Digestive System and Nutrition

The Digestive Tract

Digestion
There are 2 types of digestion: mechanical
digestion breaks up large pieces of food into
smaller pieces and prepares them for chemical
digestion by hydrolytic enzymes.
It begins in the mouth and ends at the anus.
Functions of the digestive system:
ingest food
digest it to nutrients that can cross plasma
membranes
absorb nutrients
eliminate undigested food
The Mouth
Lips and cheeks enclose the mouth.
Its roof is formed by the hard and soft palates that separate it from the nasal cavities.
Hard Palate:
at the front of the mouth has bones
Soft Palate:
at the back of the mouth
no bones, just muscles
ends in uvula
Three pairs of salivary glands send saliva (containing salivary amylase for digestion of starch to
maltose) into the mouth.
Tonsils at the back of the mouth, on either side of the tongue, protect against infections.
The Teeth
20 deciduous (baby) teeth are replaced by 32 adult teeth.
Each tooth has a crown and a root: the crown has a layer of enamel, dentin, and inner pulp, while the
root just has dentin and pulp.
enamel is a hard outer covering made of calcium compounds
dentin is a thick layer of bonelike material
pulp contains nerves and blood vessels
Fluoride treatments make tooth enamel stronger and reduce dental caries or cavities.
With aging, inflammation of the gums (gingivitis) and periodontal membrane (periodontitis) become
more serious.
The Pharynx
The air passage and food passage cross in the pharynx.
Swallowing is a reflex action. The air passage is usually blocked off by the soft palate and uvula, while
the trachea moves up under the epiglottis to cover the glottis, the opening to the windpipe.
Breathing and swallowing cannot occur at the same time.
The Esophagus
The esophagus is a collapsed tube which moves the bolus of food downward after swallowing occurs.
This muscular tube conducts food through the thoracic cavity and diaphragm into the stomach.
Peristalsis (rhythmic, wavelike contractions) begins in the esophagus and ends in the anus.
Heartburn is a burning pain that results when acidic stomach contents enter the esophagus.
The Wall of the Digestive Tract
The digestive tract wall has four layers:
mucosa (mucous membrane)
submucosa (loose connective tissue)
muscularis (smooth muscle)
circular muscle
longitudinal muscle
oblique muscle (stomach only)
serosa (serous membrane)
The Stomach
The stomach expands to store food (up to 4 L).
Gastric glands produce gastric juice containing pepsinogen, HCl, and mucus.
Because of the HCl, the stomach is highly acidic, with a pH of about 2, and this helps to kill most of
the bacteria present in food.
Food in the stomach is churned to mix it with the gastric juices containing hydrochloric acid and pepsin
(for the digestion of protein to peptides).
In 2-6 hours, the soupy chyme leaves the stomach by way of the pyloric sphincter.
Ulcers, open sores in the wall of the stomach, are usually caused by a bacterial infection that prevents
protective mucus from being produced.

