisms
cannot survive with little or no
levels of oxygen. We measure
the DO of water samples in
our aquatic ecosystem to see
how well it can support life.
How is DO measured?
DO is usually measured in
parts per million (ppm). For
example, 8 ppm of O
2
means
that there are 8 parts of
oxygen in one million parts of
water. That seems like a tiny
amount of oxygen; however
aquatic organisms in most
Northwest water systems
need 8-12 ppm of DO to
survive.
field 100
optimal
range for
most NW
aquatic
organisms
factors affecting do
TEMPERATURE. Water temperature
has a significant influence on DO.
Water temperature determines the
maximum amount of oxygen that can
be dissolved in water. This is called the
saturation level of DO. Oxygen is
more easily dissolved in cold water. As
the temperature rises, the saturation
level of DO water goes down. If there is
a difference between the measured DO
and the saturation level, ecosystem
processes are actively influencing the
oxygen status of the aquatic
ecosystem.
STREAM FLOW. Oxygen concen-
trations vary with the volume and
velocity of water flowing. Faster flows
with white water tend to be more
oxygen-rich because more oxygen
enters the water from the atmosphere
through breaks in the waters
surface.
AQUATIC PLANTS. The presence of
aquatic plants in a stream affects the
DO concentration by releasing oxygen
into the water during photosynthesis.
In water systems with many green
plants, the DO levels will fluctuate with
the amount of sunlight.
ALTITUDE. Oxygen more easily
dissolves in water at low altitudes.
There is less oxygen at higher
altitudes.
TURBIDITY. Oxygen more easily
dissolves in water with low levels of
suspended sediments.
1
2
4
5
3
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
ppm
ppm
0
minimum
requirement
for salmon
embryo
minimum
requirement
for spawning
salmon
minimum
requirement
for adult
salmon
field 101
DO Chart
Procedures for Measuring DO
(1) Collect a water sample. Fill the sample cup to the
25 mL mark.
(2) Snap ampoule tip by sliding an ampoule down the
side of the sample cup so that the tip rests against
the edge of the bottom slide. Press the ampoule
against the side of the cup to snap the tip. The
ampoule will fill with water.
(3) Mix the contents of the ampoule by inverting it
several times, allowing the air bubble to travel from
end to end. Wait for two minutes for the color to
develop.
(4) Find the best color match between the ampoule
and color standards on the comparator. Hold the
comparator in a nearly horizontal position under
bright light. Place the sample ampoule between the
color standards, moving it until the best color match
is found. This will indicate the dissolved oxygen level
in parts per million (ppm). An estimate can be made
for those sample colors falling between standards.
(5) Record DO level.
(6) Discard used ampoules and sample cup water into
wastewater container.
(7) Compare your data to the DO chart. Determine
what your data tells you about your system.
DO testing
in the field
Materials Needed:
CHEMets DO Kit
K-7512:
25 ml sample cup
self-filling ampoules
comparator color
standards
waste container
field 102
Inquiring Minds Want to Know:
What do your measurements of DO indicate about water
chemistry?
How does your estimate of DO compare to that which is needed by
fish and other aquatic organisms?
How could the characteristics of your research site be altered to
increase DO?
How do humans affect DO?
TIPS FOR TEACHING DO
Have students look at riffles in the water system and ask them
what is happening with regard to dissolved oxygen.
Utilize the DO chart.
Talk about how the presence of plants, both in and around the
water, can affect DO.
Water, thou hast no taste,
no color, no odor; canst not
be defined, art relished
while ever mysterious. Not
necessary to life, but
rather life itself, though
fillest us with a gratifica-
tion that exceeds the
delight of the senses.
--Saint-Exupery
Wind, Sand and Stars
(1939)
field 103
What is turbidity?
Turbidity refers to how cloudy or clear the
water is. It is an indicator of how much
light can pass through water. Highly
turbid water has floating materials, called
suspended sediments, that block light.
These suspended sediments can be soil
particles, micro-organisms or plant
materials. Clear water has a turbidity
near zero because there are no or few
materials in the water that scatter or
absorb light.
The importance of turbidity
Turbidity is another indicator of the condition of the water system you
are studying. High turbidity can indicate contamination, pollution,
and/or both natural and non-natural disturbance in the watershed.
IF WATER IS HIGHLY TURBID:
Needed sunlight cannot reach submerged aquatic plants and the
amount of oxygen created by photosynthesis is decreased.
Organisms, including macroinvertebrates and fish eggs, on the stream
bottom can be buried by suspended sediments.
Suspended sediments absorb heat from sun, thus increasing the
temperature of the water. Warmer water holds less oxygen, so
dissolved oxygen (DO) levels often begin to drop.
Floating materials can get caught in the gills of fish and amphibians,
which can hinder their ability to breathe.
Organisms have more difficulty seeing and/or smelling their food, thus
the food chain is directly affected.
As temperature rises in slow-moving or stagnant water, algae
populations may explode, thus further blocking sunlight.
turbidity
field 104
causes of turbidity
The turbidity of a river, stream or wetland
is affected by conditions in the entire
watershed. The following are just a
few potential causes of turbidity.
SOIL EROSION. Vegetation on the hillsides
in a watershed hold soil in place. If vegeta-
tion is removed or disturbed, soil can slide
downhill during heavy rainfalls and into river
systems. Soil erosion is a key process that
can increase turbidity.
POLLUTION. As runoff flows over roads and
homes, it carries dirt, oil, and any other
debris with it to rivers.
FLOODS. Floods and sudden high stream-
flows stir up the fine sediments on the
bottom of a stream and can cause
turbidity to rise rapidly. Floods also bring
runoff from both disturbed and undis-
turbed hillsides, causing turbidity to rise.
ANIMALS. When humans or other large
mammals walk or recreate in water, fine
sediments on the streambed are disturbed,
causing a rise in turbidity.
Current
Environmental
Protection Agency
(EPA) regulations
require turbidity in
drinking water not
to exceed 5 NTU.
The ability of
salmonids to find
and capture food is
impaired at
turbidities in the
range of 25-70
NTU.
EPA Studies
indicate that fish
growth is reduced
and gill tissue is
damaged after
5-10 days of
exposure to water
with a turbidity of
25 NTU.
During a flood
event, turbidities
can jump to 100
NTU or more than
1000 NTU.
field 105
How turbidity is measured
Turbidity can be measured with an expensive
instrument called a turbidimeter or through
an inexpensive turbidity test kit. A
turbidimeter is an electronic meter that
measures the amount of light scattered by a
sample of water. The greater the amount of
suspended particles, the greater the
intensity of scattered light. Turbidity
recorded with a turbidimeter is in
Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTUs).
The test kit involves viewing a dot located at
the end of a tube. As the turbidity of a
sample increases, the dot becomes
increasingly blurred. The turbidity of the
sample is then compared with an identical
amount of clear water to which a
standardized turbidity reagent has been
added. Turbidity recorded with a
turbidity test kit is in Jackson Turbidity Units
(JTUs)
Both NTU's and JTU s are interchangeable
units. They differ only in that their name
reflects the device used to measure turbidity.
t ur bi di met er
field 106
Turbidity testing
in the Field
Materials
Needed:
Clear Tap Water
Waste Water
Container
LaMotte Turbidity
Test Kit (7519):
Turbidity Reagent
2 Turbidity Columns
Test Tube Brush
Stirring Rod
Procedures for Measuring
Turbidity
This test is made by comparing the turbidity of
a measured amount of the sample with an identi-
cal amount of clear water containing a measured
amount of standardized turbidity reagent. The
readings are made by looking down through the
column of liquid at a black dot. If turbidity is
present, it will interfere with the passage of
light through the column of liquid. Small amounts
of turbidity will cause a "blurring" of the black
dot in the bottom of the tube. Large amounts of
turbidity may provide sufficient "cloudiness" so
that it is not possible to see the black dot when
looking down through the column. Any color that
may be present in the sample should be disre-
garded. This determination is concerned only
with the haziness or cloudy nature of the sam-
ple. Turbidity test is best performed at site but
may be delayed 2 hours if necessary. If delayed,
shake or stir sample very well before testing.
(1) Fill one Turbidity Column (0835) to the 50 ml line
with the sample water.
NOTE: Do not view the test in direct sunlight
(2) If the black dot on the bottom of the tube is not
visible when looking down through the column of liquid,
pour out a sufficient amount of the test sample so that
the tube is filled to the 25 ml line.
(3) Fill the second Turbidity Column (0835) with an
amount of turbidity-free water that is equal to the
amount of sample being measured. This is the "clear
water" tube.
(4) Place the two tubes side by side and note the
difference in clarity. If the black dot is equally clear in
both tubes, the turbidity is zero. If the black dot in the
sample tube is less clear, proceed to Step 5.
field 107
(5). Shake the Standard Turbidity Reagent (7520) vigorously. Add 0.5
ml to the "clear water" tube. Use the sitting rod (1114) to stir contents
of both tubes to equally distribute turbid particles.
(6) Check for amount of turbidity by looking down through the solution
at the black dot (ignore the color - focus only at the blurriness of the
dot). If the turbidity of the sample water is greater than that of the
"clear water", continue to add Standard Turbidity Reagent in 0.5 ml
increments to the "clear water" tube, MIXING AFTER EACH ADDITION
until the turbidity equals that of the sample.
(7) Record total amount of Turbidity Reagent added. Each 0.5 ml
addition to the 50 ml size sample is equal to 5 Jackson Turbidity Units
(JTU's). If a 25 ml sample size is used, each 0.5 ml addition of the
Standard Turbidity Reagent is equal to 10 Jackson Turbidity Units
(JTU's). Use the table below to calculate turbidity in JTU. Rinse both
tubes carefully after each determination.
(8) Think about your turbidity data and determine what it tells you
about your water system. Look for clues in the system to explain your
turbidity reading.
field 108
# of measured
additions
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
15
20
amount
in mL
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
7.5
10.0
50 mL
Graduation
5 JTU
10 JTU
15 JTU
20 JTU
25 JTU
30 JTU
35 JTU
40 JTU
45 JTU
50 JTU
75 JTU
100 JTU
25 mL
Graduation
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
150
200
Turbidity Test Results
TIPS FOR TEACHING
Turbidity
Making comparisons
between different areas
within the river, creek or
wetland is a great way
to facilitate learning
about turbidity.
Be aware of student
impact on turbidity
readings. Point out how
upstream readings may
be quite different than
downstream readings.
Talk about how activities
upstream (including
those of other stu-
dents) can affect the
data.
Inquiring Minds Want to
Know:
What features at the research site
affect turbidity most?
How do you account for differing
turbidity readings for wetland, river
and creek sites?
What are the most common materials
floating in your water sample that
affect turbidity? Sediments? Algae?
Organic matter? Others?
How does turbidity relate to other
water chemistry measurements?
How might aquatic organisms be
affected by turbidity?
How do humans affect turbidity?
How might your turbidity readings be
different three months from now?
Three months ago?
field 109
School_____________________________ Site______________________________Date____________
Study Team___________________________________________________________________________
Weather Conditions:
Wolftree
water chemistry data
field 110
Temperature
Location:
Time:
Air Temp (
o
C):
H
2
0 Temp (
o
C):
Depth of H
2
0 @
measurement:
What might affect temperature at your place of study?
pH
Location:
Time:
pH:
What might affect pH at your place of study?
Turbidity
Location:
Time:
Turbidity (JTUs):
What might affect turbidity levels at your place of study?
Dissolved Oxygen
Location:
Time:
DO (ppm):
What might affect DO levels at your place of study?
resources to learn more about
water and water chemistry
Websites
www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/
volunteer/stream/
United States Environmental Protection Agency Volunteer
Stream Monitoring: A Methods Manual.
waterquality.deq.state.or.us/wq/
otherbrowsers.htm
Oregon Department of Environmental Qualitys Water
Quality Program Home Page.
www.water.ci.portland.or.us/
City of Portland Bureau of Water Works Home Page.
www.usgs.gov
United States Geologic Society site.
Curriculum
The Stream Scene - Watersheds, Wildlife and People.
1992. Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife.
(503) 229-5403.
Streamkeepers Field Guide by Tom Murdoch and
Martha Cheo. 1996. Adopt-A-Stream Foundation.
(425) 316-8592. www.streamkeeper.org
National Wildlife Federations Animal Tracks Series:
Water. An introductory unit on the water cycle and water
chemistry issues. Grades 3-8. (410) 516-6585.
www.nwf.org/atracks
field 111
streamflow
What is streamflow?
Streamflow is the total amount of water
that passes a given spot each second. The
two main components of streamflow are
velocity - how fast the water is flowing,
and the cross sectional area - how deep
and wide the channel is.
What affects Streamflow?
