R AND D JOURNAL, VOL. 18, NO.

2, JULY 2OO2
Solar chimney porrl/er plarrt performance
characteristics
D.G. Krogerl J.D. Buyrt
(First received November 2001; Final version May 2002)
The per,forrn ance characteristics o.f o large solar chimney
power plant are eualuated. The reference plant studied has
a glass-couered collector and a chimney that is 1 500 rrl
high with a diameter of 160 m. A turbo-generator is lo-
cated at the base o.f the chimney. The draught and releuant
energy equations applicable to the plant are solued
.fo,
speci-
.fi,ed
meteorological data at a particular site 'in South A.frica.
It is shown that the output o.f the plant changes measurably
during the doy and that power is also generated during the
night, due to the therm,al capacity of the ground under the
solar collector. By optimising the shape and hei,ght of the
solar collector, the annual power output can be increased.
Greek
a absorptance
A difierential
e emissivity
q efficiency
o Boltzmann constant, W
l^'Kn
p density, kg/*t or reflectance
0 angle
r transmissivity
Subscripts
a ambient or air or absorptance
b beam
:"' ffi*:?'ion
oo
:rt",:,
p pressure
r radial or roof or radiation
D drag or Darcy
d diffuse
f
friction
g ground
h convective heat transfer
s support or sky
skA sky
t turbine or transversal
t:
l,Irlo'generator
IxrnoDUCTroN
A solar chimney power plant consists of a central chimtry,
surrounded by a solar collector that consists of a transpar-
ent canopy or roof supported a few metres above ground
level, as shown in Fig. 1.
A turbine driving a generator is located at the base of
the chimney. Solar radiation passing through the canopy
strikes the ground below it from where heat is transferred
to the adjacent air by means of convection. Due to buoy-
ancy, the heated air flows towards the centre of the collector
and then up the chimney where it drives the turbine.
Tests conducted at an experirnental solar chimney power
plant located at Manzanares in Spain have shown that
the concept is sound and that performance trends are in
line with predicted values.l,2 Preliminary studies have indi-
cated that large solar chimney power plants are potentially
economically viable.
3'a
In this study, the performance characteristics of a large
b
Cn
Cn
cp
d
e
f
H
h
I
K
k
m
n
P
p
Pr
q
R
Re
T
T
t
u
ry
NoUpNcLATURE
exponent
drag coeffi.cient
extinction coeffi.cient
specific heat, J/kg K
diameter, m
surface roughness
friction factor
height, m
heat transfer coeffi.cient, W
fm2K
solar radiation, W
l^'
Ioss coeffi.cient
thermal conductivity, W/mK
mass flow rate, kg/t
number
pitch, m or power, W
pressure, N/m2
Prandtl
heat transfer rate, W
l^'
gas constant, J
fkg
K
Reynolds number
radius, m
temperature, K or
oC
thickness, m or time, s
velocity, m/s
co-ordinate or depth, m
1. Departlltent of Mechanical Engineering, University of Stel-
lerrbosch, Private B"g Xl, Matieland, 7602 South Africa
( d gk@ uraties. su n.ac.za)
2. Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Stellen-
bosch
Fig. 1. Solar chimneY
Power Plant
solar chimney reference power plant, having dimensions as
Iisted in Appendix A, were determined for meteorological
conditions as given in Tables 41 and A2. These latter con-
ditions are applicable at a site located near Sishen (27.67"
South, 23.00" East) in South Africa. It was shown that
the performance of the reference plant can be improved by
modifying the collector geometry.
AXALYSIS
To find the power generated by a solar chimney power
plant, &s shown schematically in FiS. 1, the relevant
draught and energy equations have to be solved simultane-
ously.
1. The power output of the plant can be expressed as
P_
- D
pressure drop)
mlPu
(1)
where
4rn
is the efficiency of the turbo-generator.
The piessure difference due to a column of cold air out-
side the chimney and a column of hot air inside the chimney
is the driving force or potential that causes the air to flow
through the plant. Blaine k Kr6gers evaluate the effect
of different ambient conditions on the'potential and show
that for the case where adiabatic lapse rates are assumed
outside and inside the chimneY
R AND D JOURNAL, VOL. 18, NO.2, JULY 2OO2
where Kl is the collector inlet loss coefficient.
