Topic 1 Language Acquisition and Learning

TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY
TOPIC 1 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING

KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES
1.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 1 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to language
acquisition and learning. It provides insights to the nature of language, language
learning process, and characteristics of the effective language learner. It also
makes a distinction between language acquisition and language learning.
1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of Topic 1, you will be able to:
define the nature of language
describe the language learning process in early childhood
list the learner characteristics that affect second language learning
differentiate between language acquisition and language learning
1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
1
Language
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an& Lea'n"ng
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an& I##ue#
Language
A!u"#"$"%n
an& Lea'n"ng
Ke( C%ne)$#
an& I##ue#

Na$u'e %*
Language

Na$u'e %*
Language
Language
Lea'ne'
Language
Lea'ne'
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+e'#u#
Lea'n"ng
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+e'#u#
Lea'n"ng
Language
Lea'n"ng
P'%e##
Language
Lea'n"ng
P'%e##
CONTENT
SESSION ONE (3 Hours)
1.2.1 Language A!u"#"$"%n an& Lea'n"ng Ke( C%ne)$# an& I##ue#
It is important for you to develop an awareness of the properties of language and
an understanding 1 language development in children. !our understanding of
what language is and how the learner learns will determine to a large e"tent, your
philosophy of education, and how you teach #nglish: your teaching style, your
approach, methods and classroom technique. In short, this knowledge of the
nature of language and the language learning process would enable you to teach
your learners to learn a second language more effectively.
1.2.1 Na$u'e %* Language
E,e'"#e 1- W.a$ "# (%u' &e*"n"$"%n %* /anguage0
$rite down in twenty%five%words%or%less a definition of language.
&hare your definition with another friend or in a small group.
'ompare differences and similarities.
$hat is anguage( There are many ways in which we could describe language.
!our definition of language )in the above* probably yield something that sounds
similar to the following composite definition- + language is considered to be a
system of communicating with other people using sounds, symbols and words in
e"pressing a meaning, idea or thought. This language can be used in many
forms, primarily through oral and written communications as well as using
e"pressions through body language.
2
anguage is defined as ,a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings
by the use of conventionali-ed signs, sounds, gestures or marks having
understood meanings., )$ebster .ew International /ictionary of the #nglish
anguage, 012*, and ,is a tool for communication, )#mmet, 33*. In most
common use of language, these signs are the words which we employ in such a
way that they may communicate ideas or feelings.
There are many possible theoretical positions about the nature of language.
'ommonly, three different views are e"plicitly or implicitly reflected in current
approaches to language learning. They are:
The structural view of language
The structural view of language is that language is a system of structurally
related elements for the transmission of meaning. These elements are
usually described as:
phonological units )phonemes*
grammatical units )phrases, clauses, sentences*
grammatical operations )adding, shifting, 4oining or transforming
elements*
le"ical items )function words and structure words*
The target of language learning, in the structural view, is the mastery of
elements of this system.
The communicative view of language
The communicative view of language is the view that language is a vehicle
for the e"pression of functional meaning. The semantic and
communicative dimensions of language are more emphasi-ed than the
grammatical characteristics, although these are also included. The target
of language learning is to learn to e"press communication functions and
categories of meaning.
3
The interactional view of language
The interactional view of language sees language primarily as the means
for establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and for
performing social transactions between individuals. The target of
language learning in the interactional view is learning to initiate and
maintain conversations with other people.
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1-
anguage can be likened to an ocean. ike the ocean, language is never still. It
has many moods and shapes. It seems to be endless. It carries people and their
goods. 'an you suggest another metaphor to describe language(
W.a$ "# (%u' "2age %* /anguage0
5ake a simple sketch or drawing of your image of language.
Then, write down all the ways in which language reflects the image you
see.
&hare your image with a friend.
.ote features of your images which you have in common.
.ote significant differences between your images.

N%34 $a1e a 5'ea1 5e*%'e (%u 2%+e %n $% $.e ne,$ $%)".
4
1.2.2 Language Lea'n"ng P'%e##
'hildren go through a number of different stages as language develops, from the
earliest stage of producing cooing sounds through being able to produce
comple", multi%word sentences.
6a55/"ng
first stage of language development
known as the pre%linguistic, babbling or cooing stage
period typically lasts from the age of three to nine months
babies begin to make vowel sounds such as oooooo and aaaaaaa
by five months, infants typically begin to babble and add consonant
sounds to their sounds such as ba-ba-ba, ma-ma-ma or da-da-da.
S"ng/e W%'&#
second stage is known as the one%word or holophase stage of language
development
around the age of 16 to 17 months
children will begin to produce their first real words
only capable of producing a few, single words at this point, but important
to reali-e that they are able to understand considerably more
infants begin to comprehend language about twice as fast as they are able
to produce it
T3% W%'&#
third stage begins around the age of 18 months
children begin to use two word sentences
5
sentences usually consist of 4ust nouns and verbs
#.g. 9$here daddy(:
,;uppy big<,
Mu/$"73%'& Sen$ene#
around the age of two
children begin to produce short, multi%word sentences that have a sub4ect
and predicate
#.g. a child might say ,5ommy is nice,
or ,$ant more candy9
+s children age, they continue to learn more new words every day. By the time
they enter school around the age of five, children typically have a vocabulary of
16,666 words or more.
De+e/%)2en$a/ Se!uene#
/evelopmental sequences reflect linguistic elements in children=s
cognitive understandings
#"amples
>rammatical 5orphemes
.egations
?uestions
G'a22a$"a/ M%').e2e#
@oger Brown=s longitudinal study )1AB7*
;resent progressive Cing
;lurals Cs
Irregular past forms
possessive =s
'opula
6
+rticles the and a
@egular past Ced
Third person singular simple present Cs
+u"iliary be
A!u"#"$"%n %* G'a22a$"a/ 2%').e2e#
e.g., 9wug test: C
i. Dere is a wug. .ow there are two of them. There are two EEEEEE.
ii. Fohn knows how to bod. !esterday he did the same thing.
!esterday, heEEEEEEE.
Through the tests, children demonstrate that they know the rules for the
formation of plural and simple past in #nglish.
By generali-ing these patterns to words they have never heard before,
they show that their language is not 4ust a list of memori-ed word pairs
such as GbookHbooks= and GnodHnodded=.
A!u"#"$"%n %* Nega$"%n
ois Bloom=s study )1AA1* C four stages
7
&tage 1: Gno= C e.g., 9.o go:. 9.o cookie.:
&tage 3: sub4ect I no C e.g., 9/addy no comb hair.:
&tage 7: au"iliary or modal verbs )doHcan* I not
)!et no variations for different persons or tenses*
e.g., 9I can=t do it 9, 9De don=t want it.:
&tage 2: correct form of au"iliary verbs )didHdoesn=tHisHare* I not
e.g., De didn=t go. &he doesn=t want it.
But sometimes double negatives are used
e.g., I don=t have no more candies.
A!u"#"$"%n %* Que#$"%n#
By the age of 2:
5ost children are able to ask questions, give commands, report real
events, and create stories about imaginary ones with correct word order
and grammatical markers most of the time.
They have mastered the basic structures of the language or languages
spoken to them in these early years.
They begin to acquire less frequent and more comple" linguistic structures
such as passives and relative clauses.
They begin to develop ability to use language in a widening social
environment.
The si" stages of children=s question%making can be illustrated as follows:
&tage 1: using single words or single two% or three%word sentences with
rising intonation
)95ommy book(: 9$here=s /addy(:*
&tage 3: using the word order of the declarative sentence )9!ou like this(:
9$hy you catch it(:*
8
&tage 7: 9fronting: % putting a verb at the beginning of a sentence
)9Is the teddy is tired(: 9/o I can have a cookie(:*
&tage 2: sub4ect%au"iliary inversion in yesHno questions but not in wh%
questions
)9/o you like ice cream(: 9$here I can draw(:*
&tage 1: sub4ect%au"iliary inversion in wh%questions, but not in negative
wh%questions
)9$hy can he go out(: 9$hy he can=t go out(:*
&tage 0: overgenerali-ing the inverted form in embedded questions
)9I don=t know why can=t he go out.:*
9
T
hen, share
your thoughts
with a friend.

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1.2.8 Language Lea'ne'
+ lot of research has been carried out into what makes a good language learner.
Dere is a brief summary of the latest theories:
T.e g%%& /anguage /ea'ne' thinks about how she is learning. &he tries to
find out what works for her and what doesnJt. If she doesnJt understand the
purpose of a particular e"ercise, she asks the teacher.
T.e g%%& /anguage /ea'ne' is willing to e"periment and take risks. Kor
e"ample, she will try out different ways of learning vocabulary until she
finds the way that suits her best. &he is also not afraid of making
mistakes, because she knows that these will help her.
T.e g%%& /anguage /ea'ne' is realistic. &he knows that it will take time
and effort to become proficient in #nglish, and that there will periods
where she does not seem to be making much progress.
T.e g%%& /anguage /ea'ne' is independent. &he does not e"pect to learn
#nglish 4ust by sitting in the classroom, and does not rely on the teacher to
totally direct her learning.
T.e g%%& /anguage /ea'ne' is organi-ed and active. &he uses her time
to learn #nglish sensibly, and is always looking for opportunities to
develop her language both inside and outside of the classroom.
10
@eflect on your own language learning e"perience
Kirst 7 years
;re%school years
&chool years
T.e g%%& /anguage /ea'ne' has a balanced concern for communication
and accuracy. &ome students are e"perts at communicating their thoughts
but do not care that they make many mistakes in doing so. The good
language learner, on the other hand, is concerned with both
communicating and doing so as accurately as possible.
+lthough these are the qualities that have been found in the most efficient
language learners, there are still many other factors that influence how quickly a
child will learn #nglish.
S%u'e- L 'opyright ;aul &hoebottom )1AA0%3611* The Good Language
Learner. @etrieved 8 /ecember 3611, from http:HHesl.fis.edu
Fa$%'# a**e$"ng /anguage /ea'n"ng
There are various factors that affect successful language learning. They could
stem from the learner=s own mind )internal factors* or from the environment he
lives in )e"ternal factors*.
Internal factors are those that the individual language learner brings with him or
her to the particular learning situation, for e"ample, age of the learner,
personality, motivation, e"periences, cognition abilities and his native language.
#"ternal factors are those that characteri-e the particular language learning
situation,some of which include the curriculum in use, mode of instruction, and
the opportunity to interact with native speakers both within and outside of the
classroom.
11

E,e'"#e 2
The following are some factors that are known to affect second language
acquisition and learning. /etermine whether each factor is related mainly to the
student, to the family or to the environment of the second culture. Mse the
following code:
& N factors primarily in the student
K N factors primarily in the family
# N factors primarily in the environment of the second culture
1. +ge EEEEEEE
3. &ocioeconomic status EEEEEEE
7. 'lassroom culture EEEEEEE
2. 'ognitive development in 1 EEEEEEE
1. Kamily support EEEEEEE
0. $hether environment provides adequate 3 input EEEEEEE
12
B. iteracy level EEEEEEE
A. Opportunities for language use in school EEEEEEE
11. 5otivation EEEEEEE
11. ;roficiency in the home language EEEEEEE
1B. @ole models in the community EEEEEEE
1A. ;ersonality EEEEEEE
36. $hether student has enough opportunities to use #nglish EEEEEEE
32. Teacher=s e"pectations EEEEEEE
31. ;referred learning styles EEEEEEE
+dapted from 5aitland, P. )1AAB*. +dding #nglish: Delping #& earners &ucceed. >ood +pple.
I&B. 1%1021B%A67%0.
.ow check your answers below.
An#3e'#-
1&, 3K, 7#, 2&, 1&, 0#, BK, 8#, A&, 16&, 11#, 13&, 17#, 12#, 11&
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1-
In your e"perience, as an #nglish learner:
i. +re there personal characteristics that make you more successful than
another learner(
ii. $hich characteristics seem to you most likely to be associated with
success in 3 acquisition(
Iii, &hare your opinion with your group members. Kind three most important
and three least important learner characteristics.
In&"+"&ua/ D"**e'ene#
@esearch findings reveal that every person has a learning styleQ therefore, there
is no particular teaching or learning method that can suit the needs of all
learners. earning styles are also value%neutralQ that is, no one style is better
13
than others. earning styles e"ist on wide continuums, although they are often
described as opposites. earners should therefore be encouraged to 9stretch:
their learning styles so that they will be more empowered in a variety of learning
situations.
+ge is only one of the characteristics which affects the learner=s 3 learning. The
opportunities for learning )i.e., conte"t % both inside and outside the classroom*,
the motivation to learn, and individual differences in intelligence , aptitude ,
personality , and learning styles have also been found to be important
determining factors in both rate of learning and eventual success in learning.
1.2.9 A!u"#"$"%n +e'#u# Lea'n"ng
It is sometimes thought that acquisition and learning refer to the same processes.
+ccording to linguists there is an important distinction between language
acquisition and language learning.
Language A!u"#"$"%n
+cquisition occurs passively and unconsciously through implicit learning.
#"perts suggest there is an innate capacity in every human being to acquire
language. anguage acquisition in children 4ust seems to happen. 'hildren do
not need e"plicit instruction to learn their first languages but rather seem to 4ust
Gpick up= language in the same way they learn to roll over, crawl and walk.
anguage acquisition, therefore, is the process whereby children acquire their
first language. +s you may well have noticed, children acquire their mother
tongue through interaction with their parents and the environment that surrounds
them. Their need to communicate paves the way for language acquisition to take
place. rather seem to 4ust Gpick up= language in the same way they learn to roll
over, crawl and walk.
14
Language Lea'n"ng
+s opposed to acquisition, learning occurs actively and consciously through
e"plicit instruction and education. anguage learning is the process whereby
humans past the critical period learn second languages. In other words, older
children and adults need e"plicit teaching to learn their second languages. It is
the result of direct instruction in the rules of language. In language learning,
students have conscious knowledge of the new language and can talk about that
knowledge. Dowever, studies have shown that knowing grammar rules does not
necessarily result in good speaking or writing.
$e should not ignore the differences between language acquisition and
language learning. $hile all children before the critical period can innately
acquire their first languages, most older children and adults past the critical
period must learn second languages through e"plicit education and instruction.
1 and 3 acquisition are quite complicated processes. To understand these
processes will enable the language teacher to be more sensitive to the factors
involved. $hile 1 and 3 acquisition reveal some similarities, they also show
differences. &imilarities in Kirst and &econd anguage +cquisition theories are of
great interest to teachers and learners as they can be utili-ed to improve
language teaching and learning methods.