PRECIPITATION - As precipitation falls from the sky, it travels over the land
to the lowest point as surface runoff. This surface runoff forms small
channels which connect into larger water systems. Streamflows usually
increase when a watershed receives a lot of precipitation.
GROUND WATER - Some precipitation enters the soil, seeping down to a
firm layer of clay or rock. Here the water collects as ground water. Some of
this water finds its way to springs, streams and eventually rivers and seas.
UPLAND CONDITIONS - Vegetated areas above streams are called uplands.
They use and hold water, slowing down increases in stream flows during
heavy rain events and maintaining flows during dry summer months. If
vegetation is removed or replaced with impermeable or hard surfaces (like
roads and houses), water flows directly into the rivers. A lot of impermeable
surfaces in a watershed can increase stream flows during rain events and
lower flows during dry months.
Cross section of a water system
water surface
substrate
riparian area
stream width
depth intervals
field 112
How does the water move?
Riffle - Shallow areas with fast moving white
water, also called rapids. Riffles are well
oxygenated sections that provide favorable condi-
tions for many aquatic organisms and spawning
salmon.
Pool - Deeper areas where water is slow or swirling,
allowing small rock materials to settle. Pools are
places for both adult and young fish to hide and
rest.
Glide - Section of a stream where water is moving
faster than in a pool, but without any white water.
It is an area for many salmon species to spawn
since the water is simply gliding on by.
There is
something...
thrilling about
a river.
--Wallace Stegner
(1909-1993)
American Writer
r i f f l e
gl i de
pool
the substrate
The bottom of a water system is made up of various
rock materials and organic matter called substrate,
or streambed. Materials in the substrate range from
the finest sediments to large boulders.
Types of substrate:
Bedrock - Big slabs of rock.
Boulder - Over 10 inches in diameter.
Cobble - 2-10 inches in diameter.
Gravel - Under 2 inches in diameter.
Sand, Silt, Clay - Under 0.1 inches.
c obbl e
gr avel
field 113
Streamflow and the Riparian Area
The vegetated area along the banks of a stream is greatly influenced by
water. This area, called the riparian area, is affected by streamflow and
the course of a stream, and in turn a stream is affected by riparian
materials that may enter the system. Continual deposition of rocks and
sediments in slower moving sections of the stream may increase growth
of the riparian area. This increased vegetation can create shade for the
stream and also deposit organics(leaves). Shade can lower stream
temperatures and increase dissolved oxygen in the water. The presence
of organic materials, like leaves and twigs, serves as a food source for
macroinvertebrates. Riparian area vegetation may get carried down-
stream as a river erodes one side of the streambank. Trees and plants
transported downstream can slow water velocity and create pools while
also providing habitat for organisms living in stream. As materials are
moved from one side of a stream to the other over time, the stream may
carve a meandering path for itself (see diagram).
The Ever Changing Stream
Water ON THE MOVE
As water flows through a watershed by streams and rivers, it naturally
picks up and carries rocks or sediments downstream, carving their path
in the land. This is called erosion. In sections of waterways where the
channel is steep, fast moving water can carry large boulders or trees
miles down the channel. Rocks and sediments then settle out of the
water in flat, slower moving areas of system. This is called deposition.
Streamflow and water movement determine the amount of erosion and
deposition in a waterway. As a result, these factors affect the types of
materials found in the substrate. The substrate and water movement in
turn influence what lives in the system. An organism that has adapted
to living in a slow moving, sandy-bottomed pool, would not fair well in a
fast moving, boulder-bottomed section of a stream.
er osi on
deposi t i on
r i par i an ar ea
field 114
WHY MEASURE STREAMFLOW?
The speed and amount of water in a stream
affect the organisms and habitats in an
aquatic ecosystem. Imagine a small trickling
creek. Then think about a big river, like the
Columbia, Willamette, or Deschutes. Would
you expect to find the same organisms in
the small creek as the large river? The
amount of water in a stream is an important
factor in determining where organisms live
and spawn.
When streamflow increases, water systems
become wider or deeper, creating more
habitat for aquatic organisms. During storm
events, an area in the river that was a pool, a
resting area for fish, may become a fast
moving riffle habitat This change of habitat
may cause displacement of some organisms,
while making room for others. Faster moving
water, associated with increased stream-
flow, alters habitat by transporting
dissolved oxygen, food particles and
pollutants in an aquatic system. Conversely,
a shallow, slow moving system may decrease
the available habitat, and the transport of
materials in the system. Aquatic organisms
have specific adaptations to habitat based
on streamflow. For fish, streamflow affects
access to spawning gravels, expenditure of
energy, and the amount of oxygen available
to eggs.
Seasonal Changes in N.W. Streamflow - 1998
Columbia River
(below The Dalles Dam)
RIVER FALL SPRING
Willamette River
(at Salem)
Sandy River
(below Bull Run)
336,100 cubic feet
per second (cfs)
1,782 cfs 385 cfs
15,850 cfs 8,458 cfs
115,200 cfs
Sitting in a canoe,
riding the back of the
flooding river as it
flows down into a
bend, and turns, the
currents racing and
crashing among the
trees along side the
shore, and flow on,
one senses the
volume and power
all together.
--Wendell Berry
field 115
Notice the difference in streamflows between fall and
spring! What factors would influence this change?
(3) MEASURE VELOCITY (the velocity of the water passing
through the calculated channel area).
With the tape measure, establish a distance in the
stream to determine velocity.
With a stopwatch, record how long it takes a stick to
travel your measured distance in the stream (This will
estimate how fast the water is moving.).
Water moves at different speeds across the stream
channel. Record at least three velocity measurements to
account for the different stream velocities along the
width of the stream.
(4) MEASURE TOTAL STREAMFLOW. Calculate the total streamflow
by multiplying velocity and total area. Record streamflow on
the data sheet.
measuring
streamflow
in the field
field 116
measuring streamflow procedures:
(1) CHOOSE A SAMPLE AREA. Designate a 100 foot
section of the stream to sample from.
(2) MEASURE STREAM AREA. Measure the channel
width with a tape measure. Record stream width.
Divide the stream width into equal sized areas.
For example, if the stream is 30 feet wide, divide
it into six areas of five feet each (Refer to the
data sheet for a visual).
Record depth measurements at each individual
area.
Calculate the area of each individual section by
multiplying depth x width.
Calculate the total stream area by adding the
individual areas. Record on your data sheet.
Materials
Needed:
standard equipment
height pole
life vests (if necessary)
stopwatch
tape measure
underwater viewers
waders
field 117
MEASURE RIPARIAN FEATURES. Identify
the riparian area. The riparian area
starts at the edge of a stream and
ends where the stream water does
not influence vegetation. Look for a
terrace or hill that would hold water in
as flows rise. Also look for a change in
vegetation to determine where the
riparian area ends.
Identify the dominant plant/tree
species in your riparian area.
Use the field guide to determine the
plant/tree species.
Record the plant species, and whether
the species is understory or
overstory, evergreen or deciduous.
Riparian Vegetation-
Red Alder
EXAMINE THE SUBSTRATE AND ORGANISMS
with stream viewers. Use underwater
viewers to closely examine the
substrate of your plot. What are the
shapes of the rocks? Are they smooth
or jagged? Where do you think the
rocks came from?
Record the size and type of substrate
you discover in the water, as well as on
the banks.
Repeat the process in another
section of your water system. Pick an
area with different features such as:
deeper water and faster velocity. (If
water is too deep or fast to examine
with viewers, make observations and
record information from a distance.)
underwater viewer
OTHER streamflow studies:
Inquiring minds want to know
What kinds of substrate are found in slower
depositing sections of your stream? What
kinds are found in fast eroding sections?
Where is erosion happening in the stream
cross section? Where is deposition happening?
How do seasonal, storm related, and other
changes in streamflow impact aquatic
organisms?
How does streamflow affect a riparian area?
How do evergreen or deciduous trees in the
riparian area affect stream habitat?
Tips for teaching streamflow
Refer to Seasonal Changes in Streamflow 1998
on page 95 to understand how streamflow
differs between systems.
Use the cubic foot box to illustrate a cubic foot
of water.
Convert cubic feet/seconds into gallons/
seconds to help students understand the
volume of water movement.(7.5 gallons/cubic ft.)
field 118
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Wetland
ecology
wetlands and their FUNCTION
Wetlands are areas that are adapted to
the presence of water for some time
during the growing season. Some
common wetland types are marshes,
bogs and swamps. Wetlands offer these
benefits to the ecosystem:
FILTERS. Wetlands help rivers and
streams by filtering sediments and
pollutants. Due to the slow moving water
in wetlands, pollution and sediments
settle to the bottom of the system. In
addition, aquatic vegetation holds
materials in wetlands that would
otherwise flow directly into streams.
FOOD, SHELTER & HABITAT. The wetland
habitat provides food and shelter for
many wildlife species including waterfowl,
amphibians, and fish. Wetlands are also
habitat for larger mammals such as deer,
elk, and bears.
CONTROL FLOWS. Wetlands help control
water flows by acting as a sponge. In
time of flooding, wetlands soak up and
hold water. In dry summer months,
wetlands maintain streamflows by slowly
releasing water stored in vegetation and
soils.
Civilization began
around wetlands;
todays civilization has
every reason to leave
them wet and wild.
-- Edward Maltby
American Writer
field 121
Wetland Plants
Wetland vegetation has evolved over time to
survive in either standing water, or
saturated soil. Many of these adaptations
are visible on the plant. Wetland habitats
with a few feet of standing water can
provide little support for heavy woody
vegetation. Plants in this type of habitat
are often herbaceous, or without woody
stems. Some plants in standing water have
their roots under water and leaves above
the water. Air pockets or holes in plant
stems help transport oxygen and other
gases through the plant. As water becomes
more shallow in wetlands, woody vegetation
is able to survive. To prevent falling over in
loose, wet soils, woody shrubs often branch
many times. Wetland habitats with
saturated soil may have a few inches of dry
soil on the ground surface. Wetland plants in
these areas have developed shallow root
systems.
Over 1/3 of the
animals and plants
listed as threatened
or endangered in the
U.S. either live in
wetlands or depend
on them in some way.
National Wildlife
Federation
pond l i l y
field 122
Wetland Soils
Soil plays a large role in the types of plant
communities we find in a wetland. In general, soils
are made up of plant materials (organic soils) and
weathered rock materials (mineral soils). The
largest mineral materials are sand, middle sized
mineral particles are called silt, and the smallest
measured mineral soil particle is clay. Each of these
materials feel different. Sand feels gritty; silt feels
smooth; and clay feels sticky. The relative amounts
of sand, silt, and clay soil is called soil texture. Soil
texture affects the amount of water and support
available for plants.
Wetland soils can be saturated all year long or for a
portion of the growing season. Wetland soils are
oftendifferent than upland soils in their odor,
texture, and color. Often, wetland soils have a
strong rotten egg or earthy smell, which is
associated with a high amount of decomposing
plant materials. These decomposing materials can
also make the soil feel very slimy.
Plankton
Wetlands support a diverse population of animals
by providing water and shelter. They also serve as
an abundant food source for many animals. The
smallest of all life in the food web are free-floating,
microscopic organisms called plankton. Although
many have false feet, hair (cilia), or long whip-like
parts (flagellum) that help them move, they are too
small to propel themselves through water and thus
at the mercy of winds and tides. Plankton consists
of plants, such as algae and diatoms (phytoplank-
ton) and animals, including copapods, fish larvae and
small eggs (zooplankton). Most phytoplankton are
single-celled organisms. They use photosynthesis
and energy from the sun to grow. Zooplankton in
turn feed on phytoplankton. Macroinvertebrates
eat zooplankton .and energy continues to travel
through the food web!
pl ank t on -
c opepods
field 123
wetland study activities:
WILDLIFE SIGHTINGS & SIGN. Wetlands are
incredible places to view wildlife and signs of
wildlife (refer to the Wildlife Ecology section
of this guide for more information).
Throughout your investigation, record wildlife
sightings and sign you observe.
AQUATIC INVERTEBRATES. In a
wetland area, aquatic
invertebrates (Refer to the
Aquatic Invertebrates
section of this guide) can be free
swimming, crawling, attached to
vegetation or along the bottom
of the wetland. Choose a site
and record sample site
information on the data sheet.
To collect aquatic invertebrates in a wetland
it is not necessary to get into the water.
From the boardwalk or bank, gently sweep net
through your sample area (Be careful not to
uproot or crush the vegetation). Pay
attention and note where the specimens
were collected from (plants, silt, rocks, etc.).
WATER CHEMISTRY. Follow
procedures from Water
Chemistry section of
this guide for tempera-
ture, pH, dissolved
oxygen and turbidity.
Record results.
WATER DEPTH. Use a
measuring device to
measure the water
depth from the edge of
the dock/deck. Record results.
