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BOILERS &
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STRATEGY
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EFFICIENCY
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3E STRATEGY
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
•
The Energy Research Institute would like to acknowledge the following for their contribution in the production of
this guide:
• Energy Technology Support Unit (ETSU), UK, for permission to use information from the “Energy
Efficiency Best Practice” series of handbooks.
• Wilma Walden of Studio.com for graphic design work (Walden@grm.co.za).
• Doug Geddes of South African Breweries for the cover colour photography.
• Canadian gov. See other guides.
Guide Book Essentials:
QUICK ‘CHECK-LIST’ FOR SAVING ENERGY
and MONEY IN BOILERS AND FURNACE
SYSTEMS
This list is a selected summary of energy and cost savings opportunities outline in the text. Many
more are detailed in the body of the booklet.These are intended to be a quick ‘checklist’.
BOILERS (CHAPTER 9)
2. COMBUSTION ..................................................................................................................................................................................................1
2.1 Combustion air.........................................................................................................................................................................................1
2.1.1 Excess Air.....................................................................................................................................................................................4
2.1.2 Glue Gas Analysis....................................................................................................................................................................4
2.1.3 Determination of Excess Air ............................................................................................................................................5
2.2 Heat losses ..................................................................................................................................................................................................7
2.2.1 Heat loss due to incomplete combustion................................................................................................................8
4.THE FUELS...................................................................................................................................................................13
4.1 Pipeline gas................................................................................................................................................................................................13
4.2 Liquid Petroleum Gas ........................................................................................................................................................................14
4.3 Fuel Oil........................................................................................................................................................................................................14
4.4 Coal .........................................................................................................................................................................................................15
4.5 Choice of Fuel ........................................................................................................................................................................................16
8. POLLUTION ....................................................................................................................................................................................................29
8.1 Environmental Equipment ..............................................................................................................................................................30
8.1.1 Ash Handling Equipment ................................................................................................................................................30
8.1.2 Air Pollution Control Equipment ................................................................................................................................30
9. BOILERS ........................................................................................................................................................................................................31
9.1 Types of boilers......................................................................................................................................................................................31
9.1.1 Water Tube Boilers..............................................................................................................................................................32
9.1.2 Multi-Tubular Shell Boilers ..............................................................................................................................................34
9.1.3 Reverse Flame or Thimble Boilers..............................................................................................................................36
9.1.4 Steam generators ................................................................................................................................................................37
9.1.5 Sectional Boilers ....................................................................................................................................................................38
9.1.6 Condensing Boilers..............................................................................................................................................................39
9.1.7 Modular Boilers ....................................................................................................................................................................40
9.1.8 Composite Boilers ..............................................................................................................................................................41
9.2 Boiler system selection ....................................................................................................................................................................42
APPENDIX ........................................................................................................................................................................................................70
Conversion Tables ................................................................................................................................................................................................70
Boiler Efficiency Test ............................................................................................................................................................................................71
Furnace Efficiency Test ........................................................................................................................................................................................83
•••••••••
1. INTRODUCTION
••••••••••••••
This guide examines the energy savings potentials The guide then moves on to savings in furnaces.
for boilers and selected furnaces. The boiler Various types of furnaces and energy saving
section starts with a description of different measures are described. The emphasis here is on
boilers plant, combustion equipment used and savings from excess air reduction, combustion air
fuels available. Environmental impacts are preheat, correct insulation and furnace pressure
described, boilers selection processes outlined and control.
finally a list of measures and a strategy outline for
saving energy in boiler operation.
2. COMBUSTION
•••••••••
In all aspects of boilers and furnaces (including exposed directly to the heat generated in the
dryers and kilns) heat is produced from combustion chamber, flue gas heat or a gas/fluid
combustion or by the use of electrical energy.The that has been heated by the combustion process.
heat is transferred to the product or water to
produce stream in the case of a boiler.
2.1 COMBUSTION AIR
The fuel (with the exception of electricity which
•
heats an element) burns in the ‘combustion Stoichiometric air represents the amount of air
chamber’, which varies in shape and size required for complete combustion with the
depending on the application. Common fuels perfect mixing of the fuel and air Stoichiometric air
include pipeline gas, liquid petroleum gas, heavy is sometimes called theoretical air. If perfect mixing
fuel oil, lighter oils and solid fuels such as biomass is achieved, every molecule of fuel and air takes
or coal. If gas is produced ‘on site’ this can also be part in the combustion process. Excess air must be
used. supplied to ensure complete combustion of the
fuel because perfect mixing of fuel and air does
The in the case of a furnace the product is then not occur. Percentage excess air is defined as the
1
total amount of combustion air supplied in excess minimum losses occur when the amount of air
of the stoichiometric air, expressed as a supplied is slightly greater than the
percentage of the stoichiometric air. “stoichiometric” amount.
(
Total air = Stoichiometric air x (1 % Excess Airr)
Total air = Stoichiometric air (x (1 +
100 ) The weight or volume of each element or
compound in the fuel is required to determine the
stoichiometric air. It is often inconvenient to
The minimum amount of excess air required
determine stoichiometric air in this manner, as in
varies with the fuel used and the efficiency of
many instances the precise fuel analysis is
mixing the air and fuel. If less than the minimum
unknown or varies. A more convenient method
quantity of air is supplied, some of the fuel will not
is to determine the quantity of air per unit of heat
burn completely and there is a waste of fuel
in the fuel, i.e. kilograms of air per gigajoule of heat
energy. Evidence of incomplete combustion usually
in the fuel as fired (kg/GJ). Expressed in this
shows up as carbon monoxide (CO) in the
manner, the stoichiometric air required for
products of combustion (flue gas). A continuous
common types of fuel is almost constant. Table 1
gas analyser, or a manually operated Orsat, can be
provides values for several different types of fuel,
used to check for CO in the flue gas.
which may be used in boilers or furnaces.
Too much air also wastes energy. The gases leaving It may be suspected that a supply air fan, air inlet
the furnace are hot and contain heat energy. If louvers, ducting or the air flow control method is
excessive amounts of air are supplied to the inadequate. Knowledge of the required amount of
furnace, the excess will also be heated. The effect furnace combustion air enables checking the
on heat losses by varying the amount of air adequacy of the air supply system.The combustion
supplied to the furnace is shown in Figure 1. The air requirements can be calculated and compared
2
to the capacity of the components in the air is to operate the fuel valve and the damper with a
supply system. common mechanical linkage. Some form of
Example: Combustion air requirements for a furnace using 700 l/h of Number 6 fuel oil, at 15 per cent
excess air can be calculated. From Table 1, theoretical combustion air is 327 kg/GJ.The heating value of fuel
oil with 2.5 per cent sulphur is about 42.3 MJ/L (sulphur content can usually be obtained from the fuel
supplier).
11135 kg/h
or 3
1.204 kg / m
3
= 9248 m /h at standard conditions.
Combustion air can be supplied to the equipment adjustable cam is used to vary the relative
by natural or forced draft systems. Natural draft positions of the fuel valve and damper to provide
uses the negative pressure (draft) produced by the proper fuel/air ratios at all firing rates.
furnace stack to draw combustion air into the
furnace and the resulting flue gases out of the The combustion air fan also provides better
furnace.The most common example of this is the mixing of the fuel and the air. The air is introduced
ordinary domestic gas furnace. Natural draft is into the furnace around the burner(s) and vanes,
usually applied only to small furnaces with less which produce a swirling motion in the air as it
than about one GJ/h heat input. enters the furnace, can create turbulence. A high-
pressure drop between the air supply and the
There are several disadvantages related to natural furnace is required to produce turbulence, and this
draft firing. The amount of combustion air drawn can only be achieved with a forced draft system.
into the furnace cannot be controlled accurately These advantages mean that the excess air for a
and the fuel and air mixing is inefficient.This means forced draft system can be lower than for natural
that higher levels of excess air must be maintained draft firing, with resulting lower heat losses to the
to ensure that complete combustion is achieved flue gas.
under all conditions.The furnace pressure is always
negative which allows air to leak into the furnace, Forced draft firing permits a slightly positive
and create additional flue gas volume and heat furnace pressure at all times. Leaks will then be
losses. from the furnace outwards, which may lead to a
dangerous situation when a furnace door is
Forced draft firing uses a fan to supply combustion opened. Therefore, it is desirable to control
air to the equipment. Airflow is regulated by furnace pressure at a slight positive value of not
means of dampers so that accurate control of the more than about 10 Pa. This is normally achieved
proportion of air to fuel for various firing rates is by regulating a damper in the breeching between
possible. A common method used to achieve this the furnace flue gas exit and the base of the stack.
3
It may not be possible to maintain furnace monoxide (CO). Air contains nitrogen (N2) as well
pressure as low as desired if heat recovery as oxygen (O2). The N2 does not take part in the
equipment is installed in the flue gas system or if combustion process, except for the formation of
the stack provides insufficient draft. small quantities of nitrogen oxides (NOx).
4
vapour, which did not condense out of the sample. % Excess air = O2 – 0.5CO
% Excess air = x 100
There are other manually operated analysers % Excess air = 0.2682N2 – (O2 – 0.5CO)
available, which measure either CO2 or O2 in the
flue gas.These are simpler to use and can be useful Where O2 = oxygen by volume in flue gas (%)
as a cross check against an Orsat. CO = carbon monoxide by volume (%)
N2 = nitrogen by volume (%)
Figure 3: Excess air versus flue gas analysis. (Source: Canadian Gov.) (Energy Management Series 7.
Page 7. Figure 4)
5
% Excess Air = 9.8 – (0.5 x 0) % Excess Air = 2.1 – (0.5 x 0)
% Excess Air = x 100 % Excess Air = x 100
% Excess Air = (0.2682 x 84) – [9.8 – (0.5 x 0)] % Excess Air = (0.2682 x 87.9) – [2.1 – (0.5 x 0)]
= 77% = 9.8%
This value is very high for a furnace burning This excess air is quite acceptable for a furnace
natural gas, and the possibility of reducing the burning coke-oven gas.
excess air level should be investigated.
In a furnace burning natural gas with a deficiency
Another example will provide greater familiarity of air, the flue gas analysis is as follows.
with the calculation procedures. A furnace is
burning coke-oven gas with the following flue gas O2 = 0%
analysis. CO2 = 11%
CO = 2%
O2 = 2.1% N2 = 87% (by difference)
CO2 = 10%
CO = 0% Figure 3 cannot be used because of the presence
N2 = 87.9% (by difference) of CO.
2
Analysis by volume
1
Analysis by volume CH4 31%
CO 12% C2H6 20%
H2 42% C3H8 38%
CH4 37% H2 5.6%
C2H4 and higher 5% C4H10 and higher 1.0%
CO2 Remainder Inert Gases Remainder
6
This means that approximately 4 per cent less affected by air infiltration. With heat recovery
than the theoretical air required for complete equipment the readings should be taken
combustion is being supplied to the burners. If the immediately downstream of the equipment.
type of process permits it, increasing the
combustion air supply should reduce the carbon The flue gas heat loss has four components, which
monoxide. can be calculated separately.
2.2 HEAT LOSSES For natural gas and oil, the moisture in the fuel is
minimal, and the evaporation of the moisture heat
•
loss can be ignored. The values for flue gas losses
The heat discharged from the stack, is usually the
can be calculated using figures from the appendix,
largest loss in a fuel fired boiler or furnace. Flue gas
which gives a boiler efficiency test. Figure 4 below
analysis and flue gas temperature can be used to
shows this graphically for fuel oil.
calculate the loss. If there is no heat recovery
equipment on the furnace or boiler, these 1 This is often very small and is a function of atmospheric humidity.
2 This quantity is a function of the fuel and therefore cannot be changed by
measurements should be taken at the outlet to operation. It is therefore not included in this discussion.
3 As above this quantity is primarily a function of the fuel and therefore cannot
minimize the possibility of the readings being be changed by operation. It is therefore not included in this discussion.
Figure 4: Flue-gas loss for fuel oil. (Source: Canadian Gov.) (Energy Management Series 6.
Page 12. Figure 10)
7
In practice this loss can vary from 8% to 50% 30 per cent moisture, this fuel heat loss is 5.5 per
depending on the fuel. The major influencing cent of the fuel heat content. At 60 per cent
factors are the exit flue gas temperature and the moisture, the loss increases to 21 per cent.
degree of excess air present.To minimize losses in
coal-fired plant, correct combustion is essential
including better fuel preparation, better stoking
practices and improved control of combustion air
2.2.1 HEAT LOSS DUE TO
– both the undergrate and the overgrate draughts. INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION
The same factors apply to oil-fired boilers. Fuel
preparation should be correct (uncontaminated Heat can also be ‘lost’ by the incomplete
and at the right temperature), burners undamaged combustion of fuel, this is indicated by the
and properly maintained, and combustion air presence of CO and, in the case of coal,
(both primary and secondary) should be combustible material left in the ash.
introduced at the right rate and with adequate
turbulence.
Figure 5: Flue-gas loss with moisture content for biomass fuel. (Source: Canadian Gov.)
(Energy Management Series 6. Page 13. Figure 11)
8
carbon into carbon dioxide, is relatively small, but the losses increase very rapidly as the total air is
the rapid fouling of heat transfer surfaces under decreased. The measure of this condition is
these conditions adversely influences the boiler’s reflected by the presence of significant
performance. combustibles in the flue gas.
•••••••••
9
3. HEAT TRANSFER
••••••••••••••
The transfer of heat from the burner flame to the through a solid can be calculated.
product can be by conduction, convection, or Q = k x A x T x 3.6
Q =
radiation, and in most instances a combination of Q = t
all three. Where, Q = Heat conducted (kJ/h)
k = Thermal conductivity of solid
[W/(m·ºC)]
2
A = Surface area (m )
T = Mean temperature differen-
3.1 CONDUCTION tial across solid (ºC)
• T = Thickness of solid (m)
Heat transfer to the product by conduction is only 3.6 = Conversion factor from watts
significant in indirect heated equipment, where the to kilojoules per hour.
product is isolated from the flame by a heat The foregoing equation shows that rate of heat
exchange surface. Muffle furnaces and furnaces transfer increases in proportion to surface area,
using radiant tube heaters (Figure 6) are examples and to temperature differential across the solid,
of indirect heating arrangements. Heat conducted and is inversely proportional to material thickness.
10
2
Example: A muffle furnace has a 10 mm thick, high nickel steel enclosure with a surface area of 55 m .
Useful heat to the product, all of which is transmitted through the wall, is 1.9 GJ/h.The thermal conductivity
of high nickel steel is 31 W/(m·ºC).The temperature drop through the muffle wall can be determined as
follows:
2
Heat Conducted = 31W / (m·ºC) x 55m x DT x 3.6
Heat Conducted =
Heat Conducted = 0.01 m
6
Heat conducted is 1.9 GJ/h, or 1.9 x 10 kJ/h
6
T = 1.9 X 10 X 0.01
T =
T = 31 X 55 X 3.6
= 3.1ºC
The temperature drop across the enclosure is 3.1ºC at the specified rate of heat transfer.
0.78
Heat transfer by convection takes place at the Q = 23.46 x A x T x V xd
boundary between a solid wall and a gas or liquid.
Intermingling takes place between the stagnant Where, Q = Rate of convection heat transfer
layer of fluid at the wall and the moving fluid (KJ/h)
2
stream next to the stagnant layer. Tests on rate of A = Area of heat transfer (m )
heat transfer by convection show that the rate is T = Temperature differential between
proportional to surface area and temperature solid and fluid (ºC)
differential between the solid and the fluid. It also V = Fluid velocity (m/s)
3
increases as the velocity of the fluid over the wall d = Gas density (kg/m )
Example: A furnace is 3 metres long and has a 1 metre by 1 metre cross-section. Flue gas flows through
the furnace at an average velocity of 0.5 m/s with a gas temperature of 500ºC.The temperature differential
between the furnace walls and the flue gas averages 150ºC. For most practical purposes, the density of air
3
can be used for flue gas. From standard references, the density of air at 500ºC is 0.458 kg/m .The average
rate of heat transfer by convection to the walls, floor and roof can be determined as follows.