Na$u'e +# Nu'$u'e
5uch debate has taken place concerning the importance of nature )what is
innate* and nurture )environmental factors* in the acquisition of language. Is
language acquisition and development innate or taught( The debate about
nature versus nurture in language acquisition has drawn heated testimony from
both sides.
The following chart compares nature and nurture in language acquisition.
15
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1-
C%2)a'"ng F"'#$ an& Se%n& Language A!u"#"$"%n
A$"+"$( 1-
There are similarities and differences in first and second language acquisition. It
is clear that a child or adult learning a second language is different from a baby
acquiring a first language in terms of personal characteristics and conditions for
learning. anguage teachers must have theoretical knowledge of how
languages are acquired.
Dow is learning a second language like learning a first(
Dow is it different(
Dow will this knowledge help you plan classroom e"periences(
$rite a paper )2%0 pages* citing at least four research articles to support
te"t reading.
A$"+"$( 2-
16
.ature
Informal
;arents R &ociety
#"periences
#nvironment
#"posure
+cquisition
.urture
Kormal
Teachers
&yllabus
'lassroom
&ystematic
earning
+s teachers, it is our duty to make sure that our students Gacquire= rather than
Glearn= the language. /iscuss.
TOPIC 2 T:EORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING
2.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 3 provides you with an overview of four influential learning theories that underlie the
instruction of a teacher=s classroom practice. 5ore specifically, it e"amines in detail the key
principles of Behaviourism, 'ognitivism, &ocial 'onstructivism and Dumanistic orientations
to language learning.
By the end of this Topic, you will be able to:
define terms relevant to some theories of language learning
e"plain the main principles of each language learning theory
distinguish the application of behaviourist, cognitivist, constructivist and
humanist principles in the classroom
17
CONTENT
SESSION ONE (3 Hours)
2.2 T.e%'"e# %* Language Lea'n"ng
The main goal of any teaching is to bring about learning. >enerally, we
have not been able to say with certainty how people learn languages although
a great deal of research has been done into this sub4ect. Sarious theories have
emerged over the years to study the process of language acquisition. The four
main schools of thought which provide theoretical paradigms in guiding the
course of language acquisition are: behaviourism, cognitivism, social
constructivism and humanism.
2.2.1 6e.a+"%u'"#2
The behaviourist approach in studying learning can be traced to the
philosophic traditions of +ristotle, /escartes and ocke. The founders and
proponents include Fohn B. $atson in the early 36
th
century, Ivan ;avlov,
B.K.&kinner, #.. Thorndike, Bandura and others. They argued that behavior
18
can be conditioned by altering the environment. In other words, by manipulating
and giving a certain stimulus, a certain response can be produced. 5otivation to
learn was assumed to be driven by drives such as hunger, rewards and punish.
>eneral perception is that there is no difference between the way one
learns a language and the way one learns to do anything else. +ccording to
the psychologist &kinner, language is a Gconditioned behaviour=: the stimulus
response process )&timulus @esponse Keedback @einforcement*. The popular
view is that children start out as clean slates and language learning is the
process of getting linguistic habits printed on these slates through positive and
negative reinforcement or punishment. Both positive reinforcement and
negative reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent behavior
will happen again. On the other hand, punishment decreases the likelihood
that the antecedent behavior will happen again.
earners are essentially viewed as passive and learn language step by
step, i.e. Imitation % @epetition % 5emori-ation % 'ontrolled drilling %
@einforcement. They learn to speak by imitating the utterances heard around
them and strengthen their responses by the repetitions, corrections, and other
reactions that adults provide. Therefore, language is practice based. The
main focus is on inducing the child to behave with the help of mechanical drills
and e"ercises. earning is controlled by the conditions under which it takes
place and that, as long as individuals are sub4ected on the same condition,
they will learn in the same condition. In summary, the behaviourist is not
concerned with how or why knowledge is obtained, but rather if the correct
response is given. earning is defined as nothing more than the acquisition of
new behaviour.
The following is a list of behaviourist principles quite often applied in
teaching and learning in the classroom:
Mse a system of rewards to encourage certain behaviours and learning.
19
;rovide immediate and frequent feedback for comple" and difficult
concepts
;rovide practice, drill and review activities to enhance mastery of facts
Break down comple" task into smaller and manageable subskills
&equence material from simple to more difficult to enhance
understanding
5odel the behaviour students are to imitate and repeat demonstrations
when necessary
@einforce when students demonstrate the modeled behaviour
&tate the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both teachers and
students
#stablish a contract with students on the work to be done and what
rewards will be given
'ritics of behavioural methods point to two basic problems that may arise in
the classroom. &ome teachers fear that rewarding students for all learning will
cause students to lose interest in learning for its own sake. Msing a reward
system or giving one student increased attention may have a detrimental effect
on other students in the classroom. +lso, another problem with this view of
learning includes the fact that imitation does not help the learner in real%life
situations. earners are continually required to form sentences they have
never previously seen. + finite number of pre%practiced sentences are not
enough to carry on a conversation.
#,e'"#e 1
$hich of the behaviourist principles listed in the above do you think are widely
practised in the classrooms( >ive specific e"amples.

20

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2.2.2 C%gn"$"+"#2
In the 1A16=s there was a reali-ation that behaviourism did not fully e"plain
human learning. +lthough behaviourism emphasi-ed learning that was
observable and measurable, they did not account for what goes on in the minds
of the learner when he or she is learning or thinking. 'ognitivists felt that it was
necessary to investigate how learners make sense of what they learn even
though such mental events are difficult to observe and measure ob4ectively.
The term cognitivism refers to a group of psychological theories which
draw heavily on the work in linguistics of .oam 'homsky. It replaced
behaviourism in 1A06=s as a dominant paradigm. 'ognitive theories of learning,
based on empirical evidence, indicate that learning is a multi%faceted, comple"
and dynamic process. 'ognitivism focus on the mind or Gblack bo"= and attempt
to show how information is received, assimilated, stored and recalled.
+ccording to the cognitivists, people are not Gprogrammed animals= that
merely respond to environmental stimuli. ;eople are rational beings that require
active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of
thinking. 'hanges in behaviour are observed, but only as an indication of what is
occurring in the learner=s head. 'ognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as
computer: information comes in, is being processed, and leads to certain
outcomes.
'ognitivists view learning is as a process of relating new information to
previously learned information, In other words, learning is defined as a change in
the learners= schemata. earning is most likely to occur when an individual can
21
associate new learning with previous knowledge. Mnlike in behaviourism,
learners are not passive receivers of environmental conditions. @ather, they are
actively involved in the learning process and can have control over their own
learning. #rrors are also accepted as part of the learning process.
In contrast to behaviourism, the cognitivst perspective focus more on the
learner as an active participant in the teaching%learning process. It believes that
teachers can be more effective if they know what prior knowledge the student
already possesses and how information is processed and structured in the
learner=s mind. Therefore, it is important that teachers provide effective
instruction to help the learner acquire knowledge more effectively by teaching
students how to learn, remember, think and motivate themselves.
The following is a list of cognitivist principles quite often applied in
;resent information in an organi-ed manner
% &how a logical sequence to concepts
% >o from simple to comple" when presenting new material
Bring to mind relevant prior learning
;rovide for review and repetition of learning
;rovide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information, e.g.
inquiry%oriented pro4ects
Delp students process information in meaningful ways so that they can
become independent learners )&taged scaffolding*
ike Behaviourism, 'ognitivism is also not without its critiques. It has
been critici-ed for not accounting enough for individuality and for giving little
emphasis on the affective characteristics of the learners.
The following table sums up very briefly what we have discussed so far:
22
6e.a+"%u'"#$ +#. C%gn"$"+"#$
F%u# 6a.a+"%u'"#$ C%gn"$"+"#$
Siew about the
mind
+ blank slate.
Basically alike=
+n active organi-er.
Saried, with multiple
intelligences and learning
styles.
&%T @oles
Teacher plans and sets
goals for learning.
One Gbest= way of
teaching.
&tudents participate in
planning and goal%setting.
Teacher teaches with variety.
5otivation @eward is motivation. earning is a motivator.
'urriculum 'ontent
&tudents are taught Gwhat=. &tudents are taught Gwhat=
and Ghow=
+ssessment
Teacher assess.
;roduct is important.
&tudents are involved in peer
and self%assessment.
;roduct and process are
important
S%u'e- /ia-%@ico, .)3668*. Strategies for Teaching English Learners, )3
nd

edn.* Boston: ;earson #ducation, Inc.
#,e'"#e 2
$hich of the cognitivist principles listed in the above do you think are being
practiced in the classrooms( >ive specific e"amples.
CONTENT
SESSION TWO (3 Hours)
23
2.2.8 S%"a/ C%n#$'u$"+"#2
Fust as 'ognitive earning ;sychology began replacing the predominant
Behavioural ;sychology in the 1AB6=s, 'onstructivist earning ;sychology has
been challenging the cognitive approach from the 1AA6=s. + reaction to didactic
approaches, constructivism states that learning is an active, conte"tuali-ed
process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. 'onstructivism is a
perspective of learning that has its origins in the works of Bruner, ;iaget and
Sygoysky. It is Sygotsky=s social development which is one of the foundations
for constructivism.
'onstructivists emphasi-e that learning is a social activity. They believe
that often it is social e"periences rather than what is taught in schools which
accounts for much of the variation in student learning. 'ooperative, collaborative
and group investigation methods allow students to discuss ideas, beliefs and
values with their peers and teachers. They also argued that the responsibility of
learning resides with the learner. earners interpret what they hear, read and
see based on their previous learning, habits and e"periences. &tudents who do
not have appropriate background knowledge will be unable to to accurately Ghear=
or Gsee= what is before them. Mnlike previous educational viewpoints where the
responsibility rested with the teacher to teach and where the learner played a
passive role, social constructivism emphasi-es the importance of the learner
being actively involved in the learning process with the teacher playing the role
as facilitator. earning is enhanced when students learn how to learn, engage in
serious discussion, and have shared responsibility for applying what they know to
new situations.
$hat does this mean for classroom learning( +s active learners e"ploring
and going beyond the information given, thus students should be provided with
authentic and challenging pro4ects that encourage them to work together with
one another. +uthentic settings would provide learners with opportunities to see
24
a problem from different perspectives as well as negotiate and generate solutions
through sharing and e"change of ideas. In an authentic environment, learners
assume responsibilities for their own learning. The aim is to create a situation
more closely related to collaborative practice in the real world.
The following is a list of constructivist principles quite often applied in
#ncourage student autonomy and initiative
% &tudents take responsibility for their own learning
% @espect students= ideas and encourage independent thinking
;romote higher order thinking amongst students
% +sk questions that will influence student response
% 'hallenge students to analy-e, 4ustify and defend their ideas
#ngage students in meaningful learning
% ;rovide students opportunity to e"press their ideas
% Involve students in real%world situations
The main critique of &ocial 'onstructivism is that it is often seen as
being less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction.
#,e'"#e 8
/iscuss some problems related to implementing constructivist principles in the
classroom. /escribe with specific e"amples.