Canopy supports are arranged radially with a radial
pitch P, and a tangential pitch P1. Air flowing radially
inwards in the solar collector experiences a pressure drop
across a circle of supports at a particular radius. If the
height of the canopy or roof is given by H
this pressure drop is
dp"
:
C"Dm2d,r2(u-t)7 (8zr' pPrnSrSo) (4)
where C,
o
is the drag coeffi.cient of the particular support
and nr, is the radial air mass flow rate.6
The pressure drop due to all supports is obtained by the
following summation:
AP"
-
Crnm'd,
n"ff"t
(r,
-
frrPr)2(b-l) (5)
Wko
p*
where nr1 is the total number of support circles.
As the air flows radially inwards it accelerates (if b < 1)
with the result that the pressure drops:6
LPo.":
f3 13
IaP
tn"
Or"rr.jre
drop Lp
tdue
to frictional effects under the
collector are given by Kroger k BuysT and Beyers8 while
the pressure drop across the turbine inlet Lpt, can be ex-
pressed in terms of a specified turbine inlet loss coefficient
Ktt Similarly, the pressure drop Lp"o due to the drag
of appurtenances such as spokes or other reinforcements
inside the chimney can be expressed in terms of a loss co-
efficient K"D.
For a chimney of constant cross-sectional area, the
change in pressure due to the change in momentum, be-
qorAeAr 9ro
rAOAr
Qr.
rAOAr
I I
p,. rAOArcOr,r
Btt
t-
(nraearHcpr)
m69cpT+h (m6gc1116,'
pn raearcon
3{n
r---
J--
I
f -*
f,n*h1-qf,ls)azl
raear
i
rtenl
low
FA,
y*
ca,cc
pot
efl,
rr*
\pr
\P",
oe
Pt
A
A
ngl
um(
)-
Lp
+1.
+l
ivir
volr
Lp
T:
A
(
bi
2
ur
tut
nrc
Po,
-A
r-t
:th
L7
;*
Pcf
tial
'
rate
P'*
LPt.-
+A
'ra
Pt'
A1
+
Lp-
P,['-
{
\'-:f:3{i{/;;'l
The pressure drop between the essentially stagnant am-
bient air at 1 and at the inlet 2 to the collector is given
by
Lpn
: (n
-
pz)
-
KrpzuZtz + pruzrl2 (3)
Turbo-
generotor
collector
l.f=H
zkz/r)o
L__ L9u'-''j'1-
j
urounol
-
Fig. 2. Control volumes in collector
R AND D JOURNAL, VOL. 18, NO . 2, JIJLY 2OO2
tween the inlet and the outlet of the chimney, can be ex-
pressed as
Lp.o."
:
l+*
I
("a?)
]'
( r
I
pa- 1
I
pn)
where where qo is the heat absorbed by the glass, i.e.
^
(1
-
p) (1
-
rba) Io
,
(1
-
p) (1
-
rd,a) Ia
,., r\
Y.a-
- \rDl
where the total radiation per unit area of horizontal surface
is
In
-
Iu * Ia. (16)
According to Duffie k Beckmanll the beam reflectance
at the upper surface of the glass can be expressed as
where d is the zenith angle of incidence. For diffuse radia-
tion the approximate reflectance is determined at 0
:
60o
i.e.
Pa
:0.0934.
The beam transmittance through the glass roof due to
absorption is given by
-1-
t,./
[cos{arcsin(sin
0
/I.526) }]
Tbo
-
e
ve
(7)
If it is assumed that the turbulent flow in the chimney
is fully developed, the frictional loss can be expressed ap-
proximately as
Lp.r
:
f .
(Ho
-
H5)
l+*l
("a?)l'
t
(2pqd.) (8)
where according to Haalande
f":27778["r,,{t#)
'*
(*)
"'}]
'
(e)
where e" is the surface roughness of the concrete.
