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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................... Page 1
Unit 1: FORESTRY........................................................................................ Page 2-6
Unit 2: TREES AND FOREST .................................................................... Page 7-12
Unit 3: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (Part I) ....................................... Page 13-17
Unit 4: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (Part II) ...................................... Page 18-23
Unit 5: TREE SIZE AND TYPE CLASSIFICATION .............................. Page 24-27
Unit 6: THE ANATOMY OF A TREE (PART I) ..................................... Page 28-32
Unit 7: THE ANATOMY OF A TREE (PART II) ................................... Page 33-36
Unit 8: TREES ARE CHEMICAL MACHINES (PART I) ....................... Page 37-42
Unit 9: TREES ARE CHEMICAL MACHINES (PART II)...................... Page 43-47
Unit 10: FOREST TREES DISEASES ...................................................... Page 48-53
Unit 11: CONTROL OF TREE DISEASES .............................................. Page 54-57
FURTHER READING 1 ............................................................................ Page 58-59
FURTHER READING 2 ................................................................................. Page 60
REFERENCES ......................................................................................... Page 71
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INTRODUCTION
This course has three purposes. It is intended:

To introduce students to the contents of Forestry
To provide examples of authentic texts written in the language typical of the subject.
To help students to practise the skills they will need in order to study the subject via
English and to use it when they have learned it.
In this course, the designer doesn‟t intend to give comprehensive coverage, but the
materials does embrace most of the basic concepts. It in sense is a basic course book of
Forestry.
All the texts in this course are selected from many different sources . They are not
simplified for students of English: the language the students encounter in these texts is exactly
what they will meet in real life.
The most important aim of this course is to help the students to acquire and develop the
skills they will need in order to learn their subject and when they have finished the course, to
use what they will have learned.
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Unit 1 : FORESTRY
A. READING & COMPREHENSION

I. Reading text
1. Principle of Forestry
Since the primary task of the

forester is centered on producing trees,
understanding trees and their growth is
essential. Although certain special
terms may be used for convenience,
the principles underlying the growth,
development, and reproduction of trees
of the forest are the same as those for
other crop species. Thus, forestry must
be based on a sound understanding of
botanical principles. One critical point
to keep in mind is that trees are
generally managed for wood
production, i.e., stem tissue. Compared
with most horticultural and agronomic
crops, forests represent long-lived,
perennial plants.
2. Classification
In United States forests, all

trees are spermatophytes, or seed
plants. They are classified formally as
either gymnosperms (cone-bearing
plants) or angiosperms (flowering
plants). This formal classification is accepted scientifically, but others are routinely used by
foresters. The most common general classification identifies a tree according to its leaf form
as a hardwood or softwood tree. Hardwoods are broad-leaved, generally deciduous, flower-
bearing trees. Softwoods are needled-leaved, mostly ever-green, cone-bearing trees. This
broad classification is far from perfect: the southern long-needled pine is classified as a
softwood species although its wood is harder than that of many of the hardwoods, and several
deciduous broad-leaved species yield softwood, e.g., basswood, willow, and aspen. This leads
to the confusing terms hard hardwoods, and soft hardwoods. Some senses can be made from
this when it is remembered that the terms were established early, when the demand was for
the soft white pine and the very hard white oaks only. Later use of numerous species of
widely varying hardness or softness could not erase the old established usage.
3. Morphology and Anatomy

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Although a forest may contain annual, biennial, and short-lived perennial plant
species, trees are generally considered to be the major vegetation: they are long-lived
perennials that usually produce a single central stem and attain a height of 6 m or more.
Rarely does a forest tree maturity in less than 15 to 20 years: some trees may grow
continuously for centuries though generally very slowly after the five hundred years. In
considering the growth of trees, increases in both height and diameter, or girth, are important
in determining the yield of lumber or other products. In terms of gross morphology, as a rule,
tree growing in a typical forest environment are taller and have smaller root systems than
those growing separately or under widely spaced, ornamental-settings. The apical or top
portion of the tree, the crown, is also smaller under crowded conditions. Note that the word
crown has a different meaning in forestry than in horticulture and agronomy. In forestry, the
crown is that portion of the tree which has branches. Since shade decreases the ability of
branches to survive, the trees in crowded forests tend to shed their lower branches and thus
have less crown in proportion to clear stem.
4. Roots
Roots serve the same general function as for other plants: anchorage, absorption of
water and essential minerals, and storage of photosynthate. The storage function is less
important in forest trees than for most perennial field crops since stem tissue takes over much
of the storage function in trees.
5. Trees species differ markedly in the extent of their roots systems, differences that may
affect how the species are managed in a forest. For example, most oak, hickory, and walnut
trees have deep and extensive taproot systems which provide extremely solid anchorage.
Thus, these and other trees with similar roots systems are not prone to uprooting by severe
winds. In harvesting a forest, wind damage is a minor concern with these trees. Spruces and
balsam, on the other hand, have shallow roots system and can be uprooted even by moderate
winds. In planning the harvest, such trees must be removed or allowed to remain in a pattern
that will ensure adequate wind protection. Most forest trees fall somewhere between these
extremes. Generally, the root systems provide sound anchorage except in relatively extremely
conditions. Of course, even deep-rooted species can be up-rooted under severe conditions,
such as prolonged heavy rains before or during high winds. Hurricane conditions can level
extensive areas of forest. In addition, trees that normally produce taproots may develop
shallow root systems because of poor soil conditions, e.g., only a thin layer of a soil above the
bedrock. In such cases trees may be not only stunted but also easily blown over.
This text was taken from Barden et al., Plant Science, Mc Grav-Hill
II. Comprehension questions: Now read the text carefully, and try to answer the following
questions:
1.Why are forests usually managed?

2.What is the difference between an angiosperm and a gymnosperm?
3. How are hardwoods and softwoods differenciated?
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4. What kind of tree is the aspen?

5. How long does it take for a forest to mature?
6. How do you assess the amount of wood you will get from a tree?
7. What is a crown?
8. Why is the storage function of a tree‟s roots less important than those of a field crop?
9. Why is an oak less likely to be uprooted than a balsam?
10. When is the root system inadequate to anchor a tree?
III. Vocabulary
1. Look at the first paragraph again. What words have the same meaning as:
well-informed
main, most important
2. Look at paragraph 2 again. What words have the opposite meaning to:
straightforward; easy to understand
as an exception
3. Look at paragraph 2 again. Can you explain the words:
hard hardwood hard softwood
4. Look at paragraph 3 again. What words have the same meaning as:
go on living
deciding
hundreds of years
part
all the time
seldom
5. Look at paragraph 4 and 5 again. Which words correspond to these definitions:
holding something down so that it is not blown over
liable or inclined to
going on for a long time
poorly developed
qualities which are as wide apart as possible
B. GRAMMAR
Some verbs in English must be followed by the - ing form:
He admitted taking my book.
Others are followed by the infinitive, “to”:
He agreed to lend me his book.
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Verbs followed by a particles like „in‟, „from‟, ect. are followed by the -ing form:
He insisted on going to a film last night.
Some verbs are followed by either gerunds or infinitives:
It began raining.
It began to rain.
COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES

Enjoy: I enjoy working in my gardent want refuse
Finish: Bob finished studying at midnight. need appear
Stop: It stooped raining a few minutes ago. would like pretend
Quit: David quit smoking. would love forget
Mind: Would you mind opening the window? hope can’t afford
Postpone: I postponed doing my homework. expect
Put off:I put off doing my homework. plan
Keep: Keep working. Don’t stop. intend
Keep on: Keep on working. Don’t stop. mean
Consider: I’m considering going to Hawaii. decide
Think about: I’m thinking about going to Hawaii. promise
Discuss: They discussed getting a new hat. offer
Talk about: They talked about getting a new car. agree
1. Make sentences from the following notes. Think whether you should use the infinitive or
the – ing form after the verbs.
He/suggest/read/chapter 5/before/we/go/lecture
The rain/not stop/fall/until yesterday evening
He/wants/spend/more time/study.
A good farmer/try/set/objectives.
Peter/prevent/harvest/his crop/bad weather.
I enjoy/listen/music.
He/not mind/work/weekends.
He/forget/hand in/essay/ last night.
There/nothing/that shop/worth/buy.
It/no use/leave/your work/last minute.
I/miss/watch/college football match/last week.
He/ hope/get/ good results/his examination.
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I/expect/grow/more vegetables/next year.

I/not want/risk/fail/my exams.
2. Asking question You want to find out about the oil palm. Find out about the oil palm by
asking questions. Note down the answers. Asking about the following points:
Botanical name: ........................................................................................
Family: ....................................................................................................
Varieties: ..................................................................................................
Seed rate: ..................................................................................................
Planting out: ............................................................................................
Spacing: .....................................................................................................
Maturation: ................................................................................................
Harvest: .....................................................................................................
Yields: .......................................................................................................
Composition percentage ...........................................................................
Diseases: ...................................................................................................
Processing: ................................................................................................
3. Paragraph Writing: Now write a short paragraph on the oil palm, using the information
you have noted above.
Unit 2: TREES AND FORESTS

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I. Reading text
A mature forest cannot be precisely measured nor cost. However, it is clear that forests
have special functions. In addition to providing habitats for animals and contributing to
environmental stability, forests influence wind patterns, rainfall and nutrients turnover.
The Function Of A Forest
The waru
The trees are the fixed elements of a forest and the associates of trees- fungi, bacteria,
squirrels, possums, insects, birds, and other animals- can be seen as the mobile elements. The
whole- the tree and its associates- can be imagined as a guild or waru (the Australian
Aboriginal word waru expresses the sense of all organisms belonging together and working
co-operatively.) the tree provides habitat for the animals (shelter, food, nesting materials); in
return animals carry out the tree‟s needs for pollination, seed dispersal, pruning, cultivation
and fertilising.
In permaculture, you are aiming to create landscapes and ecosystems that function
with the wonder, diversity and efficiency of a waru.
Trees and wind

Trees are “pruned” or deformed by prevailing winds and from this you can predict
local wind direction and intensity, and assess the need for windbreaks.
Heavy trees with large canopies, such as oak trees, rely mainly on their weight to
withstand severe winds. Trees with lighter canopies insert roots deeply into the ground to
anchor themselves. It is important to use anchoring trees in cyclone areas.
Wind carries a “load”. It carries ice particles, sand, dust, bacteria, viruses and seed.
Trees with small fine leaves can “trap” the load and deposit the nutrients for their own
growth. Because fine-leaved trees are often found on the edges of forests, you will sometimes
find that the edge facing the prevailing wind has richer soils than the edge on the leeward side.
Typically, in a forest about 60% of the windstream is deflected up and over the trees.
The remaining 40% that enters the “edge” or forest closure is absorbed and warms the forest
with its energy. Within 100m the wind dies. At this point in the forest the air is clean, warm,
still and slightly humid. This is a perfect growing place.
The deflected wind is compressed in a region up to 20 times the height of the tree
canopy. If the air is humid, it will be compressed and cooled, and it will rain.
The forest edge is essential to the lift of the wind. The species growing on the edge are
dense, small-leaved and thick-stemmed, and can withstand the force of the wind. The edge
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must be kept intact because if it is destroyed the plants in the forest may suffer from windburn
and abrasion, and diseases and weeds can enter the forest and destroy its integrity.
Trees and temperature

Forests can be seen as nature‟s air conditioners because they clean the air and modify
extremes of humidity and temperature.
Trees absorb the sun‟s light energy and turn it into chemical energy.
If leaves are dark green or reddish in colour, as often found in the tropics, more light
as absorbed and local temperatures are reduced.
Trees transpire water into the atmosphere as humidity. (one medium-sized elm will
transpire 7000 litres of water on a clear day.) this evaporation is accompanied by cooling so
that by day it is cooler in and near a forest than it is in unvegetated areas. At night, in humid
conditions, water condenses on the leaves and warms the surrounding air.
In very dry areas, the evapotranspiration from trees will humidify air which is
uncomfortably dry; in very damp areas, water captured by trees dehumidifies the air by
absorbing water.
Trees and precipitation

Where the air stream is very humid (i.e. coasts and islands), air flows rapidly and
condenses on leaf surfaces. In these conditions dense rainforests will grow and the
condensation from leaf surface can be 80-86% of the total precipitation.
Trees pump moisture into the air as they transpire- up to 75% of precipitation is
returned to the atmosphere in this way. The Tasmanian Blue Gum, Eucalyptus globulus,
which averages about 60 trees to a hectare in a natural mixed forest, pumps 4000 litres/ day.
This is a huge return of moisture to the airstreams.
The environmental effects of forest removal are dramatic, both in the local area and
further field. It has been calculated that as much as 60% of inland water comes from forest
transpiration. Hence, forest removal in one area may relate directly to drought in another area.
Forests protect the soil from erosion. In one heavy deluge up to 80 tones/ hectare of
soil can be lost from bare earth. In addition, the topsoil and subsoil start to dry out if water
runs across the surface and off the land into waterways. Dams and rivers silt up and
eventually flood, carrying the valuable topsoil downstream.
When it rains………
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When it rains over a forest the impact of each rain drop on the soil is reduced and the
rain is spread as a film of water, bound by surface tension, over all the leaves of the trees. It is
caught in stems and bark, in webs, flowers and insect nests. The amount caught is influenced
by the crown thickness and density. For 100% of rain falling, 10- 15% is caught by the tree
canopy, branches and trunks of deciduous trees; more is caught in evergreen trees. This is
called interception.
The rest of the rain- the throughfall- drifts through the canopy as mist and droplets. It
contains organic salts, dust, plant exudates, insect droppings and sheddings. It is nutrient-rich
and is directed towards the outer plant canopy (also known as the drip line) and the
underlying feeding roots.
Before the water reaches the roots however, the organic humus layer of the soil acts
like a great water blotter and soaks up 1cm of rain for every 3cm of depth. This moisture is
held for later use, when the soil begins to dry out again.
In the underlying 40-60cm of soil, the throughfall is filtered into water and air
channels, nests and burrows, and is absorbed by soil fungi and bacteria, and of course, the tree
roots. This water is first bound by particles of clay and humus and then the excess percolates
slowly through the soil. At any time some of this water is valuable to soil organisms and plant roots.
Once all this has been accomplished, water starts to flow very slowly to rivers and the
sea. And when it does, it is clean.
II/ Comprehension questions