N%34 $a1e a 5'ea1 5e*%'e (%u 2%+e %n $% $.e ne,$ $%)".
25
2.2.9 :u2an"#2
Dumanism refers to a movement in psychology which emerged in the
1A06=s and 1AB6=s. Dumanism has its roots in counseling psychology and
focuses its attention on how individuals acquire emotions, attitudes, values and
interpersonal skills. ;erhaps the most well%known applications of humanism in
#T are those of >attegno )1AB3* and 'urran )1AB0*.
Dumanistic psychologists believe that how a person feels about learning is
as important as how the person thinks or even behaves. They describe
behaviour not from the viewpoint of the teacher as do behaviourists but rather
from the vantage point of the student who is performing the activity.
Dumanists, led by such famous authors as +braham 5aslow and 'arl
@ogers, are especially concerned with the idea of self%actuali-ation, the growth of
a person to achieve whatever degree of individual satisfaction they are capable
of achieving. earning is not an end in itself: it is the means to progress towards
self%development. + student learns because he or she is inwardly driven )self%
motivation*, and derives his or her reward from the sense of achievement that
having learned something affords. Dence, much of a humanist teacher=s effort
would be put into developing a student=s self%esteem. This form of education,
known as student%centred, is typified by the student taking responsibility and
owning their learning.
The humanist teacher is a facilitator and not a disseminator of knowledge.
De or she creates an educational environment that fosters self%development,
cooperation, positive communications, and personali-ation of information. In
particular, the humanist teacher needs to have a thorough grasp of both how
26
students learn and what motivates them to learn. ;articipatory and discovery
methods would be favoured instead of traditional didacticism. +s well as the
student=s academic needs the humanist teacher is also concerned with the
student=s affective or emotional needs. Keeling and thinking are very much
interlinked. Dumanists believe that feeling positive about oneself facilitates
learning.
The following are some principles in the classroom based on humanistic
principles:
#stablish a warm, democratic, positive and non%threatening environment
for the students to work in.
;rovide learning e"periences that will lead to the development of habits
and attitudes that teachers want to foster.
Teachers should be role models and set good e"amples for students to
emulate.
&tudents are given choices )with limitations* and freedom )with
responsibilities* to plan and carry out activities.
Teacher facilitates the learning process and share ideas with students.
earning is based on life e"periences, discovery, e"ploring and
e"perimenting.
@espect student=s feelings and aspirations.
;rovide opportunity for success.
/e%emphasi-e rigorous, performance%oriented, test%dominated
approaches.
&tudents are allowed to set their own goals and follow their own pace
#"periential learning is encouraged.
#,e'"#e 9
27
To what e"tent do you think schools give attention to the affective )emotions,
feelings* aspects of learning( /iscuss by citing specific e"amples.
Su22a'(.
$hat conclusions can we draw from this discussion of various theories of
learning( Instructional learning theories are centred on the ma4or schools of
educational psychology. Krom these so%called schools have evolved modern
thinking and practice about how learning occurs and how your instruction in the
classroom ultimately affects that learning. #ach has its own merits and each has
shortcomings that may make them inappropriate in certain learning situations.
!our understanding of the basic principles and assumptions of Behaviourism,
'ognitivism, 'onstructivism and Dumanism is critical to your approach to
classroom teaching. Dowever, looking back over the current practices in our
classrooms, it becomes abundantly clear that they are a composite of the many
different theories we have learnt.
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1
Based on what you have read in this unit, compare the four ma4or theoretical
perspectives e"plaining human learning. Then, in your view as a teacher, state
your personal beliefs about the teaching%learning process.
28
TOPIC 8 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING T:EORIES ;I<
KRAS:EN=S MONITOR MODEL
8.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 7 provides input on a predominant &econd anguage earning Theory
called Prashen=s 5onitor 5odel. There are five components or hypotheses
which form the basis of the model. These are Input Dypothesis, +ffective Kilter
Dypothesis, +cquisition earning Dypothesis, 5onitor Dypothesis and .atural
Order Dypothesis. The topic also deals with the implications of this model for
teaching.
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
1. demonstrate an understanding of Prashen=s 5onitor 5odel
3. e"plain the five hypothesis of the 5onitor 5odel
7. identify the relationship between the five hypothesis of the 5onitor 5odel
2. e"plain the implications of this model for teaching.
29
CONTENT
SESSION THREE (6 Hours)
8.8 K'a#.en=# M%n"$%' M%&e/
&econd language acquisition theory seeks to e"plain how and by what
processes individuals acquire a second language. + predominant theory of
second language acquisition was developed by &teven Prashen from the
Mniversity of &outhern 'alifornia. Prashen is a specialist in language acquisition
and development and his influential theory is widely accepted in the language
learning community.
30
The following are some quotes from Prashen )1A83* about language
acquisition.
"Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious
grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill."
"Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language -
natural communication - in hich s!ea"ers are concerned not ith the
form of their utterances but ith the messages the# are conve#ing and
understanding."
$The best methods are therefore those that su!!l# %com!rehensible in!ut%
in lo anxiet# situations, containing messages that students reall# ant to
hear. These methods do not force earl# !roduction in the second
language, but allo students to !roduce hen the# are %read#%,
recogni&ing that im!rovement comes from su!!l#ing communicative and
com!rehensible in!ut, and not from forcing and correcting !roduction."
"'n the real orld, conversations ith s#m!athetic native s!ea"ers ho
are illing to hel! the acquirer understand are ver# hel!ful."
Prashen e"plains five fundamental components % which he calls
hypotheses % as the basis for his language teaching model. #ach of the
components relates to a different aspect of the language learning process. The
five components are as follows:
1. The Input Dypothesis
3. The +ffective Kilter Dypothesis
7. The +cquisition earning Dypothesis
2. The 5onitor Dypothesis
1. The .atural Order Dypothesis
31
8.8.1 In)u$ :()%$.e#"#
Prashen believes that the main factor in acquisition is not language u#e
but language input, in other words what the learner hears and reads. The most
useful form of input has to be un&e'#$an&a5/e and it should be 4ust a little
beyond the learnerJs present capacity. If it is too far beyond, the learner will not
pay attention to the input, and if it is not far enough, the learner will learn nothing.
The learner improves and progresses along the Jnatural orderJ when heHshe
receives second language JinputJ that is one step beyond hisHher current stage of
linguistic competence. If a learner is at a stage JiJ, acquisition takes place when
heHshe is e"posed to Jcomprehensible inputJ that belongs to level Ji I 1G. Dere 9i:
refers to the current language level the learners are at. 9i I 1: means a level
higher than the level the students are at or the ne"t level along the natural order.
.atural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, thus ensuring
that each learner will receive some Ji I 1J input that is appropriate for hisHher
current stage of linguistic competence.
Parshen suggests that teachers should give rough%tuned input an& a 3"&e
+a'"e$( %* 2a$e'"a/#4 #u))%'$e& 5( +"#ua/ ue# an& 'ea/"a 3.". g"+e# "$ a
%n$e,$ 3"$."n 3.". $.e /ea'ne' 2a( gue## a$ $.e %n$en$. +s such,
language teachers must make input comprehensible by conte"tuali-ing it.
#vidences for the input hypothesis can be found in the following situations:
#ffectiveness of caretaker speech from an adult to a childH people speak
to children acquiring their first language in special ways.
+dults speaking to children modify their language in order to aid
comprehension. +dults roughly%tune to child=s level of linguistic
competence. These include use of baby%talk and short simple sentences.
Teacher%talk from a teacher to a language student.
32
Teachers simplify their language to make 3 learners understand or go
down to 3 learners= comprehension.
Koreigner%talk from a sympathetic conversation partner to a language
learner or acquirer
&ome of the ways a foreigner talks to a language learner include slower
pronunciation, omission of features of connected speech, heavier stress
on key words, short responses, use of gestures and demonstrations.
3 learners often go through an initial &ilent ;eriod.
+ learner is silent to build up competencies in 3
nd
language via listening.
&peaking only emerges after the learner has enough competence in the
language.
Prashen indicates that the comparative success of younger and older
learners reflects provision of comprehensible input. The more comprehensible
input the greater the 3 proficiency. The lack of comprehensible input delays
language acquisition. +s such teaching methods work according to the e"tent
that teachers use comprehensible input. One finds that immersion teaching is
successful because it provides comprehensible input. +s for bilingual
programmes, they succeed to the e"tent teachers provide comprehensible input
8.8.2 A**e$"+e F"/$e' :()%$.e#"#
This hypothesis describes e"ternal factors that can act as a filter that
impedes acquisition. These factors include motivation, self%confidence, and
an"iety. If a learner has very low motivation, very low self%confidence, and a high
level of an"iety, the affective filter falls into place and inhibits the learner from
acquiring the new language. On the other hand, learners who are motivated,
confident, and rela"ed about learning the target language have more success
acquiring a second language.
33
Barriers to learning can also be found in any negative feelings that a learner has
about the language, the method used, the institution or the teacher. These
feelings become a kind of filter, which keeps the input out. Dence, the teacherJs
4ob is to make language learning free of stress and en4oyable.
8.8.8 A!u"#"$"%n7Lea'n"ng :()%$.e#"#
Prashen elucidates two systems of language acquisition that are
independent but related namely the acquired system and the learned system.
The acquired system relates to the unconscious aspect of language
acquisition. $hen people learn their first language by speaking the language
naturally in daily interaction with others the acquired system is at work. Dere
speakers are more concerned with the act of communicating meaning than the
structure of their utterances.
On the other hand, the learned system relates to formal instruction where
students engage in formal study to acquire knowledge about the target language.
One e"ample of the learned system is the studying the rules of synta".
The differences between acquisition and learning are depicted in Kigure 1
below:
A!u"#"$"%n Lea'n"ng
implicit, subconscious e"plicit, conscious
informal situations formal situations
uses grammatical JfeelJ uses grammatical rules
depends on attitude depends on aptitude
stable order of acquisition simple to comple" order of
learning
Kig. 1: /ifferences between acquisition and learning
34
8.2.9 M%n"$%' :()%$.e#"#
The monitor hypothesis seeks to e"plain how the learned system affects
the acquired system. +ccording to Prashen, the formal rule system acts as the
M%n"$%' in the acquired system. $hen second language learners monitor their
speech, they apply their understanding of learned grammar to edit, plan, and
initiate their communication. This action can only occur when speakers have
ample time to think about the form and structure of their sentences.
The 5onitor is best used when:
we have to be very careful
when language is necessarily formal
e.g. writing letters of application, speaking to a hierarchical superior in a
formal situation.
There are three conditions required by the 5onitor:
Time
The learner must have time to use the monitor. Msing the monitor
requires the speaker to slow down and focus on the form of language.
Kocus on correctness of form
The learner must be focused or thinking about the form of language. +
learner may find it difficult to focus on meaning and form at the same time.
Pnowledge of rules
The learner must know the rules. This means that the speaker must have
had e"plicit instruction on the language form that he or she is trying to
produce.
35
There three types of monitor users C over%users, under%users and optimal%
users. 5onitor over%users try to always use their monitor, and are so concerned
with correctness that they cannot speak with any real fluency. 5onitor under%
users have not consciously learned or choose not to use their conscious
knowledge of the language. #rror correction by others has little influence on
them, as they can often correct themselves based on a ,feel, for correctness.
Teachers should aim to produce optimal monitor users, who use the
monitor when it is appropriate and when it does not interfere with communication.
They do not use their conscious knowledge of grammar in normal conversation,
but will use it in writing and planned speech. Optimal monitor users can
therefore use their learned competence as a supplement to their acquired
competence
Prashen suggests that we should leave the monitor unemployed most of
the time, and concentrate upon the meaning that we wish to convey, rather than
on the form of our utterances.
8.2.> Na$u'a/ O'&e' :()%$.e#"#
+ccording to this hypothesis there is a natural order to the way second
language learners acquire their target language. Prashen states that $.e'e "# a
na$u'a/ %'&e' "n 3.". /ea'ne'# )"1 u) a /anguage and this order is roughly
the same for all learners regardless of their linguistic background.
@esearch shows that this natural order seems to go beyond age, the
learnerJs native language, the target language, and the conditions under which
the second language is being learned.
5istakes made by learners are a necessary part of language learning.
T.e#e 2"#$a1e# a'e n%$ 'an&%24 5u$ a'e +e'( #"2"/a' $% $.e e''%'# $.a$
36
."/&'en 2a1e 3.en /ea'n"ng $.e"' *"'#$ /anguage. The mistakes that students
make through time lie in a rough sequence.
In addition, the sequence of errors for acquired language is not the same
as the sequence of learned grammar items. &ome grammatical morphemes
which appear simple from the learning point of view are in fact acquired late % the
JsJ of ;T&. 'hinese learning #nglish make the same mistakes, and will learn in
more or less the same order as the Krench. +ccording to Prashen, this indicates
that $.e'e "# a na$u'a/ %'&e' "n 3.". /ea'ne'# )"1 u) a /anguage. In
a&&"$"%n4 $.e#e 2"#$a1e# 3"// 5e 2a&e "n $.e #a2e %'&e' 3.e$.e' $.e
/ea'ne'# .a+e 5een $aug.$ $.e g'a22a' %' n%$4 an& $.a$ $ea."ng g'a22a'
3"// n%$ .e/) $.e2 .ange $.e %'&e'.
The combined model of acquisition and production is shown in the
diagram below.
C%25"ne& 2%&e/ %* a!u"#"$"%n an& )'%&u$"%n
8.2.? I2)/"a$"%n# *%' Tea."ng
Prashen=s 5onitor 5odel has its implications for #&H#K teaching. Input
hypothesis focuses on comprehensible input at 9i I 1: level. To enable learners
37
to advance in language acquisition, teachers need to e"pose them to large
amounts of authentic language. The language need not be specifically graded in
terms grammatical progression, but adapted to the students= interests and
purposes for learning the language. + 3"&e +a'"e$( %* "n)u$4 #u))%'$e& 5(
+"#ua/ ue# an& 'ea/"a should be conte"tuali-ed in a way that the learner can
understand a large amount of spoken or written language.
+ccording to Prashen comprehension precedes production. +s such, 3
learners often go through an initial &ilent ;eriod. Teachers should provide time
for silent period to allow learners to build up acquired competence in a language
before they begin to produce it.
In line with the +ffective Kilter Dypothesis, language acquisition should be
done in rela"ing and friendly conditions. +ffective%humanistic activities such as
dialogues, interviews, personal charts and tables are encouraged.
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1
Dow does the Prashen=s 5onitor 5odel help a teacher better to understand how
hisHher second language students learn(
/esign materials and tasks suitable for primary school learners in relation to
Prashen=s 5onitor 5odel
@ela" and move on to the ne"t topic when you are ready.
38
TOPIC 9 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING T:EORIES ;II<
9.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 2 introduces you to .oam 'homsky=s Mniversal >rammar)M>*, reasons
why it is termed as such and what does it consists of. It also aims to show how
M> relates to first language and second language acquisition. It also discusses
its implications for #nglish language teaching.
By the end of this &ession, you will be able to:
define Mniversal >rammar
e"plain why it is termed Mniversal >rammar
e"plain what Mniversal >rammar consist of
relate Mniversal >rammar and first language acquisition
relate Mniversal >rammar and second language acquisition
identify and discuss implications for teaching
39
UNIVERS
AL
GRAMMA
R
UNIVERS
AL
GRAMMA
R
PRINCIPL
ES
PRINCIPL
ES
PARAMETE
RS
PARAMETE
RS
UG AND FIRST LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
UG AND FIRST LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
UG AND SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
UG AND SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING
CONTENT
SESSION FOUR ;8 :%u'#<
9.2.1 W.a$ "# Un"+e'#a/ G'a22a'0
Mniversal >rammar )M>* is 9the system of principles, conditions,
and rules that are elements or properties of all human languages:.
)'homsky, 1A0A*
This means that a native speaker of a language knows a set of principles that
can be applied to all languages and parameters that vary from one language to
another. It also refers to an innate, genetic endowment of language%specific
knowledge consisting of the principles and parameters of language.
9.2.2 W.( "$ "# na2e& @Un"+e'#a/ G'a22a'=0
'homsky named this innate capacity as Mniversal >rammar. GMniversal= imply that it is
universal to all human beings and human languages and Ggrammar= signify the facts
about grammar )language rules* that humans are born knowing.
Before the 1A06s, the &tructuralist 5odel was very dominant. It was simply descriptive of
the different levels of production, namely: phonology, morphology, synta" and
semantics. This model did not provide any model or frame work for understanding how
the actual learning takes place.
anguage was usually understood from a behaviourist perspective, suggesting that
language learning, like any other kind of learning, could be e"plained by a succession of
trials, errors, and rewards for success. In the late 1A16s, &kinner constructed his
cognitive learning model: behaviorism which correlates with the notion.
40
&timulus T responseT reinforcement and habit formation
+ccording to &kinner, the mind is a blank slate at birth. 'hildren learn the language their
mother tongue by simple imitation, listening to and repeating what adults said.
Thus in 1A06s inguist .oam 'homsky puts forward that the human brain contains a
limited set of rules for organi-ing language. De there is an assumption that all languages
have a common structural basis. This set of rules is known as universal grammar.
There are three main points of critique of &kinner by 'homsky:
1. P%+e'$( 7%*7$.e7#$"2u/u#
&peakers proficient in a language know what e"pressions are acceptable in their
language and what e"pressions are unacceptable. Dow speakers should come to know
the restrictions of their language is a mystery, since e"pressions which violate those
restrictions are not present in the input, indicated as such. This absence of negative
evidenceUthat is, absence of evidence that an e"pression is part of a class of the
ungrammatical sentences in oneJs languageUis the core of the poverty of stimulus
argument. Kor e"ample, in #nglish one cannot relate a question word like JwhatJ to a
predicate within a relative clause )1*:
)1* V$hat did /an meet a man who build(
&uch e"pressions are not available to the #nglish language learners, because they are,
by hypothesis, ungrammatical and unacceptable for speakers of that language.
Mniversal grammar offers a solution to the poverty of the stimulus problem by making
certain restrictions universal characteristics of human languages. anguage learners are
consequently never tempted to generali-e in an illicit fashion. The logical problem of
language acquisition is that the input is ungrammatical and incomplete and the output
are grammatically acceptable. 'hildren only hear a finite number of sentences but they
are able to learn the abstract rules and principles of the language and produce an infinite
number of sentences.
41
2. C%n#$'a"n$# an& )'"n")/e# ann%$ 5e /ea'ne&
'homsky believes that the reason that children so easily master the comple" operations
of language is that they have innate knowledge of certain principles that guide them in
developing the grammar of their language. Dis theory on language learning is facilitated
by a predisposition that our brains have certain structures of language. 'hildren, without
having had any formal instruction, can consistently produce and interpret sentences that
they have never encountered before even before the age of 1. +t age 0, no one has the
cognitive ability to understand the principles of grammar as a system. It is this
e"traordinary ability to use language despite having had only very partial e"posure to the
allowable syntactic variants that led 'homsky to formulate his 9poverty of the stimulus:
argument, which was the foundation for the Mniversal >rammar hypothesis that he
proposed in the early 1A06s.
8. Pa$$e'n# %* &e+e/%)2en$ a'e un"+e'#a/
$hen children develop their language, they learn the various aspects of language in a
very similar order. If children only learned what they are taught, the order of what they
learned would vary in different environments. But Brown )1AB7* found that there is a very
specific order of 5O@;D#5# acquisition. 5orphemes are the smallest syntactic units
that can carry a meaning such as the following e"amples:
a* ;refi"es 9un: and suffi" 9%ed: in the word 9unlimited:
b* ;resent progressive Cing ) /addy 4umping*
c* ;lural Cs ) as in Gbooks=*
d* Irregular past forms ) I run C I ran*
'homsky further e"plains that human languages e"hibit remarkable similarities or
principles. These patterns are called universals. $e can find these similarities on many
linguistic levels:
i. P.%n%/%g"a/ un"+e'#a/#: 'onsonants, for e"ample, are distinguished also
according to the location of their production, that is, after the various organs of
42
the vocal tract. $ith the help of this detailed information we can now refer to
every consonant by its location and manner of articulationQ WfX, for e"ample, is a
voiceless, labiodentals fricative.
ii. S(n$a$" un"+e'#a/#: 5ost of e"isting languages have verbs, nouns, ad4ectives
and pronouns.
iii. Se2an$" un"+e'#a/#- One semantic universal regards our notion of color. There
e"ist eleven basic color terms: black, white, red, green, blue, yellow, brown,
purple, pink, orange, and grey.
9.2.8 W.a$ &%e# Un"+e'#a/ G'a22a' %n#"#$ %*0
Mniversal >rammar e"ists in the child=s mind as a system of )'"n")/e# an&
)a'a2e$e'#. The amount of all the principles cover grammar, speech sounds, and
meaning that heredity builds into the human language organ. P'"n")/e# %* Language
are rules of the language or abstract principles that permit or prohibit certain structures
from occurring in all human languages. It is the properties that all languages possess.
Kor e"ample, the principle of structure dependency asserts that knowledge of language
relies on the structural relationship in a sentence rather than on the sequence of the
words. To illustrate this, we need to establish the concept of phrase structure in the
#nglish anguage. &tudy the following e"ample:
)#nglish* The artist drew an eagle.
)Bahasa 5elayu* ;elukis itu melukis seekor burung helang.
This sentence breaks up into a noun phrase ).;* 9the artist: and verb phrase)S;* 9drew
an eagle:. These phrases also break up into smaller constituents. The ).;* 9the artist:
consists of a determiner )/et or /* Gthe= and a .oun ).* artist, while the .; 9an eagle=
consists of a determiner Gan= and a .oun Geagle=.
&entence
.oun ;hrase Serb ;hrase

