Analytic Geometry With Introduction To Vector Analysis

BENEDICK A.
GANZO
Structural Engineer
ASAS-Omrania Architecture & Engineering Consultants
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Brian Ganzo Publishing Company

Phase 6, V&G, Tacloban City
Philippines
Copyright © 2009
by
Brian Ganzo Publishing Company, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or by any means, without
permission in writing from the publisher.
Printed and distributed

by
B. A. GANZO Printers, Inc.
Tacloban City, Philippines
iii
Contents
Preface ix
PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Chapter 1 Rectangular Coordinates 1
1.1 Analytic Geometry Defined
1.2 Rectangular Coordinates
1.3 Distance Between Two Points
1.4 Division of a Line Segment. Midpoint
1.5 Inclination. Slope
1.6 Slopes of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
1.7 Angle Between Two Lines. Intersection
1.8 Area by Coordinates
Chapter 2 Polar Coordinates 9

2.1 Polar Coordinates
2.3 Relations Between Polar and Rectangular
Coordinates
Chapter 3 Functions and Curves 13

3.1 Functions. Degree of an Algebraic Equation
3.2 Locus of an Equation. Intersection of Two Curves
3.3 Intercepts
3.4 Symmetry
3.5 Asymptotes. Extent of the Curve
3.6 Tracing the Curve of an Algebraic Equation
and a Polar Equation
3.7 Equation of a Given Locus
Chapter 4 The Straight Line 25

4.1 A Line Parallel to a Coordinate Axis
4.2 General Equation of a Line
4.3 Point-Slope Form
4.4 Two-Point Form
4.5 Slope-Intercept Form

4.6 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
iv CONTENTS
4.7 Concurrence of Three Lines
4.8 Intercept Form
4.9 Normal Form
4.10 Polar Equation of a Straight Line
4.11 Directed Perpendicular Distance of a Line to a Point
and Between Two Parallel Lines
4.12 Two Conditions Determine a Line
Chapter 5 The Circle 33

5.1 Circles
5.2 General Equation of a Circle
5.3 Standard Equation of a Circle
5.4 Radical Axis
5.5 Polar Equation of a Circle
5.6 Three Conditions Determine a Circle
Chapter 6 Special Quadratic

Equations in Two Variables.
Conic Sections 37
6.1 Conic Sections
6.2 Parabolas
6.3 General Equation of a Parabola
6.4 Standard Equation of a Parabola
6.5 Ellipses
6.6 General Equation of an Ellipse
6.7 Standard Equation of an Ellipse
6.8 Hyperbolas
6.9 General Equation of a Hyperbola
6.10 Standard Equation of a Hyperbola
6.11 Asymptotes of a Hyperbola
6.12 Conditions Describing a Conic Section
6.13 Polar Equation of a Given Conic Section
6.14 Tracing a Conic Section
Chapter 7 Transformation of Coordinates.

The General Quadratic in
Two Variables 51
7.1 Translation of Axes in a Plane
7.2 Rotation of Axes in a Plane
7.3 The General Quadratic in Two Variables
7.4 Tracing the Curve of a General Quadratic
7.5 Discriminant of a Conic
Chapter 8 Tangents and Normals

to Conics 55
8.1 Tangents and Normals
CONTENTS v
8.2 Tangent and Normal Through a Given
Point on the Conic
8.3 Poles and Polars of a Conic
8.4 Tangent to a Conic Through a Given
External Point
8.5 Tangent of Given Slope
Chapter 9 Parametric Equations 61

9.1 Parametric Equations
9.2 A Set of Parametric Equations of
Some Plane Curves
9.3 Tracing a Given Set of Parametric Equations
Chapter 10 Transcendental Functions 63

10.1 Trigonometric Functions
10.2 Congruence and Shifting
10.3 Tracing by Composition of Ordinates
10.4 Exponential Functions
10.5 Hyperbolic Functions
10.6 Logarithms
10.7 Inverse Functions
Chapter 11 Families of Plane Curves.

Curve Fitting 73
11.1 A Family of Curves
11.2 A Family of Curves Through an Intersection
11.3 Curve Fitting
11.4 Line of Best Fit. Method of Least Squares
11.5 Nonlinear Curves of Best Fit
SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Chapter 12 Rectangular Coordinates
in Space 79
12.1 Space Rectangular Coordinates
12.2 Distance Between Two Space Points
12.3 Division of a Line Segment in Space. Midpoint
12.4 Direction Angles and Direction Cosines
12.5 Angle Between Two Space Lines
12.6 Parallel and Perpendicular Space Lines
vi CONTENTS
Chapter 13 Cylindrical and Spherical

Coordinates 85
13.1 Cylindrical Coordinates
13.2 Spherical Coordinates
13.3 Relations Between Rectangular, Cylindrical,
and Spherical Coordinates
Chapter 14 Surfaces and Space Curves 89

14.1 Locus of an Equation in Three Variables
14.2 Symmetry of Surfaces
14.3 Intercepts of a Surface. Sections and Traces
14.4 Tracing Surfaces by Parallel Plane Sections
14.5 A Surface of Revolution
14.6 Cylindrical and Conical Surfaces
14.7 Intersection of Two Surfaces
14.8 Projections, Projecting Lines,
and Projecting Cylinders
14.9 Tracing Space Curves by Its
Projecting Cylinders
14.10 Sketching Solids Bounded by Surfaces
14.11 Equation of a Given Surface
Chapter 15 The Plane 99

15.1 A Plane Parallel to a Coordinate Plane
15.2 General Equation of a Plane
15.3 Three-Point form
15.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Planes
15.5 Intercept Form
15.6 Normal Form
15.7 Directed Perpendicular Distance of
a Plane to a Point
15.8 Three Conditions Determine a Plane
Chapter 16 The Straight Line in Space 103

16.1 General Equation of a Line in Space
16.2 A Family of Planes Through a
Given Space Line
16.3 Parametric Equations of a Space Line
16.4 Symmetric Equation of a Line
16.5 Lines Parallel and Perpendicular to a Plane
CONTENTS vii
Chapter 17 Special Quadratic Equations
in Three Variables. Quadric
Surfaces. Transformation of
Coordinates in Space 107
17.1 Quadric Surfaces
17.2 Ellipsoids. Spheres
17.3 Hyperboloids of One Sheet
17.4 Hyperboloids of Two Sheets
17.5 Elliptic Paraboloids
17.6 Hyperbolic Paraboloids
17.7 Quadric Cylinders
17.8 Elliptic Cones
17.9 Ruled Surfaces
17.10 Translation of Axes in Space
17.11 Rotation of Axes in Space
INTRODUCTORY VECTOR ANALYSIS

Chapter 18 Vector Operations 121
18.1 Vectors
18.2 Equality of Vectors. Negative of a Vector
18.3 Sum of Vectors. Difference
18.4 Product of a Scalar and a Vector.
The Unit Vector
18.5 Dot Product of Two Vectors
18.6 Cross Product of Two Vectors
Chapter 19 Vectors in Cartesian

Coordinates 129
19.1 Cartesian Unit Vectors
19.2 Cartesian Representation of a Vector
19.3 Operations on Two Vectors with
Cartesian Representations
19.4 Products Involving Three Vectors.
The Lagrange’s Identity
Chapter 20 Vector Analysis of

Planes and Lines 137
20.1 The Equation of a Plane
20.2 The Parametric Equation of a Line
ix
Preface
It is the hope of the author that this concise book, Analytic

Geometry with Introduction to Vector Analysis, will prove valuable
and handy to students of engineering, science, and mathematics,
taking up analytic geometry as a preparatory course or
simultaneously with calculus. It is expected however, that the
students had already completed courses in algebra and trigonometry.
A working knowledge of elementary geometry and matrices are
important.
Each chapter is organized by presenting immediately the basic
definitions, principles, theorems, and formulas without their proofs
and definitions. The author knows that sometimes students and
practicing engineers are only interested in the immediate formulas
that are needed to solve a particular problem.
This book is divided into three major parts. The first eleven
chapters cover plane analytic geometry. The next six chapters cover
solid analytic geometry, the extension of geometric theorems to the
three-dimensional case. The last three chapters provide an
introduction to vector analysis, with discussions on the application of
the subject to the solution of geometric problems. The author
believes that vector analysis should now be an essential part of the
mathematical background of every engineer, scientist, or
mathematician.
Although every effort has been made to keep the presentation
clear and accurate, the author would be very happy to receive
suggestions or corrections if necessary.
The author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to his
colleagues, former students, and former teachers who have extended
help in the preparation of this book. Their names would form a list
that several pages of this book would still be insufficient to contain
them.
Benedick A. Ganzo
Structural Engineer
1
PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Chapter 1
Rectangular Coordinates
1.1 Analytic Geometry Defined
a. Analytic geometry is the branch of mathematics, dealing

with the behavior and properties of configurations involving
points, lines, curves, surfaces, and solids by means of
algebraic methods. If the figures are on a plane, the study is
called plane analytic geometry. Solid analytic
geometry deals with figures in space.
b. Various methods in analytic geometry that are used to prove

directly many theorems of classical Euclidean geometry are
called analytic proofs. See examples 1.10 and 1.11.
1.2 Rectangular Y
Coordinates second quadrant +∞ first quadrant
a P
…
a. The position of a 3
point on a plane 2 b
1
may be determined O
X’ -∞ … -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 …
+∞
X
by its distances from -1
-2
two perpendicular
-3
lines, in what we call
a rectangular (or
…
third quadrant fourth quadrant

Cartesian) -∞
coordinate Y’
system, Fig. 1.1. Fig. 1.1
b. A rectangular coordinate system is formed by drawing a pair

of perpendicular lines X’X and Y’Y, called the coordinate
axes (or the X-axis and the Y-axis respectively),
intersecting at a point called the origin O. Perpendicular
distances measured from the Y-axis to the right (along OX)
and from the X-axis upward (along OY) are positive, while
their opposites, from the Y-axis to the left (along OX’) and
from the X-axis downward (along OY’) are negative
2 PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
distances. The plane is divided into four regions called

quadrants.
c. The x-coordinate (or abscissa) of a point is its

perpendicular distance from the Y-axis and the y-coordinate
(or ordinate) of a point is its perpendicular distance from
the X-axis. Together, these rectangular coordinates (the
paired x-coordinate and y-coordinate of a point) determine
the position of a point in a plane. Point P for example, Fig.
1.1, is located at (a, b).
d. The notation P(x, y) where x and y are variables, means that

a point P has an x-coordinate x, and a y-coordinate y in a
rectangular coordinate system. Plotting is the process of
locating (by drawing or placing) a point on a plane when its
coordinates are known.
e. A directed line segment (or directed distance) is a line

segment measured in a definite sense or direction (and it is
either positive or negative), Fig. 1.2. The tail end P1 of the
arrow is called the initial point (or origin), and the head P2
is called the terminal point (or terminus) of the directed
line segment. If the directed line segment joining the point
P1(x1, y1) to P2(x2, y2), in Y
that direction (written as
 P2(x2, y2)
P1P2 or d , an arrow is
placed above the letter if 
P1P2 or d
only one letter is used to
represent the directed line
P1(x1, y1)
segment), is taken as
positive, then the opposite
of that direction, from P2 to O X
P1 (or the directed line
segment P2P1), is equal to Fig. 1.2
the negative of P1P2. If P1P2
was initially negative, then P2P1 is the positive of P1P2. That
is, directed line segments in opposite directions have
opposite signs, or
P1P2 = - P2P1 (1.1)
f. The distance (or segment) on the other hand, between the

two points P1 and P2 (written as |P1P2|), is always positive
whether measured in the opposite direction |P2P1|. It is the
RECTANGULAR COORDINATES 3
magnitude or the absolute value of the directed distance, so
that,
|P1P2| = |P2P1| (1.2)
a. The distance |d| between two points P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2),
Fig. 1.3, is given by,
d  x 2  x 1 2  y 2  y 1 2 (1.3)
Y Y
P2(x2, y2)
P2(x2, y2)
P(x, y)
|d|
P1(x1, y1)
P1(x1,y1)
O X X
O
Fig. 1.3 Fig. 1.4
1.4 Division of a Line Segment. Midpoint
a. If P(x, y) is a point on the line segment |P1P2|, joining the

points P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2, y2), such that, the ratio of the
directed distances P1P and P1P2 is k, or
P1 P
k (1.4)
P1P2
then the coordinates (x, y) of P, Fig. 1.4, must be given by,
x  x 1  k x 2  x 1 
(1.5)
and y  y 1  k y 2  y 1 
Y P(x, y)
P2(x2, y2)
b. If P lies in the extension P1(x1, y1)

of |P1P2| in either
direction, Fig. 1.5, X
O
equation (1.5) still
applies.
Fig. 1.5
c. If Pm(xm, ym) is the midpoint (or a point that divides a line
segment into two equal parts) of the line segment |P1P2|,
equation (1.5) reduces to,
1
xm  x 1  x 2 
2 (1.6)
1
and ym  y 1  y 2 
2
Y
1.5 Inclination. Slope L1, line of slope m1
L2, line of slope m2
a. The angle of inclination
(or simply inclination) of a
line, θ1 and θ2 for the lines α
L1 and L2 respectively of Fig. N(xi,yi)
1.6, is the least θ1 θ2
counterclockwise angle the O X
line makes with the positive
X-axis, ranging from 0 ≤ θ < Fig. 1.6
π. If the inclination of a line
is taken in a clockwise direction from the X-axis to the line
(sometimes called the declination of the line), it is
considered negative in value.
b. The slope m of a line is the tangent of the angle of

inclination, written as
m = tan  (1.7)

where m is positive for 0 < θ < (or lines inclined to the
2
right), and m is Y

negative for < θ < π P2(x2,y2)
2
(or lines inclined to the
left). When θ = 0
RP2 =y2 – y1
(horizontal lines), m =
 P1(x1,y1)
0. When θ = θ
2 P1R =x2– x1 R(x2,y1)
(vertical lines), m is
θ
undefined.
X
O
c. If P1(x1, y1) and P2(x2,
y2) are points on a line, Fig. 1.7
the slope m of the line is obtained by,
- -
y2 y1
m= (1.8)
x2 x1
- -
RP2 y 2 y1
since m = tan = = , Fig. 1.7.
P1R x 2 x1
1.6 Slopes of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
a. Two lines (with slopes m1 and m2) are parallel if they have
equal slopes. That is,
m1 = m2 (1.9)
b. Two lines are perpendicular if they have slopes in which one

is the negative reciprocal of the other. That is,
1 m2
-
m1  (1.10)
1.7 Angle Between Two Lines. Intersection
a. The angle α , Fig. 1.6, formed by rotating the line L1 to L2, at

their point of intersection N(xi, yi), is related to the slopes of
each line by the equation,
- m2
m
1
 m2 
1
  arctan  (1.11)
  m 1 
This angle is negative if taken in a clockwise direction from L1
to L2.
b. The point of intersection N(xi, yi) of two lines, Fig. 1.6, is

the point whose coordinates satisfy the two equations of the
lines (or it is the point whose coordinates is the solution of
the two equations of the lines, taken simultaneously).
Y
P3(x3,y3)
P1(x1,y1)
1.8 Area By Coordinates
a. The area A of a triangle,

Fig. 1.8, with vertices
P1(x1, y1), P2(x2, y2), and P2(x2,y2)
P3(x3, y3), traced in a X
counterclockwise O
direction, is given by,
Fig. 1.8
x1 y1 1
1
A  x2 y2 1
2
x3 y3 1 (1.12)
1 x 1 x2 x3 x1 
or A  
2 y1 y2 y3 y1 
x x 2 x 3 x1 
where the matrix  1  is defined to have the
 1 y 2 y 3 y1 
y
value ( x 1 y 2  x 2 y 3  x 3 y 1 )  ( y 1 x 2  y 2 x 3  y 3 x 1 ) . The
area A yields a negative result if the vertices are traced in a
clockwise direction.
b. The area A of a non-overlapping polygon of n vertices is
written in the form,
1 x 1 x2 x3   xn x1 
A   (1.13)
2 y 1 y2 y3   yn y1 
where the vertices P1(x1, y1), P2(x2, y2), P3(x3, y3), …, and
Pn(xn, yn) are traced in a counterclockwise direction. The
x x x   xn x1 
matrix  1 2 3  is defined to have the
y1 y2 y3   yn y1 
value (x1y2  x2y3    xny1)  (y1x2  y2x3    ynx1) . The
formula for the area A also yields a negative result if the
vertices are traced in a clockwise direction.
9
Chapter 2
Polar Coordinates
2.1 Polar Coordinates
a. The position of a point on a plane may also be described by

its distance from a fixed point and its direction from a fixed
line through the fixed point, in another system called the
polar coordinate system, Fig. 2.1.