1. Can a mature forest be precisely measured or cost?
2. What is the definition of the term “waru”?
3. How can you predict local wind direction and intensity?
4. How can trees withstand severe wind?
5. Are fine-leaved trees benefit? Where can we find them in a forest?
6. What is the perfect growing place?
7. What tree species usually grow on the edge of a forest?
8. Why can forests be seen as nature‟s air conditioners?
9. When does air flow rapidly and condense on leaf surface?
10. Can trees pump moisture into the air? When?
11. How can trees help the soil?
12. Which acts like a great water blotter?
III. Vocabulary
1. In paragraph 3, line 1, the word “that” refers to:
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A. permaculture B. landscapes C. ecosystems D. B & C

2. In paragraph 6, line 2 , the word “their” refers to:
A. trees‟ B. leaves‟ C. loads‟ D. nutrients‟
3. In paragraph 7, line 3, the word “its” refers to:
A. 40% B. forest closure‟s C. windstream‟s D. forest‟s
4. In paragraph 8, line 2, the word “it” refers to:
A. tree B. region C. height D. air
5. In paragraph 9, line 4, the word “its” refers to:
A. edge‟s B. plant‟s C. forest‟s D. weed‟s
A. tree B. sun C. light D. energy
7. In paragraph 14, line 1, the word “which” refers to:
A. areas B. evatranspiration C. air D. trees
8. In paragraph 16, line 1, the word “they” refers to:
A. trees B. moistures C. air D. precipitation
A. rain B. throughfall C. canopy D. mist
B. GRAMMAR COMMON COMBINATIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS

Many nouns, verbs and adjectives are generally followed by specific prepositions. However,
there are many exceptions to any rule listing certain words which must appear with certain
prepositions. This is something that one must learn from constant contact with and attention
to the elements of a new language.
Exercise 1: Complete these sentences with the correct preposition

1. It‟ very nice ................... you to let me use your car. Thank you very much.
2. Why are you always so impolite ………….. your parents? Can‟t you be nice ……...…..
them?
3. It wasn‟t very polite ………….….him to leave without saying thank you.
4. I can‟t understand people who are cruel to …………. animals.
5. Why do you always get so annoyed …………….. little thing?
6. We enjoyed our vacation, but we were disappointed ………….…. the hotel.
7. I was surprised ………….….. the way he behaved. It was out of character.
8. These days everybody is aware ……………….. the danger of smoking.
9. Mr. Davis spends a lot of time gardening. His garden is very well-kept, and he‟s very proud
………..…. it.
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10. Bill has been doing the same job for too long. He‟s bored ……..……… it.
Exercise 2: Choose the correct preposition to fill in the blank.
1. A sound understanding of trees and their growth should be important ………….. somebody
who participates in managing forests. (on / for / to / with)
2. Forestry must be based …………….. a sound understanding of botanical principles. (on /
for / to / with)
3. Considering the growth of tree is important …………… the determination of the yield of
lumber and other products. (in / on / for / with)
4. Some areas tend to be crowded ……………… bushes. (in / on / by / with)
5. Biophysical life processes of broad-leaved trees are different ……………. those of needle-
like ones. (with / at / from / for)
6. The life cycle of trees, similar …………… that of most plant, begins with germination.
(with / to / as / by)
7. A tree may develop stunted roots if the soil is poor …………… nitrogen. (with / in / at / on)
8. If the tree is deficient (not enough) ……………. water, it is hard for nutrients to be carried
to different parts. (in / with / on / for)
9. The forest edge is essential ……………… the lift of the wind. (with / for / to / of)
10. In the soil, water may be valuable ……………..soil organisms and plant roots. (with / for
/ to / of)
11. The gross features of trees are more useful …………….. quick field identification. (with /
for / to / of)
12. The positions of tree crown are relative ……….. the general level of the forest canopy.
(with / for / to / of)
13. Some branches are capable …………. growing independently. (with / for / to / of)
14. Glucose is rich …………….. energy. (with / in / for/ of)
15. Some forests are free ……………. rotting diseases. (with / for / to / from)
16. Trees are vulnerable …………. various diseases. (with / for / to / of)
17. It is a good way to plant trees highly resistant …………….. diseases. (with / for / to / of)
18. Forest trees are prone …………… attacks by diseases. (with / for / to / of)
19. The fungus causing wilt diseases used to be native ………….the Orient. (with / for / to / of)
20. The rotting fungi are responsible ……….great volumes of wood worthless. (with / for / to / of)
21. Cellulose is high …………. energy content. (with / for / in / of)
Exercise 3 : Choose the correct preposition to fill in the blank.
1. The American chestnut once accounted ………….. as much as one half of the trees in
many forest stands. (with / for / to / of)
2. Any tree consists ………. the roots, stem and leaves. (with / for / to / of)
3. The tree provides habitat ………….. the animals. (with / for / to / of)
4. The word „crown‟ refers ……………. the branches and leaves of a tree. (with / for / to / from)
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5. Four sections of layers make …………. the outer part of a tree trunk. (with / for / to / of)
6. The outer bark protects the tree ………….. radical changes in temperature, diseases, insects
and dying. (with / for / to / from)
7. Nature supplies the tree ………carbon dioxide from the air, minerals and water from the
soil and light energy from the sun. (with / for / to / of)
8. Metabolism is the process of building ………. and breaking ……… substances containing
carbon. (of-of / up-of / down-up / up-down)
9. The cycle including respiration and photosynthesis results …………… several net effects.
(with / for / in / from)
10. Biomass production should depend ……..the tree species and their spacing and age. (up /
on / upon / of)
11. Chemical substances can prevent trees ……….. being attacked by fungi. (with / for / from / of)
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Unit 3: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (I)

I. Reading text
Trees are woody plants, but not all woody plants are trees. A tree usually grows
upright to at least 20 feet (15.5 metres) at maturity and has a single stem, often called bole or
trunk. The stem supports limbs and leaves, forming the top or crown. Other woody plants are
vines and shrubs. Vines may have woody stems but do not have a distinct crown of upright
branches. Shrubs may have several woody stems growing from a clump, and they usually are
smaller than trees.
Trees generally develop a typical shape when they grow in an open area. Trees that
grow in crowded forests usually have trunks of greater clear length. Essentially, we have no
timberline resulting from high elevation in the East, but at timberline and at higher mountain
elevations in the West many trees are knurled, twisted, and sometimes prostrate. Such
tortuous form is the result of many factors, including thin soils, limited growth periods, deep
snows, and continuous exposure to strong winds. However, under favorable conditions, most
species develop characteristic shapes. Several field trips with a good identification manual
showing local species should enable an inexperienced person to become rather proficient in
identifying trees.
Identification features are also found in bud, flower, fruit, leaf, twig, and bark
structure. The precise botanical characteristics by which trees are classified (primarily flower
parts) are too small or fleeting to be useful in field identification for those with little
experience. The gross features (shape, leaf, and bark structure, buds and twigs) are more
useful for quick field identification.

1. All woody plants are trees or not?
2. At maturity, how high is a tree?
3. How many stem does a tree have?
4. What does the stem support?
5. Do vines have distinct crowns?
6. How do trees develop when they grow in an open area?
7. What kind of trunk does a tree often have when it has to compete for light?
8. Why are some trees knurled or twisted?
9. In what conditions do most species develop characteristic shape?
10. In order to have quick field identification what should be used?
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III. Vocabulary
A. Put the appropriate word into the blank:
stem light
crown identification
shape factors
branches bark
characteristics knurled
1. …………………..is very important for the growth of trees.

2. Trees…………………...is a subject that we are going to study next week.
3. The……………………………..of this tree is very thick.
4. Many………………………affect the growth of a tree.
5. After the flood, the………………………..of the river banks changed so much.
6. This kind of Pine has got a lot of………………….….. .
7. We used to play under the…………………………….of this old, big tree.
8. The…………………………....of this bamboo is 10 metres long.
9. Yesterday, a car run into that tree, but only the……………………….is damaged.
B. Comprehension check: Multiple-choice
1. A tree usually grows…………… .
A. vertically B. horizontally C. downward
2. A tree usually has…………… .
A. two stems B. one stem C. some stems
3. Vines has got……………… .
A. great crown B. small crown C. complex crown D. indefinite crown
4. The branches of a vine are…………… .
A. big B. long and thin C. not upright D. hard
5. When growing in an open area, trees often have a………… .
A. nice form B. popular form C. great form D. dense form
6. The tree that has to compete for light often has …………. .
A. a long stem B. many branches C. thick bank D. a beautiful crown
7. The tree that grows on very adverse place generally has…………. .
A. a long stem B. a usual shape C. an unusual shape D. a dense brown
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B. GRAMMAR COORDINATORS
You can remember the seven coordinators by the phrase FAN BOYS
FOR AND NOR BUT OR YET SO
for Women live longer than men, for they take better care of their health.
(The second clause gives the reason for the first clause.)
and Women follow more healthful diets, and they go to doctors more often.
(The two clauses express equal, similar ideas.)
nor Women don‟t smoke as much as men do, nor do they drink as much
alcohol. (Nor means „and not‟. It joins two negative independent
clauses. Notice that questions word order is used after nor.)
but Men may exercise harder, but they may not exercise as regularly as
women do. (The two clauses express equal, contrasting ideas.)
or Both men and women should limit the amount of fat in their diets, or
they risk getting heart disease. (The two clauses express alternative
possibilities.)
yet Women used to be known as the „weaker sex‟ yet in some ways, they
are stronger than men. (The second clause is a surprising or unexpected
contrast to the first clause.)
so Men are less cautious than women, so more men die in accidents. (The
second clause is the result of the first clause.)
Exercise1:
A. Add another independent clause to the following independent clauses to form

compound sentences. Be sure to write a complete clause containing a subject and a verb.
Underline the coordinator and add punctuation.
Example:
The college campus is located in the center of the city, so it is very easy to do my
shopping.
1. Students can attend day classes and ……………………………………………. .

2. Students can live in dormitories or ……………………………………………….
3. I have finished my math homework but ………………………………………….
4. I have studied English for six years yet …………………………………………..
5. My adviser suggested a word processing class for ………………………………..
6. Some students do not like to write term paper nor ………………………………....
7. The instructor gave us eight weeks to write our term papers yet ………………....
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8. Most students had not even chosen a topic nor …………………………………….

9. The instructor was very upset for …………………………………………………..
10. My roommate scored very high on the English placement test so ………………..
B. For each pair of sentences below, choose a coordinator that best fits the meaning, and
join the two independent clauses to form a compound sentence. Use each FAN BOYS
coordinator once. Write your new sentences on a separate sheet of paper, and punctuate
them correctly.
Example:
Nuclear accidents can happen. Nuclear power plants must have strict safety controls.
Nuclear accidents can happen, so nuclear power plans must have strict safety controls.
1. The accident at the nuclear power plant at three Mile Island in the United States created
fears about the safety of this energy source. The disaster at Chernobyl in the former Soviet
Union confirmed them.
2. Solar heating systems are economical to operate. The cost of installation is very high.
3. Energy needs are not going to decrease. Energy sources are not going to increase. (Use nor
and question word order in the second clause, deleting the word not.)
4. Burning fossil fuels causes damage to our planet. We need to develop other sources of energy.
5. Ecologists know that burning fossil fuels causes holes in the ozone layer. People continue
to do it.
6. Poorer nations especially will continue this harmful practice. They don‟t have the money to
develop “clean” energy sources.
7. All nations of the world must take action. Our children and grandchildren will suffer the
consequences.
Notice: Words, phrases, and clauses that are joined by and, or and but are written in parallel
form. Notice the parallel structures joined by coordinators in the following sentences:
The Federal Air Pollution Control Administration regulates automobiles exhausts, and the
Federal Aviation Administration makes similar regulations for aircraft.
The States regulate the noise created by motor vehicles but not by commercial aircraft.
Pesticides cannot be sold if they have an adverse effect on humans, on animal life, or on the
environment.
Exercise 2: Complete the sentences with and, so, because, then or but
1. We didn‟t have any money ……………… we couldn‟t go to a restaurant.
2. He closed all the doors and windows, and ……….. he left the house.
3. I was feeling very tired, …………… I went to bed very early.
4. Romano is usually on time, ……….. tonight she arrived half an hour late.
5. I couldn‟t sleep ………… there was a party next door.
6. It was very cold outside, ……….. I put on my warmest clothes.
7. I phoned my friends ………… invited them to come to my house.
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8. We couldn‟t go out ……….. the weather was so bad.

