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  • R Evolutionary Relatedness Amongst Organisms Can Be Determined Using This

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    Ryan Sim
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    Restriction enzymes cut foreign DNA at specific locations. Electrophoresis separates DNA fragments by size and is used in forensic science to compare DNA evidence. It also provides evidence for evolutionary relatedness. Restriction enzymes create sticky ends on DNA fragments that can join with plasmids in bacteria to replicate genes. Gene expression in eukaryotes and prokaryotes is regulated by different mechanisms like alternative splicing, enhancers, operons, and repressors. Transcription and translation involve initiation, elongation, and termination steps to produce proteins from DNA. Mutations can affect these processes in different ways.

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    genetics

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    GeneticsUnitStudyGuide-1

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    Restriction enzymes cut foreign DNA at specific locations. Electrophoresis separates DNA fragments by size and is used in forensic science to compare DNA evidence. It also provides evidence for evolutionary relatedness. Restriction enzymes create sticky ends on DNA fragments that can join with plasmids in bacteria to replicate genes. Gene expression in eukaryotes and prokaryotes is regulated by different mechanisms like alternative splicing, enhancers, operons, and repressors. Transcription and translation involve initiation, elongation, and termination steps to produce proteins from DNA. Mutations can affect these processes in different ways.

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    18 views2 pages

    R Evolutionary Relatedness Amongst Organisms Can Be Determined Using This

    Uploaded by

    Ryan Sim
    Restriction enzymes cut foreign DNA at specific locations. Electrophoresis separates DNA fragments by size and is used in forensic science to compare DNA evidence. It also provides evidence for evolutionary relatedness. Restriction enzymes create sticky ends on DNA fragments that can join with plasmids in bacteria to replicate genes. Gene expression in eukaryotes and prokaryotes is regulated by different mechanisms like alternative splicing, enhancers, operons, and repressors. Transcription and translation involve initiation, elongation, and termination steps to produce proteins from DNA. Mutations can affect these processes in different ways.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 2

    Electrophoresiswhatarerestrictionenzymes?

    RestrictionenzymesarerestrictionendonucleasesthatcutupforeignDNAfromother
    organismsorphages.
    Twoapplications?(evolution,criminalinvestigations)
    Electrophoreticseparationhasusesinforensicsciencebecauseitcanbeusedtoisolateand
    compareDNA,bloodproteinsandinorganicsubstancessuchasgunshotresiduesfromcrime
    sceneswithsuspects,victimsorstandardreferencematerial.
    Evidenceforevolutionaryrelatednessamongstorganismscanbedeterminedusingthis
    technique.isolateandcomparedna,compareevolutionarysimiliarities
    Howdoestheseparatingwork?
    Thereisapolymerthatactsasafilter.ThelongerDNAtravelstheslowestatagiventime.
    Bands,thecollectionofDNAwiththesamelength,formalongthegel,andtheclosestDNAto
    thepositiveendistheshortest.
    DNArecombination,plastids
    Restrictionenzymes,whichareenzymesthatcutDNAatalimitednumberofspecificlocations,
    createstickyends,whichcanthencometogetherinplasmids.Theseplasmidsgrowinbacteria
    andcanbelaterharvested.Nucleicacidhybridizationcanbeutilizedlatertoidentifythedesired
    gene.
    Diff.GeneExpressionRegulationAmongEukandProk
    Euk:
    RNAAlternativeSplicing:DifferentmRNAmoleculesareproducedfromthesameprimary
    transcript,dependingonwhichRNAsegmentsaretreatedasexonsandwhichasintrons
    Enhancers:Distalcontrolelementsgroupthatmaybethousandsofnucleotidesupstreamor
    downstreamorevenwithinanintron.Therateofgeneexpressioncanbestronglyincreasedor
    decreasedbythebindingofproteins,eitheractivatorsorrepressors,tothecontrolelementsof
    enhancers.
    Pro:
    LacOperon:Inactivatesrepressorbybindingtoitandchangingtheshapeoftherepressor,
    freeingtheoperonandallowingfortranscriptionfactorstobindandallowfortranscription,thus
    allowingthegenetobeexpressed.
    Trpoperon:Repressorisnotinitiallyboundtotheoperon.Whenthecorepressor(trp)joins,then
    therepressoraltersshapetofitontotheoperonandblockstranscriptionfactors,thus
    disallowingthegenetobeexpressed.
    Transcription
    InitiationAcollectionofproteinscalledtranscriptionfactorsmediatethebindingofRNA
    polymeraseandtheinitiationoftranscription.AtthepromotersequencecalledaTATAbox,RNA
    polymeraseIIbinds,formingthetranscriptioninitiationcomplex.
    ElongationRNApolymerasemovesalongtheDNA,untwistingtheDNAdoublehelix,adding
    nucleotidesonthe5to3direction,andthenewRNAmoleculepeelsawayfromitsDNA
    templatewhiletheDNAdoublehelixreforms.
    TerminationRNAPolymeraseIItranscribesasequenceontheDNAcalledthepolyadenylation
    signalsequence,whichcodesforapolyadenylationsignal(AAUAAA)inthepremRNA.Atapoint
    downstreamfromtheAAUAAAsignal,proteinsassociatedwiththegrowingRNAtranscriptcutit
    freefromthepolymerase,releasingthepremRNA.
    transcribedterminatorsequenceinprokandpolyadenylationsignalsequenceeuk
    Whataresomemutationsthatcanaffecttranscription?
    SilentmutationsWhenanucleotideischanged,butthechangedcodonstillexpressesthesame
    aminoacid.
    MissensemutationsWhenanucleotideischanged,whichendsupchangingtheentireamino
    acid.
    NonsensemutationsWhenanucleotideischangedandcausesoneofthecodonstobecomea
    stopcodon,thusmakingthegenestopprematurely.
    FrameshiftmutationsWhenanucleotideisinsertedordeleted,whichchangesthereading
    framefortherestofthenucleotidesthathavedifferentcodonsandthusaminoacids.
    Translation
    InitiationThemRNA,initiatortRNA,andasmallribosomalsubunitthatattacheswithalarge
    ribosomalsubunitcreatesatranslationinitiationcomplex.Proteinscalledinitiationfactorsare
    requiredtobringallthesecomponentstogetherandarepoweredbyGTP.
    Elongation:
    1.)CodonrecognitiontRNAbasepairswiththecomplementarymRNAcodonintheAsite
    2.)PeptidebondformationPeptidebondbetweentheaminoacidinAsiteandpolypeptideinP
    site.PolypeptidemovedtotRNAinAsite.
    3.)TranslocationtRNAinAsiteistranslocatedtoPsite.EmptytRNAinPsitemovedtoEsite,
    whereitsreleased.
    Terminationuga,uag,uaapromptsreleasefactortoAsite.watermoleculeaddedtopeptide
    chaininPsite.hydrolysisbetweencompletedpolypeptideandtrnainpsite,causingreleaseof
    polypeptidethroughexittunnel

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