2. The energy equation applicable to the elementary corr-
trol volume about the air stream in the collecter as shown
in Fig. 2 is
#r^a.,cpr)
A".&b,a
:
eghr
L'0 A'r *
qrn r L, 0 A,r
Since p
-
p
I
Rr and changes in cp and p are negli-
gible, this equation together with the continuity relation
0l0r (^a,t) A"
- -a l& @
r a 0 Lr f/) can be simplified
to give for fully developed flow
p cp ,# *
(#)#
:egh*q.n
:hg(Tn-T,)+h,(7,-T)
According to Gnielinski,l0 the heat transfer coefficients
under the roof and on the ground for fully developed flow
can be expressed as
h
-
k (f
o 116)
(Re
-1
000) P,
I
(12)
[" {r
07 + 1 2.7 (f
o/8)o
'
(pro
Gr
_1)
}]
'
For developing flow near the inlet of the collector
ocp rK*
ffi)#:egh*q,r,
(13)
:hg(Tn-To)+t,(7"-T")
Krdger k BuysT give values for h for developing flow
under the roof and on the ground.
3. Assume that the temperature difference between the
top and bottom surfaces of the glass roof is negligible and
apply an energy balance to the elementary control volume
shown in Fig. 2:
The transmittance of diffuse radiation considering only
absorption, Td,a is the same as that of Tbo evaluated at
0
-
60".
The net longwave radiation heat transfer rate betwseen
the ground and the roof is given by
es,:
o (Tn4
-7,4) I
(rlen
+ 1
lr, -
L). (19)
The convective heat transfer rate from the glass roof to
the air stream under the roof for fully developed flow is
given by
where the
is
0 L,r H
"oT.)
(10)
( 11)
(14)
for developing flow at the inlet of the collector.
The convective heat transfer rate from the roof to the
ambient air is given by
era
:
hro (7,
-
T") . (22)
Presently, no reliable equation exists for the convective
heat transfer coefficient hro. The follou'ing relation will be
employed:11
h,o
=
b.T + B.8u_ (29)
where u- is the wind speed at the roof elevation.
The net longwave radiation heat transfer rate between
the glass roof and the clear sky is expressed as
and
where the
given by
Qrh -
h, (7,
-
T)
Qrh
-
h, (7,
-
T")
Qr":
ero (rrn
-rlno)
sky temperature according
T,ka
-
0.05 52Tr'5
(20)
(21)
(24)
to Swinbankl2 is
( 18)
(25)
Q"
*
Qg,
-
Qrh
-
Qra
-
Qrs
:
Prcortr}T, l0t
34
4. The energy equation applicable to the elementary con-
trol volume in the ground (assuming thermophysical prop
erties of ground are constant) as shown in FiS. 2 is given
by
R AND D JOURNAL. VOL. 18. NO.2, JULY 2OO2
NUMERICAL SIMULATION
The performance of the solar chimney power plant is de-
termined by maximizing the power output:
uTo
,
02To
Pscno$:
KsE
AP AP 7Ts
n
r_-_rr
0m
'
ATr 0m
(26)
(28)
(2e)
P^P-:egh*eg,-eg. (27)
''g
0z
The net solar radiation per unit area absorbed by the
ground is13
(1
-
p)2 rbo.eg Iu
(1
-
p2ur?o)
[1 -
pa(l
-
on)]
To solve this equation the following conditions are appli-
cable: At z
-0
Equations (11), (14)
,
(26), and (27) are semi-discretized
by replacing spatial derivatives with finite difference ap-
proximations. The resulting equations together with equa-
tion (29) are a set of differential-algebraic equations which
can be solved numerically using a standard computer code
such as DASSL.14
RpsuLTs
The murimum electrical power output of the reference
plant on the 21st of each month is shown in Fig. 3.
There is a pronounced peak output shortly after midday
and a significant difference in output during the summer
and winter months. Due to the heat stored in the ground
some power is also generated at night.
Examples of the temperature distributions in the ground
under the collector at a radius of 200 m at different tirnes
of the dry in December and in June are shown in FiS. 4
and Fig. 5. The former shows conditions near the surface
of the ground more clearly.
70
Solar timp
OE:0O
0.2 0.4 0.6
Depth, m
Fig. 4. Temperature distribution in ground near surface
The output of the reference plant, which is 341 GWh/a,
can be increased by changing the shape of the collector roof
and its inlet height H2. As shown in FiS. 6 a mancimum
power output is attained when b
-
1 and Hz
:3.3
m. For
values of b
flow separation in the collector due to the fact that the flow
area increases.