/eterminer .oun Serb .oun ;hrase

43
The artist drew /eterminer .oun

an eagle
The above e"ample shows the e"istence of M> allows a speaker to follow certain rules
of grammar )a sentence has to have a sub4ect* to correctly construct a sentence in that
language.
$hereas Pa'a2e$e'# %* Language are systematic ways in which human languages
vary which determine the syntactic variability amongst languages. Kor e"ample, the use
of past tense in #nglish and +rabic which is non%e"istent in Bahasa 5elayu. ook at the
following e"ample:
i. I went to the market yesterday. #nglish ) change in verb Ggo= to Gwent=*
ii. &emalam saya pergi ke pasar. B. 5elayu ) no change in verb G pergi=*
'homsky )1A80* reiterates that M> is part of the human genetic endowment and is
coded in the anguage +cquisition Kaculty)+K*. +K is an innate component of the
human mind that yields a particular language through interaction with presented
e"perience, a device that converts e"perience into a system of knowledge attained:
knowledge of one or another language.
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1
P'e)a'e (%u' an#3e' $% $.e *%//%3"ng !ue#$"%n# *%' (%u' $u$%'"a/
#e##"%n.
E,e'"#e 9.1
a* In your own words, define Mniversal >rammar.
b* $hy did 'homsky named this innate component of the human mind as
=Mniversal >rammar=(
c* #"plain briefly with your own e"amples what is meant by =principles= in
M>.
d* #"plain briefly with your own e"amples what is meant by =parameters= in
M>.
44
e* ist and describe briefly the 7 points of critique by 'homsky on &kinner=s
Behaviourist 5odel.
Re*/e$"%n
/o you agree with 'homsky(
Ta1e a 5'ea1 5e*%'e (%u 2%+e %n $% $.e ne,$ $%)".
SESSION TWO ;8 :%u'#<
9.2.9 Un"+e'#a/ G'a22a' an& *"'#$ /anguage a!u"#"$"%n
The main questions are how M> is used and what other procedures )knowledge,
methods* play a role in the acquisition process.
Before we proceed, answer the following question.
In your own words, what does language acquisition refer to(
et=s check your answer.
anguage acquisition usually refers to first language acquisition, which studies infantsJ
acquisition of their native language. It is the process by which humans acquire the
capacity to perceive and comprehend language, and to produce and use words to
communicate. This is different from second language acquisition, which deals with the
acquisition )in both children and adults* of additional languages.
'an you describe the various stages of language acquisition of a child(
!ou may check your answers in &ession 3 and references listed in the
bibliography about Kirst language acquisition.
The processes in each stage of development show that children are able to learn the
,superficial, grammar of a particular language unconsciously because all intelligible
languages are founded on a ,deep structure, of grammatical rules that are universal and
that correspond to an innate capacity of the human brain. &tages in the acquisition of a
45
native language can be measured by the increasing comple"ity and originality of a
childJs utterances. +s illustrated by the e"ample, goed )meaning went*, children at first
may overgenerali-e grammatical rules for a form they are unlikely to have heard,
suggesting that they have intuited or deduced comple" grammatical rules )here, how to
con4ugate regular verbs* and failed only to learn e"ceptions that cannot be predicted
from a knowledge of the grammar alone.
+lthough children usually learn the sounds and vocabulary of their native language
through imitation, grammar is seldom taught to them e"plicitly whereby they could
acquire the ability to speak grammatically. This supports the theory advanced by .oam
'homsky and other proponents of transformational grammar.
De claims that children are biologically programmed for language and that language
develops in a child in 4ust the same way that other biological functions
develop)ightbown and &pada, 1AAA*. +s one of humans= biological functions, walking,
does not have to be taught. 5ost children learn to walk at about the same age as long
as adequate nourishment and reasonable freedom of movement are provided. &imilarly
language acquisition develops progressively naturally according to age due to the
e"istence of the principles and parameters of M>. #"posure to language triggers the
parameters to adopt the correct setting.
Besides, language is said to be innate because it has the following characteristics:
". Ma$u'a$"%na//( %n$'%//e&
This is because language emerge before they are critically needed and cannot
be forced before scheduled. + child follows a sequence of stages before she is
able to speak.
"". D% n%$ a))ea' a# $.e 'e#u/$ %* a %n#"%u# &e"#"%n.
+ child does not decide to consciously acquire certain skills such as walking or
learning a language.
iii. D% n%$ a))ea' &ue $% a $'"gge' *'%2 e,$e'na/ e+en$#.
$hat would prompt a child to begin speaking(
"+. A'e 'e/a$"+e/( una**e$e& 5( &"'e$ $ea."ng an& "n$en#"+e )'a$"e.
46
+lthough we correct children=s errors, it does not help them learn the rules.
+. F%//%3 a 'egu/a' #e!uene %* @2"/e#$%ne#= "n $.e"' &e+e/%)2en$.
In spite of different backgrounds, locations, and upbringings, most children follow
the same milestones in acquiring language.
+". Gene'a//( %5#e'+e a '"$"a/ )e'"%& *%' $.e"' a!u"#"$"%n.
Kor first language acquisition, there seems to be a critical period of the first five
years, during which children must be e"posed to rich language input. There is
also a period, from about 16 C 10 years, when acquisition is possible, but not
native%like.

+mong 'homsky=s arguments for his claim that children have this innate capacity,
Mniversal >rammar, are as follows (ightbown and &pada, 1AAA*:
1. Sirtually all children successfully learn their native language as a time in life when
they would not be e"pected to learn anything else so complicated. 'hildren who
are profoundly deaf will learn sign language if they are e"posed to it in infancy,
and their progress in language acquisition is similar to that of hearing children.
#ven children with very limited cognitive ability develop quite comple" language
systems if they are brought up in environments in which people talk to them and
engage them in communication.
3. 'hildren successfully master the basic structure of their native language or
dialect in a variety of conditions: some which would be e"pected to enhance
language development )for e"ample, caring, attentive parents who focus on the
child=s language* , and some which might be e"pected to inhibit it) for e"ample,
abusive or re4ecting parents*. 'hildren achieve different levels of vocabulary,
creativity, social grace, and so on, but virtually all achieve mastery of the
structure of the language spoken around them. This supports the hypothesis
that language is separate from other aspects of cognitive development and m,ay
even be located in a different part of the brain. The term Gmodular= is sometimes
used to represent the notion that the brain has different Gmodules= which serve
different kinds of knowledge and learning.
47
7. The language children are e"posed to does not contain e"amples)or, in any
case, not very many e"amples* of all the linguistic rules and patterns which they
eventually know.
2. +nimals C even primates receiving intensive training from humans C cannot learn
to manipulate a symbol system as complicated as the natural language of a three
C or four%year%old human child.
1. 'hildren seem to accomplish the comple" task of language acquisition without
having someone consistently point out to them hich of the sentences they hear
and produce are Gcorrect= and which are Gungrammatical=.
The above evidences show that direct teaching and correcting of grammar
could not account for children=s utterances because the rules of grammar children were
unconsciously acquiring are already endowed in the brain.
Thus, Mniversal grammar forms the foundation of all human language. +
universal grammar can be equated with computer languages. There are many kinds of
computer languages, but they all have some fundamental similarities. 'hildren learn
language by applying this unconscious universal grammar to the sounds they hear.
&tudies have point out how remarkable it is that human children, by the age of three and
four, without e"plicit teaching, and without over reinforcement, create new and comple"
sentences never spoken and never heard before.
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1

P'e)a'e (%u' an#3e' $% $.e *%//%3"ng !ue#$"%n# *%' (%u'
$u$%'"a/ #e##"%n.

E,e'"#e 9.2
/o you agree with 'homsky(
If you agree H disagree , what are your reasons(
#laborate your reasons with suitable e"amples.

Ta1e a 5'ea1 5e*%'e (%u 2%+e %n $% $.e ne,$ #e##"%n.
48
9.2.> Un"+e'#a/ G'a22a' an& #e%n& /anguage a!u"#"$"%n
The study of second language learning e"amines how second languages are learnedQ
how learners create a new language system with limited e"posure to a second
languageQ why most second language learners do not achieve the same degree of
proficiency in a second language as they do in their native languageQ and why some
learners appear to achieve native%like proficiency in more than one language. The main
distinction between first and second or foreign language learning is what is learned and
how it is learned. In this conte"t, you are going to look into the following question:
To what e"tent M> is available in second language acquisition(
There are different positions that have been defended by various linguists ranging from
complete availability of M> to complete unavailability.
'an you recall how second language is acquired?
earners acquire a second language by making use of e"isting knowledge of the native
language, general learning strategies, or universal properties of language to internali-e
knowledge of the second language. These processes serve as a means by which the
learner constructs an interlanguage )a transitional system reflecting the learner=s current
3 knowledge*.'ommunication strategies are employed by the learner to make use of
e"isting knowledge to cope with communication difficulties.
One of the factors that affect 3 acquisition is individual differences. Individual
differences may include: )1* the rate of development and )3* their ultimate level of
achievement. earners differ with regard to variables relating to cognitive, affective and
social aspects of a human being.
Besides that, fi"ed factors such as age and language learning aptitude are beyond
e"ternal control. Sariable factors such as motivation are influenced by e"ternal factors
such as social setting and by the actual course of 3 development.
49
+nother factor that affects 3 acquisition is cognitive style. 'ognitive style refers to the
way people perceive, conceptuali-e, organi-e and recall information. earners who are
field dependent operate holistically. They like to work with others. Kield independent
learners are analytic and prefer to work alone.
Kurthermore, there are strategies that learners use to make language learning more
successful, self%directed and en4oyable. These deliberate behaviors or actions that
learners use are called learner strategies. +mong the strategies used are cognitive,
metacognitive and social. 'ognitive strategies relate new concepts to prior knowledge.
5etacognitive strategies are those which help with organi-ing a personal timetable to
facilitate an effective study of the 3.&ocial strategies include looking for opportunities to
converse with native speakers.
'hesterfield R 'hesterfield )1A81* identified a natural order of strategies in the
development of a second language.
1. repetition )imitating a word or structure*Q
3. memori-ation )recalling songs, rhymes or sequences by rote*Q
7. formulaic e"pressions )words or phrases that function as units i.e. greetings*Q
2. verbal attention getters )language that initiates interaction*Q
1. answering in unison )responding with others*Q
0. talking to self )engaging in internal monologue*Q
B. elaboration )information beyond what is necessary*Q
8. anticipatory answers )completing another=s phrase or statement*Q
A. monitoring )self%correcting errors*Q
16. appeal for assistance )asking someone for help*Q
11. request for clarification )asking the speaker to e"plain or repeat*Q and
13. role%playing )interacting with another by taking on roles*.
+s a set of principles and parameters that constrain all human languages, M> is part of
the human genetic endowment and is encoded in the anguage +cquisition
Kaculty)+K*. +K is 9 an innate component of the human mind that yields a particular
language through interaction with presented e"perience, a device that converts
e"perience into a system of knowledge attained: knowledge of one or another
50
language.:)'homsky, 1A80*. +n e"ample of a principle of M> is the principle of structure
dependency. +nd an e"ample of a parameter is the null sub4ect parameter.
+ccording to the principle of structural dependency, grammatical rules do not depend on
the linear ordering of the words in the sentence, but on how these words are structured
within the constituents of specific types. Kor e"ample, sub4ect%au"iliary inversion in
#nglish:
a* &he will laugh.
$ill she laugh(
b* The student who is taking good notes will get an +.
$ill the student who is taking good notes will get an +.
$hereas a nu//7#u5Ae$ /anguage is a language whose grammar permits an
independent clause to lack an e"plicit sub4ect. &uch a clause is then said to have a nu//
#u5Ae$. Typically, null sub4ect languages e"press person, number, andHor gender
agreement with the referent on the verb, rendering a sub4ect noun phrase redundant. In
the principles and parameters framework, the null sub4ect is controlled by the )'%7&'%)
)a'a2e$e', which is either on or off for a particular language.
Kor e"ample, in Italian the sub4ect ,she, can be either e"plicit or implicit:
(aria non vuole mangiare. lit.W5aria not want WtoX%eatX, ,5aria does not want to
eat,.
)on vuole mangiare. lit.&ub4ect not want WtoX%eatX, ,W&heX does not want to eat.,
The sub4ect ,she, of the second sentence is only implied in Italian. #nglish and Krench,
on the other hand, require an e"plicit sub4ect in this sentence )$ikipedia ,76 October
3611*.
The logical problem of language acquisition is that, the linguistic input available to
children underdetermines the linguistic competence of adults. Thus children acquire
properties of language that are not immediately obvious and that are not e"plicitly
taught.If the child possesses only some cognitive ability to make generali-ations from
input, many features of the adult language cannot be acquired.
If the child comes to the acquisition come to the acquisition solely equipped with abilities
to make generali-ation from the input data, it would seem impossible to arrive at he
51
correct generali-ations without a great many errors. in addition, the child appears to get
little or negative evidence because adults react to meaning ad sociolinguistic
appropriateness not to errors of form .Therefore knowledge about what is and is not
possible in adult language stems in part from an innate universal grammar, containing
principles and parameters which constrain grammar in various ways.
$hat would constitute evidence for M> in &+(
+ learners= knowledge of 3 goes beyond what could be induced from the
input.
+ learners= knowledge of 3 goes beyond what could be reconstructed from
the 1 )e.g., resetting parameters*.
There are no violations of M> in interlanguage ) no 9wild grammars:*.
&hachter, F.)1A8A* tested the availability of M> in adult &+. The principle of
sub4acency is a constraint on movement, for e"ample, the movement of h% elements is
cyclical. It may not take place over more than one bounding node at a time.
1. $hat did he say that he was reading(
3. $hat does he believe that he said that he was reading(
7. $hat are they claiming that she believes that he said that he was reading(
2. $hat do you think that they are claiming that she believes that he said that
he was reading(
In the above e"amples, there are two theories about the derivation of h- movement.
1. 'yclic: #ach successively higher clause)N';* forms a separate cycle in th e
derivation of the question. #ach cycle leaves an intermediate trace.
$hat did he say Wt that he was reading t (X
3. .oncyclic:/erivation occurs in one fell swoop.
$hat did he say that he was reading t (X
Thus, the fact that there are barriers to h- movement shows that derivation must be
cyclic.
52
". 6a''"e'# $% wh-2%+e2en$- #en$en$"a/ #u5Ae$
That Tom got an G+= on his first e"am pleased him.
That Tom got an G+= on his first e"am pleased him.
V$hat did that he got on his first e"am please Tom(
"". 6a''"e'# $% wh-2%+e2en$- n%un %2)/e2en$
The fact that you didn=t send your resume shows your lack of interest.
The fact that you didn=t send your resume shows your lack of interest.
B$hat does the fact that you didn=t send prove your lack of interest.
""". 6a''"e'# $% wh-2%+e2en$- 'e/a$"+e /au#e
Bill found a principle that solves the problem of equilibrium.
Bill found a principle that solves the problem of equilibrium.
V$hich problem did Bill find a principle that solves(
"+. 6a''"e'# $% wh-2%+e2en$- e25e&&e& !ue#$"%n
They don=t know why &ue tolerates arry.
They don=t know why &ue tolerates arry.
V$ho don=t they know why &ue tolerates(
The above e"amples proved that 3 learners know about sub4acency constraints on h-
movement in #nglish. This knowledge comes from 1. If there is no movement in 1,
then the knowledge of adult second language learners must be innate, that is, adult
second language learners have access to M>.
But in another test on synta" that &chachter )1A8A* has carried out on native speakers,
Indonesians, 'hinese and Poreans the results are mi"ed. De concluded that M> is
unavailable or of limited access in &+. Bley%Sroman, Keli" R Ioup )1A88* also tested 3
learners knowledge of sub4acency violations. They concluded that M> must still be
active. $hite )1A88*,in a study of native speakers of Krench acquiring #nglish a second
language, found that the low%intermediate group had not reset the parameter, while a
high%intermediate group did.
53
Klynn )1AA0*, &hachter )1A88*, Keli" )1A81*, 'lahsen and 5uysken 1A8A* presents four
hypotheses or positions to e"plain the role of M> in &+ )logical problem*:
". CN% Ae##D :()%$.e#"#
M> is totally inaccessible to the adult 3 learnerQ learning takes place in terms of
non%linguistic learning strategies
ii. 9Pa'$"a/ Ae##D :()%$.e#"#
M> is partially available to the learner so adult 3 learner may be able to reset 1
parameters by means of general learning strategies. Only those parametric
values characterising the 1 grammar are available, but the learning principles
are not.
""". CFu// Ae##D :()%$.e#"#E C%2)/e$e Ae##
M> is fully available so 3 learner have full access to M> principles. 1 provides
learner with a Gquick setting= for the 3 parameter if the value is the same,
otherwise the 3 learner proceeds in the way as the 1 learner. The differences
in patterns of acquisition between 1 and 3 learners and the lack of
completeness can be accounted for in other ways.
"+. Dua/ ae##
3 learners have access to M> but this is partly blocked by the use of general
learning strategies.
Kurthermore there are problems with M> as a theory of &+.
1. There is no learning theory in M>. Dow does a learner identify particular bits of
language as relevant to the setting of certain parameters(
3. M> only applies to 9core 9 grammar, but there is much more grammar to be
learned than 4ust the core. +nd what about the learning of le"icon, phonology,
semantics, sociolinguistic competence, discourse structures, etc(
7. In order to test M> we must find e"tremely rare grammatical structures.
2. #ven if we concede that the solution to the logical problem of language
acquisition requires innate knowledge, need that knowledge be in the specific
form of M>(
54
1. #vidence in M> studies is obtained from grammatical 4udgments, since these are
supposed to reflect competence. But there are many problems with grammatical
4udgments: they are 4ust another kind of performance, learner=s 4udgments are
unstable, and individual differences among learners are ignored.
+nother approach is to think of M> as the theory of the language faculty and also of the
initial state. Initial state is to be understood as having a set of finite discrete principles
available at any language specific Gevent=. This definition leads to two possible models of
+:
Ma$u'a$"%n M%&e/: M> over time becomes the language specific grammar, i.e. M> and
1 are indissociable from each other M> is only fully available until 1 is fully acquired.
S$'%ng C%n$"nu"$( :()%$.e#"#: M> remains distinct from the language specific
grammar and remains constant over time and is available continuously.
@evisions in linguistic theory, proposing a 5inimalist ;rogram, shed a new light on the
role of M> in &+. It seems though, that this new theory is compatible with the approach
to language acquisition embracing the principle and parameter setting model )into which
also the &'D fits in*. 5inimalist Theory proposes that languages are based on simple
principles that interact to form often intricate structures. The anguage faculty is not
redundant and can still be the basis for grammatical mapping integration of M>
principles in the grammar of the specific T.
9.2.? I2)/"a$"%n# *%' $ea."ng
The discussion on how Mniversal >rammar relate to both 1 acquisition and 3 learning
will give language teachers an idea on how to play their roles in the teaching%learning
process in the classroom. +lthough it is argued that learning and acquisition are quite
distinct processes, a language teacher should consider the possibility that e"tensive
practice in the classroom can lead to acquisition. Dowever, it should be kept in mind that
not everything taught becomes acquired. &o, e"pectations regarding the quality of
learning should be set realistically.
55
Based on the similarities and differences between 3 and 1 acquisition, the role of
developmental sequences in the cognitive development of learners is very crucial. The
first stage is termed the silent period for learners to process language input whereby it
promotes immature production. This may be the reason why some learners resist or
avoid to produce the language taught. The second stage is the formulaic speech
whereby learners are e"posed to sample of useful and frequently phrases for learners to
refer to in communication. +nd the last stage of developmental sequence is the
application of semantic simplifications to the learners= language. This will help teachers
understand the production of imperfect language with errors related to their 1.
+nother issue to be considered is the acquisition order of language learning. By knowing
which structures are learned prior to others, teachers may be able to sequence the order
of content in the #nglish anguage syllabus to suit the learners. Pnowledge of learners=
1 may help teachers put in more time and effort on certain features of the T that are
not present in 1 when planning lessons. 5oreover teachers will have the insight into
why some learners fail to learn or have difficulty in learning certain features of the T.
anguage teachers are the main source of input to learners in the classroom. The
teacher plays an important role in the selection of comprehensible input to suit learners=
level. In order to select the appropriate input, teachers have to be equipped with the
knowledge and skills of teaching methodology.
Kurthermore, the Y;/ or Yone of ;ro"imal /evelopment is another issue related to the
similarities of 1 and 3 acquisition. Teachers have to assist their learners as much as
possible by providing them with language necessary to pass to the ne"t level of
language competence. To provide appropriate activities that promote language learning,
teachers have to consider the level of learner=s development, the cultural and social
environment. Thus the role of tests should be viewed as vital to gauge learners= abilities.
The 'ritical ;eriod hypothesis is one of the key differences leading to the variations in
1 and 3 acquisition. By knowing that children are better in pronunciation, whereas
adults are faster and better learning in rules and pragmatics, teachers will give more
practice on pronunciation for adult learners. Besides, affective factors are related to the
critical period. $hile it does not cause a problem in 1 acquisition, the learners of 3 are
faced with inhibition and attitudes. The affective states of our learners are very important
56
since these are the ma4or factors intervening in language learning. +dult or young adult
language learners need to be rela"ed and comfortable to create positive attitudes to the
language and the language learning process. In addition, teachers need to free their
learners from inhibitions so that learners can freely interact and use the language. This
can only be possible if they build up trust and understanding between themselves and
their learners. 5ore positive than negative feedback, more praise than criticism might be
the first step.