11
3.3 RADIATION emissions of the two bodies. The equation for a
• furnace is:
Example: A furnace with a square cross section of 1 metre by 1 metre is heating carbon steel billets
100mm by 100mm.The furnace wall temperature is 1000ºC.The furnace floor does not radiate heat. From
Table 3, the emissivity of a fireclay brick furnace wall is 0.75, and the emissivity of oxidized carbon steel is
0.80.The heat input to the billet per metre of length when the steel is heated to 650ºC can be calculated.
A1 = (0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1) x 1
2
= 0.3m
A2 = (1 + 1+1) x 1
2
= 3m
F = 0.3
F =
F
F
F
=
=
=
=
( )(
1 + ( 0.3 ) ( 1 – 1)
1 + ( A1 ) ( 1
0.8 + 3
0.234
–1
0.75 – 1 )
T1 = 1000ºC + 273
= 1273K
T2 = 650ºC + 273
= 923K
12
Heat radiated/metre length Radiation also takes place from hot gases to the
4 4
=
Q = K x F x [( 1273
20.6 x 0.234 x
Q = KxFx 100[( ) ( )] – (923 ]
100
furnace contents. This method of heat transfer
does not follow the same laws as the radiation
from solid bodies. Radiation from a luminous flame
= 91 604 kJ/h is higher than from a clear flame of hot gases.
•••••••••
4. the fuels
••••••••••••••
Each conventional fuel differs from the others in furnace maintenance costs are low. Natural gas
its combustion characteristics, and this influences burners tend to be simpler with fewer mechanical
heat transfer. Fuels may be solid, liquid or gaseous, parts and are also therefore cheaper to maintain.
and either ‘commercial’ or ‘waste’. Commercial
fuels are fossil fuels, which are extracted, Natural gas would normally be the preferred fuel
treated/refined to varying degree and sold for burning in boiler plant if convenience alone is
nationwide by organizations such as oil companies. considered. It does not have to be stored; in
Waste fuels are by-products or adjuncts of common with all the gaseous hydrocarbons it
processing or domestic activities and are, mixes readily with combustion air to burn clearly;
obviously, only economically available locally. and, ideally, the products of combustion are just
water and carbon dioxide. These basic arguments
Factors other than simple conversion to heat must would seem to carry a great deal of weight because
also be considered, including those relating to: the globally the majority of new boiler and furnace
storage and handling of the fuels, maintenance, installations in recent years have been gas tired.
environmental impact etc. All of these influence
the overall efficiency and true cost of burning a The availability of an adequate gas supply at
fuel. individual sites needs to be checked in advance as
local constraints in the distribution system can
sometimes lead to delays in providing a
4.1 PIPELINE GAS connection. A second factor is safety. Complying
• with legislation regarding the supply and use of gas
Because gas mixes so readily with air and burns involves some specialised equipment that has to
without producing smoke and soot, boiler and be maintained.
13
Thirdly, burning gas does cause pollution. While operational and maintenance costs. The storage
the pollutants do not include smoke or noxious tanks involved are pressure vessels and therefore
substances, they do include gases that contribute subject to both annual and long-term inspection
to the so-called greenhouse effect. Gas, being and testing. If a customer owns his own tanks he is
composed predominantly of methane, is in itself responsible for carrying out all inspections and
one such gas. Carbon dioxide, which is produced tests at his own expense. In practice, many
by the combustion of all fuels, is another: its customers lease or rent the tanks from the fuel
production is not only unavoidable but also suppliers, eliminating both this responsibility and
desirable as its presence indicates complete also that of general maintenance.
combustion of the gas. However, pipeline gas also
produces oxides of nitrogen (NOx). This is The second major difference is that LPG is heavier
because the gas burns at high temperatures and than air. If natural gas, which is lighter than air,
this provides the additional energy necessary to escapes, all sources of ignition should be removed
make the oxygen and nitrogen in the air combine. and windows opened: it will then disperse
naturally. LPG, on the other hand, may find its way
As regards the pricing of gas, the actual price that down into pipe ducts, cable tunnels, drains, cellars
a customer will pay, as for any fuel, depends on the etc., and will not disperse unless forced to using a
amount used and the type of supply, and can vary fan. This characteristic influences the location of
over a wide range. Prices are generally competitive storage tanks in relation to buildings, hollows,
with oil products, for example with gas oil for firm drains, cellars etc. and plant location may be
gas supplies and with heavy fuel oil for affected.
interruptible supplies. Continued plant operation
during interruptions of an interruptible supply
requires a boiler to be dual-fuel fired usually with 4.3 FUEL OIL
oil as an alternative. In firing these two fuels the •
burner would normally be set to achieve the most Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons.
effective results on gas, because gas is used for The other fuel users mainly require the lighter
most of the year, with oil firing only on the few fuels – petrol, kerosene, diesel, oil, gas oil etc. This
days of interruption sometimes experienced. ‘end of the barrel’ also provides the main
feedstock requirement for the petrochemicals and
plastics industries. However, the primary
4.2 LIQUID PETROLEUM GAS separation of oil provides mainly the heavier more
viscous fuel oils, which potentially cause problems
• in storage, handling, combustion and
Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) is used to describe environmental pollution.The main advance of fuel
two fuels: propane and butane. In practice the vast oil, on the other hand, derives from the fact that
majority of installations use propane. All the these heavier fractions tend to be cheaper.
general comments about natural gas apply equally
to LPG. Problems relating to fuel oil storage include both
the capital cost of the storage tanks and the
One major difference between the two fuels is problem of handling the oil. Fuel oils are viscous
that LPG requires both storage facilities and the liquids, which become thicker and more
special precautions needed in relation to leakages. intransigent the colder they become. Gas oil, the
The first can be very significant in terms of both lightest and least viscous of the fuels, will usually
the capital cost of a project and its overall remain in liquid form no matter how cold the
14
winter. This either allows it to flow under gravity efficiency. The uncontrolled overheating of oil can
from the tank to the burner or enables it to be be very expensive, and uninsulated or poorly
easily pumped. This holds true unless prolonged insulated tanks or pipes are also a major waster of
periods of cold weather occur where the energy.
temperature remains below freezing for a week or
more. Under these conditions, some of the waxes Considerable energy is wasted if all the oil in a
contained in the oil begin to alter into sticky solids. tank is heated to the required pumping
Typically, these solids build up on the filters in the temperature, and it is also bad practice to have
burner supply line, eventually blocking them. too much hot oil circulating and not being used by
Although this is an infrequent occurrence, some the burners. A well designed hot oil ring main
exposed sites have installed electric trace heating circulates sufficient oil plus about 10% in order to
on the filters and/or the external distribution meet the maximum demand for all the burners it
pipework as a precaution. serves. Fresh oil is drawn from the storage tank as
required, but the storage tank never forms part of
The heavier grades of oil require heating in order the basic circulation system thereby allowing all
to remove them from the tank at all.To reduce the the oil to heat up to the pumping temperature.
amount of energy required for pumping the oil to This ensures that both the size and the capital and
the burners, an appropriate pumping temperature running costs of the oil heaters are kept to a
should be maintained. practical minimum.
Table 2 shows the recommended minimum The penalty of this oil heating requirement is that
storage temperatures for the different grades of it is uneconomic to use these heavier grades of
oil and also the minimum temperatures for fuel oil on small boiler plant. Below 3 MW heavy
optimising pumping costs.The temperatures given oil would be inefficient and, for bunker oil, 20 MW
in this table, especially for the heaviest oils are only is probably the lower limit. However, the market
meant as an indication. With the exception of gas price for the heavier fuel oils over recent years has
oil, the general trend is for the heavier and more encouraged their greater use.
viscous oil grades to require higher storage and
pumping temperatures. Provided that a grade of fuel oil is delivered to the
burner in good condition and at the correct
The oil is heated either electrically or by taking temperature for the burner, the production of
steam from the boiler, thereby reducing its overall smoke or carbon monoxide should be minimal.
15
The fact that all fuel oils contain some sulphur furnace plant itself, the capital cost incurred
means that sulphur oxides (SOx) are produced includes bunkerage, coal handling equipment, and
during combustion. Such gases are now facilities for ash removal, handling and storage.
considered to contribute to the global pollution Operational costs are high because, despite
problem. Oil, however, burns at a lower considerable development efforts by plant
temperature than the gaseous fuels and therefore manufacturers to reduce the labour component, it
produces less NOx gases. is rare that coal fired plants are ever fully
automated and unmanned.
16
Table 4: Calorific values of Some Fuels
Advantages
Advantages
Advantages
17
5. combustion equipment: oil and
gas burners
•••••••••
In order to ensure the proper mixing of fuels with Many boilers are equipped with combination
combustion air and the correct flame shape, for natural gas and oil burners with the second fuel
maximum heat transfer from the flame to the used as back up for the prime fuel.
water/steam or heated product, specialized
equipment is used. The type of equipment is
dependent on the furnace/boiler conditions and 5.2 OIL BURNERS
the fuel or fuels of choice. (Boilers and furnaces
can be set up to fire more than one fuel.)
•
Oil burners are more complicated because the
fuel has to be in the right condition for clean and
rapid combustion. This entails atomising the oil
5.1 GAS BURNERS into small droplets of the correct size, which can
only be done if the oil is at the right temperature
• and therefore the right viscosity. At too low a
Apart from the safety requirements in their temperature the droplets are too big: combustion
design, gas burners are essentially simple. Very is poor and produces soot and smoke. At too high
small boilers use a simple atmospheric burner, a temperature the droplets can be too small,
which entrains its combustion air from its passing through the flame too rapidly to burn. In
surroundings. However, as the air and gas are not neither case is the full energy content of the fuel
forced to mix, surplus air is required to ensure being used: furthermore, the heat transfer surfaces
complete combustion. This surplus is heated and become fouled.
then passes out via the flue, thereby reducing
boiler efficiency. Oil burners are of three basic types. The simplest
and most widely used is the pressure jet where
A larger boiler with a fully enclosed combustion the oil is pumped at pressure through a nozzle.
chamber needs a burner that will force the air and The air or steam blast type uses gas pressure to
gas to mix thereby controlling the length and shatter the oil into droplets, while the Rotary Cup
shape of the flame.The quantity of combustion air uses centrifugal force to break the oil up. Each
can be precisely controlled to maximise type of burner has its benefits and disadvantages.
combustion efficiency.
Natural gas mixes readily with air.The ring-type gas 5.2.1 PRESSURE JET
burner consists of a circular barrel ringed with
multiple outlet ports. The “spud” type burner Advantages:
consists of a ring of 4 to 8 single barrels, each with • Very simple in construction and cheap to
a widened end containing multiple outlet ports. In replace.
either case the register surrounds the barrels with • Comes in many sizes to suit most
air. applications.
18
• Can produce all flame shapes from ‘long country have to meet statutory safety and
and thin’ to ‘short and fat’ so can fit all emission standards.
types of boiler or furnace combustion
chamber.
5.2.4 LOW EXCESS AIR BURNERS
Disadvantages:
• Prone to clogging by dirty oil so needs
fine filtration. Standard natural gas and oil burners operate at 10
• Limited turndown ratio of only 2:1. to 15 per cent excess air at full capacity and higher
• Easily damaged during cleaning. excess values at lower firing rates. The increasing
• Highest oil pre-heat temperature requi- excess air with decreasing firing rate phenomenon
red for atomisation. results from burner registers, which are fixed at
settings that provide best results at full capacity.
Low excess air burners permit operation at 2 to 5
per cent excess air. A reduction of excess air from
5.2.2 AIR OR STEAM BLAST 15 to 5 per cent would reduce fuel costs by
ATOMISER almost 1 per cent.These savings result from higher
cost features as follows:
Advantages:
• Very robust in construction. • Better design of the air diffusers, air
• Good turndown ratio of 4:1. register, and burner, which achieve better
• Good control of the combustion air/fuel mixing and combustion.
over the whole firing range. • Burner registers which are modulated
• Good combustion of the heavier fuel oils. with the tiring rate to provide better
combustion at firing rates below 100 per
Disadvantages: cent.
• Energy used either as compressed air or
as steam for atomisation.
5.3 BURNER CONTROLS
•
5.2.3 ROTARY CUP In conjunction with the choice of burner type,
consideration must be given to the control system
required. The simplest ON/OFF control means
Advantages: either that the burner is firing at full rate or that it
• Good turndown ratio of better than 4:1. is off.The major disadvantage with this method of
• Good atomisation of heavy fuel oils. control is that the boiler is subject to large and
• Lowest oil pre-heat temperature required often frequent thermal shocks every time the
for atomisation. boiler tires. Its use is therefore limited to small
boilers with an output up to 300 kW.
Disadvantages:
• Most complex and costly to maintain. Slightly more complex is the HIGH/LOW/OFF
• Electrical consumption required for the system where the burner has two firing rates.The
cup drive. burner operates first at the lower tiring rate and
then switches to full firing as needed, thereby
Oil and gas burners produced or sold in this overcoming the worst of the thermal shock. The
19
burner can also revert to the low-fire position at In matching a burner and a control system to a
reduced loads, again limiting thermal stresses boiler three factors must be taken into
within the boiler. Typically this type of system is consideration.
fitted to boilers with an output of up to 3.5 MW.
• The maximum output of the plant:
A modulating burner control will alter the firing rate • Whether the load is steady or fluctuating:
to match the boiler load over the whole turndown • The fuel being used.
ratio. Every time a burner shuts down and restarts,
the system must be purged by blowing cold air
through the boiler passages: this wastes energy and An ON/OFF control, for instance, is not suitable
reduces efficiency. Full modulation, however, means for heavy fuel oil
that the boiler keeps firing, and fuel and air are
carefully matched over the whole firing range to The basic choices as they relate to oil burners are
maximise thermal efficiency and minimise thermal summarised in Figure 7. There is always some
stresses.Typically this type of control can be fitted to overlap between burner types and control system
boilers above 1 MW. types but the preferred combinations are outlined.
Figure 7:Type of fuel oil with recommended burners and controls. (Source: ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 67. Figure 38.)
20
6. combustion equipment:
solid fuel combustion
•••••••••
Because carbon burns fairly slowly and coal needs Stokers are classified according to the manner in
to be in the combustion chamber for a relatively which the fuel reaches the fuel bed. In an underfed
long period for the air to reach it and cause stoker, the fuel and air enter the burning zone
complete combustion, many forms of stoker (for from beneath the bed. Overfed stokers have the
transferring coal to the grate) have been fuel entering the combustion zone from above, in
developed. Some have experienced periods of the opposite direction to the airflow. The
popularity and have now declined, while others spreader-type overfeed stoker delivers fuel so that
have stood the test of time. a portion burns in suspension while the remainder
falls and burns on the moving grate.
Coals from different pits or washeries can have
very different combustion properties.
Furthermore, coals from the same pit that have 6.2 CHAIN GRATE STOKER
been stocked for long periods are very different
from newly mined coal. As a result a boiler
•
The chain grate stoker has for many years been
combustion system must be regularly adjusted to the most widely used method for firing coal on
maximise energy conversion. In the following medium sized industrial and commercial boilers,
section only those types of stoker that would be even though it is relatively expensive to buy,
fitted to a boiler with an output of 1.5 MW and operate and maintain. To reduce operating costs
above are considered. Below this level there is equipment manufacturers are working to develop
limited choice: each boiler comes with its own a fully automatic system requiring little or no
proprietary form of stoker, screw feeding the coal intervention from trained operators.
either onto the top of the fire or pushing it up
from below. The coal is fed onto one end of a moving steel
belt. As the belt moves along the length of the
Three basic types of stoking system are commonly furnace, the coal burns before dropping off the
used with the larger boilers - two of them end as ash. Some degree of skill is required,
traditional designs and one a relatively modern particularly when setting up the grate, air dampers
development. and baffles, to ensure clean combustion leaving the
minimum of unburnt carbon in the ash and to
achieve maximum heat transfer in the furnace
6.1 STOKERS chamber.
•
Stokers are mechanical devices that burn solid fuel This type of stoker will only operate effectively
in a bed at the bottom of a combustion chamber. using certain types and qualities of coal. Coal must
They are designed to permit continuous or be uniform in size, as large lumps will not burn out
intermittent fuel feed, fuel ignition, adequate completely by the time they reach the cod of the
supply of combustion air, release of gaseous grate. Furthermore, small pieces or ‘fines’ may
products, and disposal of ash. block the air passages in the grate and make it
21
more difficult for combustion air to reach the coal. de-ashed by hand. Effort has been put into
The grate also relies on having a layer of ash on developing an automatic de-ashing system but,
top of it to protect it from the highest obviously, this has considerably eroded the
temperatures of the burning coal, so using coals sprinkler stoker’s price advantage.
with a very low ash content will result in rapid
grate damage. Like the chain grate stoker, this type of stoker is
selective with regard to fuel size. ‘Fines’ in the coal
are picked up by the combustion air and flue gases
6.3 SPRINKLER STOKER and carried through the boiler. This can cause
considerable erosion within the boiler and result
• in high grit emissions from the stack.