9. He looked through the window for a minute or two, …………. went inside.
Exercise 3: Paragraph writing
Match the following clauses together, using and, but, when, after, so and because.
a. the next evening he needed them Robert could not attend

b. he arrived at the canteen Robert finally arrived
c. they did not please Andrew very much
he went to the canteen to look for
Robert
d. Last night Andrew lend Robert his
lecture note Robert has not returned them
e. Andrew needed his notes immediately Robert was not there
f. He had waited for an hour he decided to wait
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Unit 4: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (II)

I. Reading text
Trees and other plants often have several common names, which vary with locality or
local use. To make specific identities world-wide, botanists employ Latinized names, which
remain constant since Latin is a language that no longer changes. The scientific name consists
of two parts: the genus (a collection closely related species) and the specific epithet or species
(a collection of individuals so similar that they suggest common percentage and produce like
offspring). The generic name always appears first and is capitalized, while the specific name
follows and begins with a lowercase letter. Because general and regional guides to field
identification of trees and government publication that describe local or native trees are
readily available, only a few of the important commercially significant trees of the major
forest regions will be studied in this chapter. Most of these are valued for their wood products.
Prior to studying individual tree species, it is necessary to know that trees are divided
into two main groups. These are the conifers (gymnosperms) or softwood trees and the
broadleaf (angiosperms) or hardwood trees. Conifers have mostly needle-like or scale-like
leaves and bear their seeds in cones or cone-like structures. The conifers or evergreens do not
shed all their leaves annually, with the exception of larch and bald cypress. Deciduous trees,
those that shed all their leaves in the fall, generally are broad-leaved hardwoods.
The term hardwood and softwood can be misleading because the wood of some
hardwood trees is softer than that of some softwood trees. For example, the wood of yellow
poplar and basswood is much softer than that of the longleaf pine.
We will first study the conifers, which are very widely distributed in the various
regions and are very significant in the production of lumber and paper.

1. How many names do trees and other plants have?
2. Why do they have many names?
3. Why do botanists have to use Latin to name trees?
4. How many parts does the scientific name consist of? What are they?
5. How are trees classified?
III. Vocabulary
A. Find word or combination of words that means:
1. some (paragraph 1) 6. types (paragraph 2)
2. definite (paragraph ) 7. accurate (paragraph 1)
3. the same (paragraph 1) 8. sawn wood (paragraph 4)
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4. before (paragraph 2) 9. easily to be seen, bought (paragraph 1)

5. classified (paragraph 2) 10. different (paragraph 4)
B. Find an appropriate word to fill the blank
1. He is a very famous……………. . (paragraph 1)
2. These trees do not………….leaves in the autumn. (paragraph 2)
3. In old time, people used to………to construct bridges. (paragraph 4)
4. ……………….….is often used to produce paper. (paragraph 4)
5. It is difficult to store the…………...of this tree, because their germination capacity is
decreased by the time. (paragraph 2)
6. To conserve valuable………..….resources is a task of great importance. (paragraph 1)
7. This kind of trees are often…………………on high mountains. (paragraph 4)
8. Names of trees………………with different regions. (paragraph 1)
9. The generic name always……………………first. (paragraph 1)
10. ………………..….do not shed all their leaves annually. (paragraph 2)
C. Comprehension check: Multiple choice
1. Trees and plants have………… .
A. very few names B. many names C. two names D. one name
2. The scientific name of a tree has……….. .
A. only one part B. two parts C. four parts D. many parts
3. The specific name stands………….. .
A. first B. in the middle C. last D. anywhere
4. ……….is written or printed in capital letters.
A. the generic name B. the specific name
5. Trees are classified into………. .
A. three types B. four types C. two types D. several types
6. Conifers are often……………… .
A. hardwood trees B. softwood trees
7. Most of softwood trees do not change their leaves……… .
A. in autumn B. in spring C. in summer D. in winter
8. The wood of………..hardwood trees is hard.
A. all B. most of C. some D. many
D/ Reading test
Complete the following text by filling in the blank spaces with the expressions given below.
A dotted line………requires a phrase to be added and a straight line ________ requires a
word.
21
the leaf of the surrounding environment

very carefully how unfamiliar plant
plant groups for example functions
identifiable grass smell
some other plant doing
If you want to identify an…………………, use your natural senses. Feel the texture of
the leaves. Then____________ the plant- crush the leaves and see if the scent reminds you
________other plants you know. All the mints are ____________by smell, and so are the
lavenders, eucalypts and citrus. Taste……………. and spit it out, and again see what it
reminds you of; ____________the oxalis family all have the same acidic taste, so do the
sorrels.
(Notes: it is very hard to poison yourself by ___________simply a test taste and then
spitting the leaf out.)
Look at the plant……………… - all the thyme family have small hairy leaves;
other……………. can be similarly recognised by sight. Now you can probable see that this
plant is like……………………. you know. Think about it and then check its growing place.
Examine ……………………- soil, aspect, slope- and the plant‟s habit- tree, shrub,
herb or____________. Identify its yields and ________________- mulch, groundcover,
shelter food, and so on.
Now tell yourself where and _____________you would use it in a permaculture

design.
B. GRAMMAR TIME CONNJUNCTIONS
Use Example Other

when/ as soon To talk about two things The moment I see conjunctions used
as/ the happening at the same Ian tonight I‟ll tell with this tense
moment/ time in the future him to call you. with a change in
immediately + meaning
Note: Do not use these NOT: The moment
present simple Until / till
conjunctions with a future I will see
form to talk about the Until I go there, I
future. won‟t know what
it‟s like
Before
Before she begins
the race, she‟ll do
some warm-up
exercise.
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when/ as soon To talk about one thing Once you‟ve seen Until / till
as/ once/ the happening before another him, will you call Until they moved
moment/ in the future me? house they won‟t
immediately+ have any free time.
Present
perfect Before/ after
After we‟ve been
on holiday, we‟ll
fell much better
when/ as soon To talk about two things When I saw Ian Until / till
as/ once/ the happening at the same last night, I said Until I saw it for
moment/ time in the past hello. myself, I didn‟t
immediately+ believe it.
Past simple
Before
Before she left the
office, she closed
all the windows.
when/ as soon To talk about one thing As soon as I‟d Until / till
as/ once/ the happening before another spoken to him, I Until you‟d
moment/ in the past understood the
worked there for a
immediately+ situation better. while, it was hard
Past perfect to make friends
Before/After
After they‟d been
to the zoo, they
went home to bed.
AFTER+ -ing
- Use to talk about the past, present or future and to say that one thing happens and then
another thing happens.
- Can only be used if the subject of both verbs is the same.
Example: After arriving at the hotel, guests will be invited to a special welcome party.
Note: if the verbs have different subjects, the second subject and the appropriate verb tense
must be used.
Example: After guests have arrived at the hotel, a special welcome party will be held.
THEN/ AFTERWARDS/ AFTER THAT
- After can not be used alone as a linking word to join one thing that happens with
another thing that happens after it. Instead, use (and) then (and) afterwards,
or(afterwards), or(and) after that.
Example: We went to a restaurant and after we went to a night club.
 BEFORE+-Ing
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- To talk about the past event, present or future

- can only be used if the subjects of both verbs are the same
Example: I finished all my work before leaving.
Note: if the verbs have different subjects, the second subject and the appropriate verb tense
must be used.
Example: I finished all my work before she got back.
EXERCISE: Complete the second sentence so that it means the same as the first, using the
word given
1. Make up your mind and then tell me what your decision is.
ONCE
Tell me what your decision is ………………….. your mind.
2. The judges will hear all the evidence and then they will decide.
AFTER
The judges will decide ………………………………….. all the evidence.
3. Answer all the questions and then check your answers.
BEFORE
Don‟t check your answers …………………. all the questions.
4. I‟m going to her party next week but I won‟t see her before then.
UNTIL
I …………………………………….. to go to her party next week.
5. I made sure she wasn‟t badly injured and then I called a doctor.
AFTER
I called a doctor ……………… she wasn‟t badly injured.
6. I‟m going to think about this carefully and then give an opinion.
BEFORE
I won‟t give an opinion ……………………… about this carefully.
7. I‟m going to save enough money and then I‟ll be able to have a holiday.
UNTIL
I won‟t be able to have a holiday ……………….. enough money.
8. He said that he had worked extremely hard and he hoped he would be successful.
AFTER
He said that ………………………………, he hoped that he would be successful.
9. She spoke to me and then I found out that she had an accent.
UNTIL
I didn‟t find out that she had she had …………………… to me.
10. The train was still moving when she opened the door.
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BEFORE
He opened the door ………………. moving.
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Unit 5: TREE SIZE AND TYPE CLASSIFICATION

I. Reading text
Tree age and size can be described in a general and approximate way by use of such
words as seedling, sapling, pole-size, mature, and veteran. A stand of trees can be even-aged
or all-aged.
A forest made up
principally of one species is a pure
stand, while one composed of
several species is a mixed stand.
Trees are also classified by the
positions of their crowns relative
to the general level of the forest
canopy, the covering created by
the crowns interweaving each
other.
Dominant: A tree having a

well-developed crown that
extends above the general level of
the other crowns and is exposed to
full light from above and partial
light from the sides.
Co-dominant: A tree with

smaller crown than the dominants
that helps form the general level
of the canopy and receives full
light from above but limited
amount from the sides.
Intermediate: A small-crowned tree crowded into the general level of the forest
canopy, receiving some light from above and virtually none from the sides.
Suppressed: A tree with poorly developed crown, beneath the level of the canopy
(overtopped), receiving very little light from above or the sides.
Foresters refer to a measure of the number and size of trees in a given area as stand
density. It indicates whether the forest is under stocked, medium stocked, or well stocked. For
example, if the canopy of a tract of timber is closed over as much as 40 to 70 percent, it is
medium- stocked.
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II/ Comprehension questions : True or false?

a. A pure stand is made up of different species.
b. Trees can not be classified by the positions of their crowns.
c. In a forest, each crown of each tree stays away from each other.
d. A dominant tree receives some light from the sides.
e. A co-dominant tree gets no sunlight from the sides.
f. A suppressed tree receives no light at all.
g. An intermediate tree does not have any light from the sides.
h. Stand density is the number and sizes of trees in a given area.
i. Basing on the crowns of trees that are relative to the general level of the forest canopy, trees
can be classified into four types.
j. If the canopy of a tract of timber is closed as much as 55%, it is medium-stocked.
III. Vocabulary
1. Look at paragraph 1 again. Which words have the same meaning as:
A. newly born tree
B. trunk
2. Look at paragraph 2 again. Which words correspond to the definitions?
A. unique
B. a forest of different species
C. mixing with each other
3. Look at paragraph 3, 4 and 5. Can you find the synonym of the following words?
A. face to the sun
B. layer of forest
C. actually
D. not any
4. Find out an appropriate word in the text to fill the blank:
a. How many…………does your nursery produce per year? (paragraph 1 )
b. I think these pines are…………….enough to be cut. (paragraph 1)
c. This stand is……….…….because it is made up principally one species. (paragraph 2)
d. This……………of pine grows very fast. (paragraph 2)
e. He has been a…………..….for twenty years. (paragraph 7)
f. The roots of this tree have………………….over a lot of land. (paragraph 3)
g. Dominant trees receive full……..…….from the sun. (paragraph 3)
h. Biomass production is affected by stand…………………. . (paragraph 7)
i. The economic…………………of Japan is admirable. (paragraph 7)
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j. A given area of trees, which is consisted of species is called a……..……… . (paragraph 7)
B. GRAMMAR The form of Definition

Definitions often take one of the following forms:
1. [ A] is / are, may be defined as [ B ] which [ C ]
E.g. A soil profile [ A ] is defined as a succession of soil horizons [ B ] which extends from
the surface of the soil to the parent rock.
2. [ B ] which [ C ] is / are called, is / are known as [ A ]
E.g. A succession of soil horizons [ B ] which extends from the surface of the soil to the
parent rock [ C ] is called a soil profile.
A B C
1. Photosynthesis The process Transforms light energy
from the sun into chemical
energy
2. A soil profile A succession of soil Extends from the surface

horizons of the soil to the parent
rock
3. Aerobic bacteria Organisms Can live in the presence of

air
4. Osmosis Biophysical process Take place through the

tissues of living plants
5. A leaf Complex structure Utilizes energy from the

sun in the manufacture of
food
6. Chloroplasts Bodies Absorb sunlight and

manufacture food
7. Stomata of plants Minute openings on the Lead to the interior of the

surface of a leaf leaf and the chloroplasts
28
8. Chlorophyll The chemical Enable sunlight to convert

carbon dioxide into food
and other substances
Definition of Terms: Combine the items in Column A with the ones in column B to make
the correct definition of each term. You will need to add some necessary words (articles,
pronouns and adjectives, forms of the verb “be”) where appropriate.
Forest Ecologically complex unit-community of trees and

undergrowth spreading, sometimes, over really enormous
areas.
Stand Collection of trees which are more or less uniform (i.e.

more or less the same) in species, age distribution etc.
Type Rather like a stand but more extensive- group of similar

stands defined by the species composition
Site class Physical factors which affect the productivity of the

trees, concerning the thing like the soil, the slope and
exposure (wind, rain)
Size of tree Height of tree and diameter.
Diameter of tree Measured at one point three five metres from the surface
of the soil.
Cm dbh Measurements used for the diameter of trees (dbh:

diameter at breast height)
29
UNIT 6: THE ANATOMY OF A TREE (Part 1)
I. READING & COMPREHENSION

A. Reading text
Tree are woody plants that have roots well anchored in the ground and that, for the most
part, grow upright. The main stem is called a bole or trunk. The bole supports branches and
leaves, refered to as the crown, and transports minerals and water from the soil.
Trees usually start from seeds. The evergreens, for example pines, have cones from
which naked, nutlike winged seeds fall. The cottonwood and other poplars have very tiny
seeds with fine silky hairs that become airborne and often land many miles from the parent
tree. Birds and mammals may transport seeds great distances, carrying such fuits as pits from
cherries, beans from the locust; nut like the soft-shelled acorns, fleshy, winged seeds of
maples, and hard-shelled hickory nuts and walnuts. These carriers plus the winds and
floodwaters help account for the widespread distribution of most species.
The tiny, frail seedlings push up from the ground‟s surface and often are attacked by
animals and birds that pick at them for food. Hardwood seedlings require about 3 or 4 weeks
to become miniature trees. Trees may also regenerate by sprouting from roots or from
stumps. Another type of tree propagation is layering, the rooting of an undetached branch
lying on or partially buried in the soil. Such a branch is capable od independent growth, and
eventually is separated from the original plant.
The underground part of a forest is made up of the roots of trees, shrubs, and
herbaceous plants, those having little or no woody tissue and usually singled-seasoned. Roots
of trees are seldom dug up except where land is being reclaimed for agricultural or
construction purposes, where the roots are to be used for medical or artistic purposes, or
where, especially in the southeastern United States, residual stumps and taproots of old-
growth longleaf and slash pines are used to make turpentine, rosin, and various pine oils.
The root system of a tree may consist of four parts: (1) a tap root, which when present
anchors the tree firmly in the ground and supplies the main support for the tree; (2) lateral
roots, which usually extand beyond the crown spread and help keep the tree in an upright
position; (3) fibrous roots, a mass of fine roots most found in the upper soil; and (4) thin-
walled root hairs, which grow from the smaller fibrous roots and aborbs water and minerals.
They may live only a few days.
Because roots hairs die off after a few days, trees are always growing new ones to reach
more soil. Many trees also depend upon mycorrhizae, a fungus which grows on or within
roots that acts in the same manner as the root hairs. Mycorrhizae form a sheath around the
roots, enabling fingerlike mycelia to grow and extend into the soil, thus allowing the tree to
absorb moisture and mineral food.
30
II. Comprehension questions