Kossili-ation is another issue only attributable to 3 acquisition. $hile all 1 learners
reach full competence in the target language, some forms in the target language of the
3 learners might be fossili-ed. Teachers can prevent fossili-ation by correcting
repeated errors of their learners or they can practise problematic language more than
non%problematic language. One should be aware that once fossili-ation takes place, it is
very difficult to get rid of. Thus, teachers should act with caution and help their learners
to prevent fossili-ation.
Kinally, social issues should be considered by teachers. &econd language learners may
choose to learn a language variety other than the standard form depending on the
speech community they are taking as a reference. Therefore, it is the teacherJs
responsibility to decide on which variety of the target language to take as the norm. It is
important to make learners aware of the different varieties of the target language, but in
terms of teaching, there should be consistency. In 5alaysia, British #nglish is the T.
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1
P'e)a'e (%u' an#3e' $% $.e *%//%3"ng !ue#$"%n# *%' (%u' $u$%'"a/
#e##"%n.
E,e'"#e 9.8

1. ist the issues to be considered when teaching #nglish language to
5alaysian primary school learners.
3. $hat are your roles as #nglish language teachers of 3
learners in relation to Mniversal >rammar.
'heck your answers with your peers and tutor.
Ta1e a 5'ea1 5e*%'e (%u 2%+e %n $% $.e ne,$ $%)".
57
TOPIC > OFERFIEW- APPROAC:ES4 MET:ODS AND
TEC:NIQUES ELT MET:ODS
>.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 1 will provide the definition of three concepts: approach, method and
technique and their relationship. It will introduce to you seven methods of #nglish
language teaching. #ach method will be discussed briefly with regards to basic
principles, key features, techniques, strengths, limitations of each method,
learner%teacher interaction, and their implications for syllabus design. Besides
you will be provided with suggested techniques to plan activities for each
method.
>.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
define and e"plain the relationship between the concepts: approach, method,
techniqueQ
state the basic principles of each methodQ
list and describe the features of each methodQ
illustrate the techniques employed in each methodQ
describe the strengths and limitations of each methodQ
describe learner%teacher interactionQ
describe the implications for &yllabus /esignQ and,
plan activities for each approachHmethod
58
>.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
59
O+e'+"e3- A))'%a.e#4 Me$.%&#4
an& Te.n"!ue# ELT Me$.%&#
ELT Me$.%&#
G'a22a'7T'an#/a$"%n Me$.%&
D"'e$ Me$.%&
Au&"%7L"ngua/ Me$.%&
S"/en$ Wa(
Sugge#$%)e&"a
C%22un"$( Language Lea'n"ng
T%$a/ P.(#"a/ Re#)%n#e
CONTENT
SESSION FIVE (6 Hours)
2.2 O+e'+"e3- A))'%a.e#4 Me$.%&#4 an& Te.n"!ue# ELT Me$.%&#
Darmer, F. )366B* defines the concept of approach to refer to theories about the nature
of language and language learning which are the source of the way things are done in
the classroom and which provide the reasons for doing them. +n approach describes
how language is used and how its constituent parts interlock C it offers a model of
language competence. It also describes how people acquire their knowledge of the
language and make statements about the conditions which will promote successful
language learning.
Darmer, F.)366B* also defines Gmethod= as the practical reali-ation of an approach. It
describes the types of activities, roles of teachers and learners and kinds of materials
and various procedures and techniques which will be helpful for language learning.
Dowever if a method takes procedures and techniques from a wide variety of sources, it
is difficult to describe it as a Gmethod=. + teaching method refers to ways of teaching
)instruction* that are based on systematic principles and procedures, that is, which is an
application of views on how a language is best taught and learned. It varies depending
on what information or skill the teacher is trying to convey through class participation,
demonstration, recitation and memori-ation. 5ethods are decided according to students
)background knowledge, environment, and learning goals* which contribute towards the
success of teaching%learning in the classroom.
GTechnique= refers to a particular procedure or activity used to accomplish a particular
ob4ective)@ichards and @odgers )1A80*.
The use and mis%use of terms such as Gapproach= or Glearning= to describe a method can
make discussions of methodology confusing. This maybe due to new insights of how the
method has been developed. Dowever the main question for a teacher is 9 /oes each
method achieve what it set out to achieve(
>.2.1 G'a22a'7T'an#/a$"%n Me$.%&
60
The >rammar%Translation 5ethod is one of the most traditional methods, dating back
to the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It is originally used to teach JdeadJ
languages )and literatures* such as atin and >reek, and this may account for its heavy
bias towards written work to the virtual e"clusion of oral production.
Ke( Fea$u'e#
1. 'lasses are taught in the studentsJ mother tongue as a medium of instruction.
Sery little
teaching in Target anguage)T*Q
3. Socabulary is taught in the form of isolated word listsQ
7. #laborate e"planations of vocabulary H grammar are always providedQ
2. @eading of difficult te"ts is begun early in the course of studyQ
1. ittle or no attention is paid to speaking or listening skillsQ
0. Often the only drills are e"ercises in translating disconnected sentencesQ
B. iterary language is superior to spoken languageQ
8. +uthority of class is the teacherQ
A. ;rimary skills to be improved : reading R writingQ
16. Kocus on accuracy .OT fluencyQ
11. ittle or no attention is given to pronunciation.
S$'eng$.#
1. T is quickly e"plained because translation is the easiest way of e"plaining
meanings or words and phrases from one language into another.
3. +n effective way for application of grammar and sentence structure.
7. Kew demands on teachers as they do not have to be fluent in the T.
2. east stressful for students as they answer comprehension questions in the
mother tongue.
L"2"$a$"%n#
1. &hows the wrong idea of what language is Hunnatural method of lang. learning C
starts with teaching of reading
3. &peech is neglected
7. Often little conte"tuali-ation of the grammar
2. The type of error correction can be harmful to the students= learning processes.
61
1. ess learners= motivation
0. 'reate frustration for learners
B. .o class time is allocated to allow students to produce their own sentences.
Lea'ne'7$ea.e' In$e'a$"%n
5ost of the interaction in the classroom is from teacher to the learners. There is little
learner initiation and little learner%to%learner interaction. earners listen, copy rules and
write out e"ercises and correct them from the blackboard. The average learner has to
work hard at what he considers laborious and monotonous chores, without much feeling
of progress in the mastery of the language, and with very little opportunity to e"press
himself through it. De has a passive role in the classroom. De absorbs and then repeats
what he has absorbed to satisfy his teacher.
A))/"a$"%n - T()"a/ Te.n"!ue#
1. Translation of a iterary ;assage
3. @eading 'omprehension ?uestions
7. /eductive +pplication of @ule
2. 'ognates )words fr. same origin*
1. Kill%in%the%blanks
0. +ntonymsH&ynonyms
B. 5emori-ation
8. 'omposition
A. Mse $ords in &entences
+lthough there are various limitations of this method, it may appeal to learners who
respond well to rules, structure and correction. This method implies that the teacher
should be a Gwalking dictionary= and proficient in both learners= language and the target
language.
Before we move on to the ne"t teaching method, try the following qui-.
Qu"G >.1
;ut a )T* for statements which are true and put an )K* for false
statements.
62
1 >T5 is originally used to teach JdeadJ languages )and literatures* such as atin and
>reek.
2 >T5 is emphasi-ed more on oral work.
3 'lasses are taught in the studentsJ mother tongue.
4 Socabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists
5 #laborate e"planations of vocabulary H grammar are always provided.
6 @eading of difficult te"ts is begun early in the course of study.
7 + lot of attention is paid to the content of te"ts
8 The only drills are e"ercises in translating disconnected sentences
9 ;ronunciation is given little or no attention
10 +n effective way for application of grammar and sentence structure.
11 >T5 gives the correct idea of what language is.
12 + lot of error correction may be harmful to students.
13 +s >T5 does not allow students to produce their own sentences, they are less motivated
to learn the language.
14 >T5 often provide little conte"tuali-ation of the grammar.
15 Kill%in%the%blanks and memori-ation are techniques that illustrate >T5.
&'O@#
To find out how you fare, check your answers.
>.2.2 D"'e$ Me$.%&
The /irect 5ethod, which arrived at the end of the nineteenth century, is a reaction to
the grammar%translation approach in an attempt to integrate more use of the target
language in instruction and in authentic situations. The teacher and learners have to
interact with one another by relating the grammatical forms that they were studying to
ob4ects and pictures to establish meaning.
Ke( Fea$u'e#
1. Instruction is conducted in the target languageQ no translation.
3. earners should be actively involved in using the language in realistic everyday
situations as the vocabulary and sentences are ordinary, everyday language.
7. &tudents are encouraged to think in the target language.
2. Oral and listening comprehension are taught. Oral communication skills are
organi-ed with the emphasis on speaking styles and correct pronunciation.
1. >rammar is taught implicitly. .ew items are taught through modeling and
practice.
0. 'oncrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, ob4ects, and pictures
whereas abstract vocabulary is taught through association of ideas.
S$'eng$.#
63
1. +n effective way in creating learners to be competent in using the target
language
communicatively because it makes the learning of #nglish interesting and lively
by establishing direct bond between a word and its meaning.
3. It is an activityHmethod facilitating alertness and participation of the pupils.
7. ;sychologically it is a sound method as it proceeds from the concrete to the
abstract.
2. 'an be usefully employed in both the best and weakest class.
1. It is the quickest way of getting started in learning a language because in a few
months over 166 of the commonest #nglish words can be learnt and used in
sentences. This serves as a strong foundation for further learning.
0. earners are able to understand what they learn, think about it and then e"press
their own ideas in correct #nglish about what they have read and learnt.
B. Kluency of speech, good pronunciation and power of e"pression are properly
developed.
L"2"$a$"%n#
1. .ot all teachers were proficient enough in the foreign language.
3. It is designed with the assumption that 3 should be learned in way in which 1
was acquired % by total immersion technique.
7. It re4ects the use of the printed word % but this ob4ection is illogical since 3
learner has already mastered his reading skills.
2. .eed a lot of time and effort to prepare teaching materials )selection, grading or
controlled presentation of vocabulary and structures* to suit learners.
1. &ince in this method, grammar is closely bound up with the reader, difficulty is
e"perienced in providing readers of such kind.
0. In larger classes, this method could not be properly applied and teaching in this
method does not suit or satisfy the needs of individual students.
Gu"&e/"ne# %* D"'e$ Me$.%& *%' $ea."ng %'a/ /anguage
/emonstrate
+ctHmodelling
;ractice
+sk questions
64
'orrect errors
Mse sentences
5ake students speak much
Mse lesson plan
Kollow plan
Peep the pace of the students
&peak normally
&peak naturally
Mse of pictures
Mse of ob4ectsH realia
Lea'ne'7$ea.e' "n$e'a$"%n
The initiation of the interaction goes both ways, from teacher to learners from learners to
teacher, although the latter is often teacher%directed. earners converse with one
another as well. earners read te"ts aloud together. The classroom is continually filled
with the sound of the foreign language, and all activity is closely linked with its use in
speech and writing. The teacher and the learners are thought of as partners in the
teaching and learning process.
A))/"a$"%n- T()"a/ Te.n"!ue#
1. ?uestion and +nswer #"ercise
3. @eading +loud
7. &tudent &elf%'orrection
2. 'onversation ;ractice
1. Kill%in%the%blank #"ercise
0. /ictation
B. ;aragraph $riting
8. 5ap /rawing
Qu"G >.2
statements.
65
1 +n attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction as a
reaction to >T5.
2 Only use the target language in class.
3 The learner should be actively involved in using the language in realistic
everyday situations.
4 &tudents are encouraged to think in the target language.
5 @eading is taught first and then speaking only and writing.
6 +n effective way in creating learners to be competent in using the target
communicatively
7 + lot of time and effort is needed to prepare teaching materials )selection,
grading or controlled presentation of vocabulary and structures* to suit
learners.
8 /5 does not require teachers to be proficient in the foreign language.
9 /5 encourages students to speak normally and naturally.
10 @eading +loud is a technique that illustrates /5.
&'O@#
>.2.8 Au&"%7L"ngua/ Me$.%&
The +udio%ingual 5ethod or +rmy 5ethod was founded during $orld $ar II for military
purposes in the M&+. It was popular in the 1A06s but died out in the B6s.This method is
based on the principles of behavioral psychology and structural linguistics. Krom
behavioral psychology it borrows the theory that constant repetition of behavior leads
to habit formation. Krom structural linguistics it borrows the theory that language can be
separated into different segments)e.g. tense, pronouns* and studied in small Gchunks=.
It adapted many of the principles and procedures of the /irect 5ethod, in part as a re%
action to the lack of speaking skills of the @eading +pproach. It focuses on students=
pronunciation, and train their ability of listening by dialogues and drills.
Ke( Fea$u'e#
1. /ependence on mimicry and memori-ation of set phrases.
3. Teaching structural patterns by means of repetitive drills.
7. ittle or no e"plicit grammatical e"planation because learners are supposed to infer
grammatical rules.
2. &kills are sequenced in the following order: listening, speaking, reading, writing.
1. earning of vocabulary in conte"t but limited.
0. Mse of tapes, language labs and visual aids
66
B. Kocus on native%like pronunciation % 9habit%forming:
8. &ome use of mother tongue by teachers is permitted, but learners are not allowed
to use it at all.
A. Immediate reinforcement )praiseHreward* of correct responses
16. 'ultural background of target language is stressed
S$'eng$.#
1. 'ontrolled drills may encourage shy students to speak.
3. Because +5 lessons and drills tend to go very quickly, they may help create a
sense of fluency for some students.
L"2"$a$"%n#
1. earners who need the written word to reinforce their speaking and listening may
find +5 very confusing.
3. +5 frequently uses non%authentic language.
7. &ome learners may be unable to make the transition from controlled drills to
more open%ended and creative language use.
2. Basic method of teaching is repetition, speech is standardised and learners turn
into parrots who can reproduce many things but never create anything new or
spontaneous. earners became better and better at pattern practice but were
unable to use the patterns fluently in natural speech situations.
1. 5echanical drills of early +udio%Sisual approach criticised as being not only
boring and mindless but also counter%productive, if used beyond initial
introduction to new structure.
0. +udio%Sisual materials were open to same sort of misuse. Tendency to regard
audio%visual materials as a teaching method in themselves, not as a teaching aid.
B. &eries of classroom studies threw doubt on claims made for language laboratory.
&howed that this costly equipment did not improve performance of 11I
beginners, when compared with same materials used on single tape%recorder in
classroom.
8. &oon became clear to teachers that audio%visual approach could only assist in
presentation of new materials. 5ore subtle classroom skills were needed for
pupils to assimilate material and use it creatively. This final vital phase was often
omitted by teachers. .ew technology caught publishers and te"t%book writers
67
unprepared % very few commercial materials were available in the early stages.
Those that did e"ist stressed oral skills and didnJt develop reading and writing