Wetland Ecology
in the field
Materials
Needed:
standard equipment
binoculars
nets
white tubs
turkey basters
forceps
ice cube trays
magnifying boxes
thermometer
Hach pH kit
CHEMets DO Kit
turbidity kit
waste water
container
soil auger or shovel
soil pH kit
depth measuring
device
microscope
petrie dishes
dropper
bucket or pitcher
field 124
field 125
Inquiring minds want to know
What is a wetland? What is it not?
What types of organisms use wetland ecosystems?
What do you think is the natural history of the site you investigated?
How has it changed?
How do the oranisms you observed or collected interact with each other?
What are some ways that organisms are adapted to wetlands?
MICROSCOPIC ORGANISMS. Use a bucket or pitcher to scoop
up a water sample. Use a dropper to place a small sample
into a petrie dish. Search for plankton and other micro-
scopic organisms.
SEDIMENT DEPTH. Use a measuring device to measure the
sediment depth from the same location that you meas-
ured water depth.
SOIL PH, TEXTURE & TYPE. Follow procedures in the Plant Ecology sec-
tion.
PLANTS. Set up a plot or transect and count and/or identify the
number of plant species that you observe. Record results.
sk unk c abbage
Resources to learn more about Wetlands
Books
Adopt-A-Wetland: A Northwest Guide by Steve Yates. From the
Adopt-A-Stream Foundation. An illustrated and understandable guide to
wetlands.
Curriculum
Animal Tracks: Wetland Action Pack by National Wildlife Federation. A
K-6th curriculum. www.nwf.org/atracks.
Wading into Wetlands by National Wildlife Federation. Includes activities,
games, puzzles, etc. A K-8th curriculum.
Wow! The Wonders of Wetlands: An Educators Guide. A comprehen-
sive guide for developing wetlands study programs, K-12th.
Field Guides
Wetland Plants of Oregon and Washington by Jennifer Guard.
Wetlands Nature Guide by National Audubon Society. A comprehensive
guide with color photos.
Websites
www.nwrc.gov/. This is the USGS National Wetlands Research Center
site. Very comprehensive!
www.nwf.org/nwf/wetlands/index.html. This is the National Wildlife
Federations site on wetlands.
field 126
glossary
Acidic - A substance that has more hydrogen ion activity than hydroxyl
activity.
Adaptation - A genetically-controlled characteristic that helps organisms
survive and reproduce in their environment.
Angiosperms - Flowering plants that produce seeds in fruit .
Anther - The upper portion of the stamen containing pollen grains.
Arthropods - Any of the numerous invertebrate organisms of the phylum
Arthropoda, which includes insects, spiders, centipedes and millipedes.
Bark - The outer layer of a tree trunk used to protect the tree from insects,
diseases, and fires.
Basic - A substance that has more hydroxyl ion activity than hydrogen ion
activity.
Bole - The trunk of a tree, which is the central support rod giving the tree its
strength and long shape.
Cambium- The part that adds thickness to a tree. The living dividing tissue.
Camouflage - A coloration or form adaptation by a species designed to hide
from predators.
Cannibalism- A special type of predation in which one species eats an individ-
ual of the same species.
Canopy - The uppermost layer of a forest.
Carnivores - A consumer that eats only other consumers.
Chlorophyll - A green pigment found in plants that is necessary for the
process of photosynthesis.
Commensalism- A relationship between two species in which one species ben-
efits and the other is neither harmed nor helped.
Community - A group of interacting populations of different species in over-
lapping habitats.
Glos 1
Competition - The relationship between species that attempt to use the
same limited resource.
Coniferous - Needle-leaved trees that usually produce seed cones.
Cross Section Area - How deep and wide a stream is.
Crown Class - The position of a trees height relative to the other trees in the
stand.
Cynobacteria - A group of blue-green bacteria that live throught the world,
mostly in water, but also on land. Can be a photobiont component of some
lichens.
Deciduous - Trees that lose their leaves during a particular season each year.
Decomposers - Organisms that feed on dead plant and animal material.
Dendrochronology - The study of climate change and other past events
through the comparison of successive annual growth rings of trees.
Deposition - Rock and organic materials that settle out within a water
system.
Detritivores - Decomposers. Receive energy from recycling nutrients by eat-
ing dead organisms.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) - The oxygen in a water solution as molecular oxygen
(O
2
).
Disturbance - An event that disrupts or changes all or part of an ecosystem.
Diversity - The variety in an ecosystem; usually referring to habitats or
species.
Dominant Trees - Trees that are at the top of the canopy.
Ecology - The study of how living things interact with each other and with
their nonliving environments.
Ecosystem- All living organisms in a certain area as well as their physical envi-
ronment.
Erosion - Natural process of weathering by which material is removed from the
earths surface.
Glos 2
Evenness - In terms of diversity, species evenness is determined by
comparing the numbers of individuals within each species.
Evolution - A change in the genetic characteristics of a population from one
generation to the next.
Feeding Groups - Referring to the classification of what and how aquatic
organisms eat.
Food Chain - The sequence in which energy is transferred from one organism to
the next as each organism eats and is then eaten by another.
Food Web - The interlocking, complex pattern of food chains in an ecosystem.
Forest Floor - The lowest layer of a forest consisting of many organisms
including insects, fungi, moss, and lichen.
Frond - The leaf of a fern.
Germination - In a plant seed, to sprout growth.
Glide - Section of a water system where the water is moving faster than in a
pool, but without white water.
Ground Water - Water beneath the earths surface between saturated soil
and rock that supplies springs, streams and eventually rivers and seas.
Gymnosperms - Plants that produce seeds in cones.
Habitat Structure - The shape, size and placement of vegetation - understo-
ry, mid-section, and overstory.
Heartwood - The majority of a tree trunks mass. Consists of old dead xylem
cells that no longer carry water. It is usually darker that other parts of the
tree and provides most of the support to a tree.
Herbivores - Plant eaters. First level consumers.
Herbivory - A special variation of predation in which an animal eats a plant or
plant part.
Herb Layer - The layer of a forest in between the shrub layer and the forest
floor, made up of small plants.
Host - An organism on which a parasite feeds.
Glos 3
Hydroxyl Ion (OH-) - The highly reactive negative ion in a water molecule. A
water molecule that has more hydroxyl ion activity than hydrogen ion activity
is considered basic.
Hydrogen Ion (H+) - The highly reactive positive ion in a water molecule. A
water molecule that has more hydrogen ion activity than hydroxyl ion activity
is considered acidic.
Hypothesis - Implies insufficient evidence to provide more than a tentative
explanation. An educated guess that is testable.
Impermeable surfaces - Hard surfaces, like roads or roof tops that water
cannot penetrate.
Intermediate Trees - Trees that are just below the canopy in a forest.
Invasive - Non-native species that invade, spread and out compete the natural
species.
Kinetic Energy - The movement of molecules within a substance.
Larva - The immature stage of an organism. Often times very different from
the adult form.
Law - Implies a statement of order and relation in nature that has been found
to be invariable under the same conditions.
Leaves - The food processing part of a tree, where (generally) photosynthesis
takes place.
Lichen - A fungi, which has formed a successful alliance (a symbiotic relation-
ship) with an algae.
Macroinvertebrates - Animals without backbones large enough to identify
with the unaided eye; often aquatic insects.
Meander - Refers to water systems that follow a winding and turning course.
Mutualism- A relationship between two species in which both benefit.
Natural Selection - A term used to describe the unequal survival and repro-
duction of organisms that results from the presence or absence of particular
inherited traits.
Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU) - The unit of measurement for turbidity.
Niche -The role of an organism in an ecosystem.
Glos 4
Nitrogen - A nutrient that is released when organic matter decomposes. This
nutrient is critical to stimulating plant growth.
Nymph - One of the young of any insect that undergoes incomplete
metamorphosis.
Omnivore - A consumer that eats both plants and animals.
Overtopped Trees - Trees under the dominant and intermediate crown class
layers in a forest.
Ovule - A rudimentary seed of a plant that develops into a seed after fertil-
ization.
Parasite - Feeds on living animals called hosts.
Parasitism- The relationship where a parasite receives resources from its
host without killing it.
Petals - Serve as a banner to attract pollinators and a landing platform.
pH - The measure of the acidity or basicity of a substance.
Phloem- A series of small tubes that transports the sap (food) from the
leaves down to the roots of a tree.
Phosphorus - A nutrient found in soil which aids in plant growth.
Photobiont - The photosynthetic component of a lichen.
Photosynthesis - The process green plants use to produce food as sugar from
carbon dioxide, water and sunlight.
Pistil - the central organ of a flower which contains the female parts: stigma,
style and ovary.
Pool - Deep areas in a water system where the water is slow or swirling.
Pollen - Fine, yellowish powder-like grains, which contain the male germ cells of a
plant.
Pollination - The transfer of pollen from anther (male) to the stigma (female)
of a plant from fertilization.
Population - A group of individuals of the same species that live in a particular
habitat.
Glos 5
Potassium- A nutrient found in soil, which aids in plant growth and survival.
Predation - The act of killing and eating another organism.
Predator - Organisms that actively hunt, kill, and eat other organisms.
Prey - An organism upon which a predator feeds.
Richness - The number of species in an ecosystem.
Riffle - Fast moving portion of a stream, characterized by white water. Also
called rapids. riffles are well oxygenated sections that provide great condi-
tions for many aquatic organisms.
Riparian Area - The vegetated area along the banks of a stream that is
influenced by stream water.
Scavengers - Organisms that feed on dead organisms.
Sensitive Species - Referring to aquatic organisms that cannot survive in
poor water quality conditions.
Shrub Layer - The layer of the forest in between the understory and herb lay-
ers, made up of shrubs.
Springwood - Tree cambium (xylem) cells that are created in the beginning of
the growing season. Usually larger and appear lighter than summerwood.
Stamen - The male organ of the flower consisting of anther and filament,
which produces the pollen.
Stigma - The most elevated part of a flowers pistil, which receives the pollen.
Stomata - Small holes in leaves, where oxygen and water is released into the
atmosphere.
Streamflow - The total volume of water that passes in a water system.
Often expressed in cubic feet per second (cfs).
Style - A slender column of tissue that connects the ovary and the stigma of
a flower pistil.
Substrate - The composition of rock materials and organic mater that make
up stream bottom.
Succession - A pattern of on-going changes (a process) over time in the
Glos 6
types of species in a community.
Summerwood - Tree cambium (xylem) cells that are created towards the end
of the growing season. Usually appear smaller and darker than springwood.
Surface Runoff - The water that flows over the surface to the lowest point
on the landscape after precipitation.
Suspended Sediments - Floating materials in water that block light causing
turbidity.
Temperature - The measurement of moving molecules or kinetic energy within
a substance. The faster the molecules move, the warmer the temperature.
Theory - A proposed but unverified explanation. Implies greater range of evi-
dence and greater likelihood of truth than a hypothesis.
Tolerant Species - Referring to aquatic organisms that can survive in poor
water quality conditions.
Trees - Single stemmed woody plants greater than 15 feet in height when
mature.
Trophic Level - A step in the transfer of energy through an ecosystem. The
level of a food chain that an organism occupies. A category of organisms clas-
sified by what they eat.
Trunk - The central support rod giving the tree its strength and long shape.
Also called a bole.
Turbidimeter - The instrument used to measure turbidity.
Turbidity - The amount of suspended matter in a water body. The measure of
how cloudy or clear water is.
Understory - The next layer down from the canopy of a forest. Also called a
sub-canopy.
Velocity - The measurement of how fast something is traveling, i.e. - water.
Xylem- Living xylem moves water and nutrients from the roots up to the top
of the tree and branches to the leaves. Also called sapwood.
Glos 7
Aquatic Insects of North America by Merrit and Cummins.
Bird: Eyewitness Books by David Burnie. Alfred A. Knopf. New York. 1988.
Cascade Olympic Natural History: A Trailside Reference by Daniel Mathews. Raven Editions.
1994.
Discover Wetlands: A Curriculum Guide by Brian Lynn. Washington State Department of Ecology.
1988.
Elements of Ecology. Smith, Addison, Wesley, Longman, Inc. 1998.
Environmental Science, 3rd Edition by DuBay, Lapinski, Schoch & Tweed. Addison Wesley Longman,
Inc. 1999.
Eyewitness Science : Ecology by Steve Pollock. A Dorling Kindersley Book. New York. 1993.
Guide to Marine Coastal Plankton by DeBoyd L. Smith. West Coast Plankton Studies. 1971.
Hands-On Nature: Information and Activities for Exploring the Environment with Children edit-
ed by Jenepher Lingelbach. Vermont Institute of Natural Science, Woodstock, Vermont. 1986.