7 5
2 2 12 
12
b. A polar 3 3
3 
coordinate 4 4 +∞
…
system is 5
ρ … 
6
formed by 11
…
P
6
… 
drawing a 12
2 3 12
1 α
reference  0 X
line OX, O 1 2 3 … … ρ … … +∞
23
called the 13
12 12
initial line 7 11
or polar 6
5
6
7
axis, in a 4 4
4 5
horizontal 3 17 
3
19  3
direction to 12
2
12
the right, Fig. 2.1

starting from
a fixed point O, called the pole (or origin).
c. The radius vector of a point is its distance from the pole

and the polar angle of the same point is its direction (or
angle) from the polar axis. The polar angle is positive when
measured counterclockwise from the polar axis, and negative
when measured clockwise. The radius vector is positive when
measured from the pole to the terminal side of the
corresponding polar angle, and negative when taken in the
opposite direction. Together, the polar coordinates (the
paired radius vector and polar angle of a point) determine the
position of a point in a plane. Point P for example, Fig. 2.1, is
located at (ρ, α).
d. The notation P(r, θ), where r and θ are variables, means that
a point P has a radius vector r, and a polar angle θ, in a polar
coordinate system. The same point P(ρ, α), Fig. 2.1, may be
described in a variety of ways using polar coordinates, for
example P(-ρ,    ), P(ρ,   2 ), P(-ρ,    ), P(ρ,   2 ),

and so on. Generalizing, the point P(ρ, α) may also be written
as,
P(ρ,   k ) when k is even

(2.1)
or P(-ρ,   k ) when k is odd
a. The distance |d| between two points whose polar coordinates

are P1(r1, θ1) and P2(r2, θ2) is given by,
d  r12  r22  2r1r2 cos(2  1 ) (2.2)
2.3 Relations Between Polar and

Rectangular Coordinates Y
(x, y)
a. A coordinate system is just x P (r, θ)
a tool in describing the

position of points and is not r y
inherently present in a
specific geometric problem.
θ
Either polar or rectangular
O X
coordinates is used
whichever appears to
simplify a particular Fig. 2.2
problem.
b. If (x, y) and (r, θ) are the rectangular and polar coordinates

describing the same point in a plane, Fig. 2.2, then the
equations relating them have the forms,
x  r cos  , y  r sin  (2.3)
and
y (2.4)
r   x2  y2 ,   arctan 
x
POLAR COORDINATES 11
where the radical for obtaining r in the last equation follows
the sign of x. If x  0 , it follows the sign of y, and a value of

is immediately assigned to θ. These conditions are
2
imposed to facilitate a unique conversion from rectangular to
polar coordinates.
13
Chapter 3
Functions and Curves
3.1 Functions
a. If two variables x and y are related such that, for every x we

obtain one or more real values for y, then y is said to be a
function of x. Since y depends on the value of x, y is the
dependent variable (or the function), while x is the
independent variable. The variable y is a single-valued
function of x if only one value of y corresponds to each value
of x; otherwise it is double-valued, triple valued or multiple-
valued function of x. The set of values of x is called the
domain of the given function and the set of corresponding
values for y, for each x in the domain, is called the range.
b. An equation is a mathematical expression that relates the

independent and the dependent variable. It may be in
explicit form,
y = f(x) for the variables x and y, which is

read as “y is a function of x” (3.1)
or r = f(θ) for the variables r and θ, which is
read as “r is a function of θ”
implicit form,
f(x, y) = 0 for the variables x and y (3.2)

or f(r, θ) = 0 for the variables r and θ
parametric form (see Ch. 9),
x = f(t), y = g(t) for the variables x

and y, where t is
the parameter (3.3)
or r = f(t), θ = g(t) for the variables r
and θ, and t is the
parameter
The equation is the law that defines a curve or locus of a

moving point. It may also be thought of as the analytical
representation of any given curve. An algebraic
equation (or Cartesian or rectangular equation) is a
polynomial equation in x and y describing a curve in a
rectangular coordinate system, while a polar equation
describes a curve in a polar coordinate system. Note that
equations even though involving trigonometric functions
and are not polynomials (see Ch. 10) but uses a
rectangular coordinate system are not polar equations.
Instead, these non-algebraic equations in rectangular
coordinates are called transcendental.
c. The degree of an algebraic equation is the highest power or

sum of powers in any one term of a given algebraic equation.
For example, the equations,
2 x 2 y  3 x 2  xy  1  0 , y  2 x  1 , and y 2  x4
x 2  3x  2
are of third, first, and fourth degree respectively.
3.2 Locus of an Equation. Intersection of Two Curves
a. The locus (curve or graph) of an equation is a curve

containing those points, and only those points, whose
coordinates satisfy the equation. It may be thought of, on the
other hand, as the geometrical representation of a given
equation (see Sec. 3.1b)
b. To find whether a point satisfies the equation of a given

curve, substitute its coordinates for x and y in the equation of
the curve and note whether the equation holds.
c. The points of intersection of two curves are found by

solving the equations of the curves simultaneously. The
number of intersections of two curves is at most the product
of the degrees of their equations.
3.3 Intercepts
a. The x-intercept and the y-intercept of any given curve are

the directed distances (Sec. 1.2e) from the origin to the point
where the curve intersects the X-axis and the Y-axis
FUNCTIONS AND CURVES 15
respectively, Fig. 3.1. In other words, the x-intercept a is the
abscissa of the point of intersection P(a, 0) of the curve with
the X-axis, while the y-
intercept –b is the Y
ordinate of the point of curve of y = f(x)
intersection Q(0, -b) of
the curve with the Y-axis.
To find the P(a, 0)
O X
x-intercept,
solve for x in the Q(0, -b)
equation y=f(x),
with f(x) in
factored form if Fig. 3.1
possible and y is
set to zero.
y-intercept,
solve for y in the equation y=f(x), with x set to zero.
Y
L, line of symmetry
3.4 Symmetry
P1
a. The center of
symmetry of two points P, center of symmetry
P1 and P2, Fig. 3.2, is the
point P midway between
them. Their axis or line P2
of symmetry is the X
perpendicular bisector L O
of the line joining them.
Fig. 3.2
Y curve symmetric
with Y-axis
P2
b. A curve is symmetric P2 ’
with respect to a P1 ’ P1
P4
coordinate axis if for P3
every point P of the curve
on one side of the axis, O X
there corresponds an
P3 ’ P4 ’
image point P’ on the
curve symmetric
opposite side of the axis, with X-axis
Fig. 3.3. A curve is
Fig. 3.3
symmetric with respect to the X-axis,

if its equation remains unchanged whether y is
replaced by –y.
symmetric with respect to the Y-axis,

if its equation is unchanged even when x is replaced
by –x.
Y
c. A curve is symmetric
with respect to a
point, if for every point P1 ’
P of the curve there

corresponds an image O P2 ’
point P’ directly opposite P2 X
and at an equal distance curve symmetric with
respect to the origin
from the point. A curve P1
that is symmetric with
respect to the origin is
shown in Fig. 3.4. A Fig. 3.4
curve is
symmetric with respect to the origin O,

if its equation is unchanged whether x and y are
replaced simultaneously by –x and –y respectively.
d. For a polar equation, its curve in polar coordinates is
symmetric with respect to the polar axis OX,

if the polar equation is unchanged when θ is replaced
by –θ or when θ and r are simultaneously replaced
by (π – θ) and –r respectively.
symmetric with respect to OY (a line perpendicular to

OX and passing through the pole O, or this line is the Y-
axis equivalent in rectangular coordinates),
if the polar equation is unchanged when θ is replaced
by (π – θ) or when θ and r are simultaneously
replaced by –θ and –r respectively.
symmetric with respect to the pole O,

if the polar equation remains unchanged when r is
replaced by –r or when θ is replaced by (π + θ).
The converses of these tests for symmetry of a curve in polar

coordinates are not necessarily true.
Y
x=a, vertical asymptote

3.5 Asymptotes. Extent of the
Curve
O
X
a. An asymptote of a curve
is a straight line
approached by the curve P(x, y)
more and more closely but
never actually touching it. Fig. 3.5
The line,
x=a (3.4)
of Fig. 3.5 is a vertical asymptote, if there is a point on the

curve whose ordinate y increases numerically without limit as
the value of its abscissa x approaches a. The line,
y=b (3.5)
of Fig. 3.6 is a horizontal asymptote, if the abscissa x of a

point on the curve Y
increases numerically
without limit as its y=b, horizontal asymptote
ordinate y approaches b.
P(x, y)
b. An asymptote to a curve
O
of nth degree may X
intersect the curve in at
most n  2  points. To
find the vertical and the
horizontal asymptotes of
an algebraic equation, see Fig. 3.6
Sec. 3.6.
c. The extent of the curve in any chosen direction, say for

example from the origin to the right (along OX or in the
direction of the positive X-axis), is the totality of real values
of x which gives real values for y. If the asymptote x  a ,
Fig. 3.5, does not intersect the curve in any other point (that
is to say the curve is of degree n ≤ 2 in y), then the extent of
that curve in the OX-direction is,
0≤x<a (3.6)
Similarly, the extent of the curve shown in Fig. 3.6, from the
origin upward (along OY or in the direction of the positive Y-
axis), or in the OY-direction is,
0≤y<b (3.7)
provided that the asymptote y = b does not intersect the

curve in any other point.
3.6 Tracing the Curve of an Algebraic Equation
a. Algebraic equations of degree n ≤ 2 in the dependent variable

yn and containing no product terms (terms containing the
product of the variables, xnyn), fall into four types or forms.
Type 1
y = f(x)
= a 0 x n  a1 x n1    a n1 x  a n (3.8)
where (n ≥ 0)
for n = 0, 1, the curve is a straight line.

n = 2, the curve is a parabola with axis vertical.
Type 2
f (x )
y=
g(x )
(3.9)
a 0 x n  a1 x n 1    a n 1 x  a n
=
b 0 x m  b 1 x m 1    b m 1 x  b m
where (n ≥ 0), (m ≥ 1)
The fraction should be in lowest terms; that is
(m ≥ n). If m = 0, the curve is of Type 1.
Type 3
y2 = f(x)
= a 0 x n  a1 x n1    a n1 x  a n (3.10)
where (n ≥ 1)
If n = 0, the curve is of Type 1, and it is the horizontal
line y  a 0  a n , provided that a0 + an > 0.
Type 4
f (x )
y2 =
g(x )
a 0 x n  a 1 x n1    a n1 x  a n (3.11)
=
m 1
b0x m
 b1 x    b m 1 x  b m
where (n ≥ 0), (m ≥ 1)
The fraction should be in lowest terms, or (m ≥ n).
If m = 0, the curve is of Type 3, provided that
(n ≥ 1).
If the algebraic equation is given in implicit form, equation

(3.2), f ( x , y )  0 , the equation could be solved for y or y2
and expressed in one of types given above.
Types 3 and 4 are symmetric with respect to the X-axis.

Types 2 and 4 only, the rational functions, could possibly
have asymptotes. To find the
vertical asymptotes,
 Let y approach ± ∞ by setting to zero the
denominator of the rational function, y n  f ( x ) ,
g( x )
where n ≤ 2. This is because any number divided
by zero equals ±∞.
 Solve for x in the resulting equation, g ( x )  0 ,
with g(x) in factored form if possible. The
solutions x = a, b, c… are the vertical asymptotes
x = a, x = b, x = c, etc., of the curve.
horizontal asymptotes,
 Let x approach ±∞ in yn 
f(x) , where n ≤ 2,
g( x )
after first dividing each term of f(x) and g(x) by
the x-term of highest degree (thereby putting all
x in the denominator of each term and noting
that any number divided by ±∞ equals zero).
 Solve for y. The two solutions y = a, b, are the
two horizontal asymptotes, y = a, and y = b, of
the curve.
Some curves analogous to Type 2, but where

m  1  n (an exception of the condition in equation 3.9,
m ≥ n, for an algebraic curve to be classified as a Type 2
curve), may have a slant asymptote. These are the
curves represented by the equation

f(x) a 0 x n  a1 x n 1    a n 1 x  a n where the
y  
g(x ) b 0 x m  b1 x m 1    b m 1 x  b m
degree of the numerator f(x), n, exceeds that of the

denominator g(x), m, by unity. Example 3.17 illustrates
how to find the slant asymptote of a curve.
b. Point-plotting is a way of tracing or drawing the curve of

an equation (whether algebraic or polar), and is done as
follows:
 Assign a range of values for x (or θ or the

independent variable).
 Solve for the corresponding value of y (or r or the
dependent variable), for each assigned value of x.
Each pair of x and y (or r and θ) is a point on the
curve. The infinitely many possible pairs of x and y,
or r and θ, that can be found are the coordinates of
all the points on the curve. The values for the
independent variable must be chosen carefully so
that the few points are enough to give a general
description of the entire curve.
 Plot the points.
 Finally, draw the curve through the plotted points.
c. For a more accurate and effective way to trace the curve of

an algebraic equation, follow these steps.
 Analyze the equation.

 Express the equation in one of the forms given
(Types 1, 2, 3, or 4).
 Test for symmetry, by inspection if possible, with
the X-axis, the Y-axis, and the origin O.
 Find the intercepts.
 Determine the asymptotes. The horizontal
asymptotes y = a may intersect the curve in at
most (n – 2) points, whose coordinates are
(x1, a), (x2, a), …, (xn-2, a) where the abscissas
x1, x2, …, xn-2 are the solutions of the equation
with y replaced by a. The vertical asymptote will
not intersect the curves of this type (or curves of
degree n ≤ 2 in the dependent variable.
 Determine the extent of the curve in the
directions of OX and OY (and the opposites of
these directions, OX’ and OY’, if there is no
symmetry with respect to one or both coordinate
axes).
 Trace the curve of the equation immediately from the
properties of the curve seen from the analysis.
 If necessary, plot a few points (or point-plot) in areas
that would make the curve more accurate.
3.7 Tracing the Curve of a Polar Equation
a. In polar coordinates, a polar equation is traced as follows:
 Test for symmetry.