The sprinkler stoker is an original mechanical
stoker system, which has been brought up to date.
The principle is to spread fresh coal on top of an
6.4 FLUIDISED BED
already, burning firebed. Once the system has been
set up to spread this coal evenly it is simple to COMBUSTION
operate and has many fewer mechanical parts to •
maintain than the chain grate stoker. Fluidised bed combustion is the most recent coal-
burning technology, the fuel being fed onto a hot,
air-agitated bed of refractory sand.This system has
Many units of this type have been manufactured
two main advantages:
with control systems very similar to those for gas
or oil-fired boilers. Fuel feed rate and combustion
1. It is much less selective in terms of fuel quality
air are adjusted in parallel to give a turndown ratio
and can burn not only very poor coal with a
of 3:1.The chain crate stoker can also achieve this
high ash content but even industrial or
but the sprinkler can be regulated much more
commercial waste.
quickly.
2. The lower combustion temperature involved
allows cheaper materials and refractories to be
This type of stoker was popular initially because it used in its construction.
was very much cheaper than the chain grate
equivalent. Its main drawback was that it had to be However, this technology is still new and is in the
experimental stage in South Africa.
•••••••••
22
7. energy saving equipment
••••••••••••••
A short description of common equipment used LMTD = Logarithmic mean tempe-
for saving energy in boilers and furnaces follow. In rature difference (ºC)
some cases these are discussed further under the 3.6 = Conversion factor from
energy savings sections of either boilers or watts to kilojoules per hour
furnaces. LMTD = T1 – T2
LMTD =
T1
23
Figure 8:Tempering Air Heat Exchanger. (Source: Canadian Gov.)
(Energy Management Series 7. Page 18. Figure 11.)
Example of savings
3
A heat exchanger is to be added to a dryer which is exhausting 450 000 m /h of moist air at 100ºC.The
3
exhausted air is used to heat up 350 000 m /h of incoming air from an ambient temperature of 10ºC to
85ºC, which is within 15ºC of the hot exhausted air (Figure 8). The heat exchanger design has a heat
2
transfer coefficient quoted by the manufacturer of 28 W/(m ·ºC). Heat given up by the exhausted air is
equal to the heat gained by the incoming air, since there are no significant heat losses in a heat exchanger
3
of this type. Density of air at standard conditions is 1.204 kg/m , and specific heat is 1.006 kJ/(kg·ºC). The
surface area of the heat exchanger required can be calculated as follows:
Cold air heat gain (Q) = Volumetric flow x Density x Specific heat x Temperature rise
3 3
= 350 000 m /h x 1.204 kg/m x 1.006 kJ/(kg·ºC) x (85-10)ºC.
6
= 31.79 x 10 kJ/h
Exhaust air heat loss = Volumetric flow x Density x Specific heat x Temperature drop
= 450 000 x 1.204 x 1.006 x (100ºC – Tout) kJ/h
24
Heat exchanger exhaust temperature,Tout = 100ºC – 58.3ºC = 41.7ºC
Maximum temperature differential, T1 = 41.7ºC – 10ºC
= 31.7ºC
Minimum temperature differential, T2 = 100ºC – 85ºC = 15ºC
If the cold air is heated to within 5ºC of the exhausted moist air instead of 15ºC, the size of the heat
exchanger required in increased considerably.The calculations are as follows:
3 3
Cold air heat gain = 350 000 m /h x 1.204 kg.m x 1.006 kJ/(kg·ºC) x (95 – 10)ºC
6
= 36.03 X 10 kJ/h
6
(100ºC – Tout) = 36.03 x 10
(100ºC – Tout) =
(100ºC – Tout) = 450 000 x 1.204 x 1.006
= 66.1ºC
6
Surface Area (A) = 36.03 x 10
Surface Area (A) =
Surface Area (A) = 28 x 12.1 x 3.6
2
= 29 541 m
25
It should be noted that the reduction in the temperature differential to 5ºC would require the heat
exchanger area to be slightly more than doubled. An increase in design temperature rise of the incoming
air from (85ºC – 10 0ºC) = 750C to (95ºC – 10ºC) = 85ºC results in an increase in heat recovery of
(85˚ C – 75˚ C)
(85˚ C – 75˚ C) x 100 = 13%
75˚ C
A careful analysis of capital costs and savings in fuel costs for different possible heat exchanger sizes is
important.
26
Figure 9: Energy loss from furnace or boiler wall as a function of wall temperature.
(Source: Canadian Gov.) (Energy Management Series 7. Page 23. Figure 12.)
A significant development in this field, for furnaces, CO2 monitoring equipment used by a well trained
has been the use of ceramic fibre insulation, which and intelligent boiler operator is still the best
is a better insulator than solid refractory material method of limiting excess air and hence increasing
and also requires less heat to reach the operating efficiency.
temperature. The disadvantages are higher initial
cost and low resistance to physical damage. A layer The production of the ‘zirconium cell’ for O2
of refractory on the bottom of the furnace and detection has made available a reliable measuring
other areas subject to damage is normally used to system, and this has resulted in the development
protect the ceramic fibre. Further layers of of various systems, which automatically control the
ceramic fibre insulation can be installed on the amount of excess air, thereby overcoming
outside of the refractory as required. variations in the fuel and air parameters. Using
these oxygen detection feedback controllers,
usually termed oxygen trim control, allows much
lower excess air levels to be achieved throughout
7.4 O2 ANALYSERS the operating range.
•
Systems for checking the O2 or CO2 content of a The simplest systems use the feedback signal to
boiler flue gas have been available for a long time adjust the combustion air damper via a secondary
but, historically, none have been sufficiently reliable (‘tory’) linkage. The most sophisticated systems
to be incorporated in an automatic control feed directly back to a microprocessor unit, which
strategy. Portable or permanently installed O2 or sets the combustion air/fuel ratio.
27
7.5 VARIABLE SPEED FAN In the past the main problems encountered
included designing dampers that were virtually gas
DRIVES tight, and incorporating a control system that
• would prevent the boiler firing against a closed
Popular in Europe and Japan are variable speed damper. Today, automatic gas-tight shut-off
drives for motors.They are used in this context, to dampers for installation in a boiler exit flue are
drive combustion air fans. By varying their speed widely available. In the case of forced draught (FD)
(together with electrical input) to match air oil and gas burners a cheaper alternative is
required electrical energy can be saved during available, particularly for retrofit situations: this
periods of partial load. Conventionally the airflow involves the installation of an automatic damper at
is limited via dampers, while the motor runs at a the combustion air fan inlet.
fixed speed. At low loads this can lead to a
disproportionately high electricity demand.
Variable speed drives are economically less 7.7 WASTE HEAT BOILERS
attractive in South Africa due to relatively low •
electricity charges. Waste heat boilers use hot flue gas to produce
steam. In most instances there is a common steam
header into which the waste heat and fuel fired
boilers are connected. The fuel fired boilers will
7.6 FLUE GAS DAMPERS then supply the difference between the steam
• demand and the steam supplied by the waste heat
boiler.
For situations where boilers or furnaces are
regularly shut down because of changes in load,
Economizers are often used with waste boilers to
the heat loss caused by the chimney effect
preheat the feedwater to the boiler. The hot flue
drawing cold air through the boiler can be
gas passes through the boiler before going to the
significant.This is particularly true when a number
economizer.
of units are connected to a common header and
are operated in a cascade manner.
•••••••••
28
8. POLLUTION
••••••••••••••
Sulphur compounds produced by combustion, conventional fuel. Again, it could to some extent
escape into the atmosphere and have various be removed either by wet scrubbing or by
effects. These include the production of acid rain absorption. The current emphasis is on improving
and ambient pollution that is hazardous to human overall combustion efficiency so that less fuel is
health. It has also been postulated that other burned: this, in turn, reduces the production of
products of combustion, such as CO2 are causing CO2.
global problems, and this has led to an emphasis
on ‘Green’ policies in many countries. Particulate emissions are considered to be the
most ‘dangerous’ in the South African context.
Combustion products which are widely report to Ambient particulate levels are high and believed
be damaging to the atmospheric environment are to be the most significant cause to poor
particulate emission, sulphur compounds (SOx), respiratory health among South Africans. While
nitrogen oxides (NOX), carbon dioxide (CO2), some particulates are emitted into the
methane (CH4) and nitrogen compounds (NOx). atmosphere others are caught in pollution control
equipment or (especially with larger particles) in
Although a process for producing low sulphur fuel the combustion equipment. This has to be
oils has been in existence for many years, it is responsibly managed.
expensive: it adds to the cost of a litre of oil and
leaves sulphur residues which have to be disposed The production of NOx can be restricted by
of without causing alternative forms of pollution. correct design of the combustion systems. The
Limestone, when burned with coal will, however, most significant problem occurs with those fuels
trap 80% or more of the sulphur released by the having the highest flame temperatures, i.e. fuel oil
fuel. The sulphur content of natural gas is very and gas. However in the case of coal a significant
small and nearly all of that is deliberately added as contributor to nitrogen oxide formation is the
the stenching agent (so that the gas can be nitrogen content of the fuel, which is generally
detected). higher than in oils and gas. A great deal of research
has gone into developing low excess air burners,
There are basically two systems for removing which have been shown to limit NOx production.
sulphur from flue gases: the wet scrubbing method
which washes the SOx out using water: and the Plant manufacturers are being compelled to
dry method of adsorbing the SOx onto limestone incorporate these new standards into their
type compounds. The wet process produces a designs. However, it is not enough for a boiler
dirty acid that has to be disposed of without operator merely to have bought plant, which
causing pollution, and the dry method produces meets the new standards: he will have to
quite large volumes of spent absorber, which, demonstrate that it achieves those standards in
again, must be disposed of safely. day-to-day operation.
CO2 is inevitably formed as a result of burning any It is also recognized that ash and grit from coal-
29
fired equipment contain undesirable substances vortex separator.Their use is now limited
such as heavy metals etc. These also offer the to small stoker-fired units because of their
potential for environment pollution, and their low collection efficiency of very small
disposal and dumping will similarly be subject to particles.
greater control in the future.
• Electrostatic filters precipitators electrically
charge suspended particles in the gas and
8.1 ENVIRONMENTAL then attract them to collecting plates with
an electric field. The collecting plates are
EQUIPMENT then trapped to cause the particles to
• drop into hoppers. Precipitators can be
8.1.1 ASH HANDLING EQUIPMENT designed for a high collecting efficiency of
98 per cent or more.
•••••••••
30
9. BOILERS
••••••••••••••
The boilers considered in this guide are limited to Although different types of boiler appear to vary
those that produce either steam or hot water considerably in their construction, all boilers
from the combustion of a fuel. While electrode consist basically of a furnace chamber in which
boilers are used for generating steam from heat is transferred directly from the flame by
electricity, they are not considered here. The radiation, and flue gas passages where the heat is
majority of energy savings measures described primarily transferred by convection to water being
below are limited only to combustion processes heated. Two-thirds of the heat transfer to the
and are not applicable to electrode boilers. The water takes place in the furnace and the remaining
exceptions to this include issues relating to blow- third in the flue gas passages. Heat not transferred
down and insulation. These concepts may be is lost in various forms.
applied to saving energy in electrode boilers with
minor adjustments. There are two fundamental types of boiler: the
water tube type where the water is contained in
pipes and the hot combustion gases pass around
them; and the shell or fire tube type where the
9.1. TYPES OF BOILERS opposite is true. All other boilers are derivatives of
• these two types and have been designed to meet
There are various types of boilers that have either differing size or dimensional limitations, or
different configurations and run on various fuels. differing operational requirements.
The configurations are described below.
The boilers described below include:
If operated correctly, all types of modern boiler
are more or less equally efficient at converting fuel • water tube boilers,
into steam or hot water. Table 1 indicates the • multi-tubular shell boilers,
expected thermal efficiencies obtainable for • reverse flame or thimble boilers,
different boiler types, based on the gross calorific • steam generators,
value of the fuel. • sectional boilers,
31
• condensing boilers, MJ/h, which covers the normal size range of most
• modular boilers and boilers. For solid fuels, the boilers are site erected,
• composite boilers. as the large size of the combustion chamber and
fuel-firing equipment does not make shipment
possible.
9.1.1 WATER TUBE BOILERS
The water to be heated is carried inside banks of
steel tubes, with the hot gas on the outside of the
Water tube boilers tend nowadays to be tubes. The most common boilers consist of a
considered only for large steam outputs, which drum connected by vertical tubes (downcomers)
often require superheated steam. For most to a lower drum or header(s). The downcomers
industrial and commercial applications, however, a can be heated or unheated. A further set of tubes
multi-tubular shell boiler is more appropriate. Only (risers) connects the two drums and forms the
if the requirement is for an industrial output above walls of the combustion chamber (Figure 10).
20 MW and/or at pressures above 24 bar or Natural circulation begins when the heat supplied
steam temperatures above 340ºC is it necessary to the risers exceeds that supplied to the
to use a water tube boiler. downcomers, thereby producing a mix of steam
and water in the risers of less density than that of
The reason for this is that water tube boilers cost the water in the downcomers.
more to build for a given steam output than do
multi-tubular shell boilers. The shell boiler can be The traditional water tube boiler relies on water
entirely factory fabricated, mounted on a skid with circulation occurring as a result of the thermal-
all its associated equipment (such as feedwater siphon effect: the hot water to the boiler is lighter
pump. burner. and control panel), and then and rises, drawing in colder water at the bottom
delivered direct to site. The output and pressure to replace it. A variation that allows for a more
limits for the shell boiler are, however, determined compact design using smaller diameter tubes is the
by the feasibility of transporting the completed forced circulation boiler, where the feedwater is
unit from the fabrication plant to the site. pumped through the water tubes.
The output from water tube units starts at about Hot water boilers are similar in appearance and
8.5 MW and rises to power-station-sized units operation to steam units. The circulation of water
rated at 2000 MW and above. At the bottom of through the tubes is achieved by pumping.
the range, units can be manufactured and
Water tube boilers are not often used for hot
delivered to the site in one piece.The larger units
water production. If they are used for this
are manufactured in sections and delivered for site
purpose, it is usually as a ‘Lamont’ boiler.The major
erection. A typical schematic of an industrial water
potential problem with this type of boiler occurs
tube boiler is shown in Figure 10.
whenever a power failure stops the circulation
pumps, especially in the case of coal fired plant,
steam is generated within the tubes and this can
9.9.1.1 PACKAGED WATER TUBE lead to overheating of the metal, softening and
BOILERS subsequent tube failure unless the fire can rapidly
be drawn and cooling air can be provided at the
Natural gas or oil fired units are usually delivered convective tube bank. This type of plant cannot
as factory assembled “packaged” boilers. Packaged therefore be used in a fully automated, unmanned
boilers range in size from about 1500 to l90 000 boiler house.
32
Figure 10:Water Tube Boiler with Natural Convection. (Source: ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 49. Figure 28.)
Figure 11: Forced Water Circulation Water Tube Boiler. (Source: ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 50. Figure 29.)