1. What is the main stem of a tree called?
2. What part of a tree transports minerals and water from the soil?
3. What do trees start from?
4. What are the seeds of cotton wood like?
5. At maturity, where do seeds of cotton wood fall?
6. What cause the wide spread distribution of most species?
7. How long does it take a seedling to become a miniature?
8. How many parts does the root system of a tree consist of?
9. What is the function of each kind of root?
III. Vocabulary
1.Find the word in the text that means
a. one b. grow
c. vertically d. small
e. bare f. bare
g. to be named as h. trees that have just started from the seed
i. carry k. reach
2. Guess the meaning of the following words
a. single-stemmed b. wide-spread
c. bole d. separated from
e. tiny f. single-seasonal
g. parent tree h. tap-root
i. mannual k. finger like
3. Checking your understanding
1. The seeds of cotton woods and other poplars are often ……………..
a. round b. small & light
c. black d. short
2. Generally, the seeds of cotton woods fall:
a. just under the tree b. far away from parent tree
c. on the mountain d. on the ground 100 miles away
3. The widespread distribution of most species is caused by ……………..
a. the pigeons b. the rain
c. birds, mamals, flood-water, & winds d. the monkeys
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4. Seedlings are often damaged by the feeding of:

a. people b. animals & birds
c. carnivores d. forest fires
5. It takes hardwood seedling ………………. to become miniature tree.
a. 2 months b. 2 weeks
c. one week d. 21 or 28 days
6. A tree can be developed from …………………….
a. a sprout growing from a root or a stump b. a flower
c. a branch layered in the soil d. a leaf
7. When a tree is cut, the stump is often ………………… .
a. burnt b. dug up
c. used to produce another tree d. left as it is
8. A tree usually has ……………………
a. one tap-root b. two tap-roots
c. some tap –roots d. several tap-roots
9. Fibrous roots of a tree are often found:
a. on the ground surface b. in the upper soil
c. in the lower soil d. None are correct
10. The longevity of root hair is :
a. short b. very short
c. long d. very long
B. GRAMMAR Active or Passive Voice

Form: We form passive verbs with the different tenses of be (e.g is, was, is being, have been)
+ past participle
Present Simple am/is/are + past participle

The office is locked every evening.
Present Continuous am/is/are +being + past participle
The house is painted at the moment.
Past Simple were/was + past participle
My car was stolen last night.
Past Continuous were/was + being + past participle
The bridge was being repaired last week.
Present Perfect Simple have/has + been + past participle
Sarah has been invited to the party.
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Past Perfect Simple had + been + past participle

I thought that you had been told the news.
Use:
- We often use the passive when we do not know who or what does something.
My car was stolen last night. (I do not know who stole the car)
- We also use the passive when we are not interested in who or what does something.
The factory was painted during the war.
Sarah has been invited to the party.
In these sentences we are interested in the factory and Sarah, not who painted the factory, or
who invited Sarah.
Exercises1: Contrasting Active Sentences and Passive sentences
Complete the sentences using a verb from the box. If a sentence requires a passive form,
change the verb to the passive. Change active verbs to the simple past when necessary.
Some of the verbs may be used more than once.
bring / choose / destroy / sing / fall / kill / watch / play
1. During World War II, many buildings in London were destroyed by bombs.
2. The world‟s best athletes .......... together every four years at the Olympic Games.
3. The International Olympic Committee ................. Athens as the site of the 2004 games.
4. Do you ever wonder how a city ...............as the site for the Olympics?
5. Natural disasters .................. thousands of people every year.
6. The Berlin Wall ............. on November 9, 1989.
7. The important event .................by people all over the world.
8. People all over the world ............ the moon landing on July16, 1969.
9. How many of us witnessed the explosion of the Challenger shuttle on January 28, 1986,
when everyone on board ................?
10. The Internet ................... together computer users all over the world.
11. The world Cup ................. by hundreds of millions of people all over the world.
12. Over 5,000 people ................ during the earthquake in Kobe, Japan in January, 1995.
13. Judy Garland ................. “Somewhere Over the Rainbow” in the musical film, “The
Wizard of Oz.”
14. The famous jazz musicians John Coltrane and Miles Davis ............... together for several
years.
15. Every time Frank Sinatra song ............ on the radio, my mother cries.
16. “Happy Birthday” ................ on a person‟s birthday.
33
Exercises2: Change the following sentences into passive or active voice

a. During our country‟s development, people cleared large areas of forests from the water-
shed of rivers.
b. Rainfall removes dust from the atmosphere.
c. Shelterbelts protect agricultural fields from winds and snowdrifts, speed of air movement.
d. After the United States were established, laws with penalties were passed by several states
to prevent thoughtless waste of the forest.
e. In very early pioneer days, trees were cut down with no thought of replacing them.
34
UNIT 7: THE ANATOMY OF A TREE (Part 2)
I. READING & COMPREHENSION

A. Reading text
If you cut through a tree, across the bole or a branch, you may see light-and dark-
coloured rings. The light rings are produced from fast growth in the spring and the dark ones
from slow growth in the summer. These serve to reveal the age of the tree, since a light and
dark ring together constitute a year‟s growth. To determine the age, one may count either light
or dark rings. It is easier to count the dark ones because they are more conspicuous.
A tree increases its diameter by producing new cells just under the bark.Growth takes
place just beneath the bark. Rings that are one or more year old keep the same size they had
when they were produced. It follows that what goes on just below the back is vitally
important. The often dark- coloured interior wood near the tree‟s center is called heartwood
and is no longer living.
The outer part of a tree trunk, that outside the most recent annual ring, is made up of
four sections of layers, as follows: the outer bark, which protects the tree from radical changes
in temperature, injuries, diseases, insects, and drying; the inner bark, called phloem, which
translocates sugars made in the leaves to the branches, trunk, and roots, where it is converted
into vital growth substances; the cambium, a layer of cell where the growth that produces the
annual ring and the phloem take place; and the sapwood, called xylem, which transports a
mixture of mineral nutrients, water, and other substances called sap to the leaves.
The cambium increases the size of the trunk by making a layer of new wood each year.
Its outer cells form phloem, while its inner cells form xylem, which is wood. Bark is produced
by special cambial cells and by old non-living phloem cells. Xylem cells made in the spring
are large and thin walled; those made in the summer are smaller, thick walled, and darker in
colour. As indicated previously, spring and summer growth taken together made an annual
ring. The heartwood, the major function of which is mechanical gives strengh and stiffness to
the tree trunk.

1. What may we see if we cut across the stem of a tree?
2. When are the light rings made?
3. When are the dark rings produced?
4. What constitutes a year‟s growth?
5. How can we determine the age of a tree?
6. Which ring is easily counted? Why?
7. How does a tree increase its diameter?
8. Where does the growth take place?
35
9. Which rings keep the same size?

10. Which wood is called heartwood? What is the major function of the heartwood?
11. How many layers does the outer part of a tree consist of?
12. What is the function of each layer?
III. Vocabulary
1. Guess the meaning of the following words and combination of words.
a. reveal b. produces
c. constitute d. outer bark
e. conspicious f. inner-bark
g. heart-wood h. drying
i. determine k. translocates
2. Find out the appropriate word in the text to fill the blank
1. I think his action have …………….. his point of view clearly.
2. How wide is the ……… of the tree.
3. The …………. of this log has been decayed.
4. The annual ……… can be used to determine the age of a tree.
5. As a matter of fact , the trunk of a tree is made from different ……….. of wood.
6. The …………. makes the trunk bigger and bigger by producing new wood each year.
7. The …………… of this tree is very sticky.
8. Water is the …………. of hydrogen and oxygen.
9. Plants grow fast in Spring and …………… .
10.Those houses have got the same ……………….
3.Checking your understanding

1.The light rings are born in .................
a. Summer b. Winter
c. Spring d. Autumn
2. A year‟s growth is made of ......................
a. two light rings b. two dark rings
c. one light ring, and one dark ring d. one light ring, and two dark rings
3. The age of a tree can be discovered by ....................... .
a. the number of light rings b. the number of dark rings
c. the size of the tree d. the total of light and dark rings
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4. Rings at the age of one or more ................... .

a. are changed by the time b. unchanged
c. become bigger year after year d. are red
5. The outer part of a tree bole consist of
a. 2 layers b. 3 layers
c. 4 layers d. 6 layers
6. The annual rings are born in the ........................ .
a. phloem layer b. cambium layer
c. xylum layer d. outer bark
7. The tree trunk is given strengh and stiffness from ....................... .
a. the tap root b. the lateral roots
c. the root system d. the heart-wood
8. The heart-wood is often :
a. lighter coloured b. black
c. dark- coloured d. light- blue
9. Xylem cells made in the Spring are ............... than those made in Summer
a. smaller b. larger
c. longer d. shorter
B. GRAMMAR
RELATIVE CLAUSES
Introduction
A relative clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adjective; that is, it modifies a
noun or pronoun. For this reason, relative clauses are also called adjective clauses.
The first American thanksgiving feast, which took place in 1621, lasted three days.
Everyone who studied for the exam passed it easily.
In the first sentence, the dependent clause which took place in 1621 is a relative clause that
modifies the noun phrase the first American thanksgiving feast. This noun phrase is the
antecedent of the relative clause.
What is the relative clause in the second sentence? What is the antecedent? Is the antecedent a
noun or a pronoun?
Relative Pronouns and Adverbs
A Relative clause begins with a relative pronoun or relative adverb.
Pronouns who, whom, whose, that refer to humans

which, that, whose refer to nonhumans and things
Adverbs when, where refer to a time or a place
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Position of Relative clauses

Place a relative clause after its antecedent and as close to it as possible to avoid confusion.
Confusing: He left the gift in his friends‟car that he had just bought.
Corrected: He left the gift that he had just bought in his friends‟s car.
Occasionally, a prepositional phrase comes between the antecedent and the relative clause.
Manuel was visited by a friend from San Juan who was touring the country.
Try writing a sentence of your own that contains a relative clause.
Verb agreement in Relative Clauses
The verb in a relative clause should agree in number with its antecedent.
Compare:
A person who works part-time usually receives no benefits.
(The verb works is singular to agree with the singular antecedent person.)
People who work part-time usually receive no benefits.
(The verb work is plural to agree with the plural antecedent people)
Exercises1: Underline the relative clause or clauses in each sentence. (Some sentence
have two)
1. The sun which in forty minutes can produce enough solar energy to meet humankind‟
needs for a year is one of Earth‟s potential sources of power.
2. According to an article that appeared in Time Magazine we are at the beginning of a
medical computer revolution.
3. A medical computer is a machine that analyzes the results of laboratory tsets and
electrocardiograms.
4. Laser beams which are useful in both medicine and industy were first predicted in science
fiction stories seventy-five years ago.
5. Physians who feed patient symtoms into the computer receive a list of diseases that fit the
symtoms of their patient.
6. The country that has the highest per capita (per person) income is not the United States
which is in third place.
7. Kuwait which is a small country in the Middle East is in first place.
8. It was a thrillinf experience to meet the author of the book that we had been reading all
semester.
9. The public is highly critical of the tobacco industry whose profits have been increasing in
spite of the health risks of smoking.
10. Carbohydrates which are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are organic
compounds.
38
UNIT 8 : TREES ARE CHEMICAL MACHINES (Part 1)

I. Reading text
A tree uses solar energy to manufacture wood fiber. Nature supplies the tree with
carbon dioxide from the air, nutrients and water from the ground, and light energy from the
sun, and the tree, a remarkable factory, combines them. It captures a lot of energy as it grows
and stores it.
The four most essential factors in tree are water (the chemical elements hydrogen and
oxygen combined as H[2]O molecules); nutrients (elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus,
sulfur, potassium, iron, manganese, zinc, boron, calcium, magnesium, and molybdenum);
foods ( such as glucose, a form of sugar consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
combined as C[6]H[12]O[6] molecules); and light (from the sun or an artificial source).
Photosynthesis is the process of producing glucose, a plant food, from water and
carbon dioxide by the use of light energy, with gaseous oxygen as a by-product. The glucose
is energy-rich. The following chemical equation represents the process of photosynthesis in
simplified form:
Energy + 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2 
Note that this equation is “balanced” as each side has the same number of C, O, and H
atoms; atoms are neither made nor destroyed, they are simply put into new combinations. The
equation says that one molecule of glucose and six of oxygen in gaseous form are made from
six molecules of carbon dioxide an six of water.
Photosynthesis takes place in the tree leaves. They contain small food-producing bodies
called chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll, a substance that gives green color to the
leaves. Sunlight enters through the leaf‟s surface and CO2 enters through millions of minute
openings in the leaf called stomata . Water and nutrients reach the chlorophyll via the xylem.
The stomata usually are open in the presence of sunlight and are closed during darkness.
When oxygen is being generated, it leaves through the stomata and enters the atmosphere.
The glucose created by photosynthesis is a plant food. For it to be used as a food, some
of its molecules must be broken down in the process called respiration, promoted by
appropriate enzymes. The basic chemical equation for respiration is:
C6H12O6 + 6O2  6H2O + 6 CO2  + energy

39
Each molecule of glucose is combined with six of oxygen taken from the air in the
leaves. This process produces six molecules of water, six of carbon dioxide, and released
energy. The carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere. The sum of the processes of building up
and breaking down substances containing carbon is called metabolism.
A small part of the released energy appears as heat, which very slightly warms the leaf,
but most of it is used chemically to produce or enlarge growth cells, arriving at the cells via
the cambium layer. The fibrous substance produced, composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, called cellulose, is high in energy content but has a molecular composition different
from that of glucose; it makes up about 60 percent of the tree.
Water is a necessity if a tree is to grow and thrive. It dissolves soil minerals and
transports them to the leaves as nutrients. It is a source of hydrogen in photosynthesis. Water
is also necessary to build up the growing cells and thus make the tree rigid. Oxygen in the soil
is also of strategic importance to support respiratory metabolism in the tree rot. Where the
concentration of oxygen is too low, such as in nonporous soils or in areas where the soil is
waterlogged, or beneath city pavement plant growth ceases and death may occur. However,
some plants common to waterlogged swamp soils have evolved structures that are believed to
acquire oxygen directly from the atmosphere. For example, the root
Projections of cypress trees, commonly referred to as “knees”, extend above the water,
perhaps making gas exchange with the atmosphere possible.