 Use point-plotting (See Sec. 3.6b).
 Assign values to θ and solve for r.
Each pair of r and θ is a point on the curve, in the polar

coordinate system. The range of values of θ should be
adequate to present a picture of the whole curve if
necessary, or the part of the curve to be used.
b. The following figures are the graphs of some common polar

equations.
circle, circle,
r  a cos  
r  a sin  (a, )
2
O X
(a, 0) X
O
Fig. 3.7 Fig. 3.8
cardioid, cardioid,
r  a(1 cos ) r  a(1  cos )

 (a, )
(a, ) 2
2
O
(2a, π) X
O X
(2a, 0)
Fig. 3.9 Fig. 3.10

cardioid, cardioid,
r  a(1  sin )  r  a(1  sin )
(2a, )
2
(a, 0)
X
X O
(a, 0)
O
3
(2a, )
2
Fig. 3.11 Fig. 3.12
limacon, limacon,
r  b  a cos , (b  a) r  b  a cos , (b  a)

(b, )
2

(b, )
2
( b a, 0)
( ab , π) ( b a, 0) X ( ab , π) O X
O
Fig. 3.13 Fig. 3.14
lemniscate, lemniscate,
2 2 2 2
r  a cos 2 r  a sin 2 

(a, )
4
(a, 0) O
X X
O
Fig. 3.15 Fig. 3.16

four-leaved rose, three-leaved rose,

r  a sin 2 r  a sin 3
3 
(a,  ) (a, ) 5 
4 4 (a, ) (a, )
6 6
O
X X
O
5 7
(a, ) (a,  )
4 4 3
(a, )
2
Fig. 3.17 Fig. 3.18
four-leaved rose, three-leaved rose,

r  a cos 2 r  a cos 3
2
(a, )
3
(a, 0) (a, 0)
O X O X
4
(a, )
3
Fig. 3.19 Fig. 3.20
spiral of Archimedes, hyperbolic spiral,

r  a r  a
O X O
X
Fig. 3.21 Fig. 3.22

trumpet,
2 2
r a
X
O
Fig. 3.23
conchoid of Nicomedes,
r  a  b csc , ( a  b)
b
X
O
Fig. 3.24
3.8 Equation of a Given Locus
a. To determine the equation of a given locus (or curve),
 Consider a general point on the curve. That is the

point whose coordinates are the variables (x, y) or (r,
θ), whichever coordinate system is more convenient.
 Express the geometric properties of the curve in an
equation relating the variables.
b. The number of points required to find the equation of a curve

is equal to the number of independent constants in the
equation of the curve.
25
Chapter 4
The Straight Line
4.1 A Line Parallel to a Coordinate Axis
a. The equation of a line parallel to and at a directed distance a,

from the Y-axis, Fig. 4.1, is
x=a (4.1)
b. The equation of a line parallel to and at a directed distance b

from the X-axis, Fig. 4.1, is
y=b (4.2)
Y
x=a
y=b
4.2 General Equation of

a Line
b
a. Every straight line

may be
X
represented by a O a
first-degree
equation in two
Fig. 4.1
variables in the
form,
Ax  By  C  0 (4.3)
For A = 0, the line is parallel to the X-axis, and for

B = 0, the line is parallel to the Y-axis
line of slope m
4.3 Point-Slope Form

P1(x1, y1)
a. The equation of a line of

slope m and passing
through a point P1(x1, y1),
Fig. 4.2, is written in O X
point-slope form as,
Fig. 4.2
y  y 1  m(x  x 1 ) (4.4)
4.4 Two-Point Form
a. If a line is known to pass through two points, P1(x1, y1) and

P2(x2, y2), its slope could be determined by equation 1.8,
y  y1
m 2 , and the point-slope form could be modified to
x 2  x1
the two-point form of the equation of a line,
y2  y1
y  y1  (x  x 1 ) (4.5)
x2  x1
or in matrix form, the above equation is written as,
x y 1
(4.6)
x1 y1 1 0
x2 y2 1
Equation 4.6 is derived from the fact that the general (or
moving) point P(x, y) forms with the two fixed points P1(x1,
y1) and P2(x2, y2) a triangle having an area of zero (see
THE STRAIGHT LINE 27
equation 1.12 of Sec. 1.8) since the three points lie on a
straight line.
4.5 Slope-Intercept Form
a. A given y-intercept b means that the line passes through the

point Q(0, b), Fig. 4.3. It follows therefore that the equation
of a line of slope m Y
and y-intercept b could
also be found using Q(0, b)
the point-slope form
(equation 4.4), and
simplified to give line of slope m
another form of the
equation of a line,
known as the slope-
intercept form, having X
O
the form,
Fig. 4.3
y  mx  b (4.7)
b. To reduce the general equation (equation 4.3) of a line to the

slope-intercept form,
A C
 Solve for y, resulting in y  x . The
B B
coefficient of x is the slope ( m   A ), and the
B
C
constant term is the y-intercept ( b   ).
B
4.6 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
a. Two lines represented by the equations,
A 1 x  B1 y  C1  0
(4.8)
and A 2 x  B 2 y  C 2  0
are parallel, only if they have equal slopes, such that
A1 A
  2 or in matrix form,
B1 B2
(4.9)
A1 B1
0
A2 B2
or perpendicular, only if the slope of any one of them is equal

to the negative reciprocal of the other. That is,
A1 B (4.10)
  2 or A 1 A 2  B 1 B 2  0
B1 A2
4.7 Concurrence of Three Lines
a. Three lines,
A 1 x  B 1 y  C 1  0,
A 2 x  B 2 y  C 2  0, (4.11)
and A 3 x  B3 y  C3  0
are concurrent (which means that the lines intersect at a

common point) if,
A1 B1 C1
A2 B2 C2  0 (4.12)
A3 B3 c3
4.8 Intercept Form Q(0, b)
a. A given x-intercept a, and

y-intercept b, means that
the line passes through
two points, P(a, 0) and P(a, 0)
Q(0, b), Fig. 4.4. The two- O X
point form (equation 4.5)
could be modified to give Fig. 4.4
another form of the equation of a line called the intercept
form,
x y (4.13)
 1
a b
4.9 Normal Form
a. The equation of a line, located at a perpendicular distance ρ

from the origin to a point R on the line, and angle of
inclination β defined as shown in Fig. 4.5, is
x cos   y sin    (4.14)
The line OR whose length Y

line
is ρ is called the normal of
the line. Depending on the
choice of β, a line may be
represented by a variety of β
O ρ X
equations in the normal R
form.
b. To reduce the general

equation of a line to the
normal form, Fig. 4.5
 Divide each term by  A 2  B 2 , depending on the

A
sign of B (and noting that sin   and
A  B2
2
B
cos   ).
A  B2
2
 Transfer the constant term to the other side of the

equation.
4.10 Polar Equation of a Straight Line
a. The polar equation of a straight line, Fig. 4.6, is
r cos(  )   (4.15)
where ρ and β are constants defined in the same manner as

in Sec. 4.9a.
Y
line in a polar
coordinate system P(r, θ)
P1(x1, y1)

d
R(ρ, β)
r
ρ X
θ O
β
X
O Ax + By + C = 0
Fig. 4.6 Fig. 4.7
4.11 Directed Perpendicular Distance of a Line to a Point and

Between Two Parallel Lines

a. The directed perpendicular distance d of a line given in the
general form (equation 4.3), Ax  By  C  0 , to a point
P1(x1, y1), Fig. 4.7, is
 Ax  By  C
d 1 1 (4.16)
 A  B2
2
where the radical in the denominator takes on the sign of B.

If B  0 , it follows the sign of A. A positive value of the
distance d results if the point lies above the line (or to the
right in case of vertical lines), and negative if the point is
below the line (or to the left in case of vertical lines).
b. If two lines are parallel, the directed perpendicular distance

d between them is given by,
 C1  C2
d (4.17)
 A 2  B2
 Y Ax + By + C2 = 0
where d is positive if the
line with constant term C2 is 
d
above the line with constant
term C1, and negative if
below. See Fig. 4.8. Ax + By + C1 = 0
O X
Fig. 4.8
4.12 Two Conditions Determine a Line
a. A set of two independent conditions is required to find the

equation of a line (two points, the slope and a point, the
intercepts, etc.) since equation 4.3 or any of the standard
forms contain two essential constants that could only be
evaluated by two consistent equations.
33
Chapter 5
The Circle
5.1 Circles
a. A circle is the locus of a point moving in a plane, in such a

way that its distance (called the radius) from a fixed point
(called the center) remains constant.
5.2 General Equation of a Circle
a. The general equation of a circle is a special case of the

general equation of the second degree (equation 7.6) where
A = C and B = 0, having the form,
Ax 2  Ay 2  Dx  Ey  F  0 (|A|>0) (5.1)
or alternatively, (after dividing the above equation, through

by A),
x 2  y 2  Gx  Hy  I  0 (5.2)
Y (x-h)2 + (y-k)2 = a2
C(h, k)
5.3 Standard Equation of a
Circle
O X
a. The standard equation
of a circle of radius a,
and center at the point Fig. 5.1
C(h, k), Fig. 5.1, is
x  h2  y  k 2  a2 (5.3)
b. For a circle whose center is at the origin O(0, 0), the

standard equation reduces to,
x 2  y 2  a2 (5.4)
c. To reduce the general equation of a circle to the standard

form,
 Write the general equation in the form of equation

5.2.
 Transpose the constant term to the right.
 Complete the squares in x and y.
In reducing to the standard form, if the right side is a 2  0 ,

the graph is a degenerate circle (a point at (h, k)). If a 2 is
negative, a graph is impossible.
Y (G – J)x+(H - K)y+(I - L) = 0,
P1 the radical axis
P
C1
x2 + y2 + Gx + Hy + I = 0 P2
C2
O
X
2 2
x + y + Jx + Ky + L = 0
Fig. 5.2
5.4 Radical Axis
a. The radical axis of two non-concentric circles (or circles

having different centers, Fig. 5.2) whose respective equations
are,
x 2  y 2  Gx  Hy  I  0
(5.5)
and x 2  y 2  Jx  Ky  L  0
THE CIRCLE 35
is the straight line represented by the equation,
(G  J)x  (H  K )y  (I  L )  0 (5.6)
b. The properties of the radical axis are:
The radical axis of two circles is perpendicular to

the line connecting their centers.
Each tangent segment, drawn from a common

point on the radical axis of two circles to each of
their points of tangency, have equal lengths. From
Fig. 5.2, PP1  PP2 .
The radical axis contains the common chord of

two circles intersecting at two distinct points.
The radical axis is the common tangent of two

tangent circles (or two circles intersecting at only one
point).
r2 + rc2 - 2rrc cos(θc - θ) = a2
C(rc, θc)
a
rc
5.5 Polar Equation of a Circle θc

X
O
a. In polar coordinates, a
circle is represented by Fig. 5.3
the equation,
2
r 2  rc  2rrc cos( c  )  a2 (5.7)
where C(rc, θc) is the center, and a is the radius of the circle,
Fig. 5.3.
5.6 Three Conditions Determine a Circle
a. A set of three independent conditions is required to

determine the equation of a circle, whether in the standard or
in the general form (the conditions may be three points,
three tangents, two points and the radius of the circle, etc.).
37
Chapter 6
Special Quadratic Equations in
Two Variables. Conic Sections
6.1 Conic Sections

upper nappe
a. Conic sections or
conics, Figs. 6.1, 6.2, Parabola (Cutting
plane parallel to a
and 6.3, are defined plane tangent to
vertex, V
geometrically as the cone)
sections made by
planes intersecting a
right circular cone. It lower nappe
may be a parabola,
an ellipse (the circle
is a special case), or a
hyperbola, depending Fig. 6.1
on the position of the
cutting plane. The ellipse and the hyperbola are classified as
central conics in contrast to the parabola which has no
center, since it only has one vertex (or only one focus).
Ellipse (Cutting plane not Hyperbola (Cutting

parallel to any plane plane intersects both
tangent to the cone) upper and lower
nappes)
Fig. 6.2 Fig. 6.3
b. Analytically, a conic section is the locus of a point which

moves such that its distance from a fixed point (called the
focus) is in constant ratio with its distance from a fixed line
(called the directrix), Fig. 6.4.
Y axis of conic latus rectum, |AB|
conic section focus, F

A B
focal length, |FV| P(x, y)
vertex, V
L
directrix
X
O
Fig. 6.4
The axis of a conic is the line through the focus,

perpendicular to the directrix. The latus rectum is the chord
through the focus, parallel to the directrix. The vertex is the
point where the axis intersects the conic. The focal length
(or focal distance) is the distance from the focus to the
vertex.
c. The constant ratio mentioned in the preceding section for the

analytical definition of the conic, is called the eccentricity e,
of the conic. From Fig. 6.4, it is given by,
| FP | (6.1)
e
| LP |
The conic sections fall into three classes as follows:
If e  1 , the conic is a parabola;

e  1 , the conic as an ellipse;
e  1 , the conic is a hyperbola.
The circle is a special case of the ellipse. That is, as
e  0 (read as “as e approaches zero”), the ellipse
approaches a circle as a limiting shape.
d. Degenerate conics (the point-ellipse, two parallel

lines, two coincident lines, and two intersecting lines)
are exceptional conic sections, formed when the cutting plane
passes through the vertex of the right circular cone.
SPECIAL QUADRATIC EQUATIONS. CONIC SECTIONS 39
6.2 Parabolas
a. A parabola (eccentricity e  1 ) is the locus of a point that

moves such that its distance from the focus and its distance
from the directrix are always equal. That is, from Fig. 6.5,
|FP|  |LP| (6.2)
b. The length of the latus rectum is always four times the focal
length, or
AB  4 FV (6.3)
Y directrix Parabola with axis parallel to the

X-axis and opening to the right
O X
L
A P(x, y)
vertex,
V(h, k)
focus,
F
axis of parabola
latus rectum, |AB|
Fig. 6.5
6.3 General Equation of a Parabola
a. The general equation of a parabola, a special case of the

general equation of the second degree (equation 7.6) which
contains no product term (or the xy-term) and only one of

the two squared terms, is written as:
If axis is parallel to the X-axis,
Cy 2  Dx  Ey  F  0 C  0  (6.4)
or alternatively (after dividing through by the constant of

the squared term, C),
y 2  Gx  Hy  I  0 G  0  (6.5)
If axis is parallel to the Y-axis,
Ax 2  Dx  Ey  F  0 A  0  (6.6)
or alternatively (after dividing through by A),
x 2  Gx  Hy  I  0 H  0  (6.7)
6.4 Standard Equation of a Parabola
a. The standard equation of a parabola with vertex at V(h, k)

and focal length FV  a , is:
y  k 2  4ax  h (6.8)
where the right side takes the positive sign if the

parabola opens to the right, and negative if it opens to
the left.
x  h2  4ay  k  (6.9)
where the sign of the right side is positive if the parabola

opens upward, and negative if it opens downward.
b. For a parabola with vertex at the origin, the standard

equation becomes:
y 2  4ax (6.10)
x 2  4ay (6.11)
c. To reduce the general equation of a parabola to the

standard form,
 Write the general equation in the alternative forms

(equations 6.5 and 6.7).
 Complete the square in either y or x.
6.5 Ellipses
a. An ellipse (eccentricity e< 1) is the locus of a point that

moves such that the sum of its distances from the two foci
(plural of focus), is a constant. That is, from Fig. 6.6,
PF1  PF2  s (6.12)
where s is a constant.
axis of the ellipse

Y Ellipse with horizontal major axis
(or principal axis)
W1 P(x, y)
minor axis, |W1W2| L1 R1
b
vertex, vertex
D1 V1 center, C(h, k) V2 D2
focus, F1 focus, F2
major axis, |V1V2|
latera recta, |L1L2| and |R1R2|

a a
directrices
X
O
Fig. 6.6
An ellipse is a closed curve with center at a point on the axis

and midway between the foci or between the vertices of the
ellipse. The major axis is a segment on the axis bounded by
the vertices. Its length is equal to the constant sum s in
equation 6.12, or
V1 V2  2a  s (6.13)
where a is the length of the semi-major axis. The minor

axis is a segment on the line through the center and
perpendicular to the major axis, bounded by the points of
intersection of this line with the ellipse. Its length is,
W1 W2  2b (6.14)
where b is the length of the semi-minor axis, and is always

less than the length a of the semi-major axis.
b. The length of each latera recta (plural of latus rectum) is,
2b 2 (6.15)
L 1L 2  R 1 R 2 
a
The distance from the center to each directrix is,
a
CD 1  CD 2  (6.16)
e
The distance from the center to each focus is,
CF1  CF2  ae (6.17)
The distance from a focus to one end of the minor axis is,
F1 W1  F1 W2  F2 W1  F2 W2  a (6.18)
6.6 General Equation of an Ellipse
a. The general equation of an ellipse is another special case of

the general equation of the second degree, containing no
product term and B = 0, having the form,
Ax2  Cy2  Dx  Ey  F  0 A  C, A  C  A  C  (6.19)

where A  C  A  C  means that A and C should have the
same sign. If A = C, the equation becomes the general
equation of a circle.
6.7 Standard Equation of an Ellipse
a. The standard equation of an ellipse with center at C(h, k),

length of semi-major axis a, and length of semi-minor axis b,
is:
For horizontal major axis,
x  h2 
y  k 2 1 a  b (6.20)
2 2
a b
For vertical major axis,
y  k 2 
x  h2 1 a  b (6.21)
2 2
a b
b. If the center of the ellipse is at the origin, the standard

equation becomes:
For horizontal major axis (or axis coincident with the

X-axis),
x2 y2
 1 a  b (6.22)
a2 b2
For vertical major axis (or axis coincident with the Y-

axis),
y2 x2
 1 a  b (6.23)
a2 b2
c. To reduce the general equation of an ellipse to the standard

form,

6.8 Hyperbolas
a. A hyperbola (eccentricity e > 1) is the locus of a point that

moves such that the absolute value of the difference of its
distances from two foci is a constant. That is, from Fig. 6.7,
PF2  PF1  d (6.24)
where d is a constant.
Hyperbola with horizontal latera recta, |L1L2| and |R1R2|
tranverse axis
a a
Y
L1 R1
W1
X
O axis of
b hyperbola (or
focus vertex center vertex focus principal axis)
F1 V1 C(h, k) V2 F2
D1 D2
transverse axis, |V1V2|
b
P(x, y) conjugate axis, |W1W2|
W2
L2 R2
directrices
asymptotes
Fig. 6.7
A hyperbola is a curve consisting of two open branches with