33
One of the main advantages of the water tube As materials and manufacturing processes
boiler in the 10-20 MW range, where it is in direct improved, thinner metal came to be used for the
competition with the shell boiler, is its ability to tubes allowing more tubes to be accommodated.
react rapidly to load changes.The water tube unit At this stage in its development the basic boiler
contains only a fraction of the water in a shell was rather long and thin and required a large
boiler so the thermal inertia of the system is much boiler house area. By making the hot gases go
smaller. backwards and forwards through a series of tubes,
the boilers were designed to be shorter and fatter,
Water tube boilers can be tired using any and heat transfer rates were improved. The
individual conventional fuel or they can operate as modern multi-tubular packaged boiler is the logical
multi-fuel units. conclusion to this evolutionary process. The
packaged boiler is so called because it comes as a
All watertube boilers are capable of operating complete package. Once delivered to site it
continuously at any load, from about 15 to 100 requires only the steam, water pipework, fuel
per cent of the rated capacity.The highest thermal supply and electrical connections to be made for
efficiency normally occurs at about 85 per cent of it to become operational.
rated capacity, with efficiencies falling more
significantly at loads lower than 60 per cent. The These boilers are classified by the number of
small internal water capacity permits quick passes - the number of times the hot combustion
response to sudden steam demand changes, and gases pass through the boiler. The combustion
frequent start-up and shutdown operation. chamber is taken as the first pass after which there
may be one two or three sets of fire-tubes. The
The best energy utilization of a watertube boiler most common boiler is, a three-pass unit as shown
results from steady demand at 85 per cent of in Figure 12 with two sets of fire-tubes and the
rated capacity with the avoidance of sudden exhaust gases exiting through the rear of the
swings in demand or frequent shutdowns. boiler. Older two-pass units transfer heat less
efficiently, fewer fire-tubes giving a smaller heat
transfer and the flue gases still containing
9.1.2 MULTI-TUBULAR SHELL considerable heat when they leave the boiler.
Many such units have had equipment fitted to
BOILERS recover some of this potentially lost heat into the
boiler feedwater.
These are essentially shell and tube heat
exchangers where the combustion gas passes Four-pass units are potentially the most thermally
through tubes immersed in water. Firetube boilers efficient but fuel type and operating conditions
usually burn natural gas or oil, although some, with may prevent their use. When this type of unit is
a firebox type of combustion chamber, can be fired with heavy fuel oil or coal at reduced output,
installed on top of a coal or wood burning stoker. the heat transfer can be too good. As a result the
They can generate dry saturated steam or hot exit flue gas temperature can fall too low causing
water up to a maximum pressure of 1700 kPa corrosion of the flues and chimney and possibly of
(gage). The output ranges from 350 to 28 000 the boiler itself. The four-pass boiler unit is also
MJ/h. The boilers are shop assembled and subject to high thermal stresses especially if large
delivered with integral burner, forced draft fan, and load swings occur suddenly: these can lead to
controls. stress cracks or failures within the boiler structure.
34
Figure 12: Schematic of multi-tubular three-pass boiler. (Source: ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 51. figure 30.)
Another classification is related to the chamber at a coal stoking system but also from the very
the end of the combustion chamber before the different flame temperatures and combustion
hot gases enter the fire-tubes. If this chamber is characteristics of the various fuels. Older units
entirely contained within the water shell it is were also separately designed for gas and oil firing,
classified as a ‘wet-back’ boiler, and if the chamber again because of the combustion characteristics of
is refractory mounted on the outer plating of the the two fuels. Many of the older oil-fired units had
boiler the boiler is classified as a ‘dry-back’ unit.The to be de-rated when converted to gas firing:
wetback configuration reduces the number of fire- without this de-rating the temperature of the flue
tubes and hence, marginally, the boiler size by gases entering the first pass of tire-tubes was
increasing the heat transfer area at the point found to be too high, causing additional thermal
where the flue gases are hottest. Multi-tubular stress and leading to early boiler failure. Some of
shell boilers are available which will fire any of the the modern units, however, are manufactured with
conventional fuels or any form of industrial or an intermediate size of furnace tube and are
commercial waste. capable of firing all three fuels.
The original convention was to produce two types Recent design trends have been towards
of shell boiler: one with a small combustion incorporating many more fire tubes of a smaller
chamber and many fire-tubes for firing gaseous or diameter in the boilers to make them more
liquid fuels: and one with a larger diameter compact. However, one of the major advantages
combustion chamber and fewer fire-tubes for of the older types of shell boiler is their very large
firing solid fuels. The design variation resulted not water content which provides a large potential
only from the need for more space to incorporate steam reservoir during periods of rapidly
35
increasing load. The large water surface area also Multi-tubular shell boilers dominate the market for
results in drier steam. Modern designs eliminate outputs between 3 and 20 MW. Even below 3
this advantage, making shell boilers behave more MW, derivatives of this basic design predominate.
like water tube units, but at the same time the
lower water content of the modern boilers means
that they can generally be heated through and
9.1.3 REVERSE FLAME OR THIMBLE
brought on-line more quickly.
BOILERS
Boilers rated up in 12 MW are usually supplied with
a single burner or stoker and those between 12 and As indicated above, the major problem with multi-
20 MW with two burners or stokers, each in a tubular shell boilers is thermal stress brought
separate furnace chamber. In some of these twin about by differential expansion. The expansion of
furnace units the flue gases from each chamber are the furnace tube is much higher than for the first
kept separate until they meet at the boiler exit.The pass of smoke tubes - and this, again, is higher than
advantage of this is that it is possible to operate the for the second pass. This puts stress on the tube
plant with only one burner firing, giving a much plates supporting each end of the boiler.
lower minimum output from the boiler. If the flue gas
passages are combined, single burner firing may The reverse flame or thimble boiler is an attempt
result in the flue gas temperature falling too low, to reduce the problem by using a ‘floating’
thereby causing corrosion. combustion chamber. As shown in Figure 13 the
36
combustion chamber is only attached to the front a cold start-up. They therefore react very quickly
tube plate. to load fluctuations.
These boilers are still classified as three-pass units Unlike the conventional water tube boiler there is
but two passes occur within the combustion no steam/water separation header drum (Figure
chamber as the flame reverses and only one pass 14). The water, as it is pumped through the
involves convective fire-tubes. In practice the combustion chamber, partially flashes into steam,
additional heat transfer from the second pass and then passes through a steam separator so that
through the combustion chamber is relatively low dry process steam is available.The water from the
making this design little better than a two-pass separators is then returned to the feedwater for
conventional shell boiler recirculation.
The other main advantage of the reversing flame Heat transfer rates can be improved by reducing
is that it reduces the length of combustion the stagnant layers of gases and water that adhere
chamber required making the boiler more to both sides of a heat transfer surface: stirring or
compact. Space is often a problem when hot increasing the turbulence can achieve this.
water or steam boilers are installed within existing Fundamental to the design of a steam generator is
boiler-houses or buildings, so the relatively small the maintenance of a high level of turbulence in
floor area required by a thimble boiler can be an both the water and the flue gases: this ensures
advantage. high heat release rates and good thermal
efficiency.
As there are relatively few short fire-tubes in the
Its small physical size, lightweight construction and
final pass, heat transfer rates are low resulting in
rapid steaming potential make this type of boiler
high flue gas exit temperatures. Heat transfer can
especially suitable for decentralised steam
be improved by increasing the turbulence within
distribution systems. It does, however, have two
the flue gases, and many manufacturers fit metal
disadvantages: because of its very high evaporation
spirals or ‘turbulators’ within the tubes to improve
rate good feedwater quality is essential, usually
efficiency.
necessitating the use of demineralised water;
secondly, the steam generator does not cope well
Units of this type are currently manufactured for
with high impulse steam loads.
both steam and hot water production and are
available in the 150 kW – 3 500 kW range. The
Where a high peak demand occurs for a relatively
flame-shape requirement means that only fuel oil
short period it is better practice to fit a smaller
or gases can be used, and most boilers of this type
steam generator together with a steam
operate most efficiently when fired by fuel oil.
accumulator, which gives a reserve of steam similar
to that, provided by a conventional shell boiler
37
equipment is installed requiring steam at, say, 10 the generation of low and medium temperature
bar, and if the existing distribution system is at 7 hot water (LTHW and MTHW). Within the 10-
bar, a single generator dedicated to that new 30kW output range only small steel and steel
equipment could readily be installed. The sectional boilers provide any competition. At
alternative is to increase the existing distribution higher output levels there is competition first from
pressure, which may not be possible from an modular and condensing boilers (subsequently
engineering point of view: even if it is feasible, heat described) and then from the thimble boiler up to
and leakage losses will significantly increase. about 750 kW.
9.1.5 SECTIONAL BOILERS The major advantage of the cast iron sectional unit is
that it is much more resistant to corrosion than an
Cast iron sectional boilers are an oddity in that equivalent steel boiler when flue gas temperatures fall
they do not obviously fall into one of the two too far. When firing natural gas or LPG this
fundamental boiler categories described above. In consideration is trivial, but it is of much greater
principle, however, they more closely resemble a significance when firing fuel oil or coal. Another
shell boiler. advantage is that the method and the robustness of its
construction reduces the effect of thermal stress
For many years cast iron sectional boilers making it ideal for small space-heating applications
dominated the low output end of the market for where the burner will fire ‘on’ and ‘off’ quite frequently.
38
To some extent the cast iron boiler’s pre- level to avoid condensation and corrosion. For
eminence is being challenged by stainless steel LTHW applications, with water temperatures of
welded boilers which are more compact, much 80ºC and below, this has always proved impossible
lighter in weight and more energy efficient. in practical terms and, as indicated in the previous
However, the former unit still offers a cheap and section, the solution has been the widespread use
very tolerant package suited to LTHW of cast iron sectional boilers.
applications.
The cooled combustion products of natural gas
are only very slightly corrosive compared with oil
9.1.6 CONDENSING BOILERS or coal.This means that all the heat - both sensible
heat and the latent heat of the water vapour
The problem of corrosion caused by condensing produced during combustion - can safely be
flue gases has plagued boiler designers for many recovered, and condensing boilers have therefore
years. Hot flue gases may be wasteful from an become a practical alternative. These basically
energy point of view but their natural buoyancy in involve the incorporation of a heat exchanger in
a chimney means that combustion air is drawn the exhaust flue as shown in Figure 15.
into the boiler and flue gases can be removed
without using electrical energy to drive fans. Until Because some corrosion will still occur, the original
recently, therefore, boilers were designed to designs used two different materials for the heat
maintain flue gas temperatures at a sufficiently high exchangers: cast iron and stainless steel. Stainless
39
steel heat exchangers are now more widely used 9.1.7 MODULAR BOILERS
because they are very much more compact and
so can be fitted to boilers as small as 30kW. Units
Where the demand for heat varies on an hourly,
are now manufactured up to 600 kW and the
daily and monthly basis, as with space heating for
principle can still be applied to larger units: in the
large commercial premises, the installation of a
latter case, the heat exchanger is referred to as a
single large boiler is not very efficient. A boiler is
condensing economiser.
most efficient when operating continuously at
about 85% of its rated output so. Under these
In general, these units are fired using natural gas or
circumstances, it is more energy efficient to install
LPG. As it is the sulphur content of the fuel that is
several smaller boilers and to operate only the
responsible for the corrosion, any low sulphur or
number necessary to meet the heat demand.
‘clean’ fuel can be used.The alternative is to clean
the flue gases before the flue vapour is condensed,
so for larger boilers a condensing economiser The logical outcome of this reasoning is the
might be installed after a flue gas desulphurisation installation of ‘modular boilers’ consisting of a
process. number of identical small units controlled in
cascade fashion. The earliest systems used
The energy from the heat exchanger is used to conventional cast iron sectional or small steel shell
pre-heat the feedwater going to the boiler. The boilers and, for larger installations, this has
lower the feedwater temperature, the more heat remained the case. However, high-efficiency heat
is recovered by the heat exchanger thereby exchange units have been specifically designed for
increasing the efficiency of the complete boiler the lower end of the output range.
package. Figure 16 shows that efficiency
improvements of up to 10% are achievable. The advantage of modular systems is that the
40
many turndown stages allow individual units to cross between a shell boiler and a water tube
operate close to their maximum efficiency at all boiler. This type of boiler is used to burn two
times. In a well designed system no water different fuels - often a waste product or waste
circulates through the boiler when it is off, and this heat and a conventional hydrocarbon fuel. The
reduces the potential heat loss. Figure 17 shows waste or solid fuel is fired in one combustion
the type of pipework and valve layout that would chamber and the hot combustion gases pass to a
typically be installed. Such systems are under fully second combustion chamber where the
automatic control and are either oil or gas fired. conventional fuel is fired to make sure that total
combustion has been achieved. Depending on the
There is no upper limit to the maximum output design, the hot gases from the first chamber may
from a modular boiler set because, if more heat is pass over part of the boiler heat transfer surfaces
required, another boiler or heat exchanger unit before entering the second chamber. Alternatively,
can be added. The basic building blocks of the the gases may only pass through the boiler after
system start at about 10kW but units of 100kW combustion has been completed.
or more could equally be used. A full financial
assessment would be required to define the ideal It is becoming increasingly popular to take
modular boiler set for a particular potential advantage of the energy stored in various
installation. industrial and commercial wastes rather than to
41
composite boiler is one outcome of an ongoing hourly, a daily or a seasonal basis, will be met more
design and development programme for waste efficiently if several smaller boilers are installed.
burning boilers, which has been undertaken by
manufacturers. The third step is to identify the appropriate boilers
for the job. The flowchart in figure 18 offers
9.2 BOILER SYSTEM guidelines for the selection of steam boilers based
on the output and conditions required. Generally,
SELECTION for each output level several boiler choices are
• available.
This Guide has examined the various problems
associated with boilers, fuels and pollution. If all
these factors are taken into consideration, boiler Small boilers are fuelled only by gas or oil, so the
system selection becomes more difficult, and costing is fairly simple. All fuel options, however,
additional guidelines are required. are open in the case of the larger boilers so more
information on capital, operating and maintenance
The first decision involves the selection of a steam costs must be obtained either from equipment
or hot water system: the appropriate choice is manufacturers or, possibly, from existing plant
usually very clear.The next step is to evaluate the users. In all cases, when the selection of new or
overall size of the system and how the load is likely replacement boiler plant is undertaken
to fluctuate. A large steady load ideally requires consideration should be given to the installation of
large boilers, but a load, which fluctuates on an Combined Heat and Power (CRP) schemes.
Figure 18: Boiler selection flow chart for steam boilers. (Source ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 74. Figure 41.)
42
10. energy and cost saving for
boilers
•••••••••
10.1 POTENTIAL LOSSES
4
10.2 BOILER ENERGY
• BALANCE
To optimise the operation of boiler plant it is •
necessary to understand where energy wastage is The three sources of boiler heat energy input are
likely to occur. Figure 19 shows all the inputs and the fuel, feedwater and combustion air. The major
outputs for a typical oil or gas-fired boiler. With energy source is from the fuel, which can be
3
coal-fired plant there would be additional losses in expressed in terms of MJ/m for gas and MJ/L for
the heat and combustible content of the ash. For oil. In the case of some oils it is necessary to heat
an oil-fired steam boiler with the characteristics the oil in the storage tank sufficiently to permit
listed below an overall thermal efficiency of 75% is pumping and then heat it further prior to going to
normal under typical operating and maintenance the burner. The thermal energy of the oil as it is
procedures. delivered to the boiler should be added to the
higher heating value of the oil to represent the total
Boiler rating 2.7 MW
fuel energy input.
Steam Pressure 7 bar g
Feed Water Temperature 50ºC
Flue Gas Temperature 232ºC The feedwater temperature must also be
4
A comprehensive boiler heat balance is given in the appendix. This gives both the direct and indirect method for evaluating efficiency, and a
breakdown of the losses.
43
Figure 20: Boiler Energy Balance. (Source: ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 77. Figure 43.)
considered as part of the energy input (i.e. higher 10.3.1 MAINTENANCE SAVING
temperature feed-water requires less heat energy
OPPORTUNITIES
from the fuel to be converted to steam). The
feedwater temperature can be used to determine
this heat energy input level.The energy content of Some significant energy savings can be made by
the feedwater is the enthalpy (hf) as determined careful maintenance, specific examples are given
in steam tables corresponding to the feedwater below:
temperature.