The Small Intestine
The small intestine averages about 6 metres in length; it has a slightly basic pH.
The first 25 cm is the duodenum, which receives bile (fat emulsifier) from the gallbladder as well as
pancreatic juice from the pancreas.
Pancreatic juice contains trypsin for the digestion of protein to peptides, lipase for the digestion of fat
to glycerol and fatty acids, and basic NaHCO3 (sodium bicarbonate) to neutralize the acidic chyme.
Enzymes that finish the process of digestion are produced by the intestinal wall.
The walls of the small intestine have finger-like projections called villi where nutrient molecules are
absorbed into the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems.
The small lymphatic capillary in a villus is called a lacteal.
Regulations of Digestive Secretions
Both the nervous system and hormones regulate digestive juice secretion.
In response to eating protein-rich food, the hormone gastrin is produced by the lower part of the
stomach and flows through the bloodstream to stimulate the upper stomach to produce digestive juices.
The duodenal wall produces gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) to inhibit gastric gland secretion.
The hormones secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK) are produced by the duodenal wall and stimulate
the pancreas to secrete digestive juice and the gallbladder to release bile.
The Large Intestine
The large intestine consists of the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal.
It does not produce digestive enzymes but does absorb water, salts, and some vitamins.
The (vermiform) appendix is an extension of the cecum.
Indigestible material is stored in the rectum until the anus allows defecation.
Anaerobic bacteria in feces break down indigestible material and produce some vitamins that we use.
Water tests showing the presence of Escherichia coli (E. coli) indicate water that is contaminated with
feces and therefore unsafe for swimming/drinking.
Video: The digestive system <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P5lyQUtq1KQ&feature=kp>.
Polyps
Polyps are small growths arising from the epithelial lining that may be benign or cancerous.
Consuming fat may increase the risk of colon cancer, while consuming fiber may decrease this risk.
Diarrhea and Constipation
Causes of diarrhea include infection of the lower tract and nervous stimulation, both moving feces
more rapidly than normal, and causing dehydration if prolonged.
Water and fiber in the diet can prevent constipation, where the feces become too dry.
Hemorrhoids are enlarged and inflamed blood vessels at the anus.
Questions
1. How do we taste?
We taste through sensory receptors on our tongue called taste buds. When these are activated by
the presence of food, they send out nerve impulses to the brain via cranial nerves, producing the
sensation of taste.
2. What is dental caries, and how/why does it occur?
Dental caries is another name for tooth decay, or cavities, and it occurs when bacteria within the
mouth metabolize sugar. This process produces acids which erode teeth. Two measures to prevent
tooth decay are eating a limited amount of sweets and brushing and flossing teeth daily.
3. Trace the path of the food from the mouth to the large intestine.
oral cavity of mouth pharynx esophagus stomach small intestine large intestine
4. Why cant we breathe and swallow at the same time? What happens when food goes down the wrong
way?
The trachea is ventral to the esophagus, and the food passage and air passage cross in the pharynx.
When swallowing occurs in the pharynx, the soft palate moves back to close off the nasopharynx,
while the trachea moves up under the epiglottis to cover the glottis. Since the glottis is the opening
to the larynx, and therefore the air passage, the air passages are normally blocked during
swallowing, and we do not breathe when we swallow.
When food goes down the wrong way, it enters the nasal cavities or the trachea instead of the
esophagus. In the latter case, coughing is usually sufficient to force the food up and out of the
trachea and into the pharynx again.
5. What is a sphincter and why is there a sphincter at the opening of your stomach and esophagus?
A sphincter is a muscle which encircles a tube and acts as a valve. The tube closes when the
sphincter contracts and opens when the sphincter relaxes.
There is a sphincter at the opening of your stomach and esophagus to prevent the acidic contents
of the stomach from backing up into the esophagus while allowing food to pass into the stomach.
6. What do the 4 layers of the walls of the esophagus, except for muscularis, do?
Mucosa: contains glandular epithelial cells that secrete digestive enzymes and goblet cells that
secrete mucus
Submucosa: has lymph nodes called Peyers patches which protect us from disease
Serosa: secretes a serous fluid that keeps the outer surface of the intestines moist so that the organs
of the abdominal cavity slide against one another
7. What is a hormone?
A hormone is a chemical signal produced in one part of the body that controls the activity of other
parts, the so-called target cells.
8. What is the purpose of diarrhea?
The purpose of diarrhea is to rid the body of infectious organisms. It is caused by an infection of
the lower intestinal tract, such as food poisoning caused by eating contaminated food.
3 Accessory Organs
The three accessory organs of the digestion send secretions to the duodenum via ducts. They are
the pancreas the liver the gallbladder
The Pancreas
The pancreas produces pancreatic juice which contains digestive enzymes for carbohydrates (ie.
salivary amylase), protein (ie. trypsin), fat (ie. lipase), and nucleic acid (ie. nuclease) digestion.
The pancreas is also an endocrine gland that secretes insulin and glucagon to help regulate blood
glucose levels.
The Liver
The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gallbladder.
It receives blood and nutrients from the small intestine by way of the hepatic portal vein and oxygenated
blood from the heart by way of the hepatic artery.
The liver regenerates very rapidly, although it is possible to irreversibly harm it.
Functions of the liver:
detoxifying blood and metabolizing poisons
storing iron and fat-soluble vitamins (ie. A, D, E, K, B12)
making plasma proteins (eg. albumins, fibrinogen)
storing glucose as glycogen
producing urea from the breakdown of amino acids
removing bilirubin after dismantling blood cells
regulating blood cholesterol levels when producing bile salts
Liver Disorders
Jaundice is a yellowish tint to eyes and skin that indicates abnormal levels of bilirubin in the blood.
Hepatitis is inflammation of the liver. Different strains of virus cause Hepatitis A, B, etc.
Hepatitis A: comes from drinking water contaminated with sewage
Hepatitis B: comes from unprotected sex, contaminated blood transfusions
Cirrhosis is scar tissue that can form when the liver is diseased or killed by high alcohol concentrations.
The Gallbladder
The gallbladder, which is a sac attached to the liver, stores bile until it is sent to the duodenum.
Water is reabsorbed in the gallbladder, making the bile thick.
This organ assists in fat digestion, as the bile it stores emulsifies fat.
Gallstones are crystals of cholesterol which may block the bile duct of the gallbladder, in which case
they must be removed.
Video: Digestion and Enzymes in the Human Body <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_5TaS0-VaDo>.
Video: AQA GCSE B2 - enzymes in digestion <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u_pDxx2s0Ck>.
Digestive Enzymes
Hydrolytic Enzymes
Digestive enzymes are present in digestive juices and introduce water at specific bonds to break down
food into sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol. (see Table 14.3)
Glucose and amino acids are absorbed into the blood capillaries of the villi.
Fatty acids and glycerol rejoin in the villi to produce lipoprotein droplets which enter the lacteals.
Digestive enzymes speed specific reactions and functions best at a warm body temperature and
optimum pH.
Conditions for Digestion
For digestion to occur, the following must be present:
i. the correct enzyme
ii. the correct substrate
iii. optimum pH
iv. optimum temperature
Questions
1. List 8 digestive enzymes, their substrate, and what they convert the breakdown products into.
i. salivary amylase: converts starch, a polysaccharide, to maltose, a disaccharide
ii. pepsin: acts on protein, a polymer of amino acids, to produce peptides
iii. pancreatic amylase: digests starch to produce maltose
iv. trypsin: digests protein to produce peptides
v. lipase: digests fat droplets (lipids) to produce glycerol and 3 fatty acid molecules
vi. peptidase: complete the digestion of protein by converting peptides to amino acids
vii. maltase: complete the digestion of starch by converting maltose to glucose, a monosaccharide
viii. lactase: digests lactose, a sugar found in milk, to produce galactose and glucose