skills.
A. .ew materials necessitated e"tensive use of equipment with all associated
problems of black%out, e"tension leads, carrying tape%recorders from classroom
to classroom. &ome schools set up &pecialist% anguage rooms, but teachers still
had to set up pro4ectors and find places on tape. #quipment could break down,
pro4ector lamps e"plode, tapes tangle % not sophisticated equipment of today.
Dardware involved e"tra time, worry and problems, and, for these reasons alone,
its use gradually faded away.
There is learner%to%learner interaction in chain drills and when learners take different
roles in dialogues, but this interaction is teacher%directed. 5ost interaction is between
teacher and learners and is initiated by the teacher. The teacher is like an orchestra
leader, directing and controlling the language behaviour of her learners. &he is
responsible for providing her learners with a good model for imitation. earners are
imitators of the teacherJs model or the tapes she supplies of model speakers. They
follow the teacherJs directions and respond as accurately and as rapidly as possible.
A))/"a$"%n-T()"a/ Te.n"!ue#
1. D"a/%gue Me2%'"Ga$"%n
earners memori-e an opening dialog using mimicry and applied role%playing.
3. 6a13a'& 6u"/&7u) ;E,)an#"%n D'"//<
Teacher breaks a line into several parts, learners repeat each part starting at the
end of the sentence and ,e"panding, backwards through the sentence, adding
each part in sequence.
7. Re)e$"$"%n D'"//
earners repeat teacherJs model as quickly and accurately as possible.
2. C.a"n D'"//
earners ask and answer each other one%by%one in a circular chain around the
classroom.
1. S"ng/e S/%$ Su5#$"$u$"%n D'"//
Teacher states a line from the dialog, then uses a word or a phrase as a ,cue,
that students, when repeating the line, must substitute into the sentence in the
correct place.
68
0. Mu/$")/e7#/%$ Su5#$"$u$"%n D'"//
&ame as the &ingle &lot drill, e"cept that there are multiple cues to be substituted
into the line.
B. T'an#*%'2a$"%n D'"//
Teacher provides a sentence that must be turned into something else, for
e"ample a question to be turned into a statement, an active sentence to be
turned into a negative statement, etc.
8. Que#$"%n7an&7an#3e' D'"//
earners should answer or ask questions very quickly.
A. G'a22a' Ga2e#
Sarious games designed to practise a grammar point in conte"t, using lots of
repetition.
16. U#e %* M"n"2a/ Pa"'#
Msing contrastive analysis, teacher selects a pair of words that sound identical
e"cept for a single sound that typically poses difficulty for the learners to
pronounce and differentiate the two words.
11. C%2)/e$e $.e D"a/%gue
&elected words are erased from a line in the dialogue % learners must find and
insert.
12. D"$a$"%n
Qu"G >.8
;ut a )T* for statements which are true and put an )K* for false statements.
1 Kounded during $orld $ar II for military purposes in M&+.
2 Based on the principles of behavior psychology.
3 Kocus on learners= pronunciation, and train their ability of listening by dialogues and
drills.
4 /ependence on mimicry and memori-ation of set phrases.
5 There is little or no e"plicit grammatical e"planation.
6 Socabulary is taught in conte"t.
7 Kocus on native%like pronunciation.
8 earners are not allowed to use mother tongue at all.
9 'orrect responses are not given immediate reinforcement )praise H reward*.
69
10 'ultural background of target language is stressed.
11 Klashcards are used widely.
12 Mse of repetitive drills to teach structural patterns.
&'O@#
>.2.9 S"/en$ Wa(
The &ilent $ay is one of new methods developed in the B6s to highlight the cognitive
domain in language learning. 'aleb >attegno, the founder of the &ilent $ay, of #gypt,
although he repeatedly insisted that ,the &ilent $ay is not a method at all,, devoted his
thinking to the importance of problem solving approach in education. De contends that
the method is constructivist and leads the learners to develop their own conceptual
models of all the aspects of the language. The best way of achieving this is to help
students to be e"perimental learners.
The use of the word ,silent, is also significant, as &ilent $ay is based on the premise
that the teacher should be as silent as possible in the classroom in order to
encourage the learner to produce as much language as possible. +s far as the
presentation of language is concerned, &ilent $ay adopts a highly structural
approach, with language taught through sentences in a sequence based on
grammatical comple"ity, described by some as a ,building%block, approach)Bowen,
T. )3611*.
Ke( Fea$u'e#
The &ilent $ay )&$*is characteri-ed by its focus on discovery, creativity, problem
solving and the use of accompanying materials. @ichards and @odgers
)1A80:AA* summari-ed the method into three ma4or features.
1. Lea'n"ng "# *a"/"$a$e& "* $.e /ea'ne' &"#%+e'# %' 'ea$e#. The &$ belongs to
the tradition of teaching that favors hypothetical mode of teaching )as opposed to
e"pository mode of teaching* in which the teacher and the learner work
cooperatively to reach the educational desired goals)Bruner, 1A00*. The learner
is not a bench bound listener but an active contributor to the learning process.
2. Lea'n"ng "# *a"/"$a$e& 5( a%2)an("ng ;2e&"a$"ng< ).(#"a/ %5Ae$#. The
&$ uses colorful charts and rods )cuisinere rods* which are of varying length.
70
They are used to introduce vocabulary ) colors, numbers, ad4ectives, verbs* and
synta" )tense, comparatives, plurals, word order Z*
3. Lea'n"ng "# *a"/"$a$e& 5( )'%5/e2 #%/+"ng "n+%/+"ng $.e 2a$e'"a/ $% 5e
/ea'ne&. This can be summari-ed by Ben4amin Kranklin=s words:
9Tell me and I forget
Teach me and I remember
Involve me and I learn:
+ good &$ learner is a good problem solver. The teacher=s role resides only in
giving minimum repetitions and correction, remaining silent most of the times,
leaving the learner struggling to solve problems about the language and get a grasp
of its mechanism.
S$'eng$.#
1. earning through problem solving looks attractive especially because it fosters
creativity, discovery, increase in intelligent potency and long term memory.
3. The indirect role of the teacher highlights the importance and the centrality of the
learner who is responsible in figuring out and testing the hypotheses about how
language works. In other words teaching is subordinated to learning because
good learning demands that any language learner carefully observe his or her
own speech.
L"2"$a$"%n#
1. The &$ is often criticised of being a harsh method. The learner works in isolation
and communication is lacking badly in a &ilent $ay classroom because it does
not provide learners the language for everyday situations.
3. .either the learners work with authentic, culturally based materials nor they hear
authentic speech in the instruction.
7. 5inimum help on the part of the teacher because she offers neither praise nor
criticism and does not allow questions makes learning inefficient.
71
4. The material )the rods and the charts )called GKidels=*, which are difficult to get,
used in this method will certainly fail to introduce all aspects of language. Other
materials will have to be introduced.
Lea'ne'7$ea.e' "n$e'a$"%n
Kor much of the learner%teacher interaction, the teacher is silent. De is still very active,
however, setting up situations to ,force awareness,, listening attentively to studentsJ
speech, and silently working with them on their production. $hen the teacher does
speak, it is to give clues, not to model the language. earner%learner verbal interaction
is desirable and is therefore encouraged. The teachersJ silence is to allow for this. The
teacher constantly observes the learners and helps them overcome negative feelings
which might interfere with learning.
A))/"a$"%n-Te.n"!ue ) eela 5ohd. +li, 1A8A*
earners learn the language through its sounds. The color%coded Kidel 'harts are used
to help learners learn spellings that correspond to sounds and progress to
reading and pronouncing words correctly. The teacher sets up situations that
focus learner attention
on structures, and provides a vehicle for learners to perceive meaning. The teacher uses
the learnersJ errors to ascertain the language the learners are unclear about, and
determines what to work on based on this. earners receive a great deal of
practice with a structure without repetition for its own sake. They gain autonomy
in the language by e"ploring it and making choices. earners take responsibility
for their own learning. ;F%'
/e##%n# u#"ng S"/en$ Wa( #ea'. %n (%u$u5e.%2<.
Qu"G 9.9
statements.
1 The &ilent $ay emphasi-es the importance of problem solving approach in
education.
3 The teacher constantly observes and interferes by correcting errors all the
time.
7 &$ is based on the premise that the teacher should be as silent as possible
72
in the classroom in order to encourage the learner to produce as much
language as possible.
2 In &$, learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates, accompanied
by)mediating* physical ob4ects or by problem solving involving the material to
be learned.
1 The strength of &$ is that the learner is given more importance and the
centrality because he is responsible in figuring out and testing the hypotheses
about how language works.
0 earners work with authentic, culturally based materials and hear authentic
speech in the instruction.
B In &$, communication is lacking badly as it does not provide learners the
language for everyday situations.
8 In the &$ when the teacher does speak, it is to give clues, not to model the
language.
A The teacher role is to set up situations that focus learner attention on
structures, and provides a vehicle for learners to perceive meaning.
16 The teacher uses the learnersJ errors to ascertain the language the learners
are unclear about, and determines what to work on based on this.
>.2.> Sugge#$%)e&"a
&uggestopedia is a teaching method which is based on a modern understanding of how
the human brain works and how we learn most effectively. It was developed by the
Bulgarian doctor and psychotherapist >eorgi o-anov who believes that 9earning is a
matter of attitude, not aptitude:.The term J&uggestopediaJ, derived from suggestion and
pedagogy, is often used loosely to refer to similar accelerated learning approaches.
Dowever, o-anov reserves the title strictly for his own method, and he has his own
training and certification facilities. &uggestopedia was originally applied mainly in foreign
language teaching, and it is often claimed that it can teach languages appro"imately
three times as quickly as conventional methods (o-anov, >.,1AB8*.
This method includes elements such as the use of rela"ing music, art and the additional
importance that is given to the learning environment as well as the authoritative
behaviour of the teacher )@ichards R @odgers, 3661*. The most distinguishing feature of
&uggestopedia, however, is the aim to 9help the students achieve W...X childlike
openness, plasticity and creativity: by putting them into a state called 9infantali-ation:
)&tevick, 1AB0, p. 110*. This act of lowering a learnerJs ,affective filter, % in other words
by removing distractions or negative feelings which may inhibit language learning.
73
A))/"a$"%n- Te.n"!ue
The key elements of &uggestopedia include a rich sensory learning environment
)pictures, colour, music, etc.*, a positive e"pectation of success and the use of a varied
range of methods: dramatised te"ts, music, active participation in songs and games, etc.
&uggestopedia adopts a carefully structured approach, using four main stages as
follows:
P'e#en$a$"%n
+ preparatory stage in which learners are helped to rela" and move into a positive
frame of mind, with the feeling that the learning is going to be easy and fun.
F"'#$ C%ne'$ 7 HA$"+e C%ne'$H
This involves the active presentation of the material to be learnt. Kor e"ample, in a
foreign language course there might be the dramatic reading of a piece of te"t,
accompanied by classical music.
Se%n& C%ne'$ 7 HPa##"+e Re+"e3H
The learners are now invited to rela" and listen to some Baroque music, with the
te"t being read very quietly in the background. The music is specially selected to
bring the learners into the optimum mental state for the effortless acquisition of the
material.
P'a$"e
The use of a range of games, pu--les, etc. to review and consolidate the learning.
There are two phases incorporated in this approach:
earners learn new information very quickly and efficiently in a state of light rela"ation
accompanied by Baroque or classical music. This new material which has been acquired
7 to 1 times faster than with traditional learning techniques, is now stored passively in
the brain. It is then activated by means of creative, interactive and communicative
learning techniques, i.e. grammar games, role play, etc. which contribute not only to
recall and retention but also to the communication skills and personality development of
the students.
S$'eng$.#
74
It deals with the learners own often quite harmful and often quite negative feelings about
their own abilities. It sets up a non%evaluative classroom atmosphereQ thus it also avoids
both critici-ing and praising. The processes of desuggestion and resuggestion requires
the teacher to make deliberate and skillful use of the general learning atmosphere.
Teachers need to be lively, cheerful, and efficient )eela 5. +., 1A8A*.
L"2"$a$"%n#
Teacher needs to be well%trained and have the right personalityQ otherwise, this method
will not be completely effective. It is unclear how successful this method would be with
younger children)ibid, 1A8A*.
The teacher initiates interactions with the whole group of learners and with individuals
right from the beginning of a language course. Initially, the learners only respond
nonverbally or with a few target language words they have practised. ater the learners
have more control of the target language and respond more appropriately and may
initiate interaction themselves. earners interact with each other from the beginning in
various activities directed by the teacher. The teacher is the authority in the classroom.
The learners must trust and respect her in order for the method to succeed.
Qu"G 9.>
1 &uggestopedia is a teaching method which is based on a modern
understanding of how the human brain works and how we learn most
effectively.
3 The use of games in this method is for fun only.
7 earners do not interact with each other from the beginning in various
activities directed by the teacher.
2
9Infantali-ation: refers to the act of lowering a learnerJs ,affective filter, by
removing distractions or negative feelings which may inhibit language
learning.
1
The are four main stages of &uggestopedia : ;resentationQ Kirst 'oncert %
75
,+ctive 'oncert,Q&econd 'oncert % ,;assive @eview, and ;ractice.
0 &econd 'oncert % ,;assive @eview, is the second stage where the learners
are now invited to rela" and listen to some Baroque music, with the te"t being
read very quietly in the background.
B By avoiding both critici-ing and praising, &uggestopedia provides a non%
evaluative classroom atmosphere.
8 Teacher need not be well%trained and have the right personality completely
effective.
A The teacher initiates interactions with the whole group of learners and with
individuals right from the beginning of a language course.
16 The teacher is the authority in the classroom.
&'O@#
>.2.? C%22un"$( Language Lea'n"ng
'ommunity anguage earning)'* takes its principles from the 9'ounseling earning
+pproach: developed by 'harles +. 'urran. It was created especially for adult learners
who might fear to appear foolish Q so the teacher becomes a anguage 'ounselor , who
understands them and leads them to overcome their fears. It follows Prashen=s 5onitor
Theory )+ffective Kilter Dypothesis* and the 'ognitive Theory where the human mind is
active )&tevick, 1A86*.
Ke( Fea$u'e# )Open Mniversity 5alaysia, 3663*
1. earning is more important than teaching. earning develops itself, and the
learners only need occasional help.
3. ' provides learners with opportunities to guide their own learning to decide
what they want to learn, and to learn at their own pace. The teacher is not in
control of the class.
7. 'ooperation is important. &mall group activities encourage interaction among
learners. earning is achieved through cooperation, not competition.
2. Kocus is on fluency rather than proficiency. The purpose of using language is to
convey messages and develop creative thinking. >rammatical correctness is less
important.
1. The teacher does not correct errors immediately. $hen a learner produces an
incorrect utterance, the teacher provides a model by producing he correct
utterance.
76
eela )1A8A* summari-es this method using the formula &++@@/: &%&ecurity, +%
+ssertion, +%+ttention, @%@eflection, @%@etention, and /%/iscrimination. earners are
viewed as whole personsQ thus, the relationships and understanding among learners as