1. Maintain proper burner adjustments. It is a good
Combustion air is normally drawn from within the idea to have an experienced burner
boiler plant, but it may be ducted from outside manufacturer’s representative adjust the
and heated with steam. A higher combustion air burners. The operator can then identify the
temperature will reduce the energy input required appearance of a proper burner flame for future
from the fuel. reference. The flame should be checked
frequently, and always after any significant
change in operating conditions.
10.3 MINIMIZING BOILER 2. Overhaul regenerative air heater seals. Excessive
LOSSES amounts of air can leak from the air side to the
• gas side of the air heater if the seals are in poor
Energy loss is a crucial topic in terms of efficient condition.This results in increased forced draft
boiler plant operation. The losses that follow fan power consumption and may reduce the
can be influenced by design and operating maximum boiler capacity.
factors. 3. Check boiler easing for hot spots.“Hot spots” are
an indication of excessive heat losses from the
The major controllable heat losses and hence boiler enclosure. The temperature of the
the target areas for improvement are detailed surface of the outer skin should not be more
below. than 50ºC, although higher temperatures may
44
be unavoidable where insulation cannot be is a tendency to increase the air flow to ensure
installed, such as around the burner assembly. that the fuel-air ratio will not become
Eliminating hot spots is a safety measure, and excessive for load changes or upset conditions.
will help to maintain comfortable working If the fuel-air ratio is too high, meaning that
conditions. there is a deficiency of combustion air, there is
4. Replace or repair missing and damaged a possibility of unstable combustion conditions,
insulation. Substantial quantities of heat are lost which could lead to a furnace “puff ”. A
from bare steam and hot water lines. properly operating combustion control system
5. Replace boiler doors and repair leaking door will permit operation at the lowest attainable
seals. Leakage of air or gas will create the same excess air level while maintaining proper
problems as described in Example 4. In combustion during load changes. Typically a
addition, an open furnace door will cause reduction in the excess air from 20 to 10 per
considerable heat loss by radiation of heat cent will increase the efficiency 1.5 per cent.
from the furnace to the outside.There is also a
danger that a furnace upset will cause hot gas
to be ejected suddenly through the opening to
create a personnel safety hazard.
10.3.2 BLOWDOWN HEAT LOSS
6. Repair malfunctioning steam traps. Steam traps
may fail in the open or the shut position. An This loss varies between 1% and 6% and depends
open steam trap will pass excessive quantities on a number of factors:
of steam to increase the heat loss. A closed
trap will not permit condensate to escape. If • total dissolved solids (TDS) allowable in the
the trap is connected to a heat exchanger, the boiler water:
heat exchanger will gradually fill with
condensate and eventually fail to operate. If the • the quality of the make-up water, which
heat exchanger is heating outside air, the depends mainly on the type of water treatment
condensate may freeze in winter and damage installed (e.g. base exchange softener or
the tubes of the unit. If the closed trap is demineralisation):
draining a steam line, excessive condensate
may build up in the line to cause water • the amount of uncontaminated condensate
hammer in the system.This may damage fittings returned to the boilerhouse:
and equipment. A regular steam trap
maintenance program is a very positive step • boiler load variations.
toward minimizing energy losses.
7. Calibrate and tune measurement and control Correct checking and maintenance of feedwater
equipment. A common cause of deteriorating and boiler water quality, maximising condensate
boiler efficiency is operation at higher excess return and smoothing load swings will minimise
air values than necessary. If the combustion the loss. The installation of blowdown heat
control system is not operating properly there recovery systems will help to control the loss.
EXAMPLE
Diverting the flash steam to the de-aerator and/or putting the blowdown water through heat exchangers
to heat the feedwater make-up can recover blowdown heat.
45
Consider a boiler evaporating 13 500 kg/h of dry saturated steam at 1400 kPa (absolute) with a blow-
down rate of 5 per cent.The feedwater is supplied to the boiler at 1500 kPa and l05ºC.
A study of the steam and feedwater systems shows that 75 per cent of the blowdown heat is recoverable.
The boiler operates 5000 hours per year and fuel costs R50/GJ.
Annual savings = 560317 x 0.75 x 5000 x 50
Annual savings = 6
Annual savings = 1 x 10
= R10 506
Blowdown heat recovery equipment including a heat exchanger to transfer heat from the blowdown
water to treated water make-up, plus the associated piping, costs in total about R150, 000.
Simple payback = R150000
Simple payback =
Simple payback = R105060
= 1.4 years
46
Figure 21: Radiation Loss from Boiler. (Source: Canadian Gov.)
(Energy Mangement Series 6. Page 13. Figure 12.)
Example 1
For example, consider a packaged watertube boiler with a full load rated output equivalent to 50 GJ/h
with all four furnace walls water cooled. From the chart, the heat loss due to radiation would be 0.65 per
cent of gross heat input. Note that if the boiler were operating at half capacity, the radiation loss would be
14 per cent of gross heat input. It can therefore be seen that a penalty will be paid, in increased percentage
radiation losses if a boiler is operated on part load for an extended period of time.The absolute heat loss
to the flue gas would be lower at part load, because the gas volume is lower. However, the overall boiler
efficiency would likely be lower.
The remaining 30% of heat transfer is by convection from the hot flue gases and this is determined mainly
by the flue gas velocity and degree of surface fouling.The fouling of heat transfer surfaces is a result of soot
and ash on the fire side and incorrect water treatment on the water side. In order to minimise the
thickness of the boundary layer limiting heat transfer rates modern shell boilers use smaller multiple tubes
and in some cases, induce additional turbulence to increase combustion gas velocity.
Example 2
Add insulation to areas previously left uninsulated or increase thickness in areas already insulated: Boilers
installed 15 to 20 years ago were sometimes insulated for reasons of personnel protection rather than
energy conservation. Insulation thickness was selected to give an outside casing temperature of 55ºC. If
additional insulation was added to reduce the skin temperature to 40ºC, the energy saving could amount
to at least 0.25 per cent of the annual fuel bill. Also, some areas out of the reach of operating staff may
not be insulated.
47
10.3.4 EXCESS AIR REDUCTION The effect on boiler efficiency of reducing excess
air is shown in Figure 22.
Figure 22: Increase in boiler efficiency per 1% reduction in excess air versus stack temperature.
(Source: ETSU) (Good Practice Guide 30. Page 78. Figure 45.)
NB the above settings are typical for boilers without low excess air combustion equipment.
48
Simply adjusting the excess air is not necessarily 10.3.4.2 AUTOMATIC CONTROLS
sufficient: the air must mix with the fuel at the
correct point. Almost all combustion systems use Automatic controls may be added to a boiler
two sources of combustion air: the air which system to ensure correct air ratios. In this case a
immediately mixes with the fuel to initiate number of factors, such as the boiler firing rate,
combustion (the primary air): and that used to can be incorporated within the system. The initial
complete the combustion (the secondary air). It is setting up of this type of computer-based system
essential that these are available in their correct requires the O2 at a number of firing rates to be
ratio to obtain complete, clean combustion. input, usually in the form of a straight line. Many
systems incorporate a self-learning capability,
Unless there is a system for regularly checking the which will modify the initial program, tailoring it
flue gas constituents, greater excess air has to be exactly to the characteristics of an individual boiler
used to allow for variations in the operating burner/stoker configuration.
parameters.These might include:
EXAMPLE
A boiler burning natural gas is operating at 60% excess air. Boiler efficiency has been tested and found to
be 77%. Annual fuel costs are R4 000 000. Recalibration of the controls and minor repairs to the burner
windbox dampers cost R20 000.These changes permit operation at 40% excess air.
A reduction in excess air from 60% to 40% results in a reduction in flue gas losses from 21% to 19% at a
flue gas temperature of 210ºC. Assuming that other losses and the flue gas temperature remain
unchanged, the boiler efficiency will be 79%.
Annual fuel cost at 40% excess air = R4 000 000 x 77 = R3 898 730
Annual fuel cost at 40% excess air = R4 000 000 x = R3 898 730
Annual fuel cost at 40% excess air = R4 000 000 x 79 = R3 898 730
Annual savings = R4 000 000 - R3 898 730
= R101 270
Payback = R20000 = 0.2 year (2.4 months)
Payback = = 0.2 year (2.4 months)
Payback = R101270 = 0.2 year (2.4 months)
By ensuring that the flame is of a clear bright colour and nearly fills the combustion chamber, and that
excess air is kept to a minimum, an increase in overall thermal efficiency of some 5% can be achieved.
49
Figure 23 shows the typical corrosion curve for a also been installed. These consist basically of a
fuel oil and indicates two temperature hands water jacket round the stack.
where severe corrosion will occur: around the
acid dew point, where concentrated acids The increase in overall thermal efficiency
chemically attack the metal, and around the water achievable by using recovered heat to increase the
dew point, at which point the acids are much feedwater temperature is shown in Figure 26. In
diluted and become even more corrosive. general, for every 1ºC increase in feedwater
temperature there is an approximate drop of 4ºC
All fuels display this pattern, but the upper or acid in the flue gas temperature.
dew point temperature depends on the amount
of sulphur present in the fuel (Figure 24). In order In the case of clean fuels with a minimal sulphur
to prevent corrosion becoming a significant content it is possible for flue gas exit temperatures
problem, either in the boiler or in the exit flue and to be below the water dew point temperature
chimney, a temperature above the acid dew point without causing significant corrosion problems, as
must be maintained. Most modern three-pass shell shown earlier for condensing boilers. A
boilers have flue gas exit temperatures around condensing economiser is merely an extension of
200ºC and, except when firing a clean fuel (i.e. this principle.
natural gas, LPC or gas oil), it is uneconomic to
attempt heat recovery. The introduction of an economizer into the boiler
breeching will increase the pressure drop in the
flue gas system. In a forced draft boiler, this may
mean the installation of a new forced draft fan, or
10.3.5.1 ECONOMISER INSTALLATION at least a new impeller and motor. The resultant
increase in combustion chamber pressure may
necessitate changes to the burner. In an induced
Flue gas economisers have been in use for a long draft system, the induced draft fan may be
time on both shell and water tube boilers of older changed, but the combustion chamber pressure
design. Most of these consist of large cast iron heat and burner will remain the same.There will be an
exchangers. Cast iron is used because it is more additional water-side pressure loss that may mean
resistant to the acid corrosion, which is inevitable a modification to the boiler feed pumps and
at start-up and shut-down. Figure 25 shows a motors. The temperature of the gas to the stack
simple schematic of a boiler economiser will be less, which reduces the stack draft.
arrangement. Feedwater piping modifications, economizer
support, and possible breeching modifications
Much simpler but less efficient economisers have must be evaluated.
Example
The analysis that follows is based on the actual addition of a free standing economizer to a forced draft
packaged water-tube boiler producing a maximum of 20 000 kg/h of superheated steam at 3100 kPa
(gauge).
The natural gas fired boiler operated with 10 per cent excess air, 300˚ C gas outlet temperature and a
50
tested efficiency of 80 per cent. Before conversion, the boiler’s annual fuel consumption was 292 780 GJ
at a cost of R42.4/GJ. The modification included changes to the F.D. fan, burners and feed pump motors.
The total cost of the project was reported to be R1 580 000 (1984).
After conversion, the excess air was still 10%, but the exit flue gas temperature had decreased to 180ºC.
The reduction in the flue gas heat loss would be equal to 4.8 per cent. An additional radiation loss of 0.2
per cent of the fuel input can be allowed for the economizer heat transfer efficiency of approximately 96
per cent.Thus, the heat recovered in the economizer = 4.8 - 0.2 = 4.6 per cent of fuel input.
= 234 224 GJ
= 276 860 GJ
Generally the potential for energy saving will depend on both the type of boiler installed and the fuel used.
For a typical older-model shell boiler with a flue gas exit temperature of 260ºC an economiser could
reduce temperatures to 200ºC, increasing the feedwater temperature by 15ºC and raising the overall
thermal efficiency by 3%. For a modern three-pass shell LTHW boiler firing natural gas with a flue gas exit
temperature of 140ºC a condensing economiser would reduce the exit temperature to 65ºC, giving an
increase in thermal efficiency of 5%. An economiser must be correctly sized so that the heat transfer does
not cause the water temperature to exceed the system operating temperature or to be flashed off to
steam.
51
Figure 23:Typical corrosion curve for fuel oil. (Source: ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 88. Figure 54.)
Figure 24: Flue gas dew point versus fuel sulphur content. (Source: ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 88. Figure 55.)
52
Figure 26: Feed-water temperature and boiler efficiency. (Source: ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 89. Figure 58.)
10.3.6 COMBUSTION AIR PRE-HEAT commonly used as they require little additional
equipment.
Combustion air pre-heat has always been
regarded as the poor cousin of the economiser When considering an airheater, the burner
because air pre-heaters are large and less efficient manufacturer should be consulted to determine
overall. In order to improve thermal efficiency by the maximum allowable combustion air tempe-
1% the combustion air temperature must be rature. This could be as low as 250ºC, and it is
raised by 20ºC. Furthermore, most gas and oil unlikely to be higher than 400ºC since that would
burners used on boiler plant were not designed require alloy steels instead of carbon steel.
for high air pre-heat temperatures and a
maximum increase of 50ºC is usually all that can The introduction of an airheater will increase the
be tolerated. pressure loss on the flue gas and combustion air
systems. A forced draft system, with only a single
The usual heat sources for combustion air pre-
F.D. fan, may require the insulation of a new fan
heating include:
and motor. For a balanced draft system, both fans
• heat remaining in the flue gases: may have to be replaced, although a new impeller
and motor might be sufficient. The forced draft
• higher temperature air drawn from the system may also include modifications to the
top of the boiler house: burner, as the combustion chamber pressure will
increase significantly. New air and gas ductwork
• heat recovered by drawing the air over or must be installed, and modifications to the stack
through the boiler casing to reduce shell may be necessary.
losses.
Modern burners are, however, available which can
The two latter sources tend to be the most stand much higher combustion air pre-heat
53
temperatures. It is therefore possible to consider or not, so a boiler having a shell loss equivalent to
installing a heat exchanger in the exit flue as an 2% of fuel fired at full firing will have a loss
alternative to an economizer. Figure 27 shows the equivalent to 6% at one third firing.
energy-saving potential of this technique.
At lower firing rates the flame does not fill the
The combustion air intake can sometimes be furnace chamber so heat transfer rates fall. This is
relocated to the top of the boiler house to use compensated for in the reduced flue gas velocity
heated air and save energy, as in the example that through the convection tubes.
follows.
In the case of fuels containing significant sulphur
content, continuous firing below 30% of rated
10.3.7 LOAD SCHEDULING boiler output may result in boiler metal
temperatures falling below the sulphur dew point.
When a boiler is being operated at low loads This, in turn, can cause smutting and, possibly, rapid
some of the losses remain constant and are not corrosion.
dependent on the firing rate. Shell losses resulting
from radiation and convection, for instance, remain The best practice is to use boilers that will
largely the same whether the burner is operating operate at 60% or more of their rating under
EXAMPLE
A boiler firing No.2 oil uses 14 500 kg/h of air at 20ºC average temperature. Installation of a duct to the
top of the boiler house increases the average air temperature to 30ºC.The specific heat of the air is 1.01
kJ/kg·ºC.
The boiler operates 6000 hours per year, and the fuel costs R50/GJ.
Generally, the savings achieved will depend on the type of system installed. Ducting hot air from the top
of the boiler house typically results in savings of 1%, while savings of 2% are more typically achieved by
drawing combustion air over/through the boiler casing.
54
Figure 27: Efficiency increase versus air pre-heat. (Source: ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 91. Figure 59.)
normal firing conditions. For LTHW and MTHW Steam systems that have low base loads but high
systems this is easily achieved using a modular boiler peak demands over relatively short periods always
system. For steam boilers, however, the solution is cause fuel efficiency problems. Older boilers had a
not so simple since, in many cases, each boiler is very high thermal storage capability because of
rated to meet the plant’s maximum load their very high water content, but modern
requirement. Where the steam is used for process practice produces boilers with many more tubes
and space heating there will be a significant and much less water. In some cases, therefore, a
reduction in load once the space heating is turned smaller boiler firing at a steady higher rate into a
off in summer.A smaller boiler, correctly sized for the steam accumulator as shown in Figure 30 is a
summer load should therefore be installed.This also more thermally efficient solution.
applies in the case of lame hot water systems.