Holt Environmental Science by Karen Arms. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Austin. 2000.
LaMotte Soil Handbook, LaMotte Co., Chestertown, MD. 1985.
Lichen.comby Stephen and Sylvia Sharnoff.
Macrolichens of the Pacific Northwest by Bruce McCune and Linda Geiser. Oregon State
University Press. Corvallis. 1997.
Monitoring Guidelines to Evaluate Effects of Forestry Activities on Streams in the Pacific
Northwest and Alaska by the Environmental Protection Agency. Seattle. 1991.
Plants of the Pacific Northwest Coast by Pojar & Mackinnon. Lone Pine Publishing. 1994.
Practical Entomologist: An Introductory Guide to Observing and Understanding the World of
Insects by Rick Imes. A Fireside Book. Simon & Schuster, Inc. New York. 1992.
Project Learning Tree, Pre K-8 Activity Guide. American Forest Foundation. 1996.
Secret Forest Experience: A Middle School Curriculum Guide by Forest Service Employees for
Environmental Ethics. Eugene, OR. 1999.
Streamkeepers Field Guide: Watershed Inventory and Stream Monitoring Methods by Tom
Murdoch and Martha Cheo with Kate OLaughlin. Adopt-A-Stream Foundation, Evcerett, WA1996.
Tom Browns Field Guide to Nature Observation and Tracking by Tom Brown, Jr. with Brandt
Morgan. A Berkley Book. New York. 1983.
Topsoil Tour by the LaMotte Company. LaMotte Company. 1993.
Trees Are Terrific! by National Wildlife Federation. McGraw-Hill. New York. 1989.
Wow! The Wonders of Wetlands: An Educators Guide by Britt Eckhardt Slattery. Environmental
Concern, Inc. and The Watercourse. 1995.
bibliography
Page BIB 1
Fires have burned across the earth for
millions of years and continue to do so
today. We have all seen tremendous images
of forest fires. Many of us have seen
wildfire first hand. These images can be
frightful. When reporting about fire, terms
like hazard, risk and catastrophic are
often used. However, from an ecologists
point of view, fire is an interesting and
complex agent of change. Fires are an
essential feature of forests in the Pacific
Northwest. They perform a variety of
functions and produce a range of effects.
Depending on the severity and frequency of
fire in a forest, it can dramatically or slightly
change ecosystems. Fires can simultane-
ously create or enhance habitat for one
organism- while destroying it for another.
Fire ecology is a branch of ecology that
focuses on the origins, cycles and effects of
wildland fire on ecosystems. A wildland fire
is defined as any fire burning in a natural
environment. A fire ecologist tries to
understand the relationships between fire,
living organisms and their habitat.
Fire Ecology
Historically, the vast majority of the
forests in the western United States
were fire-dependent ecosystems. Fire
molded the forests.
Stephen Arno,
Research Forester-Fire Ecologist
Of all known planets, only
Earth has the
ingredients essential for
fire: oxygen, plants to
grow fuel, and lightening
to ignite the two into
flames.
Some scientists
estimate that,
before the arrival of
Europeans, 100
million acres of the
North American
continent burned
annually.
from OFRI
Fire 1
Fire Ecology Concepts
There are three main concepts that
provide the basis for fire ecology:
1) FIRE HISTORY. Fire history is the study
of how often fire occurs in a geographic area.
Trees provide a historical record through a system
of growth rings that develop on the trees each year.
When a fire strikes an area, growth rings will show scarring.
Fire scars are seen in a core sample of a tree (obtained using
a tool called an increment borer). The scars allow us to
determine when fires occurred in the past, and possibly their
intensity, seasonality and direction as well as other weather
pattern information in the area. Fire scars on the tree bark
can also determine the size and intensity of recent fires.
Soil can also provide clues of fire history of an area. For
example, ash layers in soil can show fire patterns. Additionally,
recent intense fires can leave soils hydrophobic, which means
the soil repels water. This is a result of a waxy substance that
comes from burned plant material, which condenses on soil
particles.
2) FIRE REGIME. Fire regime refers to patterns
and cycles of fire that occur over a period of
time. Determining forest fire regime requires
considering fire frequency, severity, intensity,
seasonality, pattern and extent. Fire severity
refers to ecological impact. Fire intensity
refers to fire behavior. For example, there can
be a high intensity fire (high burn scars, fire into
tree crowns), but low severity in terms of its
impact on parts of the ecosystem, like soil.
Nearly half of the Upper Deschutes Basin can
be characterized has having a frequent fire
regime, where periodic fires burn every 0-35
years. Oregons Coast Range, has a fire regime
of every 30-100+ years. In much of the wet
Olympic Peninsula in NW Washington, the fire
regime is every 200+ years.
Tree core sample
Fire 2
3) FIRE ADAPTATIONS. Plants and animals develop special traits to help
them survive- and even thrive, in fire prone environments.
PLANTS. Plants highly adapted to fire are called
pyrophytes (fire loving). For example, many Pacific
Northwest trees, like Ponderosa Pine, have thick bark to
insulate them from flames. Many plants protect their
buds with layers of foliage or by a thick cluster of
needles. Some plants even protect their buds by
producing them within the main stem and roots, which
sprout following fire. Some trees, like lodgepole pine,
have serotinous (pronounced sir-OT-in-ous) cones that
require intense heat, like that from fire, to open and
allow seeds to be released.
There are species of plants that rely on fire to make the environment
more hospitable for regeneration and growth. Fire assists critical natural
processes by breaking down organic matter into soil nutrients. Soil,
rejuvenated with nitrogen from ash, provides a fertile seedbed for plants.
With less competition and more sunlight certain seedlings, such as
Douglas fir, grow quickly.
Lodge pole pine cones
are serotinous.
TRAIT FUNCTION
EXAMPLE
Thick Bark Protects cambial tissues from heat
damage
Ponderosa pine, coast redwood,
western larch, Douglas fir
Resprouting Regrowth from dormant buds protected
by bark on branches and stems
Rose, Oregon ash, true oaks, tanoak,
coast redwood
Protected buds from
dense leaf bases
Protects buds from heat-induced death Sword fern, Idaho fescue, bluebunch
wheatgrass
Adaptations of Pacific Northwest Vegetation to Fire (Kauffman 1990)
Adaptations that help the survival of the INDIVIDUAL
TRAIT FUNCTION
EXAMPLE
Dormant seed buried
in soil
Dormant seeds with capacity to survive
many decades until cracked by fire
Manzanita, snow brush, lupine
Fire-stimulated
flowering
Increased reproductive effort in years
following fire
Rose, Oregon ash, true oaks, tanoak,
coast redwood
Protected buds from
dense leaf bases
Protects buds from heat-induced death Sword fern, Idaho fescue, bluebunch
wheatgrass
Windborne seeds Early deposition on post-fire soils Fireweed, woodland groundsel
Adaptations that help the survival of the SPECIES
Fire 3
ANIMALS. During a fire, most animals adapt by
either fleeing or, in the case of burrowing
animals, moving deeper underground. Even so,
many wildlife species benefit from fire. Light or
moderately burned areas are reestablished by
herbaceous plants, shrubs and seedlings. These
environments provide an environment for many
small mammals and birds, such as voles and
sparrows. The abundance of small prey
attracts predators like foxes, hawks, and
weasels. Burned trees provide sites for cavity
nesting birds like flickers, and chickadees, while
woodpeckers thrive on the insects that inhabit
fire-killed trees.
Fire and Insects
During or immediately following a fire, firefighters
often report swarming insects. Collectively
termed fire bugs, these insects are most often
some type of wood borer. The most common
wood borers are longhorned beetles, metallic
wood boring beetles, and wood wasps (also called
horntails). Wood borers follow smoke to
recently-damaged or killed trees to reproduce in.
Borer larvae feed within the tree. Ecologically,
they are instrumental in beginning the breakdown
processes that prepare nutrients for reuse by
new plants.
Eggs laid by wood borers right after a fire develop inside the damaged
trees, and the larvae emerge one to several years later. Wood borer larva
will only attack highly stressed trees or wood pieces with bark still
attached. Large, white, segmented wood borer larvae are responsible for
munching sounds often reported by visitors to burned areas or by owners
of salvaged logs and firewood. Sometimes noise of scraping on wood
under the bark can be heard up to several yards away! In addition to these
telltale sounds, wood borer activity may produce a fine whitish, powdered
or granular, boring dust that accumulates in bark crevices and at the tree
base.
Whitespotted Sawyer
Long-Horned Beetle
Fire 4
Egg------------->Larvae------->Pupa------> Adult
Adult & larval stages are the longest in duration
& are encountered most frequently
Bark beetles attack and kill trees usually within the
first season and, more or less, at the same time as
wood borers. These beetles, including engraver
beetles, Douglas-fir beetles, red turpentine beetles,
and mountain pine beetles, can kill trees that other-
wise would not have died from the fire affects alone. It
is also possible for bark beetles to accumulate in
burned trees and spread to nearby healthy trees. The
presence of these insects is determined by a brown
boring dust, called frass, located at the base of the
tree or masses of resin (pitch tubes) on the trunk.
Beetle galleries on the underside of the bark provide
evidence that bark beetles were present (see page 6).
Reading the Lines Under the Bark: Beetle Galleries
The most common insects in the dark world under tree bark are bark
beetles. Most bark beetles live and reproduce in stressed, weakened or
dead trees - especially after a fire. Most feed and reproduce in a single
species of tree, called the host. These beetles leave behind ample evidence
of their activities. To determine the identity of the barks inhabitants,
youll need to do some detective work.
The first bark beetles to enter to a tree are called pioneer beetles. For
some species, the females are the pioneers. Only one male generally joins
each female. For other species, the male is the pioneer. In these species,
two to five females join each male. Once a pioneer beetle has found a
suitable host tree, it bores in and begins to release chemical attractants
called pheromones that attract both males and females. Each pioneer
beetle enters the tree through a small, round entrance hole that it bores
through the bark. Once inside the tree, mating occurs in a mating or
nuptial chamber, and the females chew through the inner bark making long
tunnels called galleries. Females construct their egg galleries in the inner
bark tissue of the tree. The inner bark, or phloem, is a think layer of soft
and nutritious tissue that is sandwiched between the outer bark and the
hard sapwood. These bark beetle galleries are often so characteristic of
species that it is possible to identify the bark beetle without seeing the
beetles themselves.
Bark Beetle
Life Stages of Bark Beetle
From: Field Guide To Bark Beetles of Idaho
by Malcom Furniss & James Johnson
Fire 5
Fire & Fungi
Many fungi flourish after wildfires. Decay fungi quickly colonize
fire-killed trees, entering through wounds directly induced by
fire or created by wood borers. The spore-producing bodies
(conks) of these fungi are woody projections that look like
shelves attached to the trunk of a tree. Mushrooms or
conks, found on the bark of a standing snag or downed log,
indicates rotten wood for one to several feet above and below
it.
Wildfires in pine forests can stimulate the emergence of pine
fire fungus. This fungus forms irregular, oval-like, brown fruiting
bodies on the charred soil. Although abundant, it may not be
very easy to see. The pine fire fungus helps process the duff
and upper soil layers, but it also causes a root disease of
conifer seedlings trying to grow the next forest.
After mating, females begin excavating egg galleries. In most species, the
females cut tiny egg niches long the sides of the egg galleries as they
proceed. The eggs are placed individually in the specially prepared niches
that the parent female constructs by chewing. After laying a single egg in
each niche, the female covers the egg with a mixture of frass and adhesive
secretions. Eggs are laid along the length of the egg gallery and usually
require an incubation period of one or more weeks before larvae hatch.
After hatching, larvae generally mine individual feeding galleries. Initially,
the larval galleries are very tiny, but get wider as the larvae molt and grow.
The larvae then construct pupa chambers in the bark. After pupation, new
adults emerge.
To look for beetle galleries, search for weakened, stressed or dead trees
with small entrance or exit beetle holes. Pry up the bark and examine
the galleries underneath. As you read the lines under the bark, a story
unfolds about the life the fascinating creatures that make their home
there. The more you explore, the more the mystery unravels, revealing the
identities of the species, their habitats, and interactions.
Fir Engraver Beetle Gallery
Pupa Chamber
Larval Gallery
Egg Gallery
Nuptial Chamber
Fire 6
Climate Change and Fire
Recent computer models show that
the Western United States will have
wetter winters, warmer summers and
an overall warmer climate throughout
the 21st Century. A warmer climate
leads researchers to believe there will
be a woody expansion in the West, the
spread of juniper trees into grasslands
and increased understory growth in
forests. Many scientists believe that
an increase in vegetation density in
forests, combined with hot summers,
will lead to an increase in the number of
wildland fires.