1. What does a tree use to produce wood?
2. Is a tree a chemical machine? Why?
3. How many factors play important roles in the life of a tree?
4. What are they?
5. What is photosynthesis and what is the result of this process?
6. What are the characteristics of glucose?
7. Where does photosynthesis take place?
8. What gives the green color to the leaves?
9. How does sunlight enter through the leaves?
10. How do water and nutrients reach the chloroplast?
11. When are the stomata open and closed?
12. Which promote respiration?
13. What is the basic chemical equation for respiration?
14. What is the basic chemical equation for photosynthesis?
15. What are the metabolism?
16. What is cellulose composed of?
40
17. Why is water important for the trees to grow and thrive?
18. Why is oxygen in the soil also important for a tree?
19. What may occur to a tree if it grows in the place where the concentration of oxygen is too
low?
20. What is called respiration?
III. Vocabulary
1. Find out the word that means:
a. sun b. goes into
c. full of energy d. through
e. destructed f. main
g. very small holes h. provide
i. make larger k. density
2. Find as many words as possible that have relations with the following words:
a. created b. chemical
c. essential d. presence
e. necessity f. darkness
g. combines h. generated
i. discussed k. composed
B. GRAMMAR
1. Defining or Non-Defining Relative Clauses
Look at these:
+ The water which can be taken up by the plant roots is called the available water.
+ The amount of water which is then retained by the soil is called the field capacity.
+ The clauses in italics define the kind of water: they are defining relative clauses.
+ The pore space, which may be filled with air or water or bot, is a network of spaces or
channels.
+ Nitrogenous fertilizers, which have nitrogen as the main food element, strengthen plant
tissues.
The clauses in italics gives us additional information about the pore space and
fertilizer. They are non-defining relative clauses. They are separated from the rest of the
sentences by commas.
41
Use the relative clauses to combine each pair of sentences into a single sentence. In
each case say whether the relative clause is defining or non-defining:
1. The amount of water depends on a number of factors. The amount of water is required for
irrigation.
2. Soil texture is the characteristic of soil. Soil texture determined by the amount of silt, sand
and organic matter.
3. The top soil or the surface soil is a layer about 4-45cm deep. Most of the plant roots are
found in the topsoil.
4. A leguminous crop will add as much nitrogen to the soil per acre as 3 to 10 tons of
farmyard manure. A leguminous crop is plough under.
5. Banana is a starchy staple in many tropical regions of the world. This material is usually
made up leaves or grass cutting.
6. A compost is a mixture of partly broken down material. This material is usually made up
leaves or grass cutting.
7. Organic matter is broken down most rapidly in warm, moist soils. The soils are well limed
and well aerated.
8. The amount of humus formed is greatest from plants. Plants have a lot of strengthening
(lignified) tissues (e.g. straw)
9. Fungi attack the aerial parts of the crop, the leaves, stems ect. Fungi can be controlled by
means of chemical substances. These chemical substances are known as fungicides.
10. Fertilizers or manure is required for rice cultivation. The quantity of fertilizer or manure
depends on the fertility of the soil and the nutrients. The nutrients are released from the rooted
weeds and stubble. The weeds and stubble are ploughed in during cultivation.
2. Short-Form Relative Clauses

Relative clauses often appear in a shortened form. The relative pronoun and the form of
verb to be can be omitted and with, the -ing form of the verb, past participle, adjective or noun
may be used instead.
Example:
+ Rice varieties with short erect leaves response well to high level of fertilizer.
+ Rice varieties having short erect leaves response well to high level of fertilizer.
Rewrite the following sentences using the short form of relative clauses:
1. Soil texture is the characteristic of soil. Soil texture determined by the amount of silt, sand,
clay and organic matter.
2. The topsoil or the surface soil is a layer about 8-45 cm deep. Most of the plant roots are
found in the topsoil.
3. A leguminous crop will add as much nitrogen to the soil per acre as to 3 to 10 tons of
farmyard manure. A leguminous crop is plough under.
4. Banana is a starchy staple in many tropical regions of the world. Banana is usually
considered a fruit in the United States. made up leaves or grass cutting.
42
5. A compost is a mixture of partly broken down material. This material is usually made up
leaves or grass cutting.
6. Organic matter is broken down most rapidly in warm, moist soil. The soils are well limed
and well aerated.
7. The amount of humus formed is greatest from plants. Plants have a lot of strengthening
(lignified) tissues (e.g. straw)
8. Fungi attack the aerial parts of the crop, the leaves, stems ect. Fungi can be controlled by
means of chemical substances. These chemical substances are known as fungicides.
9. Fertilizer or manure depends on the fertility of the soil and the nutrients. The nutrients are
released from the rooted weeds and stubble. The weeds and stubble are ploughed in during
cultivation.
3. ComprenhensiveCheck
1. Cellulose accounts for…………
a. 60% of a tree.
b. 66% of a tree.
c. 16% of a tree.
d. 61% of a tree.
2……….play important roles in the life of a tree.
a. two factors
b. three factors
c. six factors
d. our factors
3. The product of photosynthesis is
a. nutrients
b. cellulose
c. glucose
d. water
4.………are released from the process of photosynthesis
a. four molecules of oxygen
b. five molecules of oxygen
c. several molecules of oxygen
d. six molecules of oxygen
5. The stomata usually are open……….
a. during the night.
b. in the afternoon.
c. at noon.
d. during the day.
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6. Photosynthesis happens…………..
a. in the trunk.
b. in the root.
c. in the leaves.
d. in the bark.
7.…………….molecules of the glucose created by photosynthesis are broken down, the
process is called respiration.
a. all of
b. half of
c. 30%
d. some of the
8. The stomata are closed……………… .
a. in the morning.
b. at night.
c. from the sunset to the dawn.
d. at 2 p.m.
UNIT 9 : TREES ARE CHEMICAL MACHINES (Part 2)

44

I. Reading text
Respiration takes place 24 hours a day, whereas photosynthesis needs sunlight and
ceases during the night. However, photosynthesis proceeds at about ten times the rate of
respiration. This cycle, results in several net effects: (1) All the carbon atoms that enter the
photosynthesis reaction go into glucose, but not all of the oxygen atoms are emitted (as a gas)
by the tree during daylight; (2) at all times, carbon dioxide is emitted into the atmosphere
from respiration; (3) in the daytime, the oxygen emission resulting form photosynthesis
greatly outclasses the carbon dioxide emission form respiration. The concentration of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere of the earth stays at about 0.03 percent, while oxygen, maintained
by the combined effect of all the green plants of the earth and sea, comprises nearly 20
percent of the atmosphere.
In relatively recent years the word biomass was adopted as a name or label for
“substance, weighable material, that exists as a result of biological production and growth
from more primary materials”, or, more narrowly, the material substance produced in a forest.
Thus, in forestry, biomass can be thought of as “accumulated and stored energy in the form of
organic material”. It follows that in many more intensive forms of commercial forestry the
objective is to produce biomass as quickly as possible, at the least cost, per unit biomass
produced on the least possible land area. This is particularly true in pulpwood or energywood
(firewood) production, but not necessarily in the production of lumber, poles, piling, veneer,
and the like.
Biomass production per year per acre is a function of many factors. Obviously, it must
depend upon the availability of moisture, sunlight, and nutrients in the soil. It will also depend
upon the tree species and their spacing and age. As trees grow, the root system enlarges, and
this can result in more rapid uptake of minerals and water. Enlargement of the forest canopy
can alter the environment near the ground and the microclimate. It follows that modern
research in forest biomass production is far from simple and requires much technology and
many measurements.
The organized living tissue of a tree, called protoplasm, contains from 75 to 90 percent
water. Soft fruits such as peaches and apples are 85 percent water. Water percent in a tree is
released as vapor through the stomata of the leaves; this process is called transpiration.
During this water loss the leaves open their stomata and at the same time admit carbon
dioxide. The more transpiration that takes place, the greater is the need for water in the soil
around the tree roots.
Many interesting theories about the mechanism of transpiration have been offered, but
none has been scientifically accepted as the method by which water is raised from the roots
and up the trunk to the leaves. A popular theory is based upon molecular cohesion and the
action of pulling on the end of a chain, in which each link pulls upon the one next to it.
Similarly, the water molecules leaving the stomata are thought to pull upon those below them,
with the stress extending through the water molecules in the roots and soil.
45
Hot summer days produce a greater amount of transpiration because dry summer winds
speed up the transpiration process, making the tree thirsty, so to speak. If the amount of water
transpired is greater than available from the soil, the cells around the stomata, called guard
cells, become soft and the stomata close. This cause the intake of carbon dioxide to stop,
photosynthesis ceases, and the tree stops growing. While the movement of water in trees is
mainly upward form roots to leaves, there is some conduction of water and sap radially
outward in the trunk.

1. How long does the respiration take place a day?
2. When does photosynthesis work?
3. Does photosynthesis proceed more quickly or less slowly than respiration?
4. What does the word “cycle” in this text mean?
5. How many effect does this cycle result in?
6. How much is the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the earth?
7. What is biomass in general and in forestry?
8. How many factors affect biomass production?
9. What are the factors?
10. What is protoplasm?
11. How much water is there in the protoplasm?
12. What is transpiration?
13. Are there any theories about mechanism of transpiration?
14. What is the popular theory?
15. Why does transpiration take place quickly in hot summer days?
16. When do stomata close?
III. Vocabulary
1. Find out the word or combination of words that means:
a. happen b. to receive
c. stops d. worked out
e. to be put forward f. taken up
g. can be weighed h. based on
i. each j. quickly
2. Find out as many words as possible that have relations with the following words:
a. respiration b. combined
c. reaction d. obviously
46
e. emitted f. enlargement
g. concentration h. measurement
i. similarly j. scientifically
B. GRAMMAR
Comparative Sentences
E.g. a) Particles of fine sand are coaser than particles of clay.
= Particles of clay are not as coarse as particles of fine sand.
b) Transported soils are more common than sedentary soil in humid regions.
= Sedentary soils are less common than transported soils in humid regions.
Exercise 1 : Complete these sentences. Use the comparative of the words in parentheses
(……) + than
1. Sorry I‟m late. It took me ……………. to get here ……… I expected. ( longer )
2. My tootache is …………………. it was yesterday. ( painful )
3. She looks about 20, but in fact she‟s much ………….. she looks. ( old )
4. The problem is not so complicated. It‟s ……………. you think.
5. Your English has improved. You speak a lot ………… you did when we were last met ( fluently )
6. Health and happiness are ……………. money. ( important )
7.We always go camping when we go on vacation. It‟s much …………….. staying in a hotel.
(cheap )
8. I like the country. It‟s …………and ………living in the city. ( healthy / peaceful )
Exercise 2: Write sentences with the ….. the. Choose a half sentence from box A to go with a
half from box B
the ealier we leave the faster you‟ll learn

the longer he waited the more you have to pay
the more I got to know him the sooner we‟ll arrive
the more you practice your English the more profit you‟ll make
the longer the telephone call the more impatient he became
the more goods you sell the more I like him
Exercise 3: Checking your understanding:

1.Respiration occurs…………………….. .
a.12 hours a day
47
b. all day and night

c. at night
d. during the day
2. Photosynthesis takes place……………… .
a. during the day
b. in the afternoon
c. during the night
d. in the morning
3. Photosynthesis happens…………………… .
a. less slowly than respiration
b. more quickly than respiration
c. as quickly as respiration
d. more quickly than respiration by ten times
4. Protoplasm contains………………………. .
a. 100% of water
b. 60% of water
c. 75% to 90% of water
d. 95% of water
5. As matter of fact, there are……………….. .
a. two theories about mechanism of transpiration
b. three theories about mechanism of transpiration
c. some theories about mechanism of transpiration
d. many theories about mechanism of transpiration
6. In the atmosphere, carbon dioxide accounts for…………… .
a.3%
b. 33%
c. 0,33%
d. 13%
7. Modern research in forest biomass production is……………. .
a. complex
b. simple
c. time-consuming
d. important
8. During the day trees breathe in……………… .
a. oxygen
48
b. carbon
c. hydrogen
d. carbon dioxide
9. The word “biomass” was invented……………… .
a. long long ago
b. 10 years ago
c. some years ago
d. in 1917
10. Biomass production is influenced by……………… .
a. two factors
b. only water
c. only soil
Exercise 4: Use the following verbs in the correct form to complete the paragraph below
Carry be help perforate carry be not lignify usually find

form thicken make know
The movement of materials through the plant ........... as translocation. The xylem or
wood vessels which ........ the water or mineral salts from the root to the leaves .......... tube.
These tubes ......... from dead cells. The cross walls of the cell have disappeared and the
longitudinal walls ............. with lignum. These ............. wood. The tubes ......... to strenghthen
the stem. The phloem tubes ............ organic material through the plant. These vessels
.............. chains of living cells which ............... . They have cross walls which ........... - hence
the alternative name, sieve tubes. In the stem the xylem and phloem tubes ......... in a ring near
the outside of the stem.
49
UNIT 10 : TREE DISEASES