center also midway between the foci or the vertices of the
hyperbola. The transverse axis is a segment of the axis of
the hyperbola, bounded by the vertices (analogous to the
major axis of an ellipse), with length equal to the constant
difference in equation 6.24, or
V1 V2  2a  d (6.25)
where a is the length of the semi-transverse axis. The

conjugate axis is a segment on the line through the center
and perpendicular to the transverse axis, bounded by the
points of intersection of this line with the segments of the
same length and parallel to the transverse axis having
endpoints on each asymptote of the hyperbola. The length of
the conjugate axis is,
W1 W2  2b (6.26)
where b is the length of the semi-conjugate axis and may

be greater than, equal to, or less than that of the transverse
axis. The lines or the prolonged diagonals of the rectangle

whose midsections are the transverse and conjugate axes,
and passing through the center of the hyperbola are called
asymptotes of the hyperbola.
b. The length of each latera recta is,
2b 2 (6.27)
L 1L 2  R 1 R 2 
a
The distance from the center to each directrix is,
a
CD 1  CD 2  (6.28)
e
The distance from the center to each focus is,
CF1  CF2  ae (6.29)
6.9 General Equation of a Hyperbola
a. The general equation of a hyperbola is also a special case of

the general equation of the second degree, containing no
product term and B = 0, having the form,
Ax2  Cy2  Dx  Ey  F  0 A  C,   A  C  A  C (6.30)
where (-A∙C = A∙C) means that A and C should have unlike

signs.
6.10 Standard Equation of a Hyperbola
a. The standard equation of a hyperbola with center at C(h, k),

semi-transverse axis a, and semi-conjugate axis b, is:
For horizontal transverse axis,
x  h2 
y  k 2 1 (6.31)
a2 b2
For vertical transverse axis,
y  k 2 
x  h2 1 (6.32)
a2 b2
b. If the center of the hyperbola is at the origin, the standard

equation becomes:
For horizontal transverse axis (or axis coincident with

the X-axis),
x2 y2
 1 (6.33)
a2 b2
For vertical transverse axis (or axis coincident with

the Y-axis),
y2 x2 (6.34)
 1
a2 b2
c. To reduce the general equation of the hyperbola to the

standard form,

6.11 Asymptotes of a Hyperbola
a. The equations of the asymptotes of a hyperbola are obtained

by changing the right side of the equation of the hyperbola in
the standard form (equations 6.31 to 6.34) to zero. For
example, the asymptotes of the hyperbola given by equation

6.31 is,
x  h2 
y  k 2 0 (6.35)
a2 b2
or these are the two lines,
xh yk
 0
a b (6.36)
xh yk
and  0
a b
6.12 Conditions Describing a Conic Section
a. A set of three independent conditions are necessary to

determine the equation of a parabola.
b. A central conic directrix

requires a set of
four independent
conditions to R S
determine its P(r, θ)

l B
equation. r
θ
X
focus, O C
6.13 Polar Equation of polar axis
a Given Conic
Section
a. To find the polar

equation of a conic section
given conic
section of known Fig. 6.8
geometric
properties:
 Choose the pole O as focus, Fig. 6.8.

 Let P(r, θ) be a general point on the conic.
 Let R be at one end of the latus rectum and let
OR   .
 Drop perpendiculars to the polar axis and to the
directrix from P and R. From Fig. 6.8
 r
PB  RS  OC . But we also have e  
RS PB
based on the definition of eccentricity (Sec 6.1c), so
that we finally have the polar equation of the given
r 
conic in the form,   r cos  .
e e
 Simplify the polar equation by solving for r as

r .
1  e cos 
6.14 Tracing a Conic Section
a. To trace the locus of a conic:
 Express the equation in one of the standard forms.

 Determine the geometric properties necessary to
draw the curve. It may be some or all of the
following: the length of the latera recta, the location
of the vertices, the foci, and the center, the focal
length, the lengths of the major and minor axes for
an ellipse or the transverse and conjugate axes for a
hyperbola, and etc.
51
Chapter 7
Transformation of Coordinates.
The General Quadratic in Two
Variables
7.1 Translation of Axes in a Plane
a. A translation of
axes in the XY- Y Y’
(x, y)
plane happens if a P
new set of (x' , y' )
y’
coordinate axes X’
and Y’, with its own y X’
origin at the point O’(h, k) x’
O’(h, k), are drawn

parallel to the X
original X and Y axes O x
respectively, Fig. 7.1.
Fig. 7.1
b. If a point P has the
coordinates (x, y) with respect to the original X and Y axes,
and coordinates (x’, y’) if referred to the new set of
coordinate axes X’ and Y’, then the two sets of coordinates
are related by the following set of transformation
equations for translation,
x'  x  h
(7.1)
and y'  y  k
Y
Y’
7.2 Rotation of Axes in a
(x, y)
Plane P
(x' , y' )
X’
a. A rotation of axes y
in the XY-plane
happens if a new set
of coordinate axes X’ y’
θ
and Y’ are rotated X
O x x’
through an angle θ
about the origin, Fig.
7.2. Fig. 7.2
b. If a point P has the coordinates (x, y) with respect to the

original X and Y axes, and coordinates (x’, y’) with respect to
the new X’ and Y’ axes, then the two sets of coordinates are
related by the following set of transformation equations
for rotation,
x'  x cos   y sin  (7.2)

and y'   x sin   y cos 
or in matrix form,
 x'  cos  sin    x  (7.3)

   
 y'   sin  cos    y 
where the matrix,
 cos  sin   (7.4)

T 
  sin  cos  
is called the coordinate transformation matrix for

rotation. The matrix T is orthogonal, which means that its
transpose TT is at the same time its inverse T-1. That is,
cos   sin 
T 1  T T    (7.5)
 sin  cos  
7.3 The General Quadratic in Two Variables
a. The general quadratic equation (or the general equation

of the second degree) in x and y, having the form,
Ax 2  Bxy  Cy 2  Dx  Ey  F  0 (7.6)
TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES. THE GENERAL QUADRATIC 53
represents a conic section whose axes are inclined from the
coordinate axes at an angle θ given by the formula,
B (7.7)
tan 2 
AC
If A  C, B  0 , then θ = 45o.
B = 0, the equation represents a conic whose axes
are parallel with the coordinate axes.
7.4 Tracing the Curve of a General Quadratic
a. To trace the curve of a general quadratic in two variables:
 Determine tan2θ by equation 7.7, then find cosθ and

1  cos2
sinθ. The trigonometric identities, cos 
2
1  cos 2
and sin   , are useful.
2
 Substitute the values of cosθ and sinθ, to equation
7.2 or equation 7.3, and solve for x and y, in terms of
the new coordinates x’ and y’. That is,
x  cos   sin  x '
    .
y   sin  cos   y'
 Substitute these expressions for x and y to the
original general quadratic.
 Simplify, to get an equation referred to the new axes.
The resulting equation will not contain the product
term x’y’ and could be traced by the method
presented in Sec. 6.14.
7.5 Discriminant of a Conic
a. The locus of a general quadratic equation could be

determined using the discriminant B 2  4 AC , as follows:
If B 2  4 AC  0 , the locus is a parabola,

B 2  4 AC  0 , the locus is an ellipse,
B 2  4 AC  0 , the locus is a hyperbola.
b. The general quadratic equation has degenerate cases or

exceptional forms also (a point, two parallel lines, two
coincident lines, two intersecting lines, or it may have no
locus at all).
55
Chapter 8
Tangents and Normals to Conics
8.1 Tangents and Normals
a. A tangent to a conic is a line that intersects the conic at one

and only one point. The one and only one point of
intersection is called the point of tangency, Fig. 8.1.
Y
normal at P1
the conic
Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 point of
tangency
P1(x1, y1)
tangent at P1
subnormal, |AN|
subtangent, |TA|
X
O T(x2, 0) A(x, 0) N(x3, 0)
Fig. 8.1
b. A normal to a conic is a line that intersects a conic at a point

where the line is perpendicular to the tangent to the conic at
that point.
c. A subtangent of a point on a conic is a segment cut off

from the X-axis, bounded by the point of intersection of the
tangent through the point and the X-axis, and the foot of the
perpendicular to the X-axis dropped from the point. A
subnormal of a point on a conic is a segment cut off from
the X-axis, bounded by the foot of the perpendicular to the X-
axis dropped from the point, and the point of intersection of
the normal through the point and the X-axis. From Fig. 8.1,
the segments |TA| and |AN| are the subtangent and the
subnormal respectively, of the point P1 on the conic.
8.2 Tangent and Normal Through a Given Point on the Conic
a. The equation of a tangent to a conic represented by the

general equation of the second degree (equation 7.6),
Ax 2  Bxy  Cy 2  Dx  Ey  F  0 , at the point P1(x1, y1) on
the conic, is
2 Ax1 x  Bx1 y  xy1   2Cy1 y  Dx  x1   Ey  y1   2F  0 (8.1)
b. The equation of a normal to a conic at any point P1(x1, y1) on

the conic could be determined using the point-slope form of
the equation of a line (equation 4.4), since we already know
one point, P1, on the normal and we could find the slope of
the normal if we know the slope of the tangent at P1. The
slope of the normal to the conic at the point P1 is equal to the
negative reciprocal of the slope of the tangent at P1 (see Sec.
1.6b).
8.3 Poles and Polars of a Conic
a. The polar of a point (where the point is called the pole of

the polar) exterior to a conic, is the line through the points of
tangency of the tangents to the conic drawn through the
point (or pole). Conversely, the pole of a straight line secant
to a conic is the point of intersection of the tangents at the
secant points, Fig. 8.2.
Y A(a, b)
tangent at B
pole P0(x0, y0)
C
D
tangent at A
polar of P0 B(c, d) polar of P1
X
O
pole P1(x1, y1)
Fig. 8.2
TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO CONICS 57
b. The polar of a pole on the polar of a second pole passes
through the second pole, as shown also in Fig. 8.2. That is,
the polar of P1 (where P1 is a point on the polar of P0), passes
through P0. The polar of a pole, which is a point on a conic, is
the tangent to the conic at that point.
c. To obtain the equation of the polar of a pole P0(x0, y0):
 Replace the coordinates of the given pole in the

equation of the general tangent to the conic given by
equation 8.1. The linear equation obtained is now the
equation of the polar of the given pole P0 having the
form,
2Ax0 x  Bx0y  xy0   2Cy0 y  Dx  x0   Ey  y0   2F  0 (8.2)
8.4 Tangent to a Conic Through a Given External Point
a. To find the equation of the tangent to a conic, where the

tangent passes through a given point P0(x0, y0) not on the
conic:
 Find the equation of the polar of the given point

considered as pole P0(x0, y0) by equation 8.2.
 Find the intersections of this polar with the conic.
 Find the equation of the tangents through these
intersections using equation 8.1. These intersections
are already points on the conic and the tangents
through these points are guaranteed to pass through
the external point P 0, as presented in Sec. 8.3.
Or, an alternative procedure is to,
 Write the equation of the family of lines through the

given point P0(x0, y0) in the point-slope form
(equation 4.4) as,
y  y 0  m( x  x 0 ) (8.3)
There is a unique value for the slope m, of a line in

the family that is to be tangent to the conic.
 Solve for y in equation 8.2 and substitute to the

equation of the conic resulting in a quadratic
equation of the form,
ax 2  bx  c  0 (8.4)
where the coefficients a, b, and c are all functions of

the slope m of the lines in the family that intersect
the conic (these includes the tangents and the
secants).
 Solve for m by setting,
b 2  4ac  0 (8.5)
The equation above is now the condition to be

satisfied to determine the unique value for the slope
m of a line in the family that is tangent to the given
conic since it requires the quadratic equation
(equation 8.4) to have equal roots or for the line to
intersect the conic at only one point. Equation 8.5
yields two different slopes, which are the slopes of
the tangents to the conic passing through P0(x0, y0).
 Find the equation of the tangents of slope m using
equation 8.3.
8.5 Tangent of Given Slope
a. To find the equation of the tangent to a conic, where the

tangent is known to have a slope m:
 Write the equation of the family of lines of slope m in

the slope-intercept form (equation 4.7) as,
y  mx  B (8.6)
There is a unique value for the y-intercept B of a line

in the family that is to be tangent to the conic.
 Substitute y to the equation of the conic resulting in
a quadratic equation of the same form as equation
8.4 but the coefficients a, b, and c, are now functions
of the y-intercept B.
TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO CONICS 59
 Solve for B using the same condition of tangency
given by equation 8.5.
 Find the equation of the tangents of y-intercept B
using equation 8.6.
61
Chapter 9
Parametric Equations
9.1 Parametric Equations of a Curve
a. The parametric equations of a curve are the rectangular

coordinates of a general point on the curve, expressed as
functions of a common variable called the parameter. It has
the form,
x  f (t ) (9.1)
and y  g(t )
where t is the parameter. Eliminating the parameter gives the

algebraic equation of the curve.
b. The parametric equations of a given curve are not unique. A

curve may be represented by an unlimited number of
parametric equations.
9.2 Parametric Equations of Some Curves
a. A set of parametric equations for the straight line (Ch. 4) are

of the form,
x  x 1  at (9.2)
and y  y 1  bt
where (x1, y1), are the coordinates of any point on the line,
b
, is equal to the slope of the line, and
a
t, is the parameter.
b. A set of parametric equations for a circle (Ch. 5) are of the

form,
x  h  r cos  (9.3)
and y  k  r sin 
where Φ is the parameter.

c. A set of parametric equations for an ellipse with horizontal

major axis (see Sec. 6.7) have the form,
x  h  a cos  (9.4)
and y  k  b sin 
where β is the parameter.
d. A set of parametric equations for a hyperbola with horizontal

transverse axis (see Sec. 6.10) have the form,
x  h  a sec  (9.5)
and y  k  b tan 
where α is the parameter.
e. A set of parametric equations for a parabola opening to the

right (see Sec. 6.4) are of the form,
x  h  at 2 (9.6)
and y  k  2at
where t is the parameter.
9.3 Tracing a Given Set of Parametric Equations
a. Point-plotting (see Sec. 3.6b) may be used to trace the curve

of a given set of parametric equations. Pairs of values for x
and y are computed by assigning values to the parameter
and these pairs of coordinates are plotted and the curve is
drawn through the plotted points.
b. Eliminating the parameter results in the algebraic equation of

the curve, which could be graphed by the method presented
in Sec.3.6d.
c. A combination of point-plotting and elimination of parameter

oftentimes simplify the tracing of a given set of parametric
equations.
63
Chapter 10
Transcendental Functions
10.1 Trigonometric Functions
a. The trigonometric functions are periodic functions

which mean that the values of the function are repeated for
all integral multiples of a constant increment of the
independent variable. Figs. 10.1 to 10.3 are graphs of the
trigonometric functions, y  sinx, y  cosx, and y  tanx
respectively.
y = sinx Y
crest
1/2 amplitude
O X
-5π/2 -2π -3π/2 -π -π/2 π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2
-1/2
-1
trough period
Fig. 10.1
y = cosx Y
1/2
O X
-5π/2 -2π -3π/2 -π -π/2 π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2
-1/2
-1
Fig. 10.2
y = tanx Y
O X
-5π/2 -2π -3π/2 -π -π/2 π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2
asymptotes
Fig. 10.3
The period of the trigonometric function is the smallest

interval after which the function takes the same values again.
That is a constant p such that,
f ( x )  f ( x  p) (10.1)
for all values of x. The amplitude is the absolute difference

between the maximum value of a periodic function and its
mean.
b. The period and amplitude of the six basic trigonometric

functions are tabulated below.
Function Period Amplitude

2
asinkx, acoskx, aseckx, acsckx |a |
k

atankx, acotkx none
k
TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS 65
10.2 Congruence and Shifting
a. The graphs of,
y  a sin kx (10.2)
and
y  c  a sin k x  b  (10.3)
placed on the same coordinate axes, Fig. 10.4, are congruent