MORE FIRE FACTS
Humans start approxi-
mately 90 percent of wild-
land fires in the U.S. Most
times, they are accidental.
Lightning and lava start
the remaining 10 percent
of wildland fires. (National
Park Service)
In Oregon, there are over
240,000 homes and
other structures that lie
within the wildland-urban
interface areas. (Stephen
A. Fitzgerald, OSU).
In August-September
2003, the Booth and Bear
Butte Fires (known as the
B & B Complex Fire) near
Sisters burned 91,915
acres (about 144 square
miles).
Fires burn faster up
hillsides than they do on
flat ground. The heat rising
from the flames pre-heats
the grasses, shrubs or
trees on the upslope. Like
sheets of paper, grasses
burn quickly, at a rate of up
to several miles per hour
under extreme conditions.
Fire 7
The Legacy of Human-Caused Fire in America
Throughout human history people have purposely set fire to the land. It is
a myth that Europeans came to an untouched wilderness when they
arrived in North America. Forests and prairies were to a significant
extent the creation of native peoples. Accounts by early trappers and
settlers in Oregon described widespread use of fire, especially in the
Willamette Valley. In 1826, as botanist David Douglas traveled through
the southern Willamette Valley noted in his journals, the entire area was
all burned and not a single blade of grass except on the margins of
rivulets to be seen.
Native Americans greatly altered and changed ecosystems. Fire was the
most powerful tool they had to create diverse landscapes capable of
sustaining thriving, growing societies. Burning season varied by region,
but fires tended to be set when conditions permitted controllable, low-
intensity burns, often in late summer or early fall. Wherever they burned,
they usually did so at regular intervals of up to five years.
Native Americans generally burned parts of ecosystems to promote
habitat diversity. The result was a mosaic of forests and grasslands
that maintained a variety of habitats and gave them food security and
resource stability. By contrast, European settlers used fire to
promote large-scale ecosystem uniformity, especially when it came to
crop production and pasturelands.
It has been documented that Native Americans burned the landscape for
at least seventy different reasons. The following highlights eight motives
for changing ecosystems through fire.
IMPROVE HUNTING. Fires were used to channel deer, elk, rabbits and
bison into small areas for easier hunting. The Seminoles (in present day
Florida) even used fire to hunt alligators. Some Indians used torches to
spot deer and attract fish for spearing or netting. Some used smoke to
dislodge raccoons and bears from tree cavities. In forests and brush-
lands, burning improved visibility for hunting.
MANAGE CROPS & GATHER FOOD. Fire was used to facilitate harvest
and improve crop yields (especially seeds and berries), clear areas for
planting, such crops as corn and tobacco, and obtain
minerals such as salt from grasses.
CONTROL PESTS. Burning was sometimes used to reduce pest popula-
tions, including rodents, poisonous snakes, and insects such as black flies
and mosquitoes.
MANAGE RANGES. Fire was often used to keep prairies and meadows
open from encroaching shrubs and trees, and to improve browse for deer,
elk, antelope, bison, horses, and waterfowl.
Fire 8
FIRE PROOFING. Some tribes used fire to clear vegetation from areas
around settlements and near special medicinal plants to protect them
from wildland fires.
WARFARE & SIGNALING. Fire was used to deprive the enemy of hiding
places in tall grass and underbrush, to destroy enemy property, and to
camouflage an escape. Large fires were ignited to signal enemy move-
ments and to gather forces for combat.
ECONOMICS. Some tribes burned large areas to prevent settlers and fur
traders from finding big game, therefore profiting from supplying them
with pemmican and jerky.
TREE FELLING. Native Americans used fire in different ways to fell trees.
One method was to bore two intersecting holes into the trunk, and drop
burning charcoal into one hole and allow the smoke to exit from the other.
Another method was to surround the base of the tree with fire, thereby
girdling the tree and eventually killing it.
Fire Management
Fire managers are interested in the potential of fire in wildland areas. To
rate an areas fire potential, fire managers take many factors into
consideration, including:
REGIME
Fire patterns &
cycles for the area
DENSITY
Concentration or thickness
of forest vegetation
MOISTURE
Plant &/or soil moisture levels
TOPOGRAPHY
The lay of the land
BUGS/
CRUD
Insect affects
& plant diseases
WEATHER/
CLIMATE
Current conditions
FUEL
Build up of biomass
Fire 9
Today, fire managers can access internet based fire
information such as the Wildland Fire Assessment
System (www.wfas.net). This system provides a national
view of weather and fire potential, including national fire
danger and weather maps, and satellite derived
"Greenness" maps.
There is also Fire Regime Condition Class (FRCC) (www.frcc.gov), which is
an interagency, standardized tool for determining the degree of
departure from reference condition vegetation, fuels and disturbance
regimes. Assessing FRCC can help guide management objectives and set
priorities for treatments.
Fire Management Terms
When discussing fire management, it is important to become familiar with
the following frequently used terms.
WILDLAND URBAN INTERFACE. The wildland urban interface describes
areas where residences are closely built to wildland areas where wildfires
naturally occur, such as forests and rangelands. People living in these
areas must take preventative measures to protect their property from
wildfire. For example, it is recommended that people living in a wildland
urban interface create 30-foot defensible zones around their houses, use
fire resistant landscaping (called firescaping), and non-combustible build-
ing materials.
PRESCRIBED FIRE. Forest managers sometimes treat forests with
prescribed or intentional fires (also called controlled burns). Intentional
fires are used in areas with a build up of forest materials and a potential
for severe wildfires. Prescribed fires are set under specified conditions
that confine the fire to a predetermined area and produce fire behavior
and characteristics required to attain planned fire treatment and
resource management objectives. Prescribed fire is often used to treat
areas adjacent to wildland-urban interface. WILDLAND FIRE USE.
Wildland Fire Use (WFU) is the management of naturally started fires to
achieve resource benefits, in areas where fire is a major component of the
ecosystem. Especially in wilderness areas, allowing fire to burn and play
its natural role, enhances many resource values, like wildlife habitat.
Fire 10
FIRE SUPPRESSION. Following the European settlement of the western
U.S., fire was considered a destructive force. This view resulted in policies
and funding to support fire suppression efforts (putting out all fires) to
protect forests and watersheds from the devastating effects of
wildfire and the loss of timber revenues.
Many believe that altering the fire has changed our Pacific Northwest
forests. In addition, the removal of large, fire-resistant trees and the
increase of fuels and tree density with the lack of fire over the last
century are at risk for high severity fires. The absence of fire has allowed
natural plant succession to proceed changing wildlife habitat in many
areas.
FIRE TRIANGLE. Fire is a chemical reaction that
requires the presence of three essential elements: FUEL
(carbon) something that will burn (such as grasses,
needles, leaves, brush and trees etc.), HEAT enough to
start and make the fuel burn, and OXYGEN. Usually,
these three elements are expressed as a triangle, called
the FIRE TRIANGLE. Remove one of these three
elements and the fire will go out.
FIRE BEHAVIOR. Success in planning and suppressing
wildfires is directly related to how well Fire Managers
understand and predict fire behavior. The safety of all fire
fighting personnel also depends on this knowledge.
Fire Behavior is defined as: the manner in which fuel
ignites, flame develops, and fire spreads as determined by
the interaction of FUEL, WEATHER, and TOPOGRAPHY.
What makes some wildfires burn so hot and others not? What makes
fires spread fast one day and slow on another day? A wildfire behaves
according to the environment in which it is burning. This environment
consists of various elements of fuels, topography and weather. These
elements and their relationships with one another determine the behavior
of fire.
There are many elements that affect how a fire behaves. A change in any
one of these elements will cause a change in the behavior of the fire-- this
change can be very abrupt and rapid.
Fire 11
Wind can push a fire along; fires also
create their own wind currents. Low
relative humidity can dry out fuels causing
them to ignite more easily. Precipitation
can put out a fire and conversely a lack of
precipitation allows fuels to dry out.
A fire moves more rapidly up hill because
flames are tilted toward the slope and more
efficiently dries out the oncoming fuel.
The dryer and lighter the fuels the more
easily they will ignite. A continuous layer of
fuels on the forest floor can aid in the
spread of a fire. Fuels on the surface and
small trees and shrubs can act like a
ladder and allow fire to move from the for-
est floor up into the crowns. This is known
as a "fuel ladder."
WEATHER
(Wind, Temperature, Humidity, Precipitation, etc.)
TOPOGRAPHY
(steep, flat, etc.)
FUELS
(light, heavy, arrangement, moisture, etc.)
Fire Behavior Triangle Elements:
Fire 12
FIRE ECOLOGY
IN THE FIELD
The following activities complement Wolftrees
field modules. They are designed to challenge
teams to focus on wildland fire. Within the fire
theme, a team may wish to focus on the fire
history/cycles of the site, or focus on the fire
potential of the site, or both. Nevertheless, all
teams should examine the relationship of fire
with organisms (including humans) and their
habits (adaptations, dependence, effects, etc.)
at the site.
Equipment:
Standard Field Gear
GRS Densiometers
DBH Tapes
Clinometers
Increment borers
Wind Meter
Sling Psychrometer
GPS Units
Digital Cameras
Soil Pit Protocols &
Materials
Photo series on
coarse woody debris
KEY FIRE QUESTIONS:
How have organisms and their habitats been
effected by fire/absence of fire?
How might organisms and their habitats be af-
fected by fire/absence of fire in the future?
What is the fire history of the site? What is
the fire cycle (or regime)?
What is the potential for wildfire at this site?
What might be some management strategies
for dealing a high or moderate potential for
wildfire?
If fire were to occur what would be its behavior?
Fire 13
Data Collection Methods & Techniques
FIRE HISTORY/REGIME
As your team travels through the site look for SIGNS OF FIRE, which may
lead to determining the fire history/regime of the area.
Look for and document evidence of:
FIRE SCARS on trees (often called cat faces because of their
triangle shape)
BURN SCARS on the landscape
LIGHTENING STRIKES on trees
CHARCOAL on the ground.
Also look for PATTERNS on the landscape that could have
been caused by a FIRE DISTURBANCE such as:
OPEN AREAS,
NUMEROUS SNAGS,
MULTIAGE STANDS,
LACK OF MOSS OR LICHEN, AND
FIRE PLANTS (i.e. fire weed or
bracken fern)
Looking at FIRE EVIDENCE, try to determine the ORIGIN of the fire:
NATURAL,
PRESCRIBED,
LOGGING SLASH BURN,
CAMPFIRE,
LIGHTENING, or
OTHER
Use your GPS, maps and aerial photos to MAP where
significant SIGNS of fire exist.
If you have a camera, PHOTOGRAPH evidence and/or
patterns of fire.
Fire 14
For recent signs of fire, try to determine the fires BEHAVIOR and
INTENSITY:
Measure the height of the BURN SCARS;
Determine the INTENSITY of the fire by
determining the percentage (if any) of trees
experienced CROWNING (fire that climbed up
the tree and into the crown)
Determine the SEVERITY by determining the approximate per
centage of SOIL that was fried by the fire. Sprinkle water on the
top layer of soil to determine hydrophobicity.
Use an increment borer to extract
TREE CORE SAMPLES to determine fire
cycles of the area. Look for burn scars
and determine when fires occurred in the
area and fire patterns or cycles.
Additionally, look for slow growth rates,
which could be due to fire disturbance.
Locate or dig a SOIL PIT. Examine soil
horizons looking for ash layers. Again
look for patterns of fire to determine
the fire regime for the area. Is there a
large amount of duff layer or leaf litter
build up?
Collect samples of INSECTS and search for INSECT SIGNS.
Finding insects or insect signs for wood borers, bark beetles and
carpenter ants can provide some clues as to how long it has been
since the last fire. Insect signs could be small holes in the bark,
frass at the base of the tree, or pitch tubes.
Use field guides to determine the species of trees
and plants in the area. Are they ADAPTED TO FIRE?
Do any of the trees have serotinous cones, like lodge-
pole pine?
Fire 15
FIRE POTENTIAL
To determine the fire potential for a given area, investigate the following
elements of the forest:
VEGETATION BIOMASS/DENSITY
INSECTS AND PATHOGENS
MOISTURE LEVELS (SOIL, PLANTS, ETC.)
TOPOGRAPHY
MICROCLIMATE
After each investigation, determine if the evidence leads you to believe
there is an increase in fire potential. When all investigations are complete,
determine if there is a high, moderate or low chance of fire potential.
DETERMINE VEGETATION BIOMASS/DENSITY
(Amount, type and density of vegetation contained within a given area)
Count # of trees.
Use a densiometer to determine % crown
cover.
Use a DBH tape to determine diameters
of trees.
Use tape measure to determine the average distance between
trees.
Use tree field guides to determine the species of trees.
Are they adapted to fire?
Or are they intolerant to fire (easily killed by it)?