By enlarging the collector area the annual power output
can be increased. This is shown graphically in FiS. 7 for
b
-
1. At every collector diameter there is a corresponding
optimal inlet height.
Qg
+
(1
-
pa)' r
d,ads
Ia
(1
-
p2ar2ao)
[1 -
pa(l
-
or)]
At z: @t }Tnl0,
-
0.
120
lo0
20
0
r20
100
=80
b60
a
o.
40
DOC
60
''^ to
q)
L.
d
)
E40
a')
o
c
b30
F
20
l0 ls
Time
>80
b60
=
o
o"40
20
0 5 l0 15
Time
Fig. 3. Maximum electrical output of reference plant
R AND D JOURNAL, VOL. 18, NO. 2, JVLY 2OO2
lt)
20
Fig.5.
Depth, m
Temperatttre distribution in ground
420
400
380
360
340
320
300
246
H2'*
Fig. 6. Annual power output as function of b und H2
CoxcLUSroN
The performance characteristics of a large solar chimney
power plant are determined. It is shown that in such a
plant there is a pronounced peak output shortly after solar
noon, whilst power is also generated at night due to the
energy storage capacity of the ground. The output of the
reference plant considered can be increased by modifyittg
the shape and inlet height of the solar collector. A further
increase in power output can be attained by increasing the
collector diameter. Due to greater heating of the air under
the collector with increasing collector diameter, heat losses
to the environment will also increase. For the particular
plant under investigation the nett increase in annual power
output is approximately linear over the range of collector
diameters shown in Fig . 7.
RprpnENCEs
[1]
Haaf W, Friedrich KG k Schlaich J. Solar Chimnevs. Part 1:
Principle and Construction of the Pilot Plant in Manzanares.
4000 s000 6000 7000 8000
Collector diameter d' m
Fig. 7. Annual power output as function of collector diameter (b
-
1)
Int. J. Solar E'nergy, 1983, 2, pp.3-20.
Haaf W. Solar Chimneys. Part 2: Preliminary Test Results from
the Manzanares Plant . Int. J. Sola'r E'ne'rgy, 1983, 2, pp.141-
161 .
Schlaich J & Schiel W.
^9ola'r
Ch'irn'netJs, Encyclopedia of Physi,-
cal Scie'nce a'nd Technolog,U,3rd edn, 2000.
Schlaich J. Tension Structures for Solar Electricity Generation.
E'ngi'nee'ri'ng Stru,cttt"res, 1999, 21, pp.658-668.
Blaine DC & Krdger DG. Analysis of the Driving Potential of a
Solar Chirnney Power Plant. R. i D Jou'r'nal, 1999, 15, pp.85-94.
Hedderwick RA. Performance Evaluation of a Solar Chimney
Power Plant. MSc(Eng) thesis, University of Stellenbosch, Stel-
lenbosch, South Africa, 2001.
t7l
Kroger DG & Buys JD. Radial Flow Boundarv Layer Develop-
ment Analvsis.
^R
i D,Io,urnar, 1999, 15, pp.95-I02.
[8]
Beyers M. Finite Volume Method for the Analysis of the Thernro-
flow Field of a Solar Chirnney Collector. MSc(Eng) thesis, Uni-
versity of Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2000.
l9l
Haaland SE. Sirnple Explicit Formulas for the Friction Factor
in'Turbulent Pipe Flow. Tra'ns. ASME, J. Flu,ids E'n,gi,'neeri,'ng,
1983, 105, pp.89-90.
[10]
Gnielinski V . Forsch. In,g. Wese,n, 1975, 4L.
[11]
Duffie JA & Beckman WA. Sola'r Engi'nee'ri'ng of Thermal P,ro-
cesses. Wiley Interscience, New York, 7974.
[12]
Swinbank WC. Long-wave Radiation from Clear Skies.'Qu,a'rt.
J.R. Meteorol. Soc., 1963, 89.
[13]
Modest MF. Radiati'ue Heat Tra'nsfer. McGraw Hill, New York,
I 993.
[14]
Brenan KE, Campbell SL U Petzold LR. Nurnerical Solution
of Initial-value Problems in Differential-Algebraic Equations.
514M,1996.
ApppNDrx A
For purposes of comparison a reference solar chimney plant
and its operating environment is defined.