except for position since both curves have the same general
2
characteristics (an amplitude of |a| and a period of ), but
k
different first wave-crest coordinates. That is, the curve of
y  c  a sin k x  b  has points shifted by an amount b
horizontally to the right, and by an amount c vertically up,
with respect to the curve of y  a sin kx .
first wave-crests of each wave

y – c = asink(x - b)
YY
2a   
  b, a  c 
 2k 
(π/2k, a)
a
O X-3π/
X
-2π/k -π/k -π/2k π/2k π/k 3π/2k 2π/k
-a
y = asinkx
-2a
Fig. 10.4
10.3 Tracing by Composition of Ordinates
a. To trace the curve of a function,
y  f (x ) (10.4)
by composition of ordinates:
 Write the function of x as,
f ( x )  f1 ( x )  f 2 ( x )    f n ( x ) (10.5)
where the curves of

y  f1 (x), y  f2 (x), , and y  fn (x) , could be drawn
easily. The ordinate of a point in the function
y  f(x) corresponding to each value of x is given
by,
y  f1 ( x )  f 2 ( x )    f n ( x ) (10.6)
 Plot selected pairs of coordinates and draw the curve

through the plotted points.
10.4 Exponential Functions
a. The exponential function is defined by,
y  ax (a  0), (a  1) (10.7)
The constant a is called the base. Fig. 10.5 shows the graph
of the exponential function.
Y
y = ax
(0,1)
X
O
Fig. 10.5
b. An important base for the exponential function is e, also
called the Euler number, defined to have the value,
n
 1
e  Lim 1    2.718281828  (10.8)
n   n
c. The exponential function has the following properties:
a0  1 (10.9)
 if a  1
Lim a x   (10.10)
x  0 if a  1
0 if a  1
Lim a x   (10.11)
x   if a  1
a x is always positive.
There is no symmetry.
d. The generalized exponential function has the form,
y  ca bx (a  0 ) (10.12)
10.5 Hyperbolic Functions
a. The hyperbolic functions (the hyperbolic sine or sinh, the

hyperbolic cosine or cosh, and the hyperbolic tangent or
tanh) are special exponential combinations expressed as
follows:
e x  ex
sinh x  (10.13)
2
e x  e x
cosh x  (10.14)
2
sinh x e x  ex
tanh x   (10.15)
cosh x e x  e  x
Their respective reciprocals are,
1
csc hx  (10.16)
sinh x
1
sec hx  (10.17)
cosh x
1 cosh x
coth x   (10.18)
tanh x sinh x
Figs. 10.6 to 10.8 are some graphs of the hyperbolic

functions.
Y Y
y = sinhx y = coshx
(0,1)
O
X X
O
Fig. 10.6 Fig. 10.7

y = tanhx
X
O
-1
Fig. 10.8
b. If the trigonometric functions are defined on the unit circle

x 2  y 2  1 , the hyperbolic functions are defined on the
hyperbola x 2  y 2  1 .
y = logax
10.6 Logarithms
(1,0)
a. The logarithm of a X
positive number x, to O
the base a (written
as log a x ), is the
exponent y to be
placed on a to yield
Fig. 10.9
x. That is,
y  log a x (a y  x ), (a  0) (10.19)
Fig. 10.9 is the graph of the logarithmic function.
b. Two bases of particular importance are 10 (called the

common or Briggsian logarithm), written as,
y  log10 x or simply y  log x (10.20)

and e (called the natural or Napierian logarithm), having

the form,
y  log e x or simply y  ln x (10.21)
c. The logarithmic function has the following properties:
log a 1  0 (10.22)
log a 0   (10.23)
Negative numbers have no logarithms.
Numbers between 0 and 1 have negative

logarithms.
Numbers greater than 1 have positive

logarithms.
As the number increases, its logarithm also

increases.
10.7 Inverse Functions
a. Two functions, f(x) and g(x), are inverse functions if the

domain of f(x) is the range of g(x), if the domain of g(x) is
the range of f(x), and if for every x in the appropriate
domains,
f g(x )  x and gf (x )  x (10.24)
b. The logarithmic function y  log a x and the exponential

function y  a x are inverse functions since if we let,
f(x)  log a x and g(x)  a x
then,
 
f g(x)   f a x  log a a x  x
gf ( x )  g(log a x )  a a  x
log x
c. Geometrically, two inverse functions are reflections of each
other through the line y  x , Fig. 10.10.
Y
y = ax y=x
(0,1) y = logax
O
X
(1,0)
Fig. 10.10
73
Chapter 11
Families of Plane Curves.
Curve Fitting
11.1 A Family of Curves
a. If an equation in x and y involving an arbitrary constant c is

written as,
f (x , y , c)  0 (11.1)
one value of c represents one definite curve of the equation.

As c assumes all real values, we obtain a one-parameter
family or system of curves. The arbitrary constant c is
called the parameter.
2
b. The equation y  xc for example represents a one-
3
2
parameter family of straight lines of slope . The equation
3
( x  c1 )2  (y  c 2 )2  a2 on the other hand represents a two-
parameter family of circles of radius a.
c. Exceptional forms in the family are curves of a particular

value of the parameter, which are different in kind from the
other curves belonging to the family.
d. If equation 12.1 is linear or first degree in the parameter c

(which means that there is only one corresponding value of c
for every (x, y) pair), then one and only one curve of the
family passes through a chosen point on the plane.
11.2 A Family of Curves Through an Intersection
a. If f(x, y) = 0 and g(x, y) = 0 are two intersecting curves, the

equation,
f (x , y )  cg(x , y )  0 (11.2)
represents a family of curves passing through all the

intersections of the original curves.
b. A family of lines for example, through the intersection of the

lines A1x  B1y  C1  0 and A 2 x  B 2 y  C2  0 has the form,
A1 x  B1 y  C1  c( A2 x  B2 y  C2 )  0 (11.3)
11.3 Curve Fitting
a. Curve fitting is the process of finding the equation of a

curve that best fit or represent a given set of related data
from an observation or experiment conducted. The equation
obtained is called an empirical equation or empirical
formula and is just an approximation to the true relation
between the variables. Fig. 11.1 shows the plotted points of
the tabulated data below relating gasoline consumption C in
L/km with the speed of the automobile in km/hr, and the
possible best-fitting curves (straight lines in this case),
passing quite close to each point.
Speed of
Automobile, 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
S (km/hr)
Gasoline
Consumption, 0.020 0.022 0.025 0.026 0.028 0.029 0.031
C (L/km)
C L1
0.03 L/km (80, 0.031)
(60, 0.028)
(70, 0.029) L3
(40, 0.025) L2
(50, 0.026)
r
(30, 0.022)
0.02 L/km (20, 0.02) S
40 km/hr 60 km/hr 80 km/hr
Fig. 11.1
The vertical distance r, Fig. 11.1, from a plotted point, say

(30, 0.022), to a line, say the line L3, is called the residual
FAMILIES OF PLANE CURVES. CURVE FITTING 75
corresponding to the point. Analytically, it is the difference
between the observed value and the computed value from
the equation of the line L3, if L3 is chosen to be the line that
fits or describes the given set of data.
11.4 Line of Best Fit. Method of Least Squares
a. One way of finding the equation of the “best-fitting line”,
y  Mx  B (11.4)
is the method of selected points. This method is

dependent on the choice and judgment of the inquirer since
it is done simply by selecting only two points from a given set
of data, and then finding the equation of the line through
these two points, using the two-point form of the equation of
a line (equation 4.5). For example, choosing the line L2 to be
the line that passes through the points (20, 0.02) and (50,
0.026), we find its equation using equation 4.5 as,
0.026  0.02
C  0.02  (S  20)
50  20
C  0.0002(S  20)  0.02  0.0002S  0.004  0.02
or
C  0.0002S  0.016 (11.5)
From the table, the observed value of gasoline consumption

C for a speed S of 40 is 0.025, but equation 11.5 gives a
different value of C = 0.024 for the same speed of 40. In this
case, the residual corresponding to the point (40, 0.025) is
0.001.
b. The method of averages, unlike the method of selected

points, is a way of finding the “best-fitting line” based on a
mathematical procedure such that the line determined makes
the algebraic sum of the residuals of each point zero. That is,
to make the line y  Mx  B fit the n points (x1, y1), (x2, y2),
(x3, y3), … (xn, yn), by the method of averages, the constants
M and B must be solved from the simultaneous equations,
m m
 i 1
yi  M
 i1
x i  Bm
(11.6)
n n

i  m 1
yi  M

i  m 1
x i  B(n  m)
where the first equation is taken from the first group of m

points, (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), … (xm, ym), while the second
equation is taken from the second group, which is the
remaining n - m points, (xm+1, ym+1), (xm+2, ym+2), (xm+3,
ym+3), … (xn, yn). If the groups are of equal size, that is
n
m or nearly so, best results are obtained.
2
c. The method of least squares, one of the most reliable

methods of curve fitting, is used to determine the best-fitting
line y  Mx  B that best fits a given set of data composed of
n points (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), … (xn, yn), such that the
sum of the squares of the residuals is a minimum. The
constants M and B are obtained by solving the simultaneous
equations,
n n
i 1
yi  M
 i 1
x i  Bn
(11.7)
n n n
i 1

xiyi  M
i1
2
xi  B
i1
xi
Fig. 11.1 shows the line L1,
C  0.000178571S  0.0169286 (11.8)
obtained by the method of least squares.

FAMILIES OF PLANE CURVES. CURVE FITTING 77
11.5 Nonlinear Curves of Best Fit
a. If the best-fitting curve is nonlinear, or if the points do not

follow a straight line, but rather an equation of some other
form, exponential for example,
y  ae bx (11.9)
this equation is made linear first by performing legitimate

mathematical operations. In this case, taking the natural
logarithms of both sides of the equation resulting in the form,
ln y  bx  ln a (11.10)
This equation is now linear in x and lny. If we let z  lny ,

M  b , and B  lna , we would get a linear equation
analogous to equation 11.4 in the form,
z  Mx  B (11.11)
where the values of M and B are determined by one of the

methods presented in the preceding section and the values of
a and b for the best-fitting exponential curve (equation 11.9)
follows immediately.
79
SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Chapter 12
Rectangular Coordinates in Space
12.1 Space Rectangular Coordinates
a. The location of a point in space may be determined by its

distances from three mutually perpendicular planes, forming
a space (or three-dimensional) rectangular (or Cartesian)
coordinate system, Fig. 12.1.
Z
+∞
P
…
b. A space rectangular
coordinate system 3
is formed by 2 -∞
drawing the Y and 1
Z axes in one -∞ O
plane, and the X-
1 2
axis as 1 3 … Y
c +∞
perpendicular to 2
a
3
this plane. These … b
X +∞
three coordinate
axes also intersect
-∞
at point O called
the origin. The Fig. 12.1
pairs of Y and Z
axes, the X and Z axes, and the X and Y axes, respectively
form the YOZ or YZ-plane, the XOZ or XZ-plane, and the
XOY or XY-plane. These three mutually perpendicular planes
are called the coordinate planes. Space is divided by these
coordinate planes into eight regions called octants. Since the
X-axis is impossible to be drawn perpendicular to the page, it
is just drawn approximately 1350 with the Y-axis, and the
angle between the Y and Z-axis is made somewhat greater
than 900. This is just an aid in visualizing space figures since
the X, Y, and Z axes are really defined to be mutually
perpendicular. Points in the first octant have coordinates
which are all positive.
80 SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
c. A right-handed space rectangular coordinate system,

such as Fig.12.1, is formed such that if the X-axis is rotated
in the direction of the Y-axis, a right-handed screw will move
in the direction of the Z-axis. Other examples of right-handed
space rectangular coordinate systems are shown in Fig. 12.2.
Y X
+∞ +∞
…
3 3
2 -∞ 2 -∞
1 1
-∞ O -∞ O
1 1
1 2 3 …
+∞
X 1 2 3 …
+∞
Z
2 2
3 3
… …
Z +∞ Y +∞
-∞ -∞
Fig. 12.2
d. The position of a point in space may now be determined by

its space rectangular coordinates (or the combined x, y,
and z-coordinate of the point). Its x-coordinate, y-
coordinate, and z-coordinate, is its distance from the YZ, XZ,
and XY-plane respectively. Point P for example, Fig. 12.1, is
located at (a, b, c).
e. The notation P(x, y, z), where x, y, and z are variables,

means that a point P in space has an x-coordinate x, a y-
coordinate y, and a z-coordinate z, in a space rectangular
coordinate system.
12.2 Distance Between Two Space Points
a. The distance |d| between two points in space, P1(x1, y1, z1)
and P2(x2, y2, z2), is given by,
d  x 2  x 1 2  y 2  y 1 2  z 2  z 1 2 (12.1)
12.3 Division of a Line Segment in Space. Midpoint

RECTANGULAR COORDINATES IN SPACE 81
a. If P(x, y, z) is a point that divides the line segment joining
P1(x1, y1, z1) and P2(x2, y2, z2) such that P1P  k  P1P2 , from
equation 1.4, then the coordinates (x, y, z) of P are,
x  x 1  k x 2  x 1 ,
y  y 1  k y 2  y 1 , (12.2)
and z  z 1  k z 2  z 1 
b. If P lies in the extension of segment P1P2 in either direction,

or if P is the midpoint of the segment, equation 12.2 still
applies as with the two-dimensional or planar case discussed
in Sec. 1.4.
12.4 Direction Angles and Direction Cosines
a. The direction angles

are the angles α, β, and Z
γ, that a directed line
P2(x2, y2, z2)
segment P1P2 makes
γ
with a line parallel to the ρ
positive X, Y, and Z axes P1(x1, y1, z1) β

α
respectively, Fig. 12.3.
O Y
X
b. The direction cosines
l, m, and n, are the
cosines of the direction Fig. 12.3
angles expressed as,
l  cos 
m  cos  (12.3)
and n  cos 
The sum of the squares of the direction cosines is equal to 1.

That is,
l2  m2  n2  1 (12.4)
If the positive sense of a directed line segment is reversed,

the signs of the direction cosines are changed since the
original direction angles will be replaced by their
supplements.
c. The radius vector ρ of any point P2 from a point P1, Fig.