(Evidence of pitch could help determine if trees are intolerant)
Do any have serotinous cones, like lodge pole?
Use photo series to estimate the % of downed dead wood (coarse
woody debris).
Use plant field guides to determine the species of dominant
shrubs/plants/grasses. Are they adapted to fire? If so, how?
Examine the duff layer for percentage of rotting branches, leaves
& needles.
Option: Measure distances from ground to lowest branch.
Fire 16
SEARCH FOR EVIDENCE OF INSECTS &/OR PATHOGENS (BUGS &
CRUD) Does the insect/pathogen evidence lead you to believe they are
increasing the potential for fire?
Collect samples of beetle galleries, grubs, etc. .
The presence of bark beetles is indicated by a brown boring dust
located at the base of the tree or masses of resin (pitch tubes) on
the trunk.
Look for parasites like mistletoe.
Look for tree fungi.
DETERMINE THE MOISTURE CONTENT OF THE SOIL, PLANTS, LICHENS.
Does evidence suggest that they are dry enough to increase fire
potential? Do twigs bend or break?
DETERMINE TOPOGRAPHY. How might the topography effect fire
behavior?
Slope (clinometer)
Nearby water
Aspect
DETERMINE MICROCLIMATE. If there were a fire
today, how would the microclimate effect fire
behavior?
Determine the direction and speed of the wind
(wind meter).
Determine the humidity (sling psychrometer)
Determine the temperature (thermometer).
If equipment is available, GPS AND PHOTOGRAPH THE PLOT.
CONCLUSION: Based on the information you gathered, what is the fire
potential for this area? What can that tell you about plants, lichens, etc?
Fire 17
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Entomology Notes: Bark Beetles by Therese Poland & Robert Haack,
Michigan Entomological Society, December 1998.
Field Guide to Bark Beetles of Idaho by Malcolm Furniss & James Johnson,
University of Idaho, 2002.
Fire in Oregon Forests, Oregon Forest Resources Institute, 2002.
Western Forests, Fire Risk, & Climate Change, Science Update, PNW Re-
search Station, US Forest Service, Jan. 2004.
Insects and Diseases Associated with Forest Fires by D. Lathernam, Col-
orado State University, Dec. 2002.
Living with Fire - The Science of Fire, US Forest Service
Wildland Fire An American Legacy, Fire Management Volume 60, No. 3, US
Forest Service, Summer 2000.
Fire in Oregons Forests: Risks, Effects, and Treatment Options by
Stephen A. Fitzgerald, Extension Forestry Program, Oregon State Univer-
sity, Oregon Forest Resources Institute, Oct. 2002.
REVIEWERS:
Sandra Ackley, Biologist, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bend Field Office
Geoff Babb, Fire Ecologist, Central Oregon Fire Management Service, US
Forest Service/BLM
Mike Cloughesy, Director of Forestry, Oregon Forest Resources Institute
Stephen Fitzgerald, Extension Forester & Associate Professor, Oregon
State University Extension Forestry Program, Central Oregon Region
Kelly Pohl, Researcher, The Fire Initiative, The Nature Conservancy
Julie Woodward, Rediscovery Forest Education Specialist, Oregon Forest
Resources Institute
Fire 18
Fungal
Ecology
Why Study Fungi?
Mushrooms, molds, yeastsall of
these organisms fall into a single
kingdom: fungi (= plural, "fungus" =
singular). While fungi are considered
beautiful to many, they are feared by
some and a mystery to others. No
matter what people think of fungi,
theres little argument about how
fascinating they are. In addition to
being intriguing objects of study,
fungi play important roles in
ecosystems. They also offer many
amazing insights into how our
ecosystems work.
A person that makes a career out of
studying fungi is called a mycologist,
and the study of fungi is called
mycology.
Ecosystems would collapse
without fungi...
--Dr. Neil Campbell,
University of California
Field 1
FUN FUNGI FACTS
Approximately 80,000
species of fungi have been
identified. However, it is
estimated that there are
approximately 1.5 million
species of fungi on the
planet. This means that
over 90% of all fungi have
yet to be documented!
The largest known
organism on earth is the
fungus Armillaria ostoyae
found in the Blue Mts. of
NE Oregon. The body of
this individual covers over
2,300 acres and is at
least 1,900 years old.
A giant puffball
mushroom produces
about seven
trillion spores!
Out of the several
thousand different kinds
of wild mushrooms in
North America, only six
are known to be deadly.
fungi consumers
D
R
A
F
T
FUNGAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Fungi are not plants or animals. Plants are able to produce their own
food. Plants have chlorophyll, which gives them their green color and
allows them to convert light energy into sugar (a process called photo-
synthesis). Ulike plants, animals and fungi do not have chlorophyll and
must rely upon digesting other organisms to obtain energy and
nutrients. While animals typically eat food and digest it internally, fungi
have external digestion! They literally grow through their food, by
secreting enzymes outside of their cells and absorbing the broken down
products. Fungi are able to do this because of their thread-like growth
form. Fungal cells grow as extremely thin threads, called hyphae (from
the Greek word for web), that form a branched network, or a mycelium.
The mycelium is really the body of the fungus and is its feeding net-
work. The mycelium can be huge, although they usually escape our
notice--because they are underground. Fungi cannot move like animals in
search of food or mates, but the mycelium can grow swiftly to extend
into new areas to absorb nutrients.
What is a Mushroom?
A mushroom is the reproductive part of a fungus, just like an apple on an
apple tree. An apple is the reproductive part of the tree that appears in
the spring and contains seeds. Those seeds are dispersed and planted,
and the tree has offspring. Similarly, a mushroom is the reproductive
part of the fungus. It appears, usually after it has rained and contains
seed-like structures called spores. The spores are dispersed and planted
and produce more fungus.
The mushroom, also called a sporocarp, is often the only visible part of a
fungus above ground. The much larger organism body is concealed in the
soil, wood or other material (substrate).
Field 2
reproductive structure
hyphae
mycelium
spore
Habitats and Reproduction
Fungi have adapted to almost every
environment where organic material and
moisture are available. They flourish in
forests, grasslands, and other areas
where dead wood and leaves are abundant.
Some species of fungi live in deserts.
Others live high atop mountains. Certain
marine fungi live on the remains of dead
bacteria and plankton trapped in polar
icecaps.
Fungi are able to reach these diverse
environments by means of spores. A
single mushroom may produce millions or
even trillions of spores at a time (Think of
spores as tiny seeds). Wind, water,
animals, insects, and birds spread the
spores.
Put simply, spores begin to grow
(germinate) if they land in a moist place
where there is an appropriate substrate
or surface, like wood.
Field 3
mature
mushroom
spores
spore
germination
mycelium
mushroom
early growth
Spore Dispersal Strategies
Fungi, like plants, are immobile, and depend on
many means to disperse their spores. Many
plants depend upon wind to disperse their
seeds over long distances. The spores of fungi
are smaller and lighter than all plant seeds, but
they encounter more barriers than seeds do for
successful dispersal. A major problem is that
many fungi do not grow tall enough to clear the
boundary layer of still air next to the ground.
Most plants grow through the boundary layer.
Fungi have adapted to the problem by either
shooting their spores above the still air, or by
using animals or water instead.
life cycle of a mushroom
early morel mushroom
Active dispersal occurs when the mushroom has a
special mechanism that EJECTS or PROPELS the
spores when they reach maturity. The spores then
use the wind to carry them great distances. We
will call this an ACTIVE WIND dispersal strategy.
Some mushrooms, like cup fungi, use a bursting cell
to shoot spores through the boundary layer. In
Pilobus fungi, a sticky cell mass containing many
spores is propelled through the air. The spore
mass ejects away from the fungus at 35 feet per
second to a height of six feet, and lands as far
away as eight feet!!
PASSIVE MECHANISMS for dispersal include WIND, WATER & ANIMALS.
Fungi that rely on wind for spore dispersal, like giant puffballs, must
produce trillions of spores to increase their chances of landing on an
appropriate substrate and producing more fungi. Other fungi disperse
their spores on the surface of water or by drops of water. Some spores
have a chemical composition that makes them float. They can be carried
along the surface of the water like rafts. Other spores are dispersed by
raindrops, in an entirely different way. For example, a raindrop depresses
a sack containing spores in leathery puffballs. The inelastic spore sack
acts like a bellows, and when the sack rebounds, the spores are puffed
out. Birds nest fungi produce spore-containing eggs in a splash cup.
When raindrops hit the cup, its shape causes the spores to be splashed
out and away from it.
Truffles are an example of fungi dispersal by
animals. Truffles are produced below the ground,
so they have to be unearthed to be
dispersed. As truffle spores mature, they develop
an aroma which attracts animals that dig up the
truffles for food. The spores are not digested but
eventually pass through animal at some distance
from where the truffle was dug up. Similarly,
Stinkhorn Fungi spores are
contained in a slime that smells like rotten meat.
The odor attracts flies, which become coated with
the spore-containing slime as they feed on it and
carry away the spores.
active
dispersal images
Field 4
giant puffball dispersal
How fungi shape the forest
DECOMPOSERS (SAPROPHYTES) - Saprophitic fungi
are decomposers, or recyclers, that live on
dead organic material from plants, animals, and
other fungi. The air is so loaded with fungal
spores that as soon as a leaf falls or an insect
dies, it is covered with spores and is eventually
swarmed by fungi. In the forest, fungi play a
larger role in decomposition than any other
type of organism. Decomposer fungi replenish
the soil by breaking down complex organic
matter (wood, dung, humus, etc.) into simpler,
reusable raw materials for new generations of
life. Imagine what would become of a forest if
its decomposers (the FBI - fungi, bacteria and
insects) rested. Leaves, logs, feces, and dead
animals would pile up on the forest floor and soil
would become devoid of nutrients.
MYCORRHIZAL - The word mycorrhizae means fungus roots.
Mycorrihizal fungi grow amongst the roots of plants and
exchange nutrients with the plants. Plants give the fungus
sugars, while the fungus provides water and nutrients. This is
an example of mutualism- where two different organisms
benefit one another. Some plants cannot grow without their
mycorrhizal fungi and many mycorrhizal fungi cannot grow
without plants. Scientists suspect that up to 90% of all
land plants are mycorrhizal in all types of ecosystems;
becoming mutualistic with fungi can make the difference
between a successful and an unsuccessful plant.
PARASITES (NECROTROPHS) AND PATHOGENS- Some fungi gain their
nutrition from consuming living organisms. This feeding
strategy is called parasitism. Parasitic fungi or fungal
pathogens in forests often attack weak and/or suppressed
trees. This creates what we call a disease. A disease is
when there is sustained damage to a plant over time.
Lightening strikes, fire, or insect damage would NOT be
considered disease because they occur in a short amount of
time. However, a parasite or pathogen that continually
causes damage to the tree IS considered a disease. There are
two types of tree parasites. One type is when fungi can
spend time as a saprophyte on dead material, but can also
infect living trees. The other is an obligate parasite such as
white pine blister rust where the fungus requires a living host
to sustain itself. There are hundreds of native fungi in our
forests.
IMAGE OF
SHELF FUNGUS
Field 5
Field 6
How Fungi Affect us
SOME FUNGI
Are a source of food for people and animals all
around the world. In Oregon, the annual commercial
mushroom harvest is a multi-million dollar industry.
In Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, more than 25
species of commercially valuable mushroom species
have been identified.
Are used for fermentation (bread, alcohol, cheese,
soy sauce, etc.).
Can spoil our food and produce mycotoxins (mush-
room toxins).
Cause crop diseases such as potato blight, a
plant disease that led to massive Irish immigration
to the United States in the 1840's.
Cause opportunistic diseases in people (they
attack only when the immune system is
depressed).
Produce chemicals that are used as medicine
(most antibiotics come from fungi, including peni-
cillin).
fungi & biodiversity
Nearly all forest mammals - from the smallest
mice and squirrels to large elk, deer and bear --
eat fungi, including both truffles and mush-
rooms. Critters like the northern flying squirrel
(the main prey for the northern spotted owl)
depend heavily on eating truffle fungi for most
of their diet through out the year. So, for
endangered owls to survive they need healthy
squirrel populations which in turn need healthy
fungal truffle populations -- and the fungi need
healthy trees. When you talk about maintaining
forest biodiversity, everything is tied together.
Even in the soil, the majority of microscopic insects eat fungi mycelium
(the fugus body). These mycelium play important roles in maintaining
healthy soil. Not only do they feed these important soil insects, which
contribute to soil fertility, but they also keep the organic nutrients in
the soil by preventing leaching or loss. Furthermore, mycelium plays a big
role in strcturing soil particles to create pores and aerate the soil.
Fungal Humor:
Why did the
mushroom get
invited to the
party?