55
Matching the load can result in a thermal efficiency particularly true when a number of boilers are
improvement of around 2%. The cost saving connected to a common header and are operated
resulting from the prevention of sulphur corrosion in a cascade manner.
by proper load scheduling may be much greater.
The best-known solution is to install dampers in
the exit flues. In the past the main problems
encountered included designing dampers that
10.3.8 ON-LINE CLEANING
were virtually gas tight, and incorporating a control
system that would prevent the boiler firing against
Metal surfaces in the path of the combustion gases a closed damper.
need regular cleaning to remove sooty deposits,
especially when firing solid fuels. Soot blowers of Today, automatic gas-tight shut-off dampers for
various kinds have been used to remove soot and installation in a boiler exit flue are widely available
dust both from shell and water tube boilers and (Figure 29). In the case of forced draught (FD) oil
from economisers and air pre-heaters.Traditionally and gas burners a cheaper alternative is available,
these comprised high-speed steam or compressed particularly for retrofit situations: this involves the
air jets, but recent developments have produced installation of an automatic damper at the
infra-sound and ultra-sound units. The correct combustion air fan inlet.
installation and use of soot blowers reduces
maintenance and retains the optimum efficiency of It is difficult to put an exact figure on the potential
the plant over an extended period. saving from shut-off dampers as each boiler
installation has different operating parameters and
Incorrect water treatment can lead to scale operating periods. A saving of 1% in fuel
formation, which is a much better insulator than consumption is, however, usually achieved.
soot or ash. It is not only lack of water treatment
that causes the problem, however. In many
instances, over enthusiasm in adding treatments, 10.3.10 VARIABLE SPEED FAN DRIVES
on the basis that ‘a bit more will be even better’,
leads to the formation of insulating coatings on the The overall potential of modem variable speed
water side of heat transfer surfaces. drives has been widely explored. For large boiler
plant fitted with induced draught (ID) fans, the
Incorrect water treatment, poor combustion and control of combustion air is generally achieved by
poor cleaning schedules can easily reduce overall throttling the damper. These dampers, however,
thermal efficiency by 2%. However, the additional tend to be designed more for simplicity and
cost of maintenance and cleaning must be taken reliability than for accurate control and most give
into consideration when assessing savings. a very poor control characteristic at the top and
bottom of the operating range. Multi-opposed-
bladed dampers and iris type dampers have much
better control characteristics.
10.3.9 FLUE SHUT-OFF DAMPERS
If the load characteristic of the boilers is variable,
For situations where boilers are regularly shut it maybe economic to replace the dampers with a
down because of changes in load, the heat loss variable speed drive. However, up to now there
caused by the chimney effect drawing cold air has been very little experience of using such drives
through the boiler can be significant. This is with individual boilers rated at up to 20 MW.
56
Figure 29: Schematic of a flue shut-off damper and interlock. (Source: ETSU)
(Good Practice Guide 30. Page 86. Figure 53.)
57
used: they can simply be there for application as the portion of the primary fuel energy lost in the
and when required. boilerhouse. The main heat losses for a typical
installation, in order of importance, are:
• flue gas losses;
10.4 WHAT TO DO FIRST – • heat losses from boilerhouse heat
distribution system;
A QUICK CHECKLIST • blowdown losses;
• • heat losses from boiler shell;
The boilerhouse is very often the largest single • ash losses (coal-fired plant);
user of energy on a site, and it is important that its • fuel heating (oil-fired plant).
performance is under constant review. There
should be a comprehensive boilerhouse logging Methods which can be used to assess these losses
programme in place, which includes the are detailed in “Saving Energy and Money”
monitoring of the following parameters: booklets which cover, amongst other things, the
economic use of oil-fired, gas-fired and coal-fired
• fuel consumption; boiler plant respectively.
• heat output;
• flue gas conditions; A significant amount of electrical energy is used in
• make-up water consumption; the typical boilerhouse for circulating pumps,
• subsidiary electricity consumption. combustion fans, etc. Where a dedicated kWh
meter is installed for the boilerhouse this should
The frequency of checks will depend on the plant be read regularly, though an estimate of electricity
and manpower availability, but weekly or consumption can be determined from motor
preferably daily checks should be made. An duties and running hours if necessary.
important measure of the performance of a boiler
plant is the specific boiler efficiency.This is the ratio Make-up water consumption should be
between useful heat production and energy monitored to give early warning of system leaks.
consumed, i.e.: The recovery of uncontaminated condensate on
steam systems should be maximized, saving on
Heat transferred to heating medium: energy, water and chemicals. Where there are
(usually steam or water) x 100% significant year round requirements for process
Fuel Input heating, typically in excess of 5,000 hours/annum,
the feasibility of combined heat and power (CHP)
The heat transferred to the heating medium should be investigated.
cannot normally be determined directly, though
indirect measurements, such as fluid temperatures,
pressure and volume flow rates can be used.
Electronic combustion analysers can be used to 10.4.1 CHECK LIST
check efficiencies and monitor trends, particularly
before and after maintenance. • Maintain efficient combustion.
• Maintain good water treatment.
In addition it is always worth undertaking a more • Repair water and steam leaks.
comprehensive boilerhouse audit, to highlight heat • Recover heat from flue gas and boiler
losses and take into account subsidiary energy blowdown whenever possible.
usage.The biggest part of this exercise is to assess • Ensure good operational control and
58
consider sequence control for multi-plant • Ensure that boilers and heat distribution
installations. systems are adequately insulated.
• Blowdown steam boilers only when
• Attempt to match boilers to heat necessary.
demand. Valve off idle boilers to reduce • Ensure as much condensate as practicable
radiation losses. is recovered from steam systems.
• Use flue dampers where appropriate to • Insulate oil tanks and keep steam or
minimize flue losses when plant not firing. electric heating to the minimum required.
59
is better if the conveyor stays within the heated with the product being heated in a direct fired
furnace area. An example of this type of furnace is furnace. The heat transfer process from the flame
shown in figure 32. to the product is more effective than with an
indirect heated furnace, where the flue gas is not
in direct contact with the product.The higher rate
11.3 DIRECT FIRED of heat transfer which can be achieved with direct
FURNACES fired furnaces can lead to local surface overheating
• of the product, unless the furnace temperature is
The products of combustion are in direct contact properly controlled.
Figure 30: High Temperature Electric Box furnace. (Source: Canadian Gov.)
(Energy Management Series 7. Page 25. Figure 15.)
60
Figure 32: Continuous type furnace. (Source: Canadian Gov.)
(Energy Management Series 7. Page 25. Figure 14.)
11.4 INDIRECT HEATED higher, resulting in higher heat losses unless heat
recovery is used.
FURNACES
•
In indirect heated furnaces the products of There are a few special considerations for indirect
combustion are not in direct contact with the fired furnaces, which affect the heat balance
product being heated (Figure 33). Heat is calculations. If a controlled atmosphere is
transferred through some form of heat exchanger. maintained inside the furnace, the heat input and
output of the gas entering and leaving the furnace
This type of furnace may be used to provide a must be included in the heat balance. If heat is
controlled environment for oxidizing or reducing, required for the preparation of the atmosphere,
by introducing an artificial atmosphere the energy required in the gas generator must be
independent of the combustion process. Since the included as part of the total heat input to the
heat transfer from the flame to the product is not furnace. Electrical energy used for refrigeration or
as effective as the direct fired furnace, it can be other purposes in the gas generator must also be
expected that the flue gas temperature will be included.
61
Figure 33: An indirectly heated furnace. (Source: Canadian Gov.)
(Energy Mangement Series 7. Page 13. Figure 7.)
•••••••••
12. ENERGY AND COST
SAVINGS FOR FURNACES
•••••••••
5 boiler energy balance. Energy is taken into the
12.1 POTENTIAL LOSSES furnace from:
• • The fuel. This includes both the heat of
As with boilers, to optimise the operation of combustion and the heat carried in as a
furnace plant it is necessary to understand where function of the fuels temperature.
energy wastage is likely to occur. • Combustion air. This air entering the
combustion chamber contains heat as a
result of its temperature.
12.1.1 FURNACE ENERGY BALANCE • The ‘feed’. Whatever it is that is to be
heated contains heat as a result of its
Basically the furnace energy balance is similar to a temperature.
5
A furnace energy efficiency test is described in the appendix.This gives the ‘direct method’ for evaluating efficiency, and a breakdown of the losses.
62
Energy is then lost from the furnace in various boilers and have been included in the section on
forms: combustion.
• Flue gas. The products of combustion
leave the furnace at a temperature higher The major influencing factors are the exit flue gas
than incoming fuel and combustion air. temperature and the degree of excess air present.
• Surface heat transfer. As the furnace Fuel preparation should be correct
temperature is higher than the (uncontaminated and at the right temperature),
surrounding environment heat is lost from burners undamaged and properly maintained, and
the combustion zone to the environment
combustion air (both primary and secondary)
as a result of conductive, radiative and/or
should be introduced at the right rate and with
convective heat transfer.
adequate turbulence.
• Escaping furnace air. If the internal
pressure of the furnace is too high hot
gases will escape to the surroundings
through leaks, openings and doors.
Conversely if the pressure on the inside 12.2.1.1 EXCESS AIR REDUCTION
of the furnace is higher than the
surroundings then ‘cold’ air will be drawn
A continuous O2 and Combustibles analyser is the
into the furnace, requiring additional heat
best arrangement, but the cost is high. Sampling
to maintain a steady furnace temperature.
tests with an Orsat or other chemical means can
be a reliable guide to proper combustion
12.2 MINIMIZING FURNACE conditions. Readjustment of the fuel/air ratio
control should be performed promptly if required.
LOSSES
•
12.2.1. FLUE GAS HEAT LOSS Below table 8 and 9 give a list of typical excess air
ratios for various fuels and typical savings that can
The same comments apply here as applied to be realized through excess air adjustment.
63
Table 9: Calculated values of % saving
Furnace Air ratio Air ratio after correction
temperature before 1.40 1.30 1.20 1.10 1.00
(˚C) correction
700 1.70 11.6 14.9 17.9 20.8 23.4
1.60 7.72 11.1 14.3 17.3 20.1
1.50 3.86 7.43 10.7 13.8 16.7
1.40 –– 3.76 7.27 10.5 13.5
1.30 –– –– 3.65 7.01 10.1
1.20 –– –– –– 3.48 6.74
1.10 –– –– –– –– 3.38
64
12.2.1.2 INSTALL A HEAT existing induced draft burners was replaced with a
sealed positive pressure burner. The modification
EXCHANGER IN THE FLUE
also included a blower system for the supply of
GAS OUTLET combustion air, and improvements to the controls
to reduce excess air from 15 to 20 per cent
The cost of heat exchangers is significantly affected before conversion to 8 to 10 per cent. Total cost
by the temperature of the gas entering the unit. of the project was R1 200 000.
Careful consideration should be given to
introducing cold air into the gas stream, if required, Before conversion, the fuel consumption per
to lower the gas temperature enough to use burner was measured at 193 000 kJ/h, or 4.63 GJ/h
economic materials. Stainless steels or alloys for the furnace with all burners in service. The
cannot be used for temperatures above 950ºC. furnace operates 6 days per week, 24 hours per
day and the allowance for down time or part load
If the recovered heat is used to preheat the operation is 15 per cent. Gas costs R42.40 per
combustion air, the burner manufacturer should gigajoule.
be consulted to determine the maximum Annual fuel cost before conversion
allowable air temperature. Frequently, this will be = (100 – 15)
= x 24 h/d x 6 d/wk x 52 w/yr
as low as 250ºC. It is unlikely to be higher than 100
x 4.63 GJ/h x 42.4/GJ
400ºC since that would require alloy steels instead
= R1 249 490
of carbon steel. If it is not practical to heat the
combustion air, it may be possible to heat process
To estimate the savings, it is necessary to
water or to install a waste heat boiler to utilize the
determine the recuperator performance. Flue gas
beat energy in the flue gas.
leaves the radiant tubes at 1100ºC, and enters the
recuperator at this temperature. The gas leaves
Introduction of a heat exchanger will increase the
the recuperator at 650ºC and the combustion air
pressure drop in the flue gas system, which means
is heated from ambient to 500ºC.
that the combustion air fan capacity will be
reduced. It may be necessary to install a new fan
To isolate the performance of the recuperator
or impeller and drive motor. It is possible that the
from other savings, it is assumed that excess air
furnace pressure will be increased unless there is
before and after conversion remains at 20 per
sufficient draft available from the stack to
cent. The intersection of 20 per cent excess air
overcome the added resistance across the heat
and 1100ºC on Figure 5 (extrapolated) indicates
exchanger. Because of these and other possible
that 64 per cent of the heat supplied in the fuel is
complications, it is suggested that the furnace
lost in the flue gas.
manufacturer or a consulting engineering firm be
retained to make an evaluation of the proposed
Flue gas heat loss/burner= 64
changes. Flue gas heat loss/burner= x 193 000
Flue gas heat loss/burner= 100
The economic and technical analysis that follows is = 123 500 kJ/h
based on an actual installation of high-alloy
recuperators applied to an indirectly heated, The remainder, or 69 500 kJ/h, enters the furnace
continuously operating, heat-treating furnace. A through the radiant tube.
custom-designed triple-pass recuperator was
bolted to the exhaust leg of each of the 24 radiant After conversion the stack gas temperature
tube heaters of the furnace, and each of the dropped to 650ºC. Using 20 per cent excess air
65
and 650ºC flue gas temperature shows that about of R200 000 the payback period for this project
40 per cent of the heat supplied is lost, and 60 per was 2 years.
cent enters the furnace. It is reasonable to assume
that the amount of heat entering the furnace
through each radiant tube does not change when 12.2.2 HEAT LOSS TO INCOMPLETE
a recuperator is installed, as the gas temperature
COMBUSTION
leaving the tube remains at 1100ºC. Sixty per cent
of the heat supplied per burner after conversion,
This is discussed in the section on combustion. An
equals 69 500 kJ/h.
important aspect of this is the proper mixing of
Burner energy = 69 500 = 115 800 kJ/h
Burner energy = = 115 800 kJ/h fuel and combustion air in the furnaces burner.
Burner energy = 0.6 = 115 800 kJ/h
Burner Assembly
Flue gas heat
loss/burner = 115 800 - 69 500 It is good practice to have an experienced burner
= 46 300 kJ/h manufacturer’s representative set up the burner
Energy savings = 24 (burners) adjustments. Furnace operators can then identify
x (123 500 - 46 300) the appearance of a proper burner flame for
= 1 852 800 kJ/h future reference. The flame should be checked
= 1.85 GJ/h frequently, and always after any significant change
Savings = 1,85 in operating conditions affecting the fuel,
Savings = x 100
Savings = 4.63 combustion air flow, or furnace pressure has
= 40% occurred.
The actual fuel consumption savings were 48 per The installation of a modern design burner
cent. Part of the discrepancy is because of the assembly can permit operation at lower values of
difficulty of measuring flue gas temperatures and excess air, thus reducing stack losses.A new burner
airflows, hence excess air quantities accurately.The assembly can also be the means to provide full
modification introduced two further areas of automation for start-up and shutdown. In a
potential savings. One of these was the improved multiple burner installation automation will permit
airflow control and the resulting reduction in start-up and shutdown of burners to follow
excess air to 8 per cent. varying load patterns, rather than modulating the
load on individual burners over a wide range.
The second area of savings results from the Burners generally operate more efficiently at high
changes made to the control system and this is loads, so improvements in part load economy can
difficult to estimate. Before conversion, burners be expected if some burners are shut down.
were operated at a fixed setting and turning
selected burners on and off controlled furnace Provision should be made to shut off the
temperature. Heat was lost from the furnace to combustion air to idle burners. This avoids losses
radiant tubes not in service, because of natural due to excess air entering the furnace and not
convection of outside air through these tubes.This taking part in the combustion process.
loss was eliminated with the new modulating
control system.