12.3, is the directed line segment P1P2 whose magnitude |ρ|
(or |P1P2|) is given by the distance formula as,
  P1 P2  x 2  x 1 2  y 2  y 1 2  z 2  z 1 2 (12.5)
d. Direction numbers are products of the direction cosines by

any number k. If direction numbers L, M, and N are given
such that L  lk , M  mk, and N  nk, then k could be
solved from,
k  L2  M2  N2 (12.6)
e. The quantities (x 2  x 1 ), (y 2  y 1 ), and (z 2  z1 ), given in

equation 12.5, form one set of direction numbers called
components (or directed projections) of the radius
vector ρ (or P1P2), on the X, Y, and Z axes respectively. Each
component along the X, Y, and Z axes is equal to the
direction cosine l, m, and n respectively, each multiplied by
the radius vector ρ.
12.5 Angle Between Two Space Lines
a. The cosine of the angle θ between two lines in space, L1 with

direction cosines l1, m1, n1, and L2 with direction cosines l2,
m2, n2, is given by,
cos   l1 l 2  m 1 m 2  n1 n 2 (12.7)
If the two lines L1 and L2 does not intersect, the angle θ

given above is the angle between two lines passing through
the origin and parallel to L1 and L2 respectively.
RECTANGULAR COORDINATES IN SPACE 83
12.6 Parallel and Perpendicular Space Lines
a. Two lines L1 and L2, with direction cosines l1, m1, n1, and l2,
m2, n2, respectively, are parallel if and only if,
l1 l 2  m1 m 2  n 1 n 2  1 (12.8)
b. Two lines L1 and L2, with direction cosines l1, m1, n1 and l2,
m2, n2, respectively, are perpendicular if and only if,
l1 l 2  m1 m 2  n1 n 2  0 (12.9)
85
Chapter 13
Cylindrical and Spherical
Coordinates
13.1 Cylindrical Coordinates
a. The position of a point P in space may also be described

using three variable quantities (r, θ, z) called the cylindrical
coordinates of P, where r and θ are the polar coordinates of
the projection Q of P on the XY-plane, and z is the distance
of P, either above or
below the XY-plane Z
(this is the same as
the space Cartesian z- P
coordinate), Fig. 13.1.
This is called the
cylindrical z
coordinate system, O
an extension of the r
Y
planar coordinate θ
Q
system for the three- X
dimensional case.
Fig. 13.1
13.2 Spherical Coordinates
a. Another extension of the planar polar coordinate system that

is used to locate the position of a point P in space is the
spherical coordinate system, Fig.13.2. Every point P is
associated with the
three variable Z
quantities (ρ, θ, φ)
called the spherical P
coordinates of P,
where ρ is the radius φ
ρ
vector OP (from the

origin O to the point P), O
θ is the angle from the Y
positive X-axis to the θ
Q
projection OQ of OP on X
the XY-plane, and φ is
the angle from the
positive Z-axis to OP. Fig. 13.2
13.3 Relations Between Rectangular, Cylindrical, and

Spherical Coordinates
a. If (x, y, z) and (r, θ, z) are the rectangular and cylindrical

coordinates respectively of the same point in space, then we
have the following relations,
x  r cos  , y  r sin  , zz (13.1)
and
y (13.2)
r   x2  y2 ,   arctan  , zz
x
where the radical for obtaining r in the last equation follows

the sign of x. If x  0 , it follows the sign of y, and a value of

is immediately assigned to θ.
2
b. If (x, y, z) and (ρ, θ, φ) are the rectangular and spherical

coordinates of the same point in space, then they are related
by,
x   sin  cos  , y   sin  sin  , z   cos  (13.3)
and
  x 2  y 2  z2 ,
 y 
  arctan  ,
 x  (13.4)
 z 
  arccos  

 x 2  y2  z2
 
c. If (r, θ, z) and (ρ, θ, φ) are the cylindrical and spherical

coordinates of the same point in space, then,
r   sin  ,   , z   cos  (13.5)

CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL COORDINATES 87
and
r (13.6)
  r2  z2 ,   ,   arctan 
z
89
Chapter 14
Surfaces and Space Curves
14.1 Locus of an Equation in Three Variables
a. In the three-dimensional space, the locus of an equation,

called a surface, contains those points, and only those
points, whose coordinates satisfy the equation.
14.2 Symmetry of Surfaces
a. A surface is symmetric with respect to a coordinate

plane if for every point of the surface on one side of the
plane, there corresponds an image point on the opposite side
of the plane. A surface is
symmetric with respect to the YZ-plane,

if its equation remains unchanged whether x is
replaced by –x.
symmetric with respect to the XZ-plane,

if its equation remains unchanged whether y is
replaced by –y.
symmetric with respect to the XY-plane,

if its equation remains unchanged whether z is
replaced –z.
b. A surface is symmetric with respect to a coordinate

axis if for every point of the surface on one side of the axis,
there corresponds an image point on the opposite side of the
axis. A surface is
symmetric with respect to the X-axis,

if its equation remains unchanged whether both y
and z are replaced simultaneously by –y and –z
respectively.
symmetric with respect to the Y-axis,

if its equation remains unchanged whether both x
and z are replaced simultaneously by –x and –z
respectively.
symmetric with respect to the Z-axis,

if its equation remains unchanged whether both x
and y are replaced simultaneously by –x and –y
respectively.
14.3 Intercepts of a Surface. Sections and Traces
a. The x, y, and z intercepts of a surface are the x, y, and z-

coordinate respectively, of the points of intersection of the
surface with the respective X, Y, and Z-axis. To find the
x-intercept,
 solve for x in the equation of the surface,
f(x, y, z)  0 , with y and z set to zero.
y-intercept,
 solve for y in the equation of the surface,
f(x, y, z)  0 , with x and z set to zero.
z-intercept,
 solve for z in the equation of the surface,
f(x, y, z)  0 , with x and y set to zero.
b. A cross-section (or simply section) of a surface is a plane

curve at the intersection of the surface with a plane, Fig.
14.1.
cutting plane
surface
section
X
Fig. 14.1
SURFACES AND SPACE CURVES 91
To find the equation of a section of a surface,
cut by a plane parallel to the XY-plane (or the plane

z  k ),
 replace z by k in the equation of the surface to
get an equation in the two variables x and y. This
is the equation of the section, which is a curve on
the plane z  k .
cut by a plane parallel to the XZ-plane (or the plane

y  k ),
 replace y by k in the equation of the surface to
get an equation in the two variables x and z. This
the plane y  k .
cut by a plane parallel to the YZ-plane (or the plane

x  k ),
 replace x by k in the equation of the surface to
get an equation in the two variables y and z. This
the plane x  k .
c. If the plane intersecting a surface is a coordinate plane, the

section is called a trace. To find the
XY-trace (or the section of a surface cut by the XY-

plane z  0 ),
 replace z by zero in the equation of the surface
resulting in an equation in the variables x and y,
which is a curve in the XY-plane.
XZ-trace (or the section of a surface cut by the XZ-plane

y  0 ),
 replace y by zero in the equation of the surface
resulting in an equation in the variables x and z,
which is a curve in the XZ-plane.
YZ-trace (or the section of a surface cut by the YZ-plane

x  0 ),
 replace x by zero in the equation of the surface
resulting in an equation in the variables y and z,
which is a curve in the YZ-plane.
14.4 Tracing Surfaces by Parallel Plane Sections
a. To trace (or draw or graph) a surface using some of its

sections parallel to the coordinate planes,
 Test the surface for symmetry.

 Find the intercepts on the coordinate axes.
 Determine the traces. The trace could be drawn
using the methods discussed in the previous
chapters, since it is a plane curve.
 Examine some sections parallel to each coordinate
plane and select a set of sections that is easy to
draw.
 Sketch the surface.
14.5 A Surface of Revolution
a. A surface of revolution is a surface generated by rotating

a curve, called the generating curve, about a straight line,
called the axis of revolution, Fig. 14.2.
Z a surface of
generating curve revolution
generated by
revolving a
curve about the
X-axis
O
Y
X
right sections or meridians
parallels
Fig. 14.2
Right sections (or parallels) are sections of the surface of

revolution, made by planes perpendicular to the axis of
revolution. The right sections are circles whose centers are
on the axis of revolution. Meridians are the sections of the
surface of revolution, made by planes through the axis of
revolution. The meridians are equal curves since they are just
the generating curve in successive positions.
b. The reduced (or simplified) equations of surfaces of
revolution with their axis of revolution coinciding with a
coordinate axis are:
axis of revolution coinciding with the X-axis,
y 2  z 2  f (x ) (14.1)
axis of revolution coinciding with the Y-axis,
x 2  z 2  f (y) (14.2)
axis of revolution coinciding with the Z-axis,
x 2  y 2  f (z ) (14.3)
14.6 Cylindrical and Conical Surfaces
a. A cylinder is a surface generated by a moving line, called

the generator (or ruling), that intersects all the points of a
fixed plane curve, called the directing curve, but always
remaining parallel to its initial position, Fig. 14.3.
Z
generator or
ruling
X Y
directing curve
Fig. 14.3
If the directing curve has a geometrical center, such as a

circle, an ellipse, etc., the line through the center parallel to
the generators is the axis of the cylinder. The right sections

(or parallels) of a cylinder are sections on planes
perpendicular to the generator. These right sections are
equal curves.
b. The reduced equation of cylinders with generator parallel to a

coordinate axis and directing curve on a plane perpendicular
to the generator are:
generator parallel to the X-axis (or directing curve on

a plane parallel to the YZ-coordinate plane),
f ( y , z)  0 (14.4)
generator parallel to the Y-axis (or directing curve on

a plane parallel to the XZ-coordinate plane),
f ( x , z)  0 (14.5)
generator parallel to the Z-axis (or directing curve on

a plane parallel to the XY-coordinate plane),
f (x , y)  0 (14.6)
Z generator
c. A cone is a surface vertex
whose generator has O

one point, called the
Y
vertex, fixed in space as
it moves intersecting all
points of the directing X
directing curve
curve, Fig. 14.4.
Fig. 14.4
The axis of the cone is the line through the vertex and the
center of the directing curve. The right sections of a cone are
the sections made by planes perpendicular to the axis of the
cone.
14.7 Intersection of Two Surfaces
a. The intersection of two surfaces is a curve, Fig. 14.5. The

curve may lie on one plane, forming a plane curve, but most
of the time it will not, therefore forming a space curve
(sometimes called a twisted or skew curve). The two
equations of the surfaces, taken simultaneously, represent
the curve at the intersection of the surfaces.
curve at the
intersection of the
Z
two surfaces
O
Y
Fig. 14.5
b. Any given curve may be represented by an infinite number of

different pairs of equations. That is, the equations of two
surfaces having the curve as their intersection. So that, if the
equations,
 f ( x , y , z)  0
 (14.7)
g(x , y , z)  0
together, represent a space curve, then,
f (x , y , z)  cg(x , y , z)  0 (14.8)
represents a surface containing the curve, where c is a

constant.
14.8 Projections, Projecting Lines, and Projecting Cylinders
a. The projection of a point P to a plane, is the foot P’ of the

perpendicular dropped from P to the plane. The projecting
line of a point to a plane, is the line PP’ connecting the point
P to its projection P’ on the plane. The projection of a
space curve C to a plane, is the curve C’ on the plane,
whose points are projections of all the points on the curve C
to the plane. The projecting cylinder of a space curve to
a plane is the cylinder whose generators are the projecting
lines of all the points on the curve to the plane. See Fig. 14.6.
Z projecting lines
Q of P and Q to
the XY-plane,
space curve C |PP’| and |QQ’|
P
O
Q’ projection Y
P’ of the points
P and Q to
projection of the
X curve C to the
the XY-plane,
P’ and Q’
XY-plane, plane
curve C’
Fig. 14.6
b. The projecting cylinders of a space curve represented by

f ( x , y , z)  0
equation 14.7, or the simultaneous equations  ,
g( x , y , z)  0
to each coordinate plane, called the YZ, XZ, and the XY
projecting cylinders, are obtained by:
for the YZ-projecting cylinder,

 eliminate x from the pair of equations
f ( x , y , z)  0
 , yielding h( y , z)  0 , which is the
g( x , y , z)  0
YZ-projecting cylinder.
for the XZ-projecting cylinder,
 eliminate y from the pair of equations
f ( x , y , z)  0
 , yielding i( x , z)  0 , which is the
g( x , y , z)  0
XZ-projecting cylinder.
for the XY-projecting cylinder,

 eliminate z from the pair of equations
f ( x , y , z)  0
 , yielding j( x , y )  0 , which is the
g( x , y , z)  0
XY-projecting cylinder.
14.9 Tracing Space Curves by its Projecting Cylinders
a. To trace a space curve using its YZ, XZ, and XY projecting

cylinders,
 Find the YZ, XZ, and XY projecting cylinders of the

space curve.
 Draw the space curve at the intersection of any two
projecting cylinders.
14.10 Sketching Solids Bounded by Surfaces
a. To sketch a solid bounded by surfaces,
 Use the method given in Sec. 14.4 to inspect and

visualize the bounding surfaces, and find the curves
of intersection of these bounding surfaces by
inspection if possible.
 Use the method given in Sec. 14.9 using projecting
cylinders if the curves of intersection are difficult to
find by inspection.
 Draw the relevant portions of the surfaces bounding
the solid.
14.11 Equation of a Given Surface
a. To find the equation of a given surface:
 Consider a general point P(x, y, z) on the surface.

 Express the geometric properties or the relation

among the coordinates (x, y, z) and other quantities
involved for every general point P on the surface, by
means of an equation involving one, two, or all of the
three variables x, y, and z.
Converting the equation of a surface in rectangular

coordinates to another space coordinate system is possible
using the relations given in Sec. 13.3.
99
Chapter 15
The Plane
15.1 A Plane Parallel to a Coordinate Plane
a. An equation of the first degree in one variable represents a

plane parallel to the plane of the other two missing variables.
That is, the equation of a plane,
parallel to the YZ-coordinate plane, and at a

distance k from it is,
xk (15.1)
parallel to the XZ-coordinate plane, and at a

yk (15.2)
parallel to the XY-coordinate plane, and at a

zk (15.3)
15.2 General Equation of a Plane
a. Every plane may be represented by an equation of the first

degree in three variables, having the form,
Ax  By  Cz  D  0 (15.4)
If A  B  0, the line is parallel the XY-plane,

A  C  0, the line is parallel the XZ-plane,
B  C  0, the line is parallel the YZ-plane.
15.3 Three-Point Form
a. The equation of a plane having three points P1(x1, y1, z1),

P2(x2, y2, z2), and P3(x3, y3, z3), not in a straight line, has the
form,
x y z 1
x1 y1 z1 1 (15.5)
0
x2 y2 z2 1
x3 y3 z3 1
15.4 Parallel and Perpendicular Planes
a. The two planes, represented by the equations,
A 1 x  B1 y  C 1 z  D1  0
(15.6)
and A 2 x  B2 y  C 2 z  D2  0
are parallel if and only if their coefficients are related such

that,
A 1  kA 2 , B 1  kB 2 , and C 1  kC 2 (15.7)
where k is any constant. In matrix form, the above conditions

may be stated as,
A1 B1
 0,
A2 B2
A1 C1 (15.8)
 0,
A2 C2
B1 C1
and 0
B2 C2
THE PLANE 101
b. The two planes given by equations 15.6,
A 1 x  B 1 y  C 1 z  D 1  0 and A 2 x  B 2 y  C 2 z  D 2  0 , are
perpendicular if and only if their coefficients are related such
that,
A 1 A 2  B 1B 2  C 1 C 2  0 (15.9)
(0, 0, c)
the plane
x y z
  1
a b c
O
15.5 Intercept Form (0, b, 0) Y

(a, 0, 0)
a. The equation of a plane X
with x-intercept a, y-
intercept b, and z-
intercept c, Fig. 15.1, is Fig. 15.1
given by,
x y z (15.10)
  1
a b c
the plane
lx  my  nz  
N
15.6 Normal Form O ρ
P(x, y, z)
a. The equation of a plane Y

located at a
perpendicular distance ρ X
from the origin to the
point N on the plane,
Fig. 15.2, has the form, Fig. 15.2
lx  my  nz   (15.11)
where l, m, and n, are the direction cosines of the line of

length ρ perpendicular to the plane from the origin. This line
is called the normal of the plane.
b. To reduce the general equation of a plane to the normal

form,
 Divide each term of the general equation,

Ax  By  Cz  D  0 , by  A  B  C2
2 2
,
depending on the sign of C. If C  0 , the radical
takes on the sign of B. If B  C  0 , like the sign of
A.
 Transfer the constant term to the other side of the
equation.
15.7 Directed Perpendicular Distance of a Plane to a Point
a. The directed perpendicular distance d of a plane, whose

equation in the general form is Ax  By  Cz  D  0 , to the
point P1(x1, y1, z1), is given by,
Ax 1  By 1  Cz 1  D (15.12)
d
2 2 2
 A B C
where the radical in the denominator takes on the sign of C.