P ower plant speci,fr,cat'ions :
a. Chimney
Chimney height
Chimney inside diameter
Chimney drag coefficient due to
appurtances (based on
chimney cross-sectional area) K.D: 0.1
Chimney inside surface roughness c
:
2 x 10-3 rn
i r H r=
z4
i i ,/,
rt./!
t r./ r
i
/4Iz:3.5i*
tt/l I
t,/rr
y-.
I
ni2
;3.4i.
I
tl
:3.3
m i
H": t 500 m
d"
:160
m
cl
E
o
:,
=g
:)
-
J
o
L.
a.)
'
o
o.
ct
-
tr
?.
H
60
"'^ so
G)
t{
=
E40
0)
a
F30
F
I 200
r 000
800
600
400
r0
cl
rLa
B
()
h
l|
J
o.
I
=
o
L.
c)
'
o
o.
(
- )
)
l-.
l2l
[3]
[4]
[5]
16l
36
b. Collector
Collector outside diameter
Collector inside diameter
Collector inlet height
Collector roof shape
Collector inlet loss coefficient
(based on inlet area)
Collector roof roughness
Collector supports (diameter)
Drag coefficient of supports
Tangential pitch of supports
Radial pitch of supports
Collector roof material properties:
(5 mm thick green of edge glass)
Density
Specific heat
Thermal conductivity
Thickness
Extinction coefficient
Emissivity
Collector upper convective
heat transfer coeffi.cient
d2-2rz-4000m
dt
:2rs
-
400 m
H2
-
10 m
H
-
Hz (rzlr)o
where b
-
0.5
K;
-
1
,
:0
d"
-
0.15 m
C"n
-
1
Pt
-
10 m
P,
:10
m
p,:2700kg/-t
cp,
:
840 J
lkg
K
k,
:0.78
W/mK
t,
:
0.005 m
C.:321m
7
:0.87
ho
:5.7
W
l^'
K
R AND D JOURNAL, VOL. 18, NO.2, JULY 2OO2
c. T\rrbine
T\rrbo-generator efficiency
Tts
:
0.8
Ttrrbine inlet loss coefficient based
on turbine cross-sectional area) Kti
:0.25
d. Ground
Type
Density
Specific heat
Thermal conductivity
Ground roughness
Emissivity
Absorbance
e. Ambient conditions
Air pressure
Wind speed
granite
Pg:2640kg/-t
cps
:820
J
lkg
K
kg
:
I.73 W/mK
e
s
:0'05
m
g
:
0'9
CIg
:
0'9
pa :90
000 N/-'
uto
:0
m/s
Air temperatures are presented in Table A.1, whilst details
of the solar radiation are given in Table A.2.
Table A.l Ambient air temperature
Solar
timel23+5 t2 I l0 2+ 23 2l l9 IB t7 r6 l5 t4 l3
Jun
Feb
Mar
Ap.
Muy
Jun
Jul
Aug
S.P
Oct
Nov
Dec
2s.52 2s.09 24.66 2+.33 23.80
24.89 24.46 2+.03 23.60 230t7
22.s9 22.t6 2t.73 2 I .30 20.87
lB.l9 t7.76 t7.33 16.90 16.+7
15.96 15.53 15. l0 t+.67 t4.24
13.16 t2.73 12.30 I l.B7 rt.++
14.06 13.63 13.20 t2.77 12.34
t+.79 14.36 13.93 13.50 13.07
19.59 19.16 18,73 18.30 t7.87
22.09 2 r.66 2t.23 20.80 20 37
22.52 22.09 21.66 21.23 20.80
2+ .92 2+.+9 2+.06 23 .63 23 .20
23.37 22.9+
22.72 22.31
20.++ 20.01
16.04 15.61
l3.B l 13.38
I l.0l 10.58
I l.9l I l.4B
t2.6+ t2.21
t7 .+4 I 7.0 r
19.94 19.5 I
20.37 19.94
22.77 22.34
22.5t 24 t0 25.9