Because hes
a fungi!
(get it? - fun guy)
MORE FUN
FUNGI FACTS
After Mt. St.
Helens erupted in
1980, fungi were
among the first
organisms to
recolonize the
volcano.
If you laid out the
fungal hyphae
associated with the
roots of a single
tree, they would
encircle the world
several times.
Mushroom Identification
weather and seasonal factors
Fungi only produce mushrooms when conditions are
right. Mushrooms need moisture to develop. When
mushrooms are first formed, they are very small
versions of their mature selves. When rain falls, the
fungal cells swell up with water, and the mushroom
pops above ground. This usually means that 3-7
days of rain are needed before you will find
mushrooms. In every region around the world there
is a mushroom season when most of the mush-
rooms appear. The peak season in the Pacific
Northwest is September to November. In many
areas, especially those with a snowpack during the
winter, a smaller crop of mushrooms appear in the
spring.
Diversity
Mushrooms come in many colors, from white to red to
blue to black. Some mushrooms have no odor, some
have delicious food odors, some smell sweet like
flowers or perfumes, and some smell extremely bad.
Many mushrooms are so small that we can only see
them with a microscope. Most of the ones you would
notice are several inches tall. The biggest mushrooms
can grow to be as big as a beach ball, and could weigh up
to 150 pounds. Mushrooms grow in a wide variety of
shapes. The following are some common descriptions
of those forms:
Cap and Stem
Stem Off-Center or Absent
Saddle Like Cap
Honeycomb-Like Cap
Bracketlike
Skin- or Crust-like
Club-Shaped
Phallus-Shaped
Antlerlike
Tough & Leathery
Field 7
Coral-like
Pear- to Pestle- Shaped
Cup- or Disk- Shaped
Cup-Shaped Containing Eggs
Trumpet Shaped
Star-Shaped
Earlike
Cagelike
Lobed and Gelatinous
Field 8
Parts of a typical gilled mushroom:
CAP: The top umbrella like fleshy structure of a mushroom.
GILLS: Radially arranged platelike structures on the undersides of
the caps. This is the fertile surface that bears spores for
reproduction.
STEM: The stalk that supports the cap and gills.
VEIL: The veil, if present, protects all or part of a young mushroom.
It is the tissue covering the young gills of certain fungi; as the cap
expands this tissue breaks and may leave remnants along the cap
margin or a ring on the stalk
RING: The remains of the partial veil on the stalk of certain
mushrooms
CUP: A cup surrounds the bottom of the stem.
CAP SCALES: Cap scales are pieces of developmental tissue
remaining on the cap of the mushroom.
indian paint fungus
Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium), also known as brown
stringy trunk rot, is a unique fungus commonly found on hemlock and true
fir tree species in the Pacific Northwest. The most obvious sign of this
rot are large (4 inches by 6-12 inches) conks, which develop on the trunks
of suppressed mature living trees, usually on the underside of branch
stubs. The conks are hard, woody and hoof-shaped, with grey teeth-like
structures on the underside and a roughly cracked black upper surface.
The inside of the conk is dark brick red and was used by certain Native
American tribes as a red dye.
Indian paint fungus causes the heartwood of the tree to decay. One conk
can indicate up to 20 feet of heartwood decay above and below the conk!
The heartwood in early stages of decay appear tan in color. As the decay
advances, the wood darkens to red or yellow brown. At the most
advanced stage of decay, the heartwood becomes a brown, stringy mass
that is often very wet.
Indian paint fungus can play an important role in forests. Since it causes
decay in the heartwood of living trees it creates a soft substrate for
organisms, like birds, to hallow out cavities or chambers for nesting,
roosting, resting, and denning. Decayed and hollow stems also provide
areas of weakness where stem breakage may occur. Stem breakage
contributes to the formation of canopy gaps, increasing structural
diversity, and adds decayed wood elements to the forest floor.
Indian paint fungus conk
Field 9
Field Materials :
standard field gear
wax paper bags
flat wicker baskets
trowels
hand lenses
densiometer
forceps
putty knife
Field guides:
All the Rain Promises
and More by David Arora
Mushrooms of Northwest
North America by Helene
Schalkwijk-Barendsen
Common Tree Diseases of
British Columbia by Allen,
Morrison, & Wallis.
If available:
GPS Unit
digital camera
lab Materials :
clear glass jars, glasses,
bowls for spore prints
black & white paper
knife
clear acrylic spray (to
preserve spore print)
microscope
Mushrooms Demystified
by David Arora
Field 10
FUNGAL Ecology
in the field
Guidelines for mushroom
collecting
Mycologists use flat wicker baskets for
collecting mushrooms. These provide plenty of
air to specimens, are easy to carry and give a
single layer of storage (unlike, say, a back-
pack), to avoid smashing mushrooms on the
bottom.
Waxed paper bags are used to hold, store
and preserve specimens as long as possible.
Do not store mushrooms in plastic.
Mushrooms are stored best in dry and cool
environments.
Because some fungal structures are under-
ground, the entire mushroom must be dug up.
Be sure to collect the entire mushroom by
digging into the soil under the mushroom, or
by cutting the mushroom out of wood.
Collections of different fungi species need to
be kept separate. Put them in their own bags.
When different species get mixed together,
identification can become difficult.
While touching mushrooms will not hurt you,
only experts will know whichare safe to eat.
There are a few mushrooms that are deadly if
eaten. Keep in mind that mushroom
identification can be very difficult, even for a
mycologist. Never "identify" a mushroom to
eat by simply matching it to a picture in a field
guide!
image of wicker
basket w/ bagged
shrooms
image of trowel
digging up a shroom
mushroom examination
Although hyphae are the main part of the fungus, they
are underground and can't easily be identified. However,
mushrooms can be identified. These reproductive
structures can give us the information we need to
identify fungal species. Identifying mushrooms gives
researchers information about which fungi are in an
area, and may help us to figure out what roles they play
in an ecosystem.
EXAMINE AND NOTE:
1. How the GILLS (if present) attach to the stem
2. How widely spaced the GILLS are
3. What the RING (if present) looks like (direction on stem, cobwebby,
solid, etc.)
4. SHAPE of the STEM (bulbous on bottom, same size all the way down,
etc.)
5. SHAPE of the CAP (bell-shaped, cone-shaped, flat, sunken)
6. TEXTURES of cap and stem (smooth, velvety, hairy, fibrous, scaly)
7. COLORS of different parts of the mushroom (cap, stem, gills, inside
mushroom)
8. The POSITION of the STEM (off to the side, in the middle of the cap,
etc.)
9. Mushrooms in different STAGES (try to get them from very small to
fully developed)
In addition to looking for the cap, gills, and stem, you may need to check
other features. Your field guide will let you know which characteristics
will help you distinguish each species (color, smell, shapes, spore color,
etc.).
Field 11
mushroom images
mushroom images
mushroom images
in the field data collection techniques
SKETCH each collected mushroom.
MEASURE the size of each collected mushroom
(see page FIELD ) and place measurements
alongside of sketches.
SMELL each collected mushroom and record the
odor (often a key identification feature).
RECORD each collected mushrooms:
SUBSTRATE or from where it grows (dead wood, live wood, under a tree,
soil, leaf litter, etc.).
FORM OF GROWTH (in clusters or singly)
HABITAT (nearby trees, plants, wildlife sign, characteristics of the soil,
etc.)
ROLE IN THE FOREST (What you think it might be doing - decomposer,
mycorhizal, or parasite).
IN THE FIELD, LOOK FOR:
The MYCELIUM or body of a fungus by turning over rotting logs and leaf
litter. Check for white, cottony, mats or strands of HYPHAE.
Examine the mycelium with a hand lens and/or microscope and try to
make out single strands of hyphae. Some hyphae even have a yellow
color.
PARASITIC MUSHROOMS by checking the bark of live standing
trees for shelf fungi. These are often the sporocarps of
parasitic fungi. Shelf fungi, such as Indian Paint, decay the heart
wood of trees.
Field 12
mushroom images
mushroom images
Back in the lab
MAKE SPORE PRINTS.
Fungi reproduce from spores. In mushrooms, spores are released from
gills or pores that form on the undersurface of the mushroom cap.
Spores are so tiny that theyre difficult to see with the unaided eye.
However, if you take a mushroom into a dark room and shine a light on it,
you can often see the falling spores reflecting light.
Another way of examining spores is by a
making a spore print. The color of spores
may also help you with the identification of
a mushroom. Here are the steps:
1. Cut off the stalk as close to the cap as
possible.
2. Place the cap (gills down) on a piece of
paper. If the gills are white, put the cap on
black paper. If the gills are colored, use
white paper.
3. To keep the spores from being swept
away by air currents, cover with a clear
glass bowl, or jar. However, place some-
thing, like a pencil, under the rim of the
cover to let a tiny amount of air in
(too much humidity under a cover may
slow down spore release).
4. Let the sample sit for as long as you can (overnight is best).
5. Lift up the mushroom cap and check for the color and pattern of the
spores deposited on the paper. Record this in your journal.
6. If you want to preserve your
spore print, spray with clear acrylic
spray.
EXAMINE SPORES USING A
MICROSCOPE
Microscopic details (I.e.- the size
of the spores, their shape, whether
they are smooth or patterned,
etc.) often help mycologists
decide what species a
mushroom is.
image of spore print in progress
Field 13
spore print
Field 14
protocols for taking mushroom Measurements
cap height
stem height
base width
stem width
cap diameter
bracket width
by depth
bracket
thickness
INQUIRING MINDS WANT
TO KNOW:
What roles do the different types of fungi
play in the forest?
How do fungi fit into the overall food web of
the ecosystem?
What adaptations do the mushrooms have
to survive in their habitat conditions?
How do fungi affect the insect and wildlife
species at the site?
Resources on
fungal Ecology
Field Guides:
All the Rain Promises and
More by David Arora
Common Tree Diseases of
British Columbia by Allen,
Morrison, & Wallis.
Mushrooms of Northwest
North America by Helene
Schalkwijk-Barendsen
A Field Guide to Western
Mushrooms by Alexander
Smith.
Books:
Mushrooms Demystified by
David Arora
Web Sites:
http://herbarium.usu.edu/
fungi/funfacts/ (Fun Facts
About Fungi) by Robert
Fogel and Patricia Rogers.
Field 15
School________________________Site_________________________________Date____________
Study Team_________________________________________________________________________
Weather_____________________________________________________________________________
Field 16
Wolftree
fungal ecology Running List
Mushroom
#
Substrate
(live wood, dead
wood, soil, etc.)
Describe
Habitat
Ecological
Role
(hypothesize)
Key Characteristics
decomposer
mycorrhizal
parasite
decomposer
mycorrhizal
parasite
decomposer
mycorrhizal
parasite
decomposer
mycorrhizal
parasite
decomposer
mycorrhizal
parasite
decomposer
mycorrhizal
parasite
decomposer
mycorrhizal
parasite
decomposer
mycorrhizal
parasite
decomposer
mycorrhizal
parasite
decomposer
mycorrhizal
parasite
field 17
Wolftree
Mushroom Data Sheet
Name______________________________________School_______________________________
Site________________________________________Date_________________________________
KEY IDENTIFICATION FEATURES
cap (shape, color, texture)
gills (color, spacing):
stem (color, shape, texture)
Top View
SKETCHES (INCLUDE MEASUREMENTS)
GROWTH FORM:
clusters single
GILLS ATTACHED TO STEM?
yes no
Spore Dispersal Strategy:
passive wind
passive water
passive animal
active wind
ECOLOGICAL ROLE:
decomposer
mycorrhizal
parasite
NAME:
Side View
OTHER NOTES:
mushroom species
PARASITIC species
DECOMPOSER species
MYCORRHIZAL species
pie chart
Percentages of Ecological Roles: table & chart
field 18
Wolftree
Fungal ecology
calculations sheet
Total #
collected
%
Graph Substrate Type
# using live wood
# using dead wood
# using soil
# using other
% of total:
Spore Dispersal Technique: Divided Bar Graph
strategy: passive wind passive water passive animal active wind
percentage
# of mushroom
species
topographic
maps
Now when I was a little chap I had a passion for
maps. I would look for hours at South America, or
Africa, or Australia, and lose myself in all the
glories of exploration. At that time there were
many blank spaces on the earth, and when I saw
one that looked particularly inviting on a map
(but they all look like that) I would put my finger
on it and say, "When I grow up I will go there.
-- Author Joseph Conrad
Heart of Darkness (1902)
where in the world?
Maps give you the power to explore the world. Using specialized maps,
called topographic maps, you can locate features of the land such as
waterfalls, and then know how to get there and what you will encounter
along the way.