I. Reading text
Trees, like people, are vulnerable to many
diseases. Like people, trees are attacked in various
places by different kinds of diseases. Forest
pathology is the study of diseases of trees. Some foes
work on the main body trunk, some on the roots, and
some on the leaves. Vigorous trees are attacked less
by diseases. The older, weak trees or young seedlings
that are struggling to become established trees are the
most susceptible. If a forest is managed correctly,
seldom will disease be serious enough to require overt
control. Well-managed forests are healthy and
comparatively devoid of disease.
Tree diseases are of two main types:

nonparasitic and parastitic, often called environmental
and organic. The nonparasitic diseases are caused by
drought, sunscald, winter injury as from heavy ice
storm and snow, improper nutrition of the trees, air
pollution by smoke and gases, flooding, and soil
pollution. The salt laid on the highways during winter months pollutes the nearby soil and in
some instances kills trees. Ocean spray, which feels so good on one‟s face, is a prime cause of
disease in the coastal area. This sea spray can be blown inland by hurricanes and result in tree
damage far from the coast.
The parasitic diseases are caused by organisms that live within various parts of
nutrients from it while contributing nothing to the well-being of the tree. There are five
groups of such organisms: viruses, bacteria, nematodes, mistletoes, and fungi.
Viruses cause minor gall, a condition known as witches-broom, and the serious phloem
necrosis in elms and locusts. A number of bacteria that are involved in many serious diseases
of agricultural plants are of little importance in forest trees. Nematodes, a group of parasitic
worms, can be a problem for tree seedlings. Mistletoes, parasitic seed-bearing plants, are
widespread and cause serious damage, the dwarf mistletoes of the West in particular. The
most important cause of tree disease are the parasitic fungi. Saprophytic fungi decay dead tree
and are important in the recycling of nutrients within the forest ecosystem. The parasitic fungi
attack living trees and are serious problems in all forest regions. Considerably more timber is
lost annually to fungal disease than is lost to fire.
The life cycle of a typical fungus consists of two basic stages, the vegetative and the
reproductive. The vegetative stage begins with the germination of a spore, the fugal
equivalent of a seed. Out of the spore growns a microscopically fine hollow filament called a
50
hypha, which penetrates into wood or foliage and grows very rapidly, branching and
rebranching to produce a gossamer, interwoven network known as a mycelium. These
mycelia dissolve the tree‟s cell walls and convert them and the contents of the cell into food.
The second stage is the reproductive stage in which hyphae grow to the surface and produce
fruiting bodies, which split and release spores to be carried away by the wind. The form,
texture, colour, and location of these fruiting bodies are how most fungi are recognized.
Familiar examples are mushrooms and conks.
For convenience the fungal diseases can be sorted into three large groups: the
foliage diseases, the stem diseases, and the rotting diseases. Although widespread and of
great importance in horticulture, foliage diseases are problems in forest trees only in that they
can reduce the rate of growth of the infected trees.
Stem diseases can in turn be broken into three groups, the cankers, the rusts, and the
wilts. Among these are the epidemic diseases, which can result in rapid and widesread loss of
forest trees.
The chestnut blight is an example of a stem canker diseases. The American chesnut
once was one of the most important and useful eastern trees. Very widespread, it often
accounted for as much as one half of the trees in many forest stands. The fungus was
introduced into New York probably prior to 1900 on imported Chineses chestnuts, and the
native species had no resistance. The windblown spores from an infected tree could travel
great distances to enter tiny cracks or breaks in the bark of other chestnuts. The stem is killed
by girdling as the cambium is destroyed. By 1950 a living noninfected chestnut tree was a
rarity. Today the American chesnut is no longer a viable species. The potential threat of
similar epidemics of exotic disease to other native species is source of anxiety for many
foresters.
The Dutch elm disease is an example of the wilt disease. This fungus, probably native to
the Orient, was introduced into this country from Europe around 1930. The disease is spread
by the elm bark beetle, which upon emerging from an effected tree is covered with spores.
When the insect burrows under the bark of an uninfected tree, it is effectively inoculated. The
fungus grows rapidly within the vascular tissue of the elm, and death is caused by physical
blocking of the movement of moisture and nutrients to the foliage and perhaps by the
production of a poison that kiliis living cells. The spread of this disease has been rapid. Many
feel that the future of elms, particularly in the northern sates, is in jeopardy.
There are a number of serious ruts of fruit trees. White pine blister rust and the fusiform
rusts of the southern pines are the most important. These rusts have an unusual and complex
life cycle involving the infection of two widely different species of plants known as alternate
hosts and the production of more than one type of spore. The fungus moves from one host,
species A, to a second host, species B, and then back to species A again.
White pine blister rust, another disease introduced from Europe, is and extremely
destructive disease of eastern and western white pines and of sugar pine of California and
Oregan. Simply put, the disease is spread by the movement of spores from infected currant or
51
gooseberry bushes to the needles of the pines. The fungus moves from the needles into the
pholem and cambium of limbs and stem. The name is from the orange-yellow spore- filled
blisters formed on the bark. Whenever infection reaches the main stem the tree is doomed, for
destruction of pholem continues until the stem, no matter how large, is girdled. Infection can
be severe and often entire stands are killed.
The southern fusiform rust, which infects a number of the southern pines, has as its
alternate host any of the numerous red oak species of the region. While not as destructive as
the white pine blister rust, this disease is of increasing concern to forest managers. It is most
virulent on loblolly pine, which is being intensively managed with costly site preparation and
fertilization.
The rotting fungi, while they rarely cause death directly, are responsible for rendering
great volumes of wood worthless. There are two major types, the root-decaying fungi and the
heart-rotting fungi. The Fomes root rots typify the first category. Though they attack a variety
of species, they are most troublesome in eastern white pine and in plantations of the southern
pines. Working in the roots and butt of the tree, they weaken the tree, making it susceptible to
windthrow, and reduce its growth. The heart-rotting fungi destroy the nonliving heart wood of
the tree and, aside from leaving it mechanically weaker, do not otherwise influence its health
and vigor. The rotten wood of course valueless. Spores of the heart-rotting must enter through
breaks in the bark. Once they have germinated, the disease develops very slowly, and rot is
rarely a problem in young stands. In the oldgrowth conifer forests of the West, a 50 to 60
percent loss of volume to rot is not common.

1.What are trees vunerable to?
2. What does “ Forest pathology “ study?
3. What parts of a tree can be attacked by different diseases?
4. Which trees are the most susceptible to diseases?
5. What are the two main types of tree diseases?
6. What are the non-parasitic diseases caused by?
7. By how many agent are the parasitic diseases caused by?
8. How do organisms destroy the trees?
9. How are the organisms classified?
10. What does each type of organisms damage?
11. Which fungi are the most important cause of tree diseases?
12. What do parasitic fungi attack?
13. What are the two basis stages in the life cycle of typical fungus?
14. What are the characteristics of each stage?
15. What are the 3 large groups of the fungal diseases?
16. What are the 3 groups of stem diseases?
17. What is the life cycle of the rusts like?
52
18. How do these rusts regenerate and develop?

19. Which fungi make great volumes of wood worthless?
20. What are the two types of rooting fungi?
21. What do root-decaying fungi attack and cause?
22. What do heart- rotting fungi destroy?
23. How do spores of the heart-rotting fungi enter the heart wood?
III. Vocabulary
1. Find out the word that means
a. the science that studies forest tree diseases
b. can be attacked
c. strong
d. easily affected by ……
e. enters
f. without
g. taking place
h. single cell by which a fungus reproduces itself
i. all
j. main
3.Find out an appropriate word to fill the blank
a. These houses are ……. ………. to storm
b. Next term, we will study forest …………… .
c. The ………. diseases are caused by organisms.
d. ……….. often destruct seedlings.
e. ………. fungi help the recycling of nutrients within the forest ecosystem.
f. The vegetative stage of the life cycle of a typical fungus starts with the ………of a spore.
g. The rotting fungi ……… great volumes of wood worthless.
h. The pain in his leg has been …………. .
i. Due to over forest exploitation for export, several valuable tree speciea are in danger
of …………..
j. His speech ………… the thinking of the young generation.
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B. EXERCISE
1. Checking your understanding
1. As a matter of fact, there are ………….. tree diseases.
a. four b. some
c. a lot of d. six
2. …….. can be attacked by different kinds of diseases.
a. Only the trunk b. Only the leaves
c. Only the roots d. All the parts of a tree
3. Trees diseases fall in …………….. classes.
a. three b. two
c. four d. five
4. Organisms that cause the parasitic diseases are of …………. Types.
a. four b. two
c. three d. five
5. The lfe of a fungus undergoes …………. period.
a. four b. two
c. three d. five
6. …………. renderd great volumes of wood worthless.
a. The foliage fungi b. The stem fungi
c. The rotting fungi d. None are correct
7. Rooting fungi can be sorted in ……………. .
a. three major groups b. two major groups
c. four major groups d. five major groups
8. Heart-rotting fungi usually attack …………. .
a. young stands b. primitive forests
c. old stands d. pine stands
9. The most important cause of tree diseases are:
a. fungi & viruses b. bacteria & nematodes
c. misletoes d. All of these are correct
2. Reading text: Read the text carefully and answer the following questions
For hundreds of years people have planted trees to serve the needs of future generations
for timber and tree products. In Europe and Asia forests were planted by rulers, church leaders
and farmers – for the people. By planting trees they particularly and symbolically showed
faith and hope for the future.
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Trees are fundermental to life and the processes that maintain healthy soil, and clean air
and water. There is evidence which shows that in regions where the trees are cleared to less
than 30% of their original surface area, other sustainable life processes begin to collapse.
Rivers silt up, soils wash away, and air quality declines. James Lovelock, a renowned
ecologist, claimed these breakdowns in natural systems will in turn affect other word bio-
areas continent or cyclones may occur more frequently. It will be sad if these things happen
before we change from consumers to producers.
1. What do people plant trees for?
2. What do European and Asian people want to show by planting trees?
3. What are fundermental roles of trees?
4. What will happen to the area when the trees are cut down?
55
UNIT 11 : CONTROL OF TREE DISEASES

I. Reading text
While there are direct, chemical, control measure for use in ornamental and orchard
trees, these are not feasible in forest situations. The forester must rely on direct means of
reducing losses caused by diseases. Through proper management, vigorous and healthy stands
may be maintained. The impact of many of the rotting fungi can be held at acceptable levels
by reducing the amount of bark and root breakage to deny the fungi entrance and by planning
to harvest at an age before rot has become serious. Rusts can be controlled by the reduction of
alternate hosts. This approach was followed for years in the western white region, and
thousands of high school and forestry students have spent the summer grubbing up
gooseberry bushes in the western mountains.
The seedlings of longleaf pine in the southern coastal plane when infected with the
brown spot disease can not grow and remain arrested in the seedling stage for decades. A low-
intensity prescribed fire destroys the disease while doing no harm to the fire-resistant
seedlings.
Cutting and removal of diseased trees as soon as the infection is noticed reduces the
source of infectious for healthy trees. This is recommended action against Dutch elm disease
and oak wilt in forest situations.
Fomes root disease can enter the freshly cut stumps created by thinning a young stand.
The fungus moves down into the roots of the stumps and into the remaining trees through the
soil and root grafts. Dusting the stumps with borax or applying the spores of a saprohytic
fungus can deny entrance to the Fomes fungus.
Last, and perhaps most promising, is the increasing success of the forest geneticist in
breeding trees that are resistant to specific diseases. Some success has already been achieved
against white pine blister rust in western white pine, against southern fusiform rust in lobolly
pine, and agaist Dutch elm disease.
Muchwork has been devoted to developing hybrids of American chestnut that are
resistant to its blight.