12.2.3 RADIATION HEAT LOSS
The annual fuel savings were 48 per cent of R1249
490 or about R600 000. Based on the capital cost The same comments that were made for boilers
66
apply here. The radiation heat loss of a furnace is = [21.5 MJ/(m2·h) x 12 m2] + [11.6 MJ/(m2·h)
primarily a function of the applied thermal x 32 m2]
insulation. Insulation reduces the heat radiating = 692.2 MJ/h
from the boiler and maintains the outside surfaces
at a temperature low enough for safety.The quality Heat loss after reinsulation
and thickness of the insulation on the various = 13 MJ/(m2·h) x (12 m2 + 32 m2)
sections of the furnace are normally determined = 74.8 MJ/h
by the surface temperature. Most safety
regulations require that metal surfaces within Note that the heat loss to the floor is not
reach of personnel not exceed 50ºC.The heat loss considered to be significant.
from the casing is difficult to measure accurately.
Energy savings = 692.2 - 74.8 MJ/h
Re-insulating Furnace Enclosure = 617.4 MJ/h
Older furnaces may use refractory brick for the The furnace operates 4000 hours per year, and
furnace lining. If the furnace has to be rebuilt, it is fuel costs R50/GJ.
frequently economical to use ceramic fibre blanket
insulation. If refractory brick is required to Annual savings = 617.4 MJ / h x 4000 h / yr x R50 / GJ
Annual savings =
withstand rough handling, an outer layer of Annual savings = 1000 MJ / GJ
ceramic fibre can be used.
= R123 480/yr
Since ceramic fibre is a much better insulator than
refractory brick, care should be taken to ensure
that the inner layer of refractory is not
overheated, since its average temperature will be 12.2.4 FURNACE PRESSURE CONTROL
higher. During a tour of a plant it is noticed that a
furnace appears to be radiating substantial
quantities of heat. Temperature measurements of Maintaining a slight positive furnace pressure can
the surface average 200ºC on the walls and 250ºC control air leakage into or gas leakage out of a
on the roof.The outside dimensions of the furnace furnace.The control damper in the furnace flue gas
are 2 m by 2 m by 6 m long. It is decided to ducting or the related control should be
reinsulate the furnace to give a maximum surface readjusted if the furnace pressure is not at the
temperature of 50ºC, to provide operator safety correct value.
and heat savings.
Replace Warped or Damaged Furnace Doors or
Taking heat losses as 21.5 MJ/(m2.h) at 250ºC, Covers
11.6 MJ/(m2.h) at 200ºC, and 1.7 MJ/(m2.h) at
50ºC. Furnace doors or covers, which are warped,
damaged or missing can be a source of
Roof area = 2mx6m considerable leakage of air into or gas out of the
2
= 12 m furnace. Doors or covers with tight fitting seals
Wall area = (2m x 6m x2) + (2m x 2m) should replace these. Further improvement would
2
= 32 m result from installing power operators on the
doors to minimize the time the doors are open, as
Heat loss before reinsulation well as make it easier for the operators.
67
The following example illustrates the possible Efficiency for furnaces will be defined as the
saving by replacing a missing door. A 0.25 m2 door amount of heat taken up by the product versus
is noted to be missing from a furnace operating at the heat added in the form of fuel. For a furnace it
900ºC. Heat radiated through the opening is 400 is important to estimate and trend the changes of
2
MJ/(m .h). The furnace operates 4000 hours per efficiency over time. Due to the nature of the
year and fuel costs R50 per GJ. process, efficiencies are far smaller than those for
a boiler. A small change in efficiency will result in a
Annual heat loss = 0.25 m2 x 400 MJ/(m2.h) large change in specific fuel consumption. Any
x 4000 h changes are therefore important. In the appendix
= 400 000 MJ/yr the ‘direct method’ for furnace efficiency
= 400 GJ/yr calculations is outlined for a furnace of any kind.
This gives a good measure of the relative plant A furnace using 5000 kg/h of combustion air
performance, and requires only good production draws inside air at 20ºC average temperature.
records and energy consumption figures to be Installation of a duct to the ceiling increases the
kept. average air temperature to 30ºC.
68
Heat recovered = c x DT x w • flue gas losses (except on electrically
= 1.006 kJ/(1Kg·ºC) operated plant);
x (30 - 20)ºC x 5,000 Kg/h • structural heat losses;
= 50 300 kJ/h • heat loss by radiation from openings;
• loss of furnace gases at openings;
The furnace operates for 6000 hrs per year and • heat loss to conveyers, rollers, etc;
the fuel costs R50/GJ • heat loss to charging equipment and
Annual fuel savings = 50 300 x 6000 x 50 mechanisms;
Annual fuel savings = 6
Annual fuel savings = 1 x 10 • heat removed by cooling circuits.
= R15 090 per year
It is worth measuring or calculating the level of
The cost of the ducting is R15 000.
these heat losses to identify areas for potential
Simple payback = R15 000
improvement.
R15 090
= 1.0 year
• Minimise heat losses from openings, such
RECOVERY OF HEAT FROM EQUIPMENT
as doors, on sealed units.
COOLING WATER
• Use high efficiency insulating materials to
It is often possible to use the warm water reduce losses from the plant fabric.
discharge from equipment coolers for purposes • Attempt to recover as much heat as
such as process washing. In some systems the possible from flue gases. The pre-heating
water discharge may be too cool to be useful. In of combustion air or stock or its use in
these instances the installation of a water flow other services such as space heating are
control valve and temperature controller may be well worth considering.
helpful. The water flow is controlled automatically • Reduce stock residence time to a
from the water temperature at the cooler outlet minimum to eliminate unnecessary
so that the water temperature is high enough to holding periods.
be useful, while maintaining proper cooling. The • Ensure efficient combustion of fuels
control system will also reduce water use. where applicable.
• Avoid excessive pressure in controlled
atmosphere units.
12.3 WHAT TO DO FIRST – A • If maintaining stock at high temperature
for long periods, consider the use of
QUICK CHECKLIST. specialized holding furnaces.
• • Make sure excessive cooling of furnace
In a well controlled plant there should be a good equipment is not occurring.
correlation between energy consumption and • Ensure the minimum amount of stock
production rate.The more scatter on the graphical supporting equipment is used.
plot the worse the process control. The offset on • Ensure there is effective control over
the graph, i.e. the energy consumption at zero furnace operating parameters –
production, represents the level of standing losses. computerized control should be
These are typically made up of: considered for larger units.
•••••••••
Specific fuel consumption is the ratio of fuel consumed to kg of
product heated.
69
APPENDIX
CONVERSION TABLES.
•••••••••
Table A1: Mass Equivalent
FROM/TO KILOGRAM METRIC TON (USA) TON (UK) OUNCE POUND POUND
TON (a) (b) (c) (USA) (UK)
MULTIPLY BY
-3 -3 -4 3
1 Kilogram 1.000 1.000x10 1.102x10 9.842x10 3.527x101 2.205 2.425x10
3 -1 4 3 3
1 Metric 1.000x10 1.000 1.102 9.842x10 3.527x10 2.205x10 2.425x10
ton (a)
2 -1 -1 4 3
1 Ton 9.072x10 9.072x10 1.000 8.929x10 3.201x10 2.000x10 2.200
(USA) (b)
3 4 3 3
1 Ton (UK) 1.016x10 1.016 1.120 1.000 3.584x10 2.240x10 2.464x10
(c)
-2 -5 -5 -5 2
1 Ounce 2.835x10 2.835x10 3.124x10 2.790x10 1.000 6.251 6.873x10
-1 -4 -4 -4 -1
1 Pound 4.536x10 4.536x10 5.000x10 4.464x10 1.600x10 1.000 1.100
(USA)
-1 -4 4 -4 1 -1
1 Pound 4.124x10 4.124x10 4.545x10 4.059x10 1.455x10 9.083x10 1.00
(UK)
(a) Also referred to overseas as “tonne”
(b) Also referred to overseas as “short ton”
(c) Also referred to overseas as “long ton”
70
Table A3: Energy and Heat Equivalent
FROM/TO JOULE CALORIE THERM BTU THERMIE ERG kWh
MULTIPLY BY
-1 -9 -4 -7 7 -7
1 Joule 1.000 2.388x10 9.479x10 9.478x10 2.389x10 1.000x10 2.788x10
5 -3 -6 7 -6
1 Calorie 4.187 1.000 3.968x10 3.968x10 1.001x10 4.187x10 1.163x10
8 4 15
1 Therm 1.055x10 2.520x10 1.000 1.000x105 2.521x101 1.055x10 2.930x101
3 2 -5 -4 10 4
1 BTU 1.055x10 2.520x10 1.000x10 1.000 2.521x10 1.055x10 2.930x10
6 5 5 3 13
1 Thermie 4.186x10 9.995x10 3.967x10 3.967x10 1.000 4.186x10 1.163
7 8 -16 -11 -14 -14
Erg 1.000x10 2.388x10 9.479x10 9.478x10 2.398x10 1.000 2.778x10
6 5 -2 3 -1 13
kWh 3.600x10 8.599x10 3.413x10 3.412x10 8.600x10 3.600x10 1.00
•••••••••
The calculation of the efficiency of a boiler involves It is therefore possible to calculate the efficiency of
a comparison between the energy supplied in the a boiler in one of two ways:-
coal with the energy transferred to the feedwater
to convert it to superheated steam. 1) The Direct Method where the energy gain of the
working fluid (water and steam) is compared
The heat balance on the other hand concerns the with the energy content of the boiler fuel;
71
2) The Indirect Method where the efficiency is the proximate analysis and ultimate analysis.
difference between the losses and the energy
input. Proximate Analysis is defined as the determination
of moisture, volatile matter, and ash, and the
Before these two methods are discussed in more calculation of fixed carbon by difference.
detail, it is necessary to define the terminology
used. Ultimate Analysis of a dried sample is defined as
the determination of carbon, hydrogen, sulphur,
Calorific Value (CV) - The energy released by a nitrogen and ash, and an estimate of oxygen by
fuel when it is completely burnt and when the difference.
products of combustion are cooled to the original
fuel temperature is known as the calorific value of Analysis on an as-received basis includes the total
the fuel. moisture content of coal received at the plant.
Similarly, the as-fired basis includes the total
The combustion of any fuel with hydrogen as a moisture content of the coal as it enters the boiler
constituent produces water vapour. If the products furnace or pulverises.
of combustion are at a high temperature, the
water will leave the system as vapour and will The Direct Method of Boiler Efficiency
carry with it the energy represented by the energy Calculation
of superheated steam. However, if the gases are
cooled, the vapour will condense and reject this As mentioned earlier, the direct method consists
energy. of a direct comparison between the fuel energy
input and the energy gain of the working fluid.
Thus it is possible to have two distinctly different
calorific values for fuels containing hydrogen - the Energy Input = Coal Flow Rate x G.C.V.
gross calorific value (GCV) and the net calorific
value (NCV). The GCV assumes that the water Energy Output = Steam Flow Rate
vapour from combustion has been condensed to x Enthalpy Gain
a liquid, while the NCV does not assume
Efficiency = Energy Output
condensation of the vapour. Efficiency =
Efficiency = Energy Input
Those in favour of the use of the lower Calorific
Note that:-
Value argue that practical power cycles are not
able to use the energy contained in the vapour, 1. The power requirements of the boiler
while those who prefer the Gross Calorific Value auxiliaries (e.g. fans and pumps) are not
feel that this is a problem of the cycle rather than normally included in this calculation.
one of the fuel.
2. The accurate measurement of steam flow at
By convention, it is common to use the Gross high temperatures and pressures is difficult and
Calorific Value in boiler calculations. it is thus more common to measure the flow
of feedwater to the boiler.
Coal Analysis
DIRECT METHOD EXAMPLE
Customary practice in reporting the components
of a coal is to use two different analyses, known as Gross Calorific Value of the Coal = 27,32 MJ/kg
72
Measured Values Ultimate Analysis of the Coal (% by mass)
73
Quc = mash CVc Ca………..(1) mg = Mass Flow of Gas
Where Quc = Unburned Carbon Loss (kg gas per kg of fuel)
(kilojoules/kg fuel) cp = Specific Heat of the Gas. The
mash = Ash Content of Fuel approximate value for dry air can
(kilograms/kilogram) be used (1,005kJ/kg ºC)
CVc = Calorific Value of Carbon Tg = Temperature of the gas leaving
(33 820 kJ/kg) the boiler (ºC)
Ca = Carbon content of the ash, and Ta = Temperature of the gas entering
expressed as a fraction of the total the boiler (ºC)
ash quantity.
It will be seen from the above formula that the
EXAMPLE 1 losses are directly proportional to the gas flow and
to the temperature difference of the gas across
Quc = mash CVc Ca the boiler. Consequently, any increase in the excess
= 14,4 x 33820 x 12,87 air quantity will increase the magnitude of this loss.
= x 33820 x
= 100 x 33820 x 100
= 626,78 kJ/kg of coal On the other hand, a reduction in the
or = 626,78 temperature difference will reduce the loss. To
or = x 100% achieve this reduction, economizers and air
or = 27 320
= 2,29% heaters are used to reduce the exhaust gas
temperature, while the inlet air suction is often
Mass of unburned situated in the warm region of the power station,
carbon = mash Ca immediately below the roof.
= 0,144 x 0,1287
= 0,0185 kg carbon/kg fuel The above equation relates the Dry Flue Gas Loss
to the mass flow of gas.To calculate the efficiency,
Energy Loss due to the Dry Flue Gas it is necessary to relate this loss to the mass of fuel
burned. In other words, we need to know how
much gas one kilogram of fuel will generate.
There is an energy loss associated with the fact
that the nitrogen, which enters the boiler as a
constituent of the combustion air, leaves the boiler In the ideal case:
at a higher temperature. Additionally, the gaseous
combustion products leave the boiler at an Carbon in Fuel Process Carbon in flue gas
elevated temperature. This energy is lost to the
system. All the carbon in the fuel is converted in the boiler
into gas which contains carbon, in the form of
This is the greatest boiler loss in a correctly C02.Therefore over a given period of time:-
operated system and can be calculated with the
following formula: Carbonin = % Carbon in the fuel x mass of fuel
Carbonout = % Carbon in the flue gas x mass of
Gfd = mg cp (Tg – Ta) …..(2) flue gas
where Qfd = Dry Flue Gas Loss Since carbon cannot be destroyed, Carbonin
(kilojoules/kg fuel) = Carbonout
74
% Carbon in fuel x mass of fuel = % Carbon in The mass of carbon in 1 kg of dry flue gas
flue gas x mass of flue gas
or Mass of flue gas = % Carbon in fuel = 12 CO2 + 12 CO …(4)
= …(4)
Mass of fuel % Carbon in flue gas = 44 CO2 + 32O2 + 28CO + 28N2 …(4)
As shown above, not all the carbon is burnt and Multiplying this answer by equation (2) (the dry
some of it remains in the ash.Therefore instead of flue gas loss in terms of flue gas flow), enables the
referring to the weight of carbon in the fuel, the Dry Gas Loss per mass of fuel burnt to be
weight of carbon consumed should be used and established.