Making observations. collecting data, and conducting research requires
an accurate record of your location. A topographic map, also called topo
map, provides information on the existence, location of, and distance
between cultural features on the ground, such as populated places and
routes of travel and communication. It also shows physical features such
as variations in terrain, elevation, and extent of vegetation cover. Map
reading skills can also help your team find its way back to where it began,
avoid dangerous cliffs and steep ravines, and find water. In an emergency
situation, the survival of a member of your team may depend on your
ablility to communicate quickly and accurately determine where you are
at.
TOPO 1
What is a Topo Map?
Quads, contours, elevation, true north, minutes, seconds.... Welcome to
the language of topo maps.
All maps are graphic representations of the Earth, or parts of it. A topo
map, even though it lays flat (two-dimensional), is able to show the
shape and elevation (three-dimensional) of the Earths surface.
Topo maps usually show both physical (natural) and cultural (human)
features - from mountains, valleys, plains, lakes, rivers, and
vegetation to roads, political boundaries, power lines, and major buildings.
The wide range of information provided by topo maps makes them
extremely useful to professional and recreational map users alike. Topo
maps are used for engineering, natural resource sciences, environmental
management, public-works design, commercial and residential planning,
and outdoor activities like backpacking, mountain biking and river rafting.
The top drawing and the countour lined topo map underneath
are representations of the same landscape.
TOPO 2
The Brunton Co.
What a topo map tells us
ELEVATION/RELIEF
A key feature of topo maps are squiggly
(usually brown) lines, called contour lines.
Contour lines make it possible to
measure the height of mountains,
depths of the ocean bottom, and
steepness of slopes. Every point along a
contour line represents the same
elevation. Note that about every fourth
or fifth contour line is slightly thicker
than the others. Along these thicker
lines will be a number. This is the
elevation. Elevation is the height - in
feet or meters- above sea level.
Usually the bottom margin of the topo map will show the vertical
distance between the contour lines, called contour intervals. This shows
elevation change from one point to the next. By locating the closest
numbered contour line and then counting lines, one can determine the
elevation of a point.
SHAPE OF THE LAND
The elevation along steep slopes change rapidly. To represent steepness
on a topo map, contour lines are placed closer together. The closer
together the contour lines, the steeper the slope of the land. Contour
lines that are further apart represent areas with a gentle slope.
TOPO 3
lines closely spaced =
steep slope
lines far apart =
gentle slope
What is the countour interval
for this section of map?
cliff
The Brunton Co.
The Brunton Co.
gradual slope
DIRECTION OF A STREAM OR RIVER
When contour lines cross a stream they form a V. The direction the V
is pointing shows the water is moving upstream.
Peak or SUMMIT
The summit of a mountain, hill or butte is the top. On a topo map it is
expressed as a closed circle or oval.
S
t
r
e
a
m
f
l
o
w
peak
The Brunton Co.
The Brunton Co.
stream
TOPO 4
SLOPE, STEEPNESS, OR GRADIENT
To find out how steep, on average, a trail will be, you must determine the
elevation change, or rise, and distance of travel, or run, and then make
some simple calculations using the formula (Rise/Run) x 100.
So, if by using a ruler and the maps scale, you determine your trail
segment (run) is a distance of 730 feet and by using your contour lines
you determine your elevation change (rise) is 200 feet, then plugging the
numbers into the formula: (200/730) x 100 = 27.4%. So then your
average grade or gradient is 27.4%.
PHYSICAL & CUTURAL FEATURES & Map Symbols
Topographic maps also show many cultural (human) and physical
(natural) features, such as highways, airports, railroads, campgrounds, marsh-
es, glacial advances, intermittent streams, and caves. For a comprehensive
overview of topographic map symbols visit:
http://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/symbols/topomapsymbols.pdf
TOPO 5
From Geospatial Training & Analysis Cooperative
TOPO 6
Sample section of a USGS 7.5 minute topo (quad) map
1:24,000 scale
For complete information about USGS topo map symbols, colors, etc. visit:
http://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/symbols/
peak
or summit
elevation
steep
slope
gentle
slope
stream
ridge
valley
elevation
in feet
above
sea level
contour
lines
road
elements of a topo map
LOCATION
There are three primary grid systems used for
determining ones location on a topo map:
Latitude/Longitude; Universal Transverse
Mercator, and Township, Range and Section.
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE
On a topo map there are numbers running all
around the outside of the map. These numbers
represent two grid systems that can be used
to find your exact location: latitude and
longitude and Universal Transverse Mercator
(UTM). The exact latitude and longitude is
given at each corner of that map and at
equally spaced intervals between the corners.
Latitude and longitude is the most common grid
system used for navigation. It will allow you to
pinpoint your location with a high degree of accuracy.
Latitude is the angular distance measured north and
south of the equator. The equator is 0 degrees.
Longitude works similarly. It is the angular
distance measured east and west of the Prime
Meridian. The prime meridian is 0 degrees longitude.
These two angles are measured in degrees ( ),
minutes ( ' ), and seconds ( " ). For example, the
latitude of Portland, Oregon is expressed as 45 32'
47" N, and the longitude as 122 51' 57" W. This means
that Portland is 45 degrees, 32 minutes and 47
seconds north of the equator, and 122 degrees, 51
minutes and 47 seconds east of the prime meridian.
FYI:
One degree = 70 miles
60 minutes = one degree
60 seconds = one minute
Most USGS Topo Maps used in the field are 7.5-
minute series. These numbers refer to the
dimensions of the topo map. Thus, a 7.5-minute
series map is 7.5 minutes of latitude by 7.5 minutes of
longitude.
UTM
Latitude/Longitude
lines of latitude
lines of longitude
TOPO 7
UTM COORDINATES
Universal Transverse Mercator or UTMis another
grid system on a map. The smaller bold numbers that
run along the border of the map represent UTMs.
UTMis a 1,000 meter square, coordinate grid
system used to find ones position. It allows precise
measurements to within one meter. The UTM
system divides the surface of the earth up into a
grid with into 60 straight east-west zones, each 6
wide (which covers the Earth, 60 x 6 = 360
around), and 20 north-south zones (19 that are 8
and one that is 12).
The east-west zones are numbered in order beginning with Zone 1 at the
International Date Line, between 180 and 174 west longitude, and
progressing eastward to Zone 60, between 174 and 180 east longitude.
A zone number and a letter (zone designator) identify each zone. The
north-south zones are given letters, starting with C in the south and
ending with X in the north (0 is omitted). For example, Portland, Oregon
is in UTM grid 10 T. To identify the zone number on a USGS topo map,
look in the lower left-hand corner.
TOPO 8
USGS
Every spot within a zone can be defined by a coordinate system that
uses meters. Your vertical position is defined in terms of meters north
and your horizontal position is given as meters east. This is referred to
as your northing and easting.
UTM is marked on a USGS topo map with blue ticks (like dashes) and is
labeled using an easting (always increase right) and a northing (always
increases up). Full UTM lables (
47
22
000m
N) are in the lower right-hand
and upper left-hand corners of the map, with other UTM labels
abbreviated (
47
31). Every time you pass a small blue dash, you have gone
up 1,000 meters (one meter = 3.281 feet). The same applies with the
UTMs across the top and bottom of the map.
The label,
47
22
000m
N, reads four million, seven hundred and twenty two
thousand meters North.
TOWNSHIP, RANGE AND SECTION (TRS)
Red vertical and horizontal lines frequently divide most or all of a topo
map into squares that have red number in the center. These U.S. Public
Land Survey Systemlines were developed to divide land (as the country
was expanding west of the Mississippi) into units that are one mile
square, called sections. 36 sections are grouped into a larger square
called a township, and the sections are numbered in a back-and-forth
pattern beginning at the top right conrner.
DETERMININING TOWNSHIP.
A township is 36 square miles. Township lines represent north-south six
mile intervals within the entire 36 square mile area. Township numbers
are printed in the margins on the extreme right and left sides of maps.
and centered between two lines that mark the township. To express
township, it would read something like: T 29 S, which means Township 29
South.
DETERMINING RANGE.
Similar to township lines, range lines are at six-mile intervals, but divide
the area east-west. Range numbers are printed in the margins at the
top and bottom of topo maps, and are also centered between two slight-
ly darker vertical lines that mark the range. To express range, it would
read something like: R 22 E, which means Range 22 East.
DETERMINING SECTION.
A section is one square mile and there are 36 square miles in each
township. On most maps, only the four corner section numbers (1, 6, 31,
36) are printed within each township. The first row of section numbers
(1-6) reads from right to left, the second row (7-12) reads from left to
right, and so forth.
Accuracy to within one-quarter mile is
usually sufficient. Since a section is one
square mile, you simply need to divide it into
four equal quadrants (NE, SE, NW, SW) to
get your location down to a quarter of a
mile. Then, identify which quadrant your
location is in. To express section, one it
would read something like: S 8 NW, which
means Section 8 Northwest corner.
Putting it all together: To express your
location, it would read something like: T29S,
R22E, S8NW.
The TRS system is more descriptive than
latitude and longitude and UTM systems,
but relies less on absolute measurements
of location. It is useful in that it is a good
way to give a quick approximation of a
location, but the main drawback is its lack of accuracy.
TOPO 9
From Geospatial Training & Analysis Cooperative
DISTANCE
Topo maps also allow you to determine how far it is from one place to
another. Usually at the bottom of a topo map is a scale, which is
expressed in a ratio. A ratio is the relationship between two things. In
this case, between the map and the real on-the-ground area the map
represents. Often the topo maps used are 1:24,000 (the larger the
scale the more detail can be shown). This means, that one unit on the
map represents 24,000 of that unit on the ground. For example, one
pinky fingernail length of the map equals 24,000 pinky fingernail lengths
at the actual location.
Also, usually at the bottom of a map is a bar scale (see below).
To find the distance between point A and point B (as the crow flies),
simply use some sort of a measuring devise (often a compass has a
ruler), compare it to the bar scale and determine the distance.
To find the distance of a route that is not straight, use a piece of string
or flexible wire to trace the intended route. After tracing out your route,
pull the string straight and measure it against the scale line in the map
legend.
TOPO 10
From Geospatial Training & Analysis Cooperative
Bibliography
United States Geological Survey web sites:
http://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/symbols/index.html
http://geography.usgs.gov/
Kansas State University Computing and Information Sciences web site:
http://www.cis.ksu.edu/~dha5446/topoweb/guide.html
Staying Found: The Complete Map and Compass Handbook by June
Fleming. Mountaineers Books. Seattle, WA. 2001.
How to Teach With Topographic Maps by Dana Van Burgh, Elizabeth N.
Lyons, and Marcy Boyington. National Science Teachers Association.
Arlington, VA. 1994.
Naturemapping Observers Guide by Sara Vickerman and Wendy Hudson.
Defenders of Wildlife. Lake Oswego, OR. 1996
Idaho State University, Department of Geosciences, Geospatial Training
and Analysis Cooperative web site:
http://geology.isu.edu/geostac/Field_Exercise/topomaps/index.htm
Brunton Navigation Curriculumwritten and produced by The Brunton
Company, 2002. Riverton, WY 82501
TOPO 11
Reviewers
Ecological Concepts
Jim Martin, Portland State University Center for Science Education (retired)
Charles Philpot, PhD., USDA - PNWResearch Station (retired)
Invertebrate Ecology
Bruce Hostetler, Entomologist, Mt. Hood National Forest
John Davis, Entomologist, U.S. Fish & Wildlife
Mace Vaughn, Entomologist, Xerces Society
Wildlife Ecology
Steve Lanigan, Biologist, Gifford Pinchot National Forest
Betsy Howell, Retired Forest Service Wildlife Biologist/Writer
Dave Kennedy, Wildlife Biologist, David Evans & Associates
Forest Ecology
Jeff Reis, Inventory Coordinator, Mt. Hood National Forest
Shelley Butler, Silviculture Technician, Mt. Hood National Forest
Glenda Goodwyne, Forester, Mt Hood National Forest
Plant Ecology
Chuck Bolsinger, Botanist
Sue Allen, Naturalist
Marty Stein, Forest Botanist, Mt. Hood National Forest
Terry Fennell, Bureau of Land Management
Lichen Ecology
Chiska Derr, Regional Lichenologist, Giffford Pinchot National Forest
Linda Chestnut, Botanist
Aquatic Invertebrates
Donna Allard, Fisheries Biologist, U.S. Fish & Wildlife
Ian Waite, Aquatic Entomologist, U.S. Geological Survey
Scott Hoffman Black, Entomologist, Xerces Society
Water Chemistry
Bert Seierstad, Lab Manager, City of Portland Water Bureau
Janet Senior, City of Portland Water Bureau
Streamflow Ecology
Don Holmes, Water Conservation Specialist, City of Portland Water Bureau
In all things of nature there
is something of the marvelous.
--Aristotle