If C  0 , it follows the sign of B. If B  C  0 , like the sign
of A. A positive value for the distance d results if the point
lies above the plane (or in the positive direction of the
coordinate axis perpendicular to the coordinate plane, in the
case of planes perpendicular to this coordinate plane), and
negative if the point lies below the plane (or in the negative
direction of the coordinate axis perpendicular to the
coordinate plane, in the case of planes perpendicular to this
coordinate plane).
15.8 Three Conditions Determine a Plane
a. A set of three independent conditions is required to

determine the equation of a plane since its equation contains
three essential constants that must be evaluated by three
consistent equations.
103
Chapter 16
The Straight Line in Space
16.1 General Equation of a Line in Space
a. A straight line in space is the curve of intersection of two

planes (see Sec. 14.7 for the general case). So that, the
general equation of every straight line in space may be
written as a set of two simultaneous linear equations in three
variables as,
A 1 x  B1 y  C 1 z  D1  0
 (16.1)
A 2 x  B2 y  C 2 z  D2  0
16.2 A Family of Planes Through a Given Space Line
a. A family of planes through a straight line in space whose

equation is given by equation 16.1,
A 1 x  B 1 y  C 1 z  D 1  0
 taken simultaneously, has the
A 2 x  B 2 y  C 2 z  D 2  0
form,
A 1 x  B 1 y  C 1 z  D 1  c A 2 x  B 2 y  C 2 z  D 2   0 (16.2)
where c is an arbitrary constant. See Sec. 14.7.
16.3 Parametric Equations of a Line in Space
a. Every line in space having a point P1(x1, y1, z1) and one set of
direction numbers L, M, and N, (see Sec. 12.4d), may be
represented by the parametric equations,
x  x 1  Lt ,
y  y 1  Mt , (16.3)
and z  z 1  Nt
with t as the parameter.

b. Elimination of the parameter t from equation 16.3 yields the

general set of equations of a line in space given by equation
16.1.
16.4 Symmetric Equations of a Line
a. The symmetric equation of a line in space is also obtained by

eliminating the parameter t from equation 16.3, and
expressed in the form,
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
  (16.4)
L M N
A x  B 1 y  C 1 z  D 1  0
b. To reduce the general form,  1 , to
A 2 x  B 2 y  C 2 z  D 2  0
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
the symmetric form,   , of the
L M N
equation of a space line,
 Find any two of the projecting cylinders (in the case

of space lines, it is called projecting planes) of the
space line from the general equation as presented in
Sec. 14.8b. For example, the projecting planes
i(x, z)  0 and j(x, y)  0 .
 Solve for the common variable in the equations of
the chosen projecting planes
i(x, z)  0 and j(x, y)  0 and equate values to
obtain x  f(y)  f(z) .
 Reduce the coefficient of each variable to unity by
dividing the equation through by a number.
c. The general form on the other hand is obtained from any two
of the resulting three equations from the symmetric form,
given by,
THE STRAIGHT LINE IN SPACE 105
x  x1 y  y1
 ,
L M
x  x1 z  z1
 , (16.5)
L N
y  y1 z  z1
and 
M N
Any one of these three equations follows from the other two.
This means that only two are independent equations that are
enough to describe the line. These three equations are also
the projecting planes of the space line to the XY, XZ, and YZ
coordinate planes respectively.
16.5 Lines Parallel and Perpendicular to a Plane
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
a. A space line   is parallel to the plane
L M N
Ax  By  Cz  D  0 if and only if,
LA  MB  NC  0 (16.6)
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
b. A space line   is perpendicular to the
L M N
plane Ax  By  Cz  D  0 if and only if, the quantities L, M,
and N, are proportional to the quantities A, B, and C,
respectively.
107
Chapter 17
Quadric Surfaces
17.1 Quadric Surfaces
a. A quadric surface (or quadric) is the locus of a second

degree equation in three variables. A quadric surface
corresponding to a general quadratic equation is not easy to
study geometrically. This chapter therefore would only be
dealing with quadrics whose equations are in the simplest
form. That is, quadratic equations in three variables with
second degree terms that are just squares of the variables
and not products of any two variables.
b. Except for degenerate cases (two parallel planes, two

coincident planes, two intersecting planes, a single straight
line, or a point), the quadric surfaces can be classified into
nine types or species. These are the ellipsoid (the sphere is
a special case), the hyperboloids (one sheet and two
sheets), the paraboloids (elliptic and hyperbolic), the
quadric cylinders (elliptic, parabolic, and hyperbolic), and
the elliptic cone.
the ellipsoid Z
x2 y2 z2
2
 2
 1 (0, 0, c)
a b c2
O (0, b, 0)
(a, 0, 0) Y
17.2 Ellipsoids. Spheres
X
a. An ellipsoid, Fig. traces on each
17.1, is a surface coordinate plane
represented by the
Fig. 17.1
equation,
x2 y2 z2 (17.1)
  1
a2 b2 c2
where the segments of length 2a, 2b, 2c, cut off on the
coordinate axes, are the axes of the ellipsoid. Its point of
symmetry, the origin O, is the center of the ellipsoid.
b. The ellipsoid is symmetric is symmetric with respect to each

of the three coordinate planes, so it is also symmetric with
respect to the three coordinate axes. The ellipsoid is a closed
surface.
c. The x, y, and z intercepts are  a,  b, and  c respectively.
d. The XY, XZ, and YZ traces are all ellipses, having the
respective forms,
x2 y2
  1,
a2 b2
x2 z2 (17.2)
2
 2
 1,
a c
y2 z2
and  1
b2 c2
e. All sections made by planes parallel to a coordinate plane are

ellipses that decrease in size as the intersecting plane moves
farther from the coordinate plane, becoming a “point-ellipse”,
a degenerate ellipse (Sec. 6.1d), at the planes whose
equations are,
x   a, y  b , and z   c , (17.3)
f. An ellipsoid of revolution is formed when two of the semi-

axes a, b, c, are equal since all sections made by planes
perpendicular to the third axis are circles. That is, an ellipsoid
formed by revolving an elliptic trace about its major axis,
generating a prolate spheroid, or about its minor axis,
generating an oblate spheroid.
g. A sphere is a special case of an ellipsoid where the semi-

axes a, b, c, are all equal.
QUADRIC SURFACES. TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES IN SPACE 109
17.3 Hyperboloids of One Sheet
a. A hyperboloid of one sheet, Fig. 17.2, is a surface

represented by the equation,
x2 y2 z2 (17.4)
  1
a2 b2 c2
the hyperboloid
where the Z-axis is the Z of one sheet
axis of the hyperboloid x 2 y 2 z2
  1
of one sheet. Its center a2 b2 c 2
is at the origin O, also
its point of symmetry.
O
b. The hyperboloid of one
Y
sheet is symmetric with
X
respect to each of the
three coordinate planes.
It is an open surface
extending indefinitely in
the direction of the Fig. 17.2
positive and the negative Z-axis. In other words, it encloses
the Z-axis.
c. The x and y intercepts are a and  b respectively. The z-

intercept is imaginary (meaning it does not intersect the Z-
axis of the space rectangular coordinate system).
d. The XY-trace is an ellipse, having the form,
x2 y2 (17.5)
 1
a2 b2
The XZ and YZ traces are hyperbolas whose respective

equations are,
x2 z2
 1
a2 c2
(17.6)
2 2
y z
and 2
 1
b c2
e. The XY-sections (or the sections on the planes z  k ) are

ellipses which increase in size as the intersecting plane
recedes from the XY-plane (or as |k| increases in the
equation of the plane z  k ). The XZ and the YZ sections (or
the sections on the planes y  k and x  k respectively) are
hyperbolas.
f. A hyperboloid of revolution of one sheet is formed when

a  b in equation 17.4, forming circular XY-sections instead
of ellipses. That is, by revolving one of the hyperbolic traces
(equation 17.6) around the Z-axis. For a  c or b  c , but
a  b , the surface is not a surface of revolution, but it just
means that the XZ and the YZ sections are equilateral
hyperbolas.
g. The following equations also represent hyperboloids of one

sheet,
x2 y2 z2
  1
a2 b2 c2
(17.7)
2 2 2
x y z
and  2
  1
a b2 c2
where the first encloses the Y-axis, and the second the X-
axis.
the hyperboloid Z
of two sheets
x2 y 2 z2
  1
a2 b2 c 2
O
17.4 Hyperboloids of Two
Sheets Y
X
a. A hyperboloid of two
sheets, Fig. 17.3, is a
surface represented by
the equation, Fig. 17.3
x2 y2 z2 (17.8)
  1
a2 b2 c2
where the X-axis is the axis of the hyperboloid of two sheets,

and the origin O is the center, also a point of symmetry of
the surface.
b. The hyperboloid of two sheets possesses symmetry with

respect to each coordinate plane. It is an open surface
consisting of two disconnected sheets, one in the region
x  a , the other in the region x  -a .
c. The x-intercepts are  a . The y and z intercepts are

imaginary.
d. There is no YZ-trace. The XY and XZ traces are hyperbolas

having the respective equations,
x2 y2
 1
a2 b2
(17.9)
x2 z2
and  1
a2 c2
e. The YZ-sections are ellipses, starting with a “point-ellipse”

when k  a for the cutting plane x  k , and increasing in
size as |k| increases numerically. No section exists for k  a .
The XZ and the XY sections are hyperbolas.
f. A hyperboloid of revolution of two sheets is formed

when b  c in equation 17.8 since the YZ-sections become
circular. This surface is generated by revolving one of the
hyperbolic traces (equation 17.9) around the X-axis. No
surface of revolution is formed whether
a  c or a  b, if b  c. This just means that the XZ and
the XY sections are equilateral hyperbolas.
g. The following equations also represent hyperboloids of two

sheets,
x2 y2 z2
   1
a2 b2 c2
(17.10)
2 2 2
x y z
and  2
 2
 1
a b c2
where the Y-axis is the axis of the first hyperboloid of two

sheets, and the Z-axis is the axis of the second.
17.5 Elliptic Paraboloids
a. An elliptic paraboloid, Fig. 17.4, is a surface whose

equation is,
x2 y2 (17.11)
  cz
a2 b2
where the Z-axis (the the elliptic

only axis of symmetry of paraboloid
the elliptic paraboloid) is x2 y2 Z
  cz
the axis of the surface. a2 b2
The origin O (or the
intersection of the axis
with the surface) is the
vertex.
b. The elliptic paraboloid is

symmetric with respect
O
to the XZ and the YZ
X Y
coordinate planes. It is
an open surface lying
entirely on one side of Fig. 17.4
the XY-coordinate plane, starting from the origin and
extending indefinitely in the direction of the positive Z-axis
when c is positive (equation 17.11), and in the direction of
the negative Z-axis when c is negative.
c. The x, y, and z intercepts of the elliptic paraboloid are all

equal to zero.
d. The XY-trace is a “point-ellipse” at the origin O (the vertex of

the surface). The XZ and the YZ traces are parabolas having
the respective forms,
x 2  ca 2 z
(17.12)
and y 2  cb 2 z
e. The XY-sections are ellipses that increase in size as the

cutting plane recedes from the XY-coordinate plane. The XZ
and the YZ sections are parabolas, either both opening
upward, or both opening downward, depending on whether c
is positive or negative respectively, in the equation of the
elliptic paraboloid (equation 17.11) .
f. A paraboloid of revolution is formed when a  b in

equation 17.11, forming circular XY-sections instead of
ellipses. This surface could be generated by revolving either
the XZ or the YZ parabolic trace (equation 17.12) about the
Z-axis.
g. The following equations also represent elliptic paraboloids,
x2 z2
2
  by
a c2
(17.13)
y2 z2
and   ax
b2 c2
where the Y-axis is the axis of the first elliptic paraboloid, and
the X-axis is the axis of the second.
the hyperbolic Z
paraboloid
x2 y 2
  cz
17.6 Hyperbolic a2 b2
Paraboloids
a. A hyperbolic
O Y
paraboloid, Fig.
17.5 is a surface X
represented by
the equation,
Fig. 17.5
x2 y2 (17.14)
  cz
a2 b2
where the Z-axis is the axis of the surface, and the origin O is
the vertex.
b. The hyperbolic paraboloid is symmetric with respect to the XZ

and the YZ coordinate planes. It is a saddle-shaped surface
extending indefinitely in all directions.
c. The x, y, and z intercepts of the hyperbolic paraboloid are all

zero.
d. The XY-trace is a pair of intersecting lines (a degenerate

hyperbola, see Sec. 6.1d) having the form,
x2 y2 (17.15)
 0
a2 b2
or by an equivalent pair of simultaneous linear equations,
 x y
  0
 a b
 (17.16)
 x y
  0
 a b
The XZ and the YZ traces are parabolas whose respective

equations are,
x 2  ca 2 z
(17.17)
and y 2   cb 2 z
e. The XY-sections on the positive side of the Z-axis are

hyperbolas whose transverse axes are parallel to the X-axis,
and the XY-sections on the negative side of the Z-axis are
hyperbolas whose transverse axes are parallel to the Y-axis.
The XZ-sections are parabolas, opening upward when c is
positive in the equation of the hyperbolic paraboloid
(equation 17.14), or opening downward when c is negative.
The YZ-sections are also parabolas, opening in the direction
opposite to that of the XZ-sections.
f. The hyperbolic paraboloid cannot in any way be a

surface of revolution. Only equilateral hyperbolic XY-
sections would be formed for the case a  b in equation
17.14.
g. Hyperbolic paraboloids may also be represented by the

equations,
x2 z2
   by
a2 c2
(17.18)
y2 z2
and   ax
b2 c2
where the Y-axis is the axis of the first equation of the

hyperbolic paraboloid, and the X-axis is the axis of the
second.
17.7 Quadric Cylinders
a. A quadric cylinder is a cylinder (see Sec. 14.6) whose right

section is a conic parallel to one of the coordinate planes. It
may be called elliptic, parabolic, or hyperbolic, depending

on the nature of its trace on that coordinate plane.
b. A quadric cylinder whose generator is perpendicular to the

XY-plane for example, would have an equation of the form
f(x, y)  0 (see equation 14.6), provided that this equation
represents a conic section. The following equations represent
an elliptic, a parabolic, and a hyperbolic cylinder respectively,
with generator perpendicular to the XY-plane,
x2 y2
  1,
a2 b2
x2 y (17.19)
 ,
a 2 b
x2 y2
and  1
a2 b2
The graphs of these the elliptic cylinder
Z
quadric cylinders are x2 y2
 1
shown in Figs. 17.6 to a2 b2
17.8.
O
(a, 0, 0) (0, b, 0) Y
X
Fig. 17.6
Z
the parabolic
cylinder
x2 y

a2 b
(-a, b, 0)
O Y
X (a, b, 0)
Fig. 17.7
the hyperbolic Z
cylinder
x2 y2
 1
a2 b2
2b
O
2a
Y
X
asymptotes
Fig. 17.8
17.8 Elliptic Cones
a. An elliptic cone, Fig. 17.9, is a surface represented by the

equation,
x2 y2 z2 (17.20)
 
a2 b2 c2
where the Z-axis is the

axis of the elliptic Z the elliptic cone
x 2 y 2 z2
cone, and the origin O  
a2 b2 c 2
is the vertex and at the
same time the point of
symmetry of the
surface. O
X Y
b. The elliptic cone is
symmetric with respect
to the three coordinate
planes. It is an open
surface extending to
infinity in both Fig. 17.9
directions along the Z-
axis.
c. The x, y, and z intercepts of the elliptic cone are all zero.

d. The XY-trace is a “point-ellipse” at the origin O. The XZ and

the YZ traces are the respective pairs of intersecting lines,
 x z
  0
a c


 x z
  0
 a c
(17.21)
 y z
  0
 b c
and 
 y z
  0
 b c
e. The XY-sections (or right sections, see Sec. 14.6c) are

ellipses that increase in size as the cutting plane moves
farther from the XY-plane. The XZ and the YZ sections are
hyperbolas.
f. A right circular cone (or cone of revolution) is formed

when a  b in equation 17.20, so that the right sections are
all circles. This surface is generated by revolving one of the
lines from either the XZ or the YZ-trace around the Z-axis.
g. Elliptic cones may also be represented by the equations,
x2 z2 y2
 
a2 c2 b2
(17.22)
y2 z2 x2
and  
b2 c2 a2
where the Y-axis is the axis of the first equation, and the X-
axis is the axis of the second.
17.9 Ruled Surfaces
a. A ruled surface is a surface generated by a moving straight

line called a ruling or generator. A cylinder is a ruled
surface, all of whose rulings parallel, while a cone is a ruled
surface, all of whose rulings are concurrent (see Sec. 14.6).
b. A double ruled surface is a surface generated by two

distinct sets of generators. The hyperboloid of one sheet and
the hyperbolic paraboloid are double ruled surfaces.
17.10 Translation of Axes in Space
a. The set of transformation equations for translation in

space is analogous to the planar case (Sec. 7.1), and is
written in the form,
x'  x  h,
y'  y  k , (17.23)
and z'  z  l
where the coordinates (x, y, z) represents a general point P

in the original coordinate system with coordinate axes X, Y,
Z, while (x’, y’, z’) are the coordinates of the same point P
referred to the new coordinate system with origin at the point
O’(h, k, l) and coordinate axes X’, Y’, Z’.
17.11 Rotation of Axes in Space
a. The set of transformation equations for rotation in

space (see also Sec. 7.2) has the form,
x '  l 1 x  m1 y  n 1 z,
y'  l 2 x  m 2 y  n 2 z, (17.24)
and z'  l 3 x  m 3 y  n 3 z
or in matrix form, it is,
 x '  l 1 m1 n1   x 
     (17.25)
 y'  l 2 m2 n2   y 
 z'  l m3 n 3   z 
  3
where l1, m1, n1, are the direction cosines of the rotated X’-
axis relative to the original X, Y, Z, axes respectively; l2, m2,
n2, are the direction cosines of the rotated Y’-axis relative to
the original X, Y, Z, axes respectively; and l3, m3, n3, are the
direction cosines of the rotated Z’-axis relative to the original
X, Y, Z, axes respectively.
b. From equation 17.25, we see at once that the coordinate

transformation matrix for rotation in space was already
modified as,
 l1 m1 n1 
  (17.26)
T  l 2 m2 n2 
l 3 m3 n 3 
which is still orthogonal. That is,
 l1 l2 l3 
1 T   (17.27)
T T  m1 m2 m3 
 n1 n2 n 3 
121
INTRODUCTORY VECTOR
ANALYSIS
Chapter 18
Vector Operations
18.1 Vectors
a. Vectors are quantities possessing magnitude and direction