the above equation becomes:-
EXAMPLE 2
Kilograms Dry Flue Gas
Kilograms Fuel The mass of carbon in 1 kg of flue gas
= % by weight of carbon consumed
% by weight of carbon in dry flue gas = 12 CO2 + 12 CO …(4)
=
= 44 CO2 + 32O2 + 28CO + 28N2 …(4)
A further correction is required to improve the = 12 x 14,9 + 12 x 0,4
accuracy of this equation. At the moment the =
= 44 x 14,9 + 32 x 4,4 + 28 x 0,4 + 28 x 80,3
equation ignores the fact that sulphur burns to SO2. = 0,0601 kg carbon I kg flue gas
The easiest way of including the sulphur in the fuel
is to add the “carbon equivalent” of sulphur to the Mass of carbon in 1 kg of fuel = 0,646 kg
carbon consumed. It can be proved that as far as the Calculated mass of unburnt
production of flue gas is concerned, sulphur carbon = 0,0185 kg
produces less gas than carbon in the ratio of 12 to Therefore mass of carbon
32 (the molecular weights of the two elements consumed = 0,6275 kg
concerned).The above equation then becomes:-
Carbon Equivalent of Sulphur
Kilograms Dry Flue Gas = Percentage sulphur x 12
Kilograms Fuel = Percentage sulphur x
= Percentage sulphur x 32
= % carbon consumed + sulphur x 12/32
= 1,5 x 12
= % by weight of carbon in dry flue gas …(3)
100 32
= 0,0056
The next problem is to establish the percentage
Mass of Dry Gas per kg of Fuel
by weight of carbon in dry flue gas. Without going
into the proof, it can be shown using Avogadro’s
law (which implies that masses of equal volumes = Carbon Consumed
of gases will be proportional to their molecular + Carbon Equivalent of Sulphur
weights) that:- Carbon in the Flue Gas
75
= 0,6275 + 0,0056 EXAMPLE 3
0,0601
= 10,53 kg dry gas/kg fuel Qcm = mw [cpw (Tsat – Ta) + hfg
But Qfd = mg cp (Tg – Ta) + cps (Tg – Tsat)]
= 10,53x 1,005 x (139 - 30)
= 1 153,96 kJ/kg fuel Moisture in the fuel = (3,4 + 4,1)
or = 1153,96 x 100 % 100
27 320 = 0,075 kg moisture/kg fuel
= 4,22 % Qcm = 0.075 x [4,18 x (100-30)
+ 2 258 + 2,01
Energy Loss Due to Evaporating and Superheating x (139-100))
the Moisture in the Fuel = 197,17 kJ/kg fuel
Moisture entering the boiler with the fuel leaves as or = 19717 x 100%
a superheated vapour. This moisture loss is made 27320
up of the sensible heat to bring the moisture to = 0,72 %
boiling point, the latent heat of evaporation of the
moisture, and the superheat required to bring this Energy Loss Due to Evaporating and Superheating
steam to the temperature of the exhaust gas.This the Moisture Formed by the Combustion of
loss can be expressed in the following Hydrogen
Qcm = mw [cpw (Tsat – Ta) + hfg The combustion of hydrogen causes a heat loss
+ cps (Tg – Tsat)] …(5) because the product of combustion is water. This
water is converted to steam in the boiler and this
where Qcm = Fuel Moisture Loss carries away heat, particularly because of its latent
(kilojoules/kg fuel) heat content.
mw = Moisture (kg moisture/kg fuel)
cpw = Specific heat of water (kJ/kgºC). The chemical equation for the reaction between
A value of 4,18 is typical over the hydrogen and oxygen is:-
temperature range of interest.
Tsat = The saturation temperature at 2H2 + O2 = 2 H2O
which the water evaporates.
For the sake of simplicity, this Considering molecular weights; 4 + 32 = 36
temperature is assumed to be In other words, 1 kg of hydrogen will produce 9 kg
1OOºC. of water. The equation for the hydrogen loss can
hfg = The latent heat of evaporation of therefore be expressed as follows:-
water at 1000C and 1 bar.
(2 258 kJ/kgºC). Qhf = 9 mh [cpw (Tsat – Ta) + hfg
cps = Specific heat of steam (kJ/kgºC). + cps (Tg – Tsat)] (6)
A value of 2,01 corresponding to where Qhf = Fuel Hydrogen Loss
a temperature of 100ºC can be (kilojoules/kg fuel)
used. mh = Hydrogen in the Flue Gas
Tg = Temperature of the gas leaving (kg hydrogen/kg fuel)
the boiler (ºC) cpw = Specific heat of water (kJ/kgºC).
Ta = Temperature of the gas entering A value of 4,18 is typical over the
the boiler (ºC) temperature range of interest.
76
Tsat = The saturation temperature at volumetric percentage of carbon monoxide in the
which the water evaporates. flue gas, as in the case of the dry gas losses, it is
For the sake of simplicity, this necessary to relate CO to the mass of fuel burnt.
temperature is assumed to be The energy loss can then be calculated by
1OOºC. multiplying the mass of CO by its calorific value
hfg = The latent heat of evaporation of (10143 kJ/kg)
water at 100ºC and 1 bar.
(2 258 kJ/kgºC). In equation (3), the mass of dry flue gas was
cps = Specific heat of steam (kJ/kgºC). related to the mass of fuel burnt. i.e.
A value of 2,01 corresponding to a
temperature of 1OOºC can be Kg Dry Flue Gas
used. Kilograms Fuel
Tg = Temperature of the gas leaving the = % carbon consumed + % sulphur x 12/32
boiler (ºC) % by weight of C in dry flue gas
Ta = Temperature of the gas entering
the boiler (ºC) If % carbon consumed + % sulphur x12/32 = A,
then the above equation can be rewritten as:-
EXAMPLE 4
K Dry Flue Gas
Hydrogen in the fuel = 4,0 % Kilograms Fuel
= A …(7)
Moisture produced by combustion of H2 as % of = Weight of C in dry flue gas
fuel = 4,0 x 9 Weight of dry flue gas
= 36% or 0,36 kg moisture/kg fuel
Qhf = 9 mh [cpw (Tsat – Ta) + hfg Using Avogadro’s law once again, it can be shown
+ cps (Tg – Tsat)] that the ratio of CO to the weight of dry flue gas
- 0,36 x (4,18 x (100-30) + 2 258 is:-
+ 2,01 x (139-100)]
- 946,44 kJ/kg fuel = 28CO
or = 946,44 x 100% weight of dry flue gas
27320
- = 3,46% Multiplying both sides of equation (7) by this ratio
yields:-
Energy Loss Due to Incomplete Combustion
Left-Hand Side
Products formed by incomplete combustion could
be mixed with oxygen and burned again with a Kg Dry Flue Gas x Kilograms CO = Kilograms CO
further release of energy. Such products include Kilograms Fuel Kg Dry Flue Gas Kilograms Fuel
CO, H2, and various hydrocarbons and are Right-Hand Side
generally only found in the flue gases from older
chain-grate boilers. Carbon monoxide is the only = A x weight of dry flue gas x 28CO
gas whose concentration can be determined Weight of C in dry flue gas weight of dry flue gas
conveniently in a power plant test.
= A x 28CO
While it is relatively easy to determine the Weight of C in dry flue gas
77
Hence: - cp = Specific Heat of the Vapour
(kJ/kgºC).
Kilograms CO = (% carbon consumed A value of 2,01, corresponding to a
+ % sulphur x 12/32) temperature of 100ºC can be used.
x 28 CO Tg = Temperature of the gas leaving the
Kilograms Fuel 12CO2 + 12CO boiler (ºC)
and Ta = Temperature of the gas entering
Multiplying this value by the calorific value of the boiler (ºC)
carbon monoxide (10 143 kJ/kg) loss due to
carbon monoxide per kilogram of fuel burnt. To relate this loss to the mass of coal burned, the
moisture content of the combustion air and the
EXAMPLE 5 amount of air supplied per unit mass of coal
burned must be known.
The percentage of carbon monoxide in 1 kg of
fuel The mass of vapour that air contains can be
obtained from psychrometric charts and typical
= (% carbon consumed + % sulphur values are included below:
x 12/32) x 28 CO
12CO2 +12CO
Qfm = cp (Tg – Ta) (9) Mass of Air = Mass of (Wet Flue Gas + Ash - Fuel)
Where Qfm = Air Vapour Loss ( k i l o j o u l e s / k g
vapour) The wet flue gas mass is the sum of the mass of
78
the dry gases plus the moisture contained in the Combustion Air
fuel and the moisture from the combustion of Moisture Loss = 10,11 x 3,07 kJ/kg fuel
hydrogen. 31,03 kJ/kg fuel
or = 31,03 x 100 %
EXAMPLE 6 27320
0,11 %
Radiation and Unaccounted Losses
From psychrometric charts, at 30ºC dry bulb
temperature and 22ºC wet bulb temperature, the The remaining heat losses from a boiler consist of
relative humidity is 50% and the moisture content the loss of heat by radiation from the boiler
of the air is 0,014 kg/kg. casting into the surrounding boiler house.
Additionally, the losses associated with the
Qfm = cp(Tg – Ta) incomplete combustion of the fuel to hydrogen
= 2,01 x (139 – 30) and hydrocarbons in the flue gas are included
= 219,09kJ/kg vapour here. Further, there can be a sensible heat loss
or = 219,09 x 0,014kJ/kg of dry air entering from the hot ash which leaves the boiler.
boiler
= 3,07kJ/kg In a relatively small boiler, with a capacity of 10
MW, the radiation and unaccounted losses could
Mass of Air = Mass of (Wet Flue Gas amount to between 1% and 2% of the gross
+ Ash – Fuel) calorific value of the fuel, while in a 500 MW
Mass of dry gas/kg fuel = 10,53 kg/kg boiler, values of between 0,2% and 1 % are typical.
(from Example 2)
Moisture in fuel = 0,075 kg/kg Radiation and unaccounted boiler losses. Lower
(from Example 3) curve for radiation only is based on data in the
Moisture from H2 = 0,36 kg/kg American power test code. The unaccounted
(from Example 4) losses are primarily due to moisture in the
combustion air and sensible heat in the refuse.
They could be larger particularly if unburnt gases
–––––– are present but not detected.
79
BOILER HEAT BALANCE
Loss due to:- KJ/kg fuel %
1) Unburnt Carbon in Ash 626,78 2,29
2) Dry Flue Gas 1153,96 4,22
3) Moisture in the Fuel 197,17 0,72
4) Moisture from Hydrogen 946,44 3,46
5) Incomplete Combustion (CO Loss) 391,14 1,43
6) Moisture in the Combustion Air 31,03 0,11
7) Radiation and Unaccounted Losses 273,20 1,00
TOTAL LOSSES 3619,20 13,23
BOILER EFFICIENCY i.e. (100% - LOSSES) 86,77%
80
Mass of carbon in 1 kg of fuel = ____kg Moisture produced by combustion of H2 as % of
Calculated mass of unburnt carbon = ____ kg fuel
Therefore mass of carbon consumed = ____kg = _____ x 9
= _____% or _____ kg moisture/kg fuel
Carbon Equivalent of Sulphur
= Percentage sulphur x 12/32 Qhf = 9 mh [cpw (Tsat – Ta) + hfg
+ cps (Tg – Tsat)]
= ____ x 12 = _____x [4,18 x (l00 - ___) + 2 258
100 32 + 2,01 x (___ - l00)]
= ____kg = ______ kJ/kg fuel
or = _____ x 100 %
Mass of Dry Gas per kg of Fuel ___
= ______ %
= Carbon Consumed
+ Carbon Equivalent of Sulphur Incomplete Combustion
Carbon in the Flue Gas
= + The percentage of carbon monoxide in 1 kg of
_______ fuel
= ____ kg dry gas / kg fuel
= (% carbon consumed + % sulphur
But Qfd = massgas x cp x (Tgas – Tambient air) x 12/32) x 28 CO
12CO2 + 12CO
= ____ x 1,005 x (____ - ____) = ( + x 12/32) x 28 x
= ________kJ / kg fuel 12 x ____ + 12 x ____
or = ______ x 100 % = ____ %
____ or = ____ kg CO/kg fuel
= _____% Calorific Value of CO = 10 143 kJ/kg
CO Heat Loss/kg fuel = 10 143 x _____
Moisture in the Fuel = ______ kJ/kg fuel
or = _____ x 100 %
Qcm = mw [cpw (Tsat – Ta) + hfg + cps (Tg – Tsat)] ___
= ____ %
Moisture in the fuel = ( %+ %) Moisture in the Combustion Air
100
81
Mass of Air Therefore Mass of Air = _____ + _____ -1
= _____ kg dry air/kg
Mass of dry gas/kg fuel = Mass of (Wet Flue fuel
Gas + Ash - Fuel) Combustion Air
Moisture in fuel Moisture Loss = _____ x _____ k J / k g
= _____ kg/kg fuel
Moisture from H2 = _____ kg/kg = _____ kJ/kg
fuel
Total Wet Gas/kg fuel = _____ kg/kg or = _____ x 100 %
Total Ash Content = _____ kg/kg ___
(from Analysis) = ____ %
Total fuel burnt = 1 kg (by
definition)
•••••••••
82
furnace efficiency test
••••••••••••••
The following gives a ‘direct method’ methodology If the process, as in the aluminium melting furnace,
for calculating the efficiency of a heating furnace. It is taking the material through from solid to liquid,
is more simplified than the boiler example given the temperature range is continuous and the final
above due to the range of different furnace solid temperature Tfs and the starting liquid
configurations, where constant heating and cooling temperature,Tol are both the melting temperature,
make it difficult to calculate the ‘non-steady’ losses Tm. The overall energy requirement to heat from
explicitly. solid at temperature Tos to liquid at Tfl is:
The energy required to heat any material is given Energy = M Cps (Tm – Tos) + Lm + Cpl (Tfl – Tm)
Energy =
by the mass, M, multiplied by the specific heat, Cp, Energy = e
multiplied by the temperature rise. The energy
required to heat a solid with specific heat Cps M is a common term and a graph of energy vs.
from Tos to some final temperature Tfs is production is expected to be a straight line of
therefore: slope, m, where:
energy to heat solid = M Cps (Tfs - Tos) m = Cps (Tm – Tos) + Lm + Cpl (Tfl – Tm)
m =
m = e
The energy required to melt a material at its
melting temperature is the mass, M, multiplied by A value of m can be determined from the graph.
the latent heat of melting, Lm: Cps,Tm, Lm and Cpl are characteristics of the material
and can be looked up in reference books. Tos and
energy to melt material at melting temperature = MLm Tfl, the initial and final temperatures, are process
parameters of which management should already
The energy required to raise the temperature of be aware.
a liquid is analogous to that of the solid and is the
mass, M, multiplied by the specific heat of the Everything in this expression except the efficiency,
liquid, Cpl, multiplied by the temperature rise from e, is known.
the starting temperature, Tol, to the final liquid
temperature,Tfl. So: The slope of the line e is 2.585 Gj/te. Take the
pouring temperature to be 730ºC. The specific
energy melt to final temperature = M CPl (Tfl - Tol) heat capacity of aluminium from ambient
temperature to the melting point at 661ºC is
Calculating the process efficiency: 1.061 kJ/kg/º0 and for the liquid is 1.177 kJ/kg/ºC.
The latent heat of melting is 396 kJ/kg.
Energy is delivered at some efficiency which, slope = 1.06 x (661 – 25) + 396 + 1.177 )760 – 661) = 1,152
because this is a straight line, clearly is not slope = 1.06 x (661 – 25) + 396 + 1.177 )760 – 661) = 1,152
slope = e e
dependent on the amount of material being
processed and can be expressed as a constant, e. The efficiency of the furnace is therefore:
83
e = 1,152 constituent elements in the proportions of its
e = 1,152 = 45%
e = 2,585 chemical formula.
This level of efficiency is quite good for a gas-fired Note: Very precise information (which is usually
furnace in this application. the best to use) on heat capacities, and the
temperature ranges over which they are valid, is
Selecting specific heat data often provided in reference texts as the numerical
values of coefficients A. B. C and D in an equation
It is important to select the right data on specific of the form:
heats. Specific heats vary with temperature and,
where not specified, tend to be quoted in
Cp = A + BT + C + DT2
reference texts at, or around, 25ºC (298ºK). This Cp = A + BT + C + DT22
Cp = A + BT + T2 + DT
can be rather misleading - particularly in high
temperature processes. Heat capacity is often
quoted in reference texts as the molar heat For some materials it may be necessary to use
capacity, which is the energy required to raise one several such formulae to cover the range of
gram-molecular weight (the molecular weight temperatures required. For comprehensive
expressed in grams) by 1ºC. So, to convert this to information on specific heats, latent heats of fusion
a kg basis, divide by the molecular weight and and evaporation. Specialist textbooks on the
multiply by 1,000. To calculate the molecular processes in use in specific industries usually also
weight of a material, add the atomic weights of its provide this information.
•••••••••
84
••••••••••••••
SOURCES OF
FURTHER
INFORMATION
85