1. Are direct, chemical control measures for use in ornamental and orchard trees feasible in
forest situations?
2. To reduce losses caused by disease, what must foresters do?
56
3. To hold the impact of many of the rotting at acceptible levels what must be done?
4. How can rusts be controlled?
5. How does the brown spot disease damage the seedlings of longleaf pine?
6. How is the disease mentioned above destroyed the trees?
7. What should be done diseased trees?
8. How do Fomes of root disease reach the remaining trees?
9. To deny entrance to the Fomes fungus, what should be done?
10. Is genetic improvement an effective control measure of tree disease? Prove your idea?
1. The defoliator 2. Wood 3. ladybug

borer beetle
4. Gall makers 5. Bark beetle
III. Vocabulary
a. that can be done
b. depend on
c. methods
d. that can be accepted
e. discovered
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2. Find out as many words as possible that have relations with the following words
a. direct b. removal
c. vigorous d. recommended
e. reduction f. promising
g. presence h. geneticist
i. harm k. achieve
3. Find out an appropriate words to fill the blank

a. The biological control of tree insects is …………… in that forest.
b. He is a very famous ………………. .
c. His institution has succeeded in ………….. many new high-yield rices.
d. Success of the forest geneticist in breeding trees that are resistant to specific diseases is
very ……………….. .
e. She has …………. all her life to the cause of science.
B.GRAMMAR
Expressing conditions
1. Take one clause from each of the two columns below to make one sentence. Make sure
your sentences make sense:
If you don‟t understand the trees, it can become waterlogged
If a soil is badly drained, you will never be a good forester
Crops are often lost the world will starve
If you don‟t take notes, if the farmer does not look after them
If agriculture fails, if they don‟t get enough water
You get better crops if they don‟t eat proper food
Most trees die you won‟t remember the lectures
People get sick if the soil is fertile
2. Now say what you think would be the result if the circumstances below actually happened.
Complete the sentences, giving your opinion:
Example: My car/not/start
If my car didn’t start …………………….
a. drought/hit/my country
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b. My land/flood
c. Lose/my note
d. My country‟s population/double
e. There/be/no rice/my country
f. we/not/test/new plant varieties
Exercise: Fill in the gaps withs words in the box
Boundary ; slopes ; verges ; sanctuary ; shelter ; indegenous

Pressures ; surrounding ; reptiles ; uncontaminated ; backbones
1.……….. forests involved over millions of years with all the …………. of natural selection
operating, so that finally what we see is a highly refined complex which is beautifully honed
to survive in the ………….. environment.
2. If the forest is large enough it will offer ………… to indigenous mammals, birds and
………………. .
3. Forest may be established in the areas such as: creeks, gullies, farm ………….., ridges and
places with …………. reater than 15, and roadside …………………. .
4. Your garden is the natural forest that are the …………. And security for the whole
landscape.
5. Like your food forest and structural forest, this assembly of trees and their organisms
provides …………… and protection, and maintains air, water and soil in ……………. states.
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FURTHER READING 1
Classification schemes
The most important of several broad ecological classification of trees for forest
management is shade tolerance. A shade-tolerance tree can generally with-stand closer
planting or more competition for light than nontolerant type. This becomes a major
consideration in planting, thinning, or harvesting operations and schedules. Forest trees are
classified under three broad headings with regard to light requirements:
Shade-tolerant species- e.g., balsam fir, hemlock, redwood, basswood, spruce, birch,
and maple
Intermediate- e.g., Douglas fir, ash, elm and many oaks
Shade-intolerant- e.g., cypress, eastern red cedar, larch (tamarack), pine, aspen, black
cherry, black walnut, cotton wood, hickory, locust, red gum, sycanore, yellow poplar, and
willow.
Species in these three groups presumably differ in basic physiological processes related to
photosynthesis. The most common explanation is that the differences in shade tolerance are
related directly to differences in the amount of light required to reach light compensation, or
the amount of light a plant needs for net photosynthesis to occur, as well as light saturation. It
is important to note that these classifications are broad. Within any species are genotypes
which may be more or less tolerant to shading than the average. Since a common cause of
shading is crowding or dense planting, trees that tolerate shading are, within limits, also
expected to tolerate more crowded conditions than nontolerant species. Tolerance is obviously
a major consideration in deciding whether to manage trees as even-aged stands or as uneven-
aged, stands where regeneration and growth must take place in the shade of several older age
classes.
This text was taken from Barden et al., Plant science, McGraw-
II. COMPREHENSION CHECK

1. Look at paragraph 1 again. Are these statements correct or incorrect?
A hemlock tree can stand more shade than an aspen.
A tamarack needs more light than a red wood.
2. Look at paragraph 2 again. Which words correspond to these definitions:

growing again
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the genetic makeup of an individual, determined by the assemblage of genres it

possesses
thick
supposed
3. Look at paragraph 3 again. Which words have the same meaning as:
showing what something is
having meaning or importance
have control or influence over
an overhanging covering
4. Look at paragraph 4 again. Can you explain in your own words the differences between
dominant, codominant, intermediate and overtopped trees?
5. Look at paragraph 5 again. Can you explain:

habitat
swamp
FURTHER READING 2:
The Science known as Ecology
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For a long time people have realized that living things are greatly affected by other
living things and by their surroundings, their environment, and that organisms also tend to
affect their surroundings. In the present century, such interrelationships have been studied
very seriously, and that study has developed a division of science called ecology. The science
as ecology as a whole is concerned with the interrelationships of organisms and their physical
environments and with other organisms. The word ecology is also applied to a specific
organism, for example, the “ecology” of loblolly pine, which refers to all the relations
between that species and other organisms and its environment.
Our study of forestry will include the ecology of various organisms. An example is the
ecology of forest game, where hunting is utilized to forestall animal overpopulation, thus
preventing over-browsing and wintertime starvation. This may be compared with the study of
human ecology, which is very important because of the prospect of word over-population and
worldwide insufficiency of food and energy. Human activities affect the natural world; a
simple example is that sewage can kill fish. As the population continues to grow and material
productivity increases, the impact of human activities will become progressively greater.
People cannot live apart from the natural world because they rely on it for food, materials for
shelter and clothing, and recreation. Thus human survival depends on maintaining the natural
world in a state of vigor and productivity.
One of the most visible examples of a vigorous productive environment is the forest. So
we will discuss the basics of forest ecology. Forest ecology is a growing science with new
knowledge coming both from research and from the results of forest management
experiences. The stockpile of accumulated ecological knowledge is often tapped by foresters
and legislators for methods and ways to improve our environment.
Tree leaves employ the energy of sunlight to convert carbon dioxide from the air and
water and minerals from the soil into woody material. Tree leaves also collect dust, which is
washed off by rain and falls to the ground, where some of the dust particles enter and become
part of the soil. Runoff water from a forest carries some of the dust particles into streams,
where part of it may be consumed by organisms, including fish. If the dust happens to have
come from an industrial plant manufacturing a poison, it could harm the fish or a person who
eats the fish.
For a tree to live, it must have water. The availability of water depends upon the amount
of precipitation, the natural of the soil, and the level of the water table (the upper limit of the
ground wholly saturated with water, as indicated by the level at which water naturally stands
in a well). The water table fluctuates with precipitation and surface use.
Some forests (evergreen) are not noticeably affected by seasonal changes in the
weather; others (deciduous) are drastically affected, losing all the leaves each autumn. The
growth rate of forest trees depends upon a number of factors, mainly amount of sunlight, type
of soil, availability of water, temperature, and the genetic potential of the trees. Most of these
factors are related to climate, directly or indirectly.
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FURTHER READING 3
Soil structure and texture
A. READING COMPREHENSION
I. TEXT
1. Soil Texture
Soil texture is that characteristic which is determined by the amount of clay, silt, sand and
organic matter which soil contains. This property normally can not be altered by the farmer
............. soil texture can be measured by a mechanical analysis of a sample in the laboratory
and classified accordingly and also by a „feel‟ test.
2. Soil Structure
Soil structure is the arrangement of the soil particles individually (e.g. grains of sand), in
groups (e.g. crumbs or clods) or as a mixture of the two. It can be altered by : weather
conditions (e.g. lumps changed to crumbs by frost action or alternate wetting and drying),
penetration of plant roots, cultivations, ect. It is not possible to measure soil structure
satisfactorily, but an experienced person can easily assess its quality at any one time by its
appearance and „feel‟.
3. It is possible to classify the texture of a soil clay by rubbing a moist sample of it between
the thumb and fingers
Clay is sticky, will take a polish, and can be moulded.
Silt feels silky, smooth and slightly sticky.
Sand feels gritty.
Organic matter usually feels soft and slightly sticky.
The dominant „feel‟ indicates the texture group of the soil; if there is no dominant
feeling then the soil is a loam.
4. Soils are often classified by farmers and others as heavy, medium and light (not a
weight measures). The terms “heavy” and “light” refer to the amount of power required to
draw a plough or cultivator through the soil. A heavy (clayey) soil consists mainly of large
particles which pack tightly together whereas a light (sandy) soil consists mainly of large
particles which loosely held together because of the relatively large pore spaces.
5. Crumb structure is formed by the grouping together (aggregation) of the particles of

clay, sand and silt. This aggregation is possible because there are positive and negative
electric charges (forces) acting the surface of the particles. These forces are strongest in clay
and very weak in sand. This strong adhesive property of clay particles makes clay soils more
difficult to work than sandy soils but it also enables them to form crumbs easily.
6. Water has special electric properties and its presence is necessary for the grouping
(crumbing) of soil particles. The electric forces in the water and in the soil particles make the
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water sticks as a thin film around the particles of soil. As this film becomes thinner (e.g. when
soil is drying out) the particles are drawn closer together to form groups (crumbs). The
particles in the crumbs may come apart again if the soil becomes very wet.
7. There must be lime present in the water if clay particles are to tick together to form
porous crumbs. This partly explains why liming benefits the soils.
8. If organic matter or an iron compound (ferric hydroxide) is present then the particles in
the crumbs may remain cemented together and have a more lasting effect on soil structure.
Too much ferric hydroxide can have a harmful effect because tightly cemented crumbs are
very difficult to wet again after they have dried out.
9. Where there is very little organic matter or ferric hydroxide the stability of the crumbs
depends mainly on the amount of clay present. The more clay there is, the stronger will be the
forces holding the particles together.
10. Some soil structures are more stable than others, e.g. clays usually have a more stable
structure than silts. Soils containing fine sand and silt easily lose their structures and are
difficult to work if they are low in organic matter. This is because under wet conditions the
sand and silty materials flow very easily and block the aeration and drainage channels in the
soil.
11. Tilth is a term used to describe the condition of the soil in a seed bed. For example, the
soil may be in a fine-divided state or it may be rough and lumpy; also, the soil may be damp
or it may be very dry. Whether a tilth is suitable or not partly depends on the crop to be
grown. In general, small seeds require a finer tilth than large seeds.
Soil fertility and productivity
12. Soil fertility is a rather loose term used to indicate the potential capacity of a soil to grow
a crop ( or a sequence of crops). The productivity of a soil is the combined result of fertility
and management.
13. The fertility of a soil at one time is partly due to its natural make-up (inherent or natural
fertility) and partly due to its condition (variable fertility) at that time.
14. Natural fertility has an important influence on the rental and sale value of land. It is the
result of factors which are normally beyond the control of the farmer, such as:
The texture and chemical composition of the mineral matter,
The topography (natural slope of the land) - this can affect drainage, temperature and
workability of the soil,
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Climate and local weather - particularly the effects on temperature, and rainfall
(quantity and distribution).
15. Soil condition is largely dependent on the management of the soil in recent times. It can
be built up by good husbandry but if this high standard is not maintained the soil will soon
return to its natural fertility level. The application of fertilizers can raise soil fertility by
increasing the quantities of plant food in the growth and decay cycle.
16. Management can control the following production factors:

The amount of organic matter in the soil
Artificial drainage and irrigation
Erosion (removal of soil by wind and water)
pH of the soil and the plant nutrients applied
Cultivations and time of planting
Variety and plant spacing
Sequence of cropping
weeds, pests and diseases
17. Good management of the above factors should maintain or increase soil fertility and at
the same time be commercially profitable.
II. COMPREHENSION CHECK

1. Explain in your own words the terms:
Soil structure
Soil texture
2. What factors can change the structures of a soil?
3. Can you explain what is meant by the „feel‟ of a soil?
4. Can you explain why clay soils are harder to work than sandy soils?
5. What is „tilth‟?
6. What two factors decide the productivity of a soil?
7. Can you explain the term „natural fertility‟?
8. Explain in your own words why management of the soil can affect soil condition.
65
FURTHER READING 4: WINDBREAKS
When you design windbreaks you call on your knowledge of how forests function.
Well-designed windbreaks modify climate, reduce erosion, and hold water on land.
Wind is a fluid, and like water it can be deflected sideways or upwards. It naturally
forms into layers with hot air rising and cooler air flowing underneath. You can use the
natural characteristics of winds to achieve specific planting effects including:
Suntraps
Firebreaks/ fire-retardants
Increased wind velocity (for energy)
Erosion control
Shelterbelts for stock
Dust filtration
Nutrient traps (wind and water)
Every site has a predictable wind pattern. Sometimes you can find this out from
weather records; otherwise you will use your observations of how tree shapes are deformed
(wind pruned) and the amount of wear on buildings.
Every windbreak should be designed to work many ways, and to yield a variety of
products such as mulch, bee folder, animal browse, firewood and building timber.
It should be noted that a line of pine trees is not an efficient windbreak. Once the
lower branches fall off, the wind velocity under the trees is increased. Also, the long black
shadows cast by the trees reduce the land‟s productivity.
How windbreaks work
There must be some movement of air through a windbreak or the wind forms into
eddies, which can be quite destructive, on the other side of the barrier. The principle is to
create the equivalent of the forest “edge” which will lift the wind up and over the area you
wish to protect. The wind can then be “shaped” so it tapers off at the ends and wind velocity
is reduced.
The most effective shape for a windbreak planting is a boomerang or parabola shape.
This allows the wind to be diverted around the site. In addition these windbreaks work as
suntraps.
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How to design your windbreak
The design is based on the concept of succession. You start off your windbreak with
smaller-growing plants and nurse species which prepare the environment for the final
(climax) species.
Plants with the following characteristics should be included in the windbreaks:

Hardy species with deep anchoring root systems.
Plants with fibrous stems and fleshy leaves- these are more likely to be wind and fire
resistant.
Plants with fast early growth, i.e pioneer species.
Nitrogen-fixing plants.
Self-mulching plants, i.e plants which have good leaf fall.
Windbreaks for orchards: Several parabola-shaped windbreaks can be planted in the

orchard to protect individual trees or small groups of fruit trees.
Windbreaks for small areas: These are very important an need not be permanent. For
example, Jerusalem artichokes make an excellent summer windbreak or suntrap in cool
climate- they may be just what is required to collect and focus sun on ripening tomatoes. Even
knee-high windbreaks, such as small hedges or herbs, can provide protection for plants
growing nearby.
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FURTHER READING 5: TREE DISEASES
I. Reading text
Trees, like people, are vulnerable to many diseases. Like people, trees are attacked in
various places by different kinds of diseases. Forest pathology is the study of diseases of
trees. Some foes work on the main body trunk, some on the roots, and some on the leaves.
Vigorous trees are attacked less by diseases. The older, weak trees or young seedlings that are
struggling to become established trees are the most susceptible. If a forest is managed
correctly, seldom will disease be serious enough to require overt control. Well-managed
forests are healthy and comparatively devoid of disease.
Tree diseases are of two main types: nonparasitic and parasitic, often called
environmental and organic. The nonparasitic diseases are caused by drought, sunscald, winter
injury as from heavy ice storm and snow, improper nutrition of the trees, air pollution by
smoke and gases, flooding, and soil pollution. The salt laid on the highways during winter
months pollutes the nearby soil and in some instances kills trees. Ocean spray, which feels so
good on one‟s face, is a prime cause of disease in the coastal area. This sea spray can be
blown inland by hurricanes and result in tree damage far from the coast.
The parasitic diseases are caused by organisms that live within various parts of
nutrients from it while contributing nothing to the well-being of the tree. There are five
groups of such organisms: viruses, bacteria, nematodes, mistletoes, and fungi.
Viruses cause minor gall, a condition known as witches-broom, and the serious
phloem necrosis in elms and locusts. A number of bacteria that are involved in many serious
diseases of agricultural plants are of little importance in forest trees. Nematodes, a group of
parasitic worms, can be a problem for tree seedlings. Mistletoes, parasitic seed-bearing
plants, are widespread and cause serious damage, the dwarf mistletoes of the West in
particular. The most important cause of tree disease are the parasitic fungi. Saprophytic fungi
decay dead tree and are important in the recycling of nutrients within the forest ecosystem.
The parasitic fungi attack living trees and are serious problems in all forest regions.
Considerably more timber is lost annually to fungal disease than is lost to fire.
The life cycle of a typical fungus consists of two basic stages, the vegetative and the
reproductive. The vegetative stage begins with the germination of a spore, the fugal
equivalent of a seed. Out of the spore grown a microscopically fine hollow filament called a
hypha, which penetrates into wood or foliage and grows very rapidly, branching and
rebranching to produce a gossamer, interwoven network known as a mycelium. These
mycelia dissolve the tree‟s cell walls and convert them and the contents of the cell into food.
The second stage is the reproductive stage in which hyphae grow to the surface and produce
fruiting bodies, which split and release spores to be carried away by the wind. The form,
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texture, colour, and location of these fruiting bodies are how most fungi are recognized.
Familiar examples are mushrooms and conks.
For convenience the fungal diseases can be sorted into three large groups: the
foliage diseases, the stem diseases, and the rotting diseases. Although widespread and
of great importance in horticulture, foliage diseases are problems in forest trees only in that
they can reduce the rate of growth of the infected trees.
Stem diseases can in turn be broken into three groups, the cankers, the rusts, and the
wilts. Among these are the epidemic diseases, which can result in rapid and widespread loss
of forest trees.
The chestnut blight is an example of a stem canker diseases. The American chestnut
once was one of the most important and useful eastern trees. Very widespread, it often
accounted for as much as one half of the trees in many forest stands. The fungus was
introduced into New York probably prior to 1900 on imported Chinese chestnuts, and the
native species had no resistance. The windblown spores from an infected tree could travel
great distances to enter tiny cracks or breaks in the bark of other chestnuts. The stem is killed
by girdling as the cambium is destroyed. By 1950 a living noninfected chestnut tree was a
rarity. Today the American chestnut is no longer a viable species. The potential threat of
similar epidemics of exotic disease to other native species is source of anxiety for many
foresters.
The Dutch elm disease is an example of the wilt disease. This fungus, probably native
to the Orient, was introduced into this country from Europe around 1930. The disease is
spread by the elm bark beetle, which upon emerging from an effected tree is covered with
spores. When the insect burrows under the bark of an uninfected tree, it is effectively
inoculated. The fungus grows rapidly within the vascular tissue of the elm, and death is
caused by physical blocking of the movement of moisture and nutrients to the foliage and
perhaps by the production of a poison that kills living cells. The spread of this disease has
been rapid. Many feel that the future of elms, particularly in the northern sates, is in jeopardy.
There are a number of serious ruts of fruit trees. White pine blister rust and the
fusiform rusts of the southern pines are the most important. These rusts have an unusual and
complex life cycle involving the infection of two widely different species of plants known as
alternate hosts and the production of more than one type of spore. The fungus moves from one
host, species A, to a second host, species B, and then back to species A again.
White pine blister rust, another disease introduced from Europe, is and extremely
destructive disease of eastern and western white pines and of sugar pine of California and
Oregan. Simply put, the disease is spread by the movement of spores from infected currant or
gooseberry bushes to the needles of the pines. The fungus moves from the needles into the
phloem and cambium of limbs and stem. The name is from the orange-yellow spore- filled
blisters formed on the bark. Whenever infection reaches the main stem the tree is doomed, for
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destruction of phloem continues until the stem, no matter how large, is girdled. Infection can
be severe and often entire stands are killed.
The southern fusiform rust, which infects a number of the southern pines, has as its
alternate host any of the numerous red oak species of the region. While not as destructive as
the white pine blister rust, this disease is of increasing concern to forest managers. It is most
virulent on loblolly pine, which is being intensively managed with costly site preparation and
fertilization.
The rotting fungi, while they rarely cause death directly, are responsible for rendering
great volumes of wood worthless. There are two major types, the root-decaying fungi and the
heart-rotting fungi. The Fomes root rots typify the first category. Though they attack a variety
of species, they are most troublesome in eastern white pine and in plantations of the southern
pines. Working in the roots and butt of the tree, they weaken the tree, making it susceptible to
windthrow, and reduce its growth. The heart-rotting fungi destroy the nonliving heart wood of
the tree and, aside from leaving it mechanically weaker, do not otherwise influence its health
and vigor. The rotten wood of course valueless. Spores of the heart-rotting must enter through
breaks in the bark. Once they have germinated, the disease develops very slowly, and rot is
rarely a problem in young stands. In the oldgrowth conifer forests of the West, a 50 to 60
percent loss of volume to rot is not common.
1.What are trees vulnerable to?
2. What does “ Forest pathology “ study?
3. What parts of a tree can be attacked by different diseases?
4. Which trees are the most susceptible to diseases?
5. What are the two main types of tree diseases?
6. What are the non-parasitic diseases caused by?
7. By how many agent are the parasitic diseases caused by?
8. How do organisms destroy the trees?
9. How are the organisms classified?
10. What does each type of organisms damage?
11. Which fungi are the most important cause of tree diseases?
12. What do parasitic fungi attack?
13. What are the two basis stages in the life cycle of typical fungus?
14. What are the characteristics of each stage?
15. What are the 3 large groups of the fungal diseases?
16. What are the 3 groups of stem diseases?
17. What is the life cycle of the rusts like?
18. How do these rusts regenerate and develop?
19. Which fungi make great volumes of wood worthless?
20. What are the two types of rooting fungi?
21. What do root-decaying fungi attack and cause?
22. What do heart- rotting fungi destroy?
23. How do spores of the heart-rotting fungi enter the heart wood?
III. Vocabulary
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k. the science that studies forest tree diseases

l. can be attacked
m. strong
n. easily affected by ……
o. enters
p. without
q. taking place
r. single cell by which a fungus reproduces itself
s. all
t. main
2. Find out an appropriate word to fill the blank

a. These houses are ……. ………. to storm
b. Next term, we will study forest ………………..…… .
c. The ……………..…. diseases are caused by organisms.
d. ………………….. often destruct seedlings.
e. …………………. fungi help the recycling of nutrients within the forest ecosystem.
f. The vegetative stage of the life cycle of a typical fungus starts with the
………………of a spore.
g. The rotting fungi …………..…… great volumes of wood worthless.
h. The pain in his leg has been ………………………. .
i. Due to over forest exploitation for export, several valuable tree species are in danger of
…………………..
j. His speech ……………………… the thinking of the young generation.
B. EXERCISE
I. Checking your understanding
1. As a matter of fact, there are ………..…….. tree diseases.
A. four B. some
C. a lot of D. six
2. ………….... can be attacked by different kinds of diseases.
A. Only the trunk B. Only the leaves
C. Only the roots D. All the parts of a tree
3. Trees diseases fall in …………..…….. classes.
A. three B. two
C. four D. five
4. Organisms that cause the parasitic diseases are of ………..……. Types.
A. four B. two
C. three D. five
71
5. The life of a fungus undergoes …………………. periods.

A. four B. two
C. three D. five
6. …………. rendered great volumes of wood worthless.
A. The foliage fungi B. The stem fungi
C. The rotting fungi D. None are correct
7. Rooting fungi can be sorted in ………………….……. .
A. three major groups B. two major groups
C. four major groups D. five major groups
8. Heart-rotting fungi usually attack ………………..…. .
A. young stands B. primitive forests
C. old stands D. pine stands
9. The most important cause of tree diseases are:
A. fungi & viruses B. bacteria & nematodes
C. mistletoes D. All of these are correct
2. Reading text
Read the text carefully and answer the following questions:
For hundreds of years people have planted trees to serve the needs of future
generations for timber and tree products. In Europe and Asia forests were planted by rulers,
church leaders and farmers – for the people. By planting trees they particularly and
symbolically showed faith and hope for the future.
Trees are fundamental to life and the processes that maintain healthy soil, and clean
air and water. There is evidence which shows that in regions where the trees are cleared to
less than 30% of their original surface area, other sustainable life processes begin to collapse.
Rivers silt up, soils wash away, and air quality declines. James Lovelock, a renowned
ecologist, claimed these breakdowns in natural systems will in turn affect other word bio-
areas continent or cyclones may occur more frequently. It will be sad if these things happen
before we change from consumers to producers.
1. What do people plant trees for?

2. What do European and Asian people want to show by planting trees?
3. What are fundamental roles of trees?
4. What will happen to the area when the trees are cut down?
72
REFERENCES
1. Lê Thị Thanh Chi. 2004. A course of English for students of agricultural extension and
rural development.
2. Võ Thị Kỳ. 2001. English in agriculture for students of animal husbandry.
3. Nguyễn Văn Tú.1992. English for forestry students. NXB Đại Học Quốc Gia Hà Nội, Hà
Nội.
4. Stephen Denny, Lewis Kerr, Martin Phillips, Clarence Shettlesworth. 1985. Science and
technology: Agriculture. Longman, Hongkong.
5. Rosemary Morrow. 1993. Earth user‟s Guide to Permaculture. Kangaroo Press, Australia.
6. C. St. J. Yates. 1990. English for academic purposes series: Agriculture. Oxford, England.
7. www.fallrivertrees.org
8. www.dnr.state.oh.us/forestry
9. www.woodlands.co.uk
73
THÔNG TIN CÁ NHÂN

HỌ VÀ TÊN: TRẦN PHẠM MINH ĐỨC
NGÀY SINH: 12/04/1968
NƠI CÔNG TÁC: ĐẠI HỌC NGOẠI NGỮ
NĂM TỐT NGHIỆP ĐẠI HỌC: 1991
NĂM TỐT NGHIỆP CAO HỌC: 2001
TRÌNH ĐỘ: THẠC SỸ - GIẢNG VIÊN CHÍNH

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1

This course has three purposes. It is intended:

A. READING & COMPREHENSION

Since the primary task of the

In United States forests, all

3. Morphology and Anatomy

1.Why are forests usually managed?

4. What kind of tree is the aspen?

COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES

I/expect/grow/more vegetables/next year.

Unit 2: TREES AND FORESTS

The Function Of A Forest

Trees and wind

Trees and temperature

Trees and precipitation

II/ Comprehension questions

A. permaculture B. landscapes C. ecosystems D. B & C

B. GRAMMAR COMMON COMBINATIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS

Exercise 1: Complete these sentences with the correct preposition

Unit 3: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (I)

II/ Comprehension questions

1. …………………..is very important for the growth of trees.

FOR AND NOR BUT OR YET SO

A. Add another independent clause to the following independent clauses to form

1. Students can attend day classes and ……………………………………………. .

8. Most students had not even chosen a topic nor …………………………………….

8. We couldn‟t go out ……….. the weather was so bad.

a. the next evening he needed them Robert could not attend

Unit 4: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (II)

II/ Comprehension questions

4. before (paragraph 2) 9. easily to be seen, bought (paragraph 1)

the leaf of the surrounding environment

Now tell yourself where and _____________you would use it in a permaculture

B. GRAMMAR TIME CONNJUNCTIONS

Use Example Other

- To talk about the past event, present or future

Unit 5: TREE SIZE AND TYPE CLASSIFICATION

Dominant: A tree having a

Co-dominant: A tree with

II/ Comprehension questions : True or false?

j. A given area of trees, which is consisted of species is called a……..……… . (paragraph 7)

B. GRAMMAR The form of Definition

2. A soil profile A succession of soil Extends from the surface

3. Aerobic bacteria Organisms Can live in the presence of

4. Osmosis Biophysical process Take place through the

5. A leaf Complex structure Utilizes energy from the

6. Chloroplasts Bodies Absorb sunlight and

7. Stomata of plants Minute openings on the Lead to the interior of the

8. Chlorophyll The chemical Enable sunlight to convert

Forest Ecologically complex unit-community of trees and

Stand Collection of trees which are more or less uniform (i.e.

Type Rather like a stand but more extensive- group of similar

Site class Physical factors which affect the productivity of the

Size of tree Height of tree and diameter.

Cm dbh Measurements used for the diameter of trees (dbh:

UNIT 6: THE ANATOMY OF A TREE (Part 1)

I. READING & COMPREHENSION

II. Comprehension questions

4. Seedlings are often damaged by the feeding of:

B. GRAMMAR Active or Passive Voice

Present Simple am/is/are + past participle

Past Perfect Simple had + been + past participle

Exercises2: Change the following sentences into passive or active voice