2l.BB 22.70 2+.5
lg.s8 20.70 22.8
15. r8 16.50 lB.B
12.95 12.52 l4.B
10. l5 9.72 l l .3
1r.05 10.62 ll.4
r l.7B l 1.35 t3.7
16.58 16. l5 l B.s
19.08 r9.40 21.5
20.00 22.20 2+.1
21.91 24.00 25.8
27.6 29 0 30.0
26.2 27.6 28.7
2+.5 2s.9 26.8
20.6 22.0 23.0
16.9 18.4 19.5
13.6 15.4 16.5
13.8 15.7 l 7.0
l s.9 t7 .7 19. l
20.6 22.2 23.5
23.3 24.8 2s.9
25.7 27.0 27.9
27.+ 28.6 29.7
30.s 30.7 30.5
29.+ 29.5 29.3
27.4 27.5 27.3
23.6 23.9 23.6
20.2 20.+ 20.3
t7.3 t7 .7 t7.5
17.9 lB.3 lB.2
20.0 20.s 20.5
24.3 2+.7 2+.7
26 6 26.9 26.9
2B.s 28.6 28.4
30.1 30.4 30.3
30.1 29.30 28.l0
28 7 27 90 27.47
26.5 2s.60 25.t7
23.0 2t.20 20.77
19.4 18.97 l8.54
16.6 t6.17 t5.74
17.5 t7 .07 r6.64
19 9 l 7.80 t7 37
2+.t 22.60 22.t7
26.3 2s.20 2+.67
27 .9 27 .00 25. l0
29.7 28.90 27.50
27.67 27.2+
27 04 26 6l
24.7+ 24.3t
20.3+ 19.91
rB.l I 17.68
15.3 I l4.BB
l6 2l 15.78
16.94 16.5 l
2t.74 21.31
2+'2+ 23.8I
24.67 24.24
27.07 26.64
26 Bl 26 38 25.95
26. rB 25.75 2s 32
23.88 23.+5 23.0'2
19.48 19.0s 18.62
t7.25 r6.82 16.39
t4.45 t+.02 13.59
15.35 t4.92 t+.+9
r6.08 15.65 t5 22
20.88 20.45 20.02
23.38 22.95 22.s2
23.81 23 38 22.9s
26.2t 25.78 25.35
Table A.2 Total and diffuse solar radiation on a horizontal surface W/m
I,t Ih I,t Ih I,t Ih I,t Ih I,t Ih I,t Ih I,t Ih I,t Ih I,t Ih I,t Ih I,t Ih I,t Ih I,I It,
Jun
l3B 52
Feb 68 46
Mar00
Apr00
Muy00
Jun00
Jrl00
Aug00
S.p00
Oct 66 +5
Nov 135 62
Dec 157 58
l0B 762 126 909
r09 691 t2+ 845
102 604 l2l 763
84 489 l 12 64+
66 +07 85 562
63 368 BB sl7
66 +07 90 562
91 483 106 636
109 578 t27 730
l2l 673 l4l 822
I 12 7+3 126 887
103 773 l0B 91 7
136 1003 140
t+4 942 l5l
130 865 l3B
129 745 t34
l0l 664 106
109 616 I 17
107 664 l 13
t27 735 125
139 827 r49
156 9l 7 t65
133 979 t37
r 19 1009 12l
1035 135 1003 140 909
976 ls6 942 160 B4s
900 t+4 865 l3B 763
780 l4B 745 t42 644
700 105 664 100 562
650 lll 616 105 5t7
700 l 12 664 106 562
770 t23 735 r25 636
861 155 827 149 730
950 l8l 9t7 lB3 822
l0l0 l3l 979 t37 BB7
1040 I 14 t009 r3l 917
136 762 130 572
161 691 145 496
l4s 604 133 406
129 489 l0B 299
96 +07 77 220
93 368 70 190
96 407 77 220
I 14 483 l0l 295
146 578 l2l 388
t73 673 155 +83
t+2 7+3 t3+ 558
r28 773 t2+ 587
82 l3B +0
75 68 24
5400
31 0 0
ll 0 0
600
t200
3200
sB00
90 66 28
87 r35 +5
86 t57 +9
357
279
lB0
ll0
35
t9
35
99
lB2
272
348
375
572
496
406
299
220
190
220
295
3BB
483
558
587
357
279
190
100
35
l9
35
99
l82
272
348
375
B9
B6
72
50
IB
l0
l7
50
78
95
90
B3
l14
l14
r02
78
48
44
48
7l
97
135
lt7
I l6