(for example force, velocity, acceleration, displacement, etc.).
Scalars, on the other hand, possess only magnitude (for
example volume, mass, time, any real number, etc.).
b. The symbol or notation for a vector in most textbooks is set

in boldface (for example the vectors A and b). If written by
hand, an arrow is placed above the symbol (for example the
 
vectors A and b , or without the arrows as the vectors OP
and OR if two characters are used, with the first character
representing the origin of the vector and the second its
terminus). This handwritten notation for a vector would be
used throughout this text to avoid confusion. A scalar is
represented by letters of ordinary type (for example the
scalars A and b, or the scalars |AB| and |AD| in case two
characters are used).
Z
c. A vector is represented
graphically by a directed
line segment (see Sec. P
1.2e), whose length 

A or OP
(which is equal to some O
convenient scale)
represent the O Y
magnitude (also called
the absolute value) of X
the vector, and whose
direction is the same as
Fig. 18.1
the direction of the

vector, Fig. 18.1. The vector A may also be written as
OP (without the arrow, the same with a directed line
122 INTRODUCTORY VECTOR ANALYSIS
segment represented by two characters). The magnitude

may be denoted by | A | or | OP | . Scalars on the other
hand are just represented graphically by marks on a fixed
scale.
d. A vector whose absolute value is unity, regardless of direction

is called a unit vector. A null or zero vector (represented

by the symbol O ) has zero magnitude and no specific
direction. A vector which is not null is a proper vector.
Z
18.2 Equality of Vectors.
Negative of a Vector 
A
a. Two vectors A and B of

Fig. 18.2, are equal O
vectors (written as
Y
A  B ), if and only if their 
absolute values are equal, X
B
| A |  | B | , and their
directions are the same
regardless of the points in Fig. 18.2
space from which they
may be drawn (that is, their corresponding direction cosines
should be equal, see Sec. 12.4),
l A  lB , m A  m B , and n A  n B .
b. The negative of a vector Z

A (denoted by the symbol
  
 A ) is the vector whose 
C  A B
B
direction is opposite to that 
A
of vector A but having the O
  
same magnitude. D  A B
Y
X
18.3 Sum of Vectors. Difference
a. The sum or resultant of Fig. 18.3
vectors A and B is the vector C , written as,
AB  C (18.1)
VECTOR OPERATIONS 123
where C is represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram
constructed with A and B as sides, Fig. 18.3. This is known
as the parallelogram law for vector addition.
Z

Alternatively, the sum may    B
be thought of to be the C  A B
vector C formed by joining 

A
the initial point of A to the O
  
terminal point of B , if the D  A B
Y
initial point of B is placed
first on the terminal point X
of A , Fig. 18.4. Fig. 18.4
b. The difference of vectors A and B is the vector D , written

as,
A B  D (18.2)
where D is defined to be the sum of A and  B . That is,

D  A  (B) , Figs. 18.3 and 18.4.
c. Properties of vector addition:
Commutative
   
A B B  A
Associative
     
A  (B  C)  ( A  B)  C
18.4 Product of a Scalar and a Vector. The Unit Vector

 
a. The product of a scalar a, and a vector A , is the vector B ,
written as,
 
aA  B (18.3)

where B has a magnitude equal to the product of a and | A |
(or | B |  a | A | ), and direction the same with the direction of
 
A if a is positive, and opposite to the direction of A if a is
negative.
 
b. A unit vector a in the direction of a given vector A could
be determined by,

 A 
a ( A  0) (18.4)
A
c. Properties of scalar and vector multiplication:
Commutative
 
aA  Aa
Associative
 
a(bA)  (ab)A
Distributive
  
(a  b) A  aA  bA , or
   
a(A  B)  aA  aB
18.5 Dot Product of Two Vectors
a. The dot product (or scalar product) of two vectors

 
A and B is the scalar C defined to be the product of the
 
magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of the angle θ
between them, having the form,
 
C  A  B  A B cos  (0    ) (18.5)
 
b. Two vectors A and B are perpendicular vectors if and
only if,
    
A B  0 ( A , B  O) (18.6)
c. The vector projection (or component, see Fig. 18.5) of

 
B on A, is the vector OP given by,
   
 A B (18.7)
OP   A
 A 2 
 
vector projection of
Z
 
A on B, OR
O
 θ 
B A
P
O vector projection of Y
 
X B on A, OP
Fig. 18.5
 
The component of A on B on the other hand, is the vector
OR given by,
   
 A B (18.8)
OR   2 B
 B 
 
d. The scalar projection (or the magnitude of the vector

 
projection) of B on A , is the scalar |OP| given by,
 
A B
OP  B cos   (18.9)
A
 
The scalar projection of A on B , is the scalar |OR| given by,
 
A B
OR  A cos   (18.10)
B
e. Properties of dot multiplication:
Commutative
   
A B  B  A
Distributive
      
A  (B  C)  A  B  A  C
18.6 Cross Product of Two Vectors
a. The cross product (or vector product) of two vectors

  
A and B is the vector C defined to be the product of the
 
magnitudes of A and B , the sine of the smaller angle θ

between them, and a unit vector u defined to have a
 
direction perpendicular to the plane determined by A and B

(and so sensed that a right-handed screw turned from A

towards B through the angle θ would advance in the

direction of this unit vector u ). That is,
   

C  A  B  A B sin  u  (0     ) (18.11)

The magnitude |C|, of the vector product C is given by,
C  A B sin  (18.12)
We will notice that |C| is the scalar to be multiplied by the

 
unit vector u in equation 18.11 to yield C . Geometrically,
the magnitude of the vector product of any two vectors is the
area of the
parallelogram Z
constructed with the   
magnitude of the two C  AB
vectors as sides, Fig.  
 A B sin  u
18.6. Area  A B sin 

 B
u  θ
The direction of the A
vector product O
naturally follows the Y
direction of the unit
 X
vector u defined in this
section. Fig. 18.6
 
b. Two vectors A and B are parallel vectors if and only if,
      
A B  0 (A  B), (A , B  O) (18.13)
c. Properties of cross multiplication:
Anti-commutative
   
A B  B A
Distributive
      
A  (B  C)  A  B  A  C
129
Chapter 19
Vectors in Cartesian Coordinates
19.1 Cartesian Unit Vectors
a. The rectangular (or Z

Cartesian) unit vectors
  
i , j , and k, is an
important set of unit
vectors in the direction 
of the positive X, Y, and O
k

Z coordinate axes 
i
j
respectively, Fig. 19.1. Y
b. Products of the X
rectangular unit vectors:
Fig. 19.1
Dot Products
     
i  j  jk  k  i  0 (19.1)
     
i  i  j j  kk  1 (19.2)
Cross Products
     
i  i  j j  k  k  0 (19.3)
    
i  j   j i  k (19.4)
    
j k  k j  i (19.5)
    
k i   i k  j (19.6)
19.2 Cartesian Representation of a Vector


a. A vector R joining a point P1(x1, y1, z1) to another point
P2(x2, y2, z2), Fig. 19.2, may be written as,
   
R  ( x 2  x 1 ) i  ( y 2  y 1 ) j  (z 2  z 1 )k (19.7)
  
where ( x 2  x 1 ) i , ( y 2  y 1 ) j , ( z 2  z 1 )k , are the

components of the vector R along the X, Y, Z, coordinate
axes respectively. P2(x2, y2, z2)
Z
   
R  P1P2  (x2  x1 ) i  (y2  y1 ) j  (z2  z1 )k
P1(x1, y1, z1)
O
Y
X
Fig. 19.2

b. The magnitude of R is given by,
R  ( x 2  x 1 ) 2  ( y 2  y 1 ) 2  (z 2  z 1 ) 2 (19.8)
19.3 Operations on Two Vectors with Cartesian

Representations
 
a. The sum of two vectors A and B , represented by the
equations,
   
A  a1 i  a 2 j  a 3 k (19.9)
   
and B  b1 i  b2 j  b 3k
VECTORS IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES 131

is the vector C whose value is,
     
C  A  B  (a1  b 1 ) i  (a2  b 2 ) j  (a 3  b 3 )k (19.10)
  
b. The difference of the two vectors A and B , is the vector D
having the form,
     
D  A  B  (a1  b 1 ) i  (a 2  b 2 ) j  (a 3  b 3 )k (19.11)
 
c. The dot product of the two vectors A and B , is the scalar
C having the form,
 
C  A  B  a1 b 1  a 2 b 2  a 3 b 3 (19.12)
 
d. The cross product of the two vectors A and B , is the

vector C given by,
     
C  A  B  (a2b3  b2a3 )i  (a1b3  b1a3 ) j  (a1b2  b1a2 )k (19.13)
In matrix form, the above equation is written as,
  
i j k
  
C  A  B  a1 a2 a3 (19.14)
b1 b2 b3
19.4 Products Involving Three Vectors. The Lagrange’s

Identity
     
a. The product (A  B)C of the three vectors A, B, and C,
represented by the equations,
   
A  a1 i  a 2 j  a 3 k
   
B  b1 i  b 2 j  b 3k (19.15)
   
and C  c1 i  c 2 j  c 3k
   
is a vector D  (A  B)C having the following properties:
   
The magnitude of D  (A  B)C is,
 
D  (A  B) C (19.16)
    
The direction of D  (A  B)C is the same as C if the dot
    
product (A  B) is positive, and opposite to C if (A  B) is
negative.
Note that the product,
     
( A  B )C  A (B  C) (19.17)
  
b. The product A  (B  C) (also called the scalar triple
product or the box product) of the three vectors
  
A, B, and C, given by equations 19.15 is a scalar S having
the form,
a1 a2 a3
  
S  A  (B  C)  b1 b2 b3 (19.18)
c1 c2 c3
  
The vectors A, B, and C, are vectors parallel to one and
the same plane if and only if,
         
A  (B  C)  0 (A  B  C), (A, B, C  O) (19.19)
The scalar triple product has the following properties:
It may be written without the parenthesis as,
     
A  (B  C)  A  B  C (19.20)
  
since (A  B)  C is meaningless.
The dot and the cross may be interchanged without

changing the product (since interchanging any two rows
in a determinant only changes the sign of the
determinant, and interchanging the dot and the cross is
the same as interchanging rows twice, therefore
changing back the sign of the determinant to its original,
see equation 19.18). That is,
     
A B C A B C (19.21)
The preceding properties allow us to device a new

notation for the scalar triple product as,
  
A  (B  C)  ABC (19.22)
A cyclic permutation of the factors does not

change the product. That is,
ABC   CAB   BCA   ACB    BAC   CBA  (19.23)

Z
Geometrically, the
 
scalar triple product BC
S  ABC is the
volume of the 
θ A 
parallelepiped C

having the vectors
   B
A, B, and C, as O
concurrent edges, Y
Fig. 19.3. X
Fig. 19.3
  
c. The product A  (B  C) (also called the vector triple
  
product) of the vectors A, B, and C, given by equations

19.15 is a vector V having the form,
         
V  A  (B  C)  (A  C)B  (A  B)C (19.24)
The vector triple product is not associative, or
     
A  (B  C)  (A  B)  C (19.25)
since the product,
           
(A  B)  C  C  (A  B)  (C  B)A  (C  A)B (19.26)
d. The products presented in the previous sections can be used

to obtain the following relations;
   
The product (A  B)  (C  D),
     
(A  B)  (C  D)  [ABD]C  [ABC]D (19.27)
or
     
(A  B)  (C  D)  [CDA]B  [CDB]A (19.28)
The Lagrange’s identity,

           
(A  B)  (C  D)  (A  C)(B  D)  (A  D)(B  C) (19.29)
137
Chapter 20
Vector Analysis of Planes
and Lines
20.1 The Equation of a Plane
a. The equation of a plane having a point P1(x1, y1, z1), and

   
perpendicular to the vector N  n1 i  n 2 j  n 3 k is obtained
from the dot product,

N  P1P  0 (20.1)
where P1P is the vector from P1(x1, y1, z1) to a general point
P(x, y, z) on the plane. Equation 20.1 can be reduced to the
form,
n 1 ( x  x 1 )  n 2 ( y  y 1 )  n 3 (z  z 1 )  0 (20.2)
20.2 The Parametric Equation of a Line
a. The parametric equation of a line through the point P1(x1, y1,

   
z1), and parallel to the vector N  n1 i  n 2 j  n 3 k is obtained
from,

P1 P  tN (20.3)
where t is a scalar (called the parameter), and P1P is the

vector from P1(x1, y1, z1) to a general point P(x, y, z) on the
line. The equation above reduces to the form,
     
(x  x 1 ) i  (y  y 1 ) j  (z  z 1 )k  n1 t i  n 2 t j  n 3 tk (20.4)
  
Equating corresponding coefficients of i , j , and k , gives the
parametric equations of the line in the form,
x  x 1  n1 t
y  y 1  n2 t (20.5)
and z  z1  n3 t

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Analytic Geometry With Introduction To Vector Analysis

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BENEDICK A.

Brian Ganzo Publishing Company

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a

Printed and distributed

PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Chapter 2 Polar Coordinates 9

Chapter 3 Functions and Curves 13

Chapter 4 The Straight Line 25

4.5 Slope-Intercept Form

Chapter 5 The Circle 33

Chapter 6 Special Quadratic

Chapter 7 Transformation of Coordinates.

Chapter 8 Tangents and Normals

Chapter 9 Parametric Equations 61

Chapter 10 Transcendental Functions 63

Chapter 11 Families of Plane Curves.

SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Chapter 13 Cylindrical and Spherical

Chapter 14 Surfaces and Space Curves 89

Chapter 15 The Plane 99

15.8 Three Conditions Determine a Plane

Chapter 16 The Straight Line in Space 103

INTRODUCTORY VECTOR ANALYSIS

Chapter 19 Vectors in Cartesian

Chapter 20 Vector Analysis of

It is the hope of the author that this concise book, Analytic

PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

1.1 Analytic Geometry Defined

a. Analytic geometry is the branch of mathematics, dealing

b. Various methods in analytic geometry that are used to prove

third quadrant fourth quadrant

b. A rectangular coordinate system is formed by drawing a pair

distances. The plane is divided into four regions called

c. The x-coordinate (or abscissa) of a point is its

d. The notation P(x, y) where x and y are variables, means that

e. A directed line segment (or directed distance) is a line

P1P2 = - P2P1 (1.1)

f. The distance (or segment) on the other hand, between the

|P1P2| = |P2P1| (1.2)

1.3 Distance Between Two Points

Fig. 1.3 Fig. 1.4

1.4 Division of a Line Segment. Midpoint

a. If P(x, y) is a point on the line segment |P1P2|, joining the

then the coordinates (x, y) of P, Fig. 1.4, must be given by,

b. If P lies in the extension P1(x1, y1)

b. The slope m of a line is the tangent of the angle of

1.6 Slopes of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

b. Two lines are perpendicular if they have slopes in which one

1.7 Angle Between Two Lines. Intersection

a. The angle α , Fig. 1.6, formed by rotating the line L1 to L2, at

b. The point of intersection N(xi, yi) of two lines, Fig. 1.6, is

1.8 Area By Coordinates

a. The area A of a triangle,

2.1 Polar Coordinates

a. The position of a point on a plane may also be described by

the right, Fig. 2.1

c. The radius vector of a point is its distance from the pole

example P(-ρ,    ), P(ρ,   2 ), P(-ρ,    ), P(ρ,   2 ),

P(ρ,   k ) when k is even

2.2 Distance Between Two Points

a. The distance |d| between two points whose polar coordinates

d  r12  r22  2r1r2 cos(2  1 ) (2.2)

2.3 Relations Between Polar and