a ,knower%counselor, and the learner as a learner are responsible for bringing their own
unique resources to the learning e"perience.
S$'eng$.#
1. earners appreciate the autonomy ' offers them and thrive on analysing their
own conversations.
3. ' works especially well with lower levels who are struggling to produce spoken
#nglish.
7. The class often becomes a real community, not 4ust when using ' but all of the
time. earners become much more aware of their peers, their strengths and
weaknesses and want to work as a team )Bertrand, F.,3662*.
2. By having the learners work with the content of their own choosing and creation,
they are intimately involved with the material. 5eanwhile, the teacher attends
more closely to the structuring of the class and to the highlighting of the
materials. By listening to the learners in structured feedback sessions, the
teacher establishes an atmosphere of security which helps minimi-e behaviour
problems) eela, 1A8A*.
L"2"$a$"%n#
1. In the beginning some learners find it difficult to speak on tape while others might
find that the conversation lacks spontaneity.
3. $e as teachers can find it strange to give our learners so much freedom and
tend to intervene too much.
7. In your efforts to let your learners become independent learners you can neglect
their need for guidance.
77
2. If the teacher lacks emotional or intellectual sensitivity or lacks skill at teaching,
this method will be rendered ineffective. The teacher needs to be very good at
both languages.
It is neither learner%centered not teacher%centered but rather teacher%learner centered
with both making decisions in the class. Building a relationship with and among learners
is very important. In a trusting relationship, the threat that learners feel is reduced, and
non%defensive learning is promoted. earners learn from their interaction with the
teacher. + spirit of cooperation, not competition must prevail. +t times the teacher
facilitates the learnersJ ability to e"press themselves, and at times the teacher is in%
charge and providing direction. Thus the nature of learner%teacher interaction changes
within the lesson and over time.
A))/"a$"%n - Te.n"!ue#
+t the beginning learners speak in the native language and the teacher helps them
e"press what they want to say by supplying them with the target language translations in
chunks. The chunks which the learners produce are recorded, and when replayed sound
like a conversation. ater a transcription is made and it becomes the ,te"t, with which
learners work. Sarious activities are then conducted )e.g. e"amination of a grammar
point, working on the pronunciation of a particular phrase, or creating new sentences
with words from the transcript* that allow the students to further e"plore the language
they generated. /uring the course of the lesson, learners are invited to say how they
feel.
Qu"G 9.?
1 ' takes its principles from the 9'ounseling earning +pproach: : a teacher
is the counselor who understands learners and leads them to overcome their
fears.
3 ' provides learners with opportunities to guide their own learning to
decide what they want to learn, and to learn at their own pace.
78
7 ' encourages competition rather than cooperation.
2 Kocus is on fluency rather than proficiency
1 The teacher does not correct errors immediately but provides a model by
producing he correct utterance when a learner produces an incorrect
utterance.
0
' works especially well with lower levels who are struggling to produce
spoken #nglish.
B The nature of learner%teacher interaction changes within the lesson and over
time.
8 The teacher have to be emotionally or intellectually sensitive for learning to
be effective.
A The teacher translates chunks of language from learners= native language to
the target language.
16 'reates a trusting relationship between teacher and learner because the
threat that learners feel is reduced, and non%defensive learning is promoted.
&'O@#
>.2.I T%$a/ P.(#"a/ Re#)%n#e
Total ;hysical @esponse )T;@*, developed by /r. Fames +sher in 1ABB is based upon
principles of child language acquisition, in which the child gives physical responses
when listening to language. T;@=s ultimate instructional goal is to teach oral proficiency
and conversational fluency. The emphasis is not on te"t or other media, but initially on
voice, action and gestures. Instruction is given in target language only. T;@ recogni-es
the value of language being associated with physical responses.
Kollows a grammar%based view of language that focuses on meaning, not form.
Based upon principles of child language acquisition, which proposes that the
human brain has a set pattern for learning language.
+ssessment types compatible with the method include evaluation of learner
actions and gestures when given non%written prompt, eventually moving towards
learner composition.
Ke( Fea$u'e#
+ccording to +sher, the language learning theories are similar to those of other
behavioral psychologists. The principals that help elaborate his idea are:
1. &econd language learning is parallel to first language learning and should reflect
the same naturalistic processes.
79
3. istening should develop before speaking.
7. Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech develops naturally
and effortlessly out of it.
2. +dult learners should use right%brain motor activities, while the left hemisphere
watches and learns.
S$'eng$.#
1. +llows learners to get up and move while learning and encourages a more
rela"ed learning environment that can easily incorporate humour.
3. Delps retention by associating movement with words.
7. It is fun and easy. earners will en4oy getting up out of their chairs and moving
around.
2. &imple T;@ activities do not require a great deal of preparation on the part of the
teacher. Dowever, some other more comple" applications might.
1. ,T;@ is aptitude%free,. It is inclusive working well with a mi"ed ability class.
0. It is good for kinesthetic learners who need to be active in the class.
B. It is a good tool for building vocabulary.
8. It is memorable. +ctions help strengthen the connections in the brain.
A. 'lass si-e need not be a problem.
L"2"$a$"%n#
1. .ot as effective in higher levels of language learning.
3. /oes not promote independent language use outside of oral work modeled by
teacher in classroom.
7. earner needs for unrehearsed language not always met.
2. $hile it can be used at higher levels T;@ is most useful for beginners. It is also
at the higher levels where preparation becomes an issue for the teacher.
1. earners are not generally given the opportunity to e"press their own thoughts in
a creative way.
0. It is easy to overuse T;@. ,+ny novelty, if carried on too long, will trigger
adaptation., ,.o matter how e"citing and productive the innovation, people will
tire of it.,
B. The teacher may find that it is limited in terms of language scope. 'ertain target
languages may not be suited to this method.
8. It can be a challenge for shy learners.
80
Lea'ne'7Tea.e' In$e'a$"%n
The teacher interacts with the whole group of learners and with individual learners.
Initially, the interaction is characteri-ed by the teacher speaking and the learners
responding nonverbally. ater on, the learners become more verbal and the teacher
responds nonverbally. earners perform actions together or individually. earners learn
from each other. +s learners begin to speak, they issue commands to, their peers as
well as to the teacher.
A))/"a$"%n- Te.n"!ue#
In the first phase of the lesson, the instructor issues commands to learners, then
performs the actions with them. In the second phase, learners demonstrate that they
understand the commands by performing them on their own. The teacher then combines
elements from different commands to allow learners to develop fle"ibility in
understanding unfamiliar utterances. +fter learning to respond to oral commands, the
learners learn to read and write them. $hen learners are ready to speak they issue the
commands. earners speak only when they are ready to do soQ this avoids an"iety.
Qu"G 9.I
1 The emphasis in T;@ is initially on voice, action and gestures.
3 T;@ follows a grammar%based view of language that focuses on meaning, not
form.
7 &peaking should develop before listening.
2 It works well with a mi"ed ability class especially for kinesthetic learners.
1 Delps retention by associating movement with words because actions help
strengthen the connections in the brain.
0 /oes not promote independent language use outside of oral work modeled by
teacher in classroom.
B earners are given the opportunity to e"press their own thoughts in a creative
way.
8 Interaction occurs between the teacher and learners and learners with other
81
learners.
A Krom the beginning the instructor issues commands to learners and they
perform the actions without any modeling.
16 earners speak only when they are ready to do so to avoid an"iety.
To find out how you fare, check your answers with your peers or tutor.
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1 9. J
I. 'reate a >O to compare and contrast the B teaching methods with regards to :
- Background
- ;rinciples
- Pey features
- @oles of student and teacher
- Techniques
- &trengths
- imitations
II. 'hoose one teaching method. /iscuss your rationale for choosing the method
with regards to its strengths and how would you overcome t its weaknesses(
III. Kor each method, list the implications for #nglish language teaching.
Ta1e a 5'ea1 5e*%'e (%u 2%+e %n $% $.e ne,$ $%)".
TOPIC ? ELT MET:ODS- COMMUNICATIFE APPROAC:
?.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 0 introduces you to key concepts of 'ommunicative +pproach or presently
known as 'ommunicative anguage Teaching. It provides insights into the
principles and techniques, strengths and limitations of the approach. !ou will
also look into the role of the teacher, learners and resources in this approach.
?.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
82
1. e"plain the principles of the 'ommunicative +pproach
0. identify the techniques used in the 'ommunicative +pproach
B. list the strengths and limitations of the approach
8. e"plain the role of the teacher, learners and resources in the
'ommunicative +pproach
?.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
SESSION SI (3 Hours)
?.2.1 C%ne)$ %* C%22un"a$"+e A))'%a.
The 'ommunicative +pproach which emerged in the early 1AB6s can be
traced to the work of 'homsky in the 1A06s. 'homsky reacted against the
83
prevalent audio%lingual method and its views. De proposed the two notions of
JcompetenceJ and JperformanceJ which were related to language learning. These
two concepts were later developed by Dymes, into the term Jcommunicative
competenceJ. +ccording to Dedge )3666* communicative competence refers to
the psychological, cultural and social rules which discipline the use of speech. It
concerns not only the knowledge of language but also ability to put that
knowledge into use in communication, in other words, knowing when and how to
say what to whom. /imensions of communicative competence include linguistic
or grammatical competence, sociolinguistic or pragmatic competence, discourse
competence and strategic competence )@ichards R @ogers, 1A80Q Dedge, 3666*
and fluency )Dedge, 3666*.
+ccording to Bygate )3661*, the communicative approach provides learners
with an opportunity to use language for communication purposes without
focusing on accuracy. The aims of the communicative approach are:
Gto make communicative competence the goal of language teaching=
Gdevelop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills that
acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication=
)@ichards and @odgers, 1A80*
The communicative approach is a learner%centred approach to language
learning. &ince the main aim of the approach is to prepare learners for
meaningful communication, errors made by learners are tolerated.
?.2.2 P'"n")/e# %* C%22un"a$"+e A))'%a.
Below are some of the principles of the 'ommunicative +pproach.
+uthentic languageHlanguage used in real conte"t is introduced.
'ommunicative approach seeks to use authentic resources as they are
more interesting and motivating. In the language classroom, authentic
te"ts serve as partial substitute for a community of native speakers.
84
.ewspapers and maga-ine articles, poems, manuals, recipes, telephone
directories, videos, news bulletins, discussion programmes can be
e"ploited in variety of ways.
;art of being communicatively competent is figuring out speaker=s or
writer=s intention.
The target language is a vehicle for classroom communications not 4ust
the ob4ect of study. The target language is used as the medium for
classroom management and instruction.
'lassroom activities ma"imise opportunities for learners to use target
language in a communicative way through meaningful activities. #mphasis
is on meaning )messages they are creating or task they are completing*
rather than form )correctness of language and language structure*.
+ variety of language forms are presented together with the emphasis on
the process of communication.
&tudents work with language at the discourseHsuprasentential level C
learn about coherence and cohesion.
>ames are important because they have certain features in common with
real communicative eventsUthere is a purpose for the e"change. The
speaker receives immediate feedback from the listener on whether or not
he or she has successfully communicated
Teaching is more learner%centered. &tudents are more involved,
rather than only listening to the teacher. &tudents are given opportunities
to e"press their ideas and opinions and to contribute as much as
85
possible.
#rrors are tolerated and seen as a natural outcome of the development of
communication skills. earners doing their best to use the language
creatively and spontaneously are certain to make errors. +s such constant
correction is deemed unnecessary and sometimes even counter%
productive. Dence, activities focus on fluency where the teacher does not
correct the student, but simply notes the error, which he will return to at a
later point. Thus, the form of language becomes secondary.
One of the teacher=s ma4or responsibilities is to establish situations likely
to promote communication. Teachers should provide opportunities for
rehearsal of real%life situations and provide opportunity for real
communication. #mphasis should be on creative role%playsH simulationsH
surveysH pro4ectsH playlets which produce spontaneity and improvisation
and not mere repetition and drills
'ommunicative interaction encourages cooperative relationships among
students. It gives students an opportunity to work on negotiating meaning.
The use of pair%work and group%work activities is common as well as
individual and also teacher%led activities. Saried types of interaction
are encouraged. earners hear more types of language from different
sources, interact with more people and use language in conte"t which
further helps to build confidence in the students.
The social conte"t of the communicative event is essential in giving
meaning to the utterances. anguage is viewed and learned within its
social and cultural conte"t whereby learners need to develop knowledge
of t h e l a n g u a g e in order to develop appropriate language use,
86
for e"ample talking to friends, facilitating a meeting, or writing letters.
The teacher acts as a facilitator in setting up communicative activities
and as an advisor during the activities.
In communicating, a speaker has a choice not only about what to say, but
also how to say it.
Both fluency and accuracy are important as learning to use language
forms appropriately is an important part of communicative competence.
>rammar is necessary for communication to occur, but not sufficient by
itself. The grammar and vocabulary that the students learn follow from
the function, situational conte"t, and the roles of the interlocutors.
&tudents need grammatical e"planations, drills and e"ercises, when and
only when they are appropriate.
&tudents should be given opportunities to listen to language as it is used
in authentic communication. They may be coached on strategies for how
to improve their comprehension.
The use of visual stimuli or resources is important to provoke practical
communicative languages as they help to motivate and focus pupilsJ
attention.
Both spoken and written languages are important. @eading, writing,
speaking and listening are all necessary parts of communicative
competence.
87
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1-
$hat are the implications of the principles above in your teaching conte"t(
/o you have other principles that support your teaching(
?.2.8 Te.n"!ue# %* C%22un"a$"+e A))'%a.
'ommunicative +pproach uses almost any activity or technique that
allows students to be engaged in authentic communication. ittewood has
distinguished two ma4or activity types:

functional communication activities: these activities are aimed at
developing certain language skills and functions, but which involve
communication, such as language games , scrambled sentences , picture
strip story, pu--les
social interaction activities include activities such as conversation and
discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays, simulation, information%gap
activity
?.2.9 S$'eng$.# an& L"2"$a$"%n# %* C%22un"a$"+e A))'%a.
'ommunicative +pproach like the other language teaching methods has
its strengths and limitations. Below are some of the strengths of 'ommunicative
+pproach:
88
There is greater focus on the role of learners with a shift from teacher%
centered instruction to learner%centred instruction.
There is greater attention on the process of learning rather than the
products that the learners produce.
There is greater attention on the social nature of learning rather than
looking at learners as separate, deconte"uali-ed learners.
There is greater focus on the diversity of learners and looking at the
differences not as obstacles but as resources.
Delps to promote holistic learning.
#mphasis on the importance of meaning rather than drills and other forms
of rote learning.
Siews learning as a life%long process rather than being e"am%oriented.
Below are some of the limitations of 'ommunicative +pproach:
The communicative approach focuses on the use of language in everyday
situations, or the functional aspects of language, and less on the formal
structures. Dowever, critics believe that there needs to be some sort of
,bridge, between the two in order for effective language learning.
The approach relies e"tensively on the functional%notational syllabus
which places heavy demands on the learners.
The various categories of language functions are overlapping and not
systematically graded like the structures of the language.
+ ma4or premise underlying this approach is its emphasis on learnersJ
needs and interests. This implies that every teacher should modify the
syllabus to correspond with the needs of the learners.
The approach gives priority to meanings and rules of use rather than to
grammar and rules of structure. The latter are taught by means of
89
functions and notions. &uch concentration on language behavior may
result in negative consequences in the sense that important structures
and rules may be left out.
The requirements are difficult: availability of a classroom that can allow for
group work activities and for teaching aids and materials.
?.2.> R%/e %* $ea.e'4 /ea'ne'# an& 'e#%u'e#
?.2.>.1R%/e %* $ea.e'
The teacher facilitates communication in the classroom. In this role, one
of his ma4or responsibilities is to establish situations likely to promote
communication. /uring the activities he acts as an adviser, answering students=
questions and monitoring their performance. De might make note of their errors
to be worked on at a later time during more accuracy%based activities. +t other
times he might be a Gco%communicator= engaging in the communicative activity
along with students )ittlewood, 1A81*.
?.2.>.2 R%/e %* /ea'ne'#
&tudents are communicators. They are actively engaged in negotiating
meaningUin trying to make them understood and in understanding others.
&ince the teacher=s role is less dominant than in a teacher%centered method,
students are seen as more responsible managers of their own learning
?.2.>.8 R%/e %* 'e#%u'e#
90
One of the principles of 'ommunicative +pproach is the use of authentic
resources. 'ommunicative approach seeks to use authentic resources as they
are more interesting and motivating. +uthentic resources are used to:
;rovide cultural information about the target language
;rovide e"posure to real language
@elate more closely to learners= needs
+llow for a more creative approach to teaching
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1-
Dow useful are authentic resources in your classroom(
$hat difficulties do you encounter when you use authentic resources(
Dow do you prepare your students to achieve communicative competence(
91
TOPIC I ELT MET:ODS
I.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic B provides input on three different #T methods namely the e"ical
+pproach, #clectic +pproach and Task%Based earning.
I.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
A. e"plain what is e"ical +pproach
16. e"plain what is #clectic +pproach
92
11. e"plain what is Task%Based earning
I.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
SESSION SEVEN (3 Hours)
I.2.1 Le,"a/ A))'%a.
The e"ical +pproach develops many of the principles advanced by the
'ommunicative +pproach. It was proposed by /ave $illis in 1AA6 and
popularised by 5ichael ewis in 1AA7.The most important difference is the
increased understanding of the nature of le"is in naturally occurring language,
and its potential contribution to language pedagogy. The le"ical approach to
second language teaching is seen as an alternative to grammar based
approaches.
93
The le"ical approach focuses on developing learners= proficiency through
le"is, or words and word combinations. +ccording to ewis )1AA7* an important
part of language acquisition is the ability to comprehend and produce le"ical
phrases as unanaly-ed wholes, or 9chunks,: and that these chunks become the
raw data by which learners perceive patterns of language traditionally thought of
as grammar. e"is is deemed as central in creating meaning. +s such, language
instruction focuses on relatively fi"ed e"pressions that occur frequently in spoken
language, such as, 9I=m sorry,: 9I didn=t mean to make you 4ump,: or 9That will
never happen to me,: rather than on originally created sentences .
ewis )1AA7*, who termed the phrase le"ical approach, has suggested the
following:
[ e"is is the basis of language.
[ e"is is misunderstood in language teaching because it is assumed that
grammar is the basis of language and as such mastery of the
grammatical system is a requirement for effective communication.
[ The key notion of a le"ical approach is that 9language consists of
grammaticalised le"is not le"icalised grammar.:
[ One of the central organi-ing principles of any meaning centered
syllabus should be le"is.
ewis )1AAB* has also suggested the following ta"onomy of le"ical items:
[ words )e.g., book, pen*
[ polywords )e.g., by the way, upside down*
[ collocations, or word partnerships )e.g., community service, absolutely
convinced*
[ institutionali-ed utterances )e.g., I=ll get itQ $e=ll seeQ That=ll doQ If I were
you . . .Q $ould you like a cup of coffee(*
[ sentence frames and heads )e.g., That is not as . . . as you thinkQ The
factHsuggestionHproblemHdanger was . . . * and even te"t frames )e.g., In
this paper we e"plore . . .Q Kirstly . . .Q &econdly . . .Q Kinally . . .*
94
Below are the key principles of the e"ical +pproach:
anguage consists of grammaticalised le"is, not le"icalised grammar.
The grammarHvocabulary dichotomy is invalidQ much of language
consists of multi%words JchunksJ.
+ vital element of language teaching is raising studentsJ awareness of,
and developing their ability to JchunkJ language successfully.
+lthough structural patterns are known as useful, le"ical and
metaphorical patterning are accorded appropriate status.
'ollocation is integrated as an organising principle within syllabuses.
The central metaphor of language is holistic.
It is the co%te"tual rather than the situational element of conte"t which is
of primary importance for language teaching.
>rammar as a receptive skill, involving the perception of similarity and
difference, is prioritised.
@eceptive skills, particularly listening, are given enhanced status.
The ;resent%;ractice%;roduce paradigm is re4ected, in favour of a
paradigm based on the Observe%Dypothesi-e%#"periment cycle.
+ctivities used t o develop learners= knowledge of le"ical chains
include the following:
Intensive and e"tensive listening and reading in the target
language.
[ Kirst and second language comparisons and translation are
carried out chunk%for%chunk rather than word%for%word and this
95
is aimed at raising language awareness.
[ @epetition and recycling of activities, such as summari-ing a te"t
orally one day and again a few days later a r e d o n e to keep
words and e"pressions that have been learned active.
[ >uessing the meaning of vocabulary items from conte"t.
[ .oticing and recording language patterns and collocations.
[ $orking with dictionaries and other reference tools.
The language activities carried out with a le"ical approach must
be directed toward language occurring naturally. $hat is important is
rai si ng learners= awareness of the l e"i cal n a t u r e of language. The
logical implication of this premise is that we should spend more time
helping learners develop their repertoire of phrases, and less time on
grammatical structures.
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1-
/o you think the e"ical +pproach can be implemented in your classroom(
$hat possible challenges to do foresee in the implementation of the approach(
I.2.2 E/e$" a))'%a.
96
The eclectic approach is the label given to a teacherJs use of techniques
and activities from a range of language teaching approaches and methodologies.
The teacher decides what methodology or approach to use depending on the
aims of the lesson and the learners in the group. 5ost course books have a
mi"ture of approaches and methodologies.
+ typical lesson might combine elements from a variety sources such as
Total ;hysical @esponse )T;@*, Task%Based earning )TB*, the communicative
approach , e.g. in opinion gap activitiesQ the le"ical approach, e.g. focusing on
le"ical chunks in a reading te"tQ and the structural%situational approach, e.g.
establishing a conte"t for the presentation of new structures.
The following is an e"ample of a lesson using the eclectic approach.
The class begins with an inductive activity with the students asked to identify the
different uses of synonyms of movement based on a reading te"t. They then
practise these using Total ;hysical @esponse )T;@*. In the ne"t lesson the input
is recycled through a task%based lesson, with the students instructed to produce
the instructions for an e"ercise manual.
I.2.8 Ta#176a#e& Lea'n"ng ;T6L<
Originally developed by . ;rabhu in Bangalore, &outhern India, it is based
on the belief that students may learn more effectively when their minds are
focused on the task, rather than on the language they are using.
+ task%based approach aims to provide learners a natural conte"t for language
use with the primary focus of classroom activity being the task and language is
97
the instrument which the students use to complete it. The task is an activity in
which students use language to achieve a specific outcome. The activity reflects
real life and learners focus on meaningQ they are free to use any language they
want. @elevant and authentic tasks include playing a game, solving a problem or
sharing information or e"periences. 5ore recently, tasks have included pro4ects
for producing posters, brochures, pamphlets, oral presentations, radio plays,
videos, websites and dramatic performances. The characteristic of all these tasks
is that rather than concentrating on one particular structure, function or
vocabulary group, these tasks e"ploit a wider range of language. In many cases,
students may also be using a range of different communicative language skills.
In TB an activity in which students are given a list of words to use is not
considered as a genuine task. + role play which does not contain a problem%
solving element or where students are not given a goal to reach is also not
considered an authentic task.. In many role plays students simply act out their
restricted role. Kor instance, a role play where students have to act out roles as
sales person. Dowever, if the role play has a goal to it for e"ample the students
must come to an agreement or find the right solution within the given time limit
then the role play can be considered a genuine task in TB.
In task%based lessons, the tasks will generate their own language and
create an opportunity for language acquisition. The belief is that if the focus is
taken away from form and structures, teachers can develop the students= ability
to do things in #nglish. This does not mean there will be no attention paid to
accuracy, work on language is included in each task and feedback and language
focus have their places in the lesson plans. Teachers have a responsibility to
enrich their students= language when they see it is necessary but students should
be given the opportunity to use #nglish in the classroom as they use their own
languages in everyday life.
98
5any task%based lessons follow the task structure proposed by Fane $illis
)1AA0*, in her book G+ Kramework for Task%Based earning=, which outlines a
model for organi-ing lessons.
Kigure 1: The $illis TB Kramework )1AA0*
Kigure 1 shows that each task will be organi-ed in the following way:
;re%task activity an introduction to topic and task
Task cycle: Task \ ;lanning \ @eport
anguage Kocus and Keedback
Task%based learning )TB* is typically based on the three stages of $illis=s
5odel. The first of these is the pre%task stage, where the teacher introduces and
defines the topic and the learners engage in activities that either helps them to
recall words and phrases that will be useful for the main task or to learn new
99
words and phrases that are essential to the task. This stage is followed by the
,task cycle,. Dere the learners perform the task, which can be a reading or
listening e"ercise or a problem%solving e"ercise, in pairs or small groups. They
then prepare a report for the whole class on how they did the task and what
conclusions they have reached. Kinally, they present their findings to the class in
spoken or written form. The final stage is the language focus stage, during which
specific language features from the task are highlighted and worked on.
Keedback on the learners= performance at the reporting stage may also be
appropriate at this point. + balance should be kept between fluency, which is
what the task provides, and accuracy, which is provided by task feedback.
The main advantages of TB are that language is used for a genuine
purpose meaning that real communication should take place and that at the
stage where the learners are preparing their report for the whole class, they are
forced to consider language form in general rather than concentrating on a single
form unlike the ;;; model. The aim of TB is to integrate all four skills and to
move from fluency to accuracy plus fluency. The range of tasks available such as
reading te"ts, listening te"ts, problem%solving, role%plays, questionnaires, etc.
offers a great deal of fle"ibility in this model and should lead to more motivating
activities for the learners.
earners who are used to a more traditional approach based on a
grammatical syllabus may find it difficult, but if TB is integrated with a
systematic approach to grammar and le"is, the outcome can be a
comprehensive approach that can be adapted to meet the needs of all learners.
Task%based learning can be very effective at intermediate levels and beyond, but
many teachers question its usefulness at lower levels. In general, the
methodology requires a change in the traditional teacherJs role.
100
Tu$%'"a/ $a#1-
$hich of the approaches above can you adapt to your own teaching conte"t(
$hat are the possible problems you may encounter in using the above
approaches(
TOPIC J SYLLA6US DESIGN MALAYSIAN PRIMARY
SC:OOL ENGLIS: CURRICULUM
J.0 SYNOPSIS
+s you already know about the Purikulum Bersepadu &ekolah @endah)PB&@*
3661, Topic 8 introduces you to the Purikulum &tandard &ekolah @endah
)P&&@* 3611. +s education plays a very important role in achieving national
unity, the PB&@ was developed to attain national identity and unity. The national
education policy is based on the @a-ak @eport A1A10* and the @ahman Talib
@eport)1A06*. These reports formed the bases of the #ducation Ordinance 1A1B
and the #ducation +ct 1A01 respectively.
In introducing P&&@, this unit will also help you to recap your knowledge of the
aims and ob4ectives and features of PB&@. The discussion include the curriculum
content: learning outcomes, language content and educational emphases of the
101
PB&@. ;edagogical approaches which are employed in the teaching of #nglish
will also be taken into account.
!ou will be e"posed to the principles of P&&@, its aims and ob4ectives and
curriculum documents. Kurthermore the modular approach will be e"plained.
J.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. state the aims and ob4ectives in the PB&@ #nglish language &yllabusQ
3. identify and categorise the language components and skills by listing their
reference numbersQ
7. state the goals and principles of the P&&@Q
2. list and briefly describe the curriculum transformationQ
1. e"plain the modular approach in teaching #nglish in the primary school.
J.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
102
KURIKULUM 6ERSEPADU
SEKOLA: RENDA: 2001
;K6SR<
KURIKULUM STANDARD
SEKOLA: RENDA: 2011
;KSSR<
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
CURRICULUM
SPECIFICATION
LANGUAGE
CONTENT
EDUCATIONAL
EMP:ASES
CONTENT
SESSION EIG:T ;8 :%u'#<
J.8 S(//a5u# De#"gn 7 Ma/a(#"an P'"2a'( S.%%/ Eng/"#. Cu''"u/u2
7 ;rinciples
% Techniques
% &trengthsHimitations
% @ole of Teacher, earners, and @esources
et=s recap what you know about PB&@.
!ou have to read the e"tract of the PB&@ #nglish language
&yllabus and answer all the questions that follow.
TASK J.1
S$a$e 3.e$.e' ea. #$a$e2en$ "# TRUE %' FALSE "n $.e #)ae# )'%+"&e&.
1 #nglish anguage is taught as second language in all
government%assisted schools.
3 The key feature in PB&@ is the integration of skills and topics in
the teaching%learning process.
7 The aims of the #nglish language syllabus for the primary
school is to equip pupils with basic skills and knowledge of the
#nglish language to enable them to communicate, both orally
and in writing, in and out of schools.
2 5oral values should be inculcated in the teaching%learning
process.
1 By the end of !ear 0, primary school pupils will be able to listen
and understand simple spoken #nglish in given conte"ts.
0 By the end of !ear 0, pupils will be able to speak and respond
clearly and appropriately using simple language.
B By the end of !ear 0, primary school pupils will be able to read
and understand different kinds of te"ts for en4oyment and
information
8 Teachers are encouraged to use a variety of te"ts, both verbal
and non%verbal in their lessons.
103
A ;roper pronunciation and the use of appropriate register are
also emphasised in the development of oral skills.
16 Through the reading component, study skills will be developed
to enable pupils to locate and e"tract information from various
sources.
'heck your answers with your tutor.
TASK J.2
C%2)/e$e $.e g'"& 5e/%3 3"$. 'e*e'ene $% (%u' K6SR Eng/"#.
/anguage #(//a5u#.
Language
S1"//#
L"#$en"ng
Nu25e'"ng
N%.%* #1"//# $%
5e $aug.$
TASK J.8
Kill in blanks in the grid below.
Re*
n%.
S1"//# Language
C%2)%nen$
S%)e
1.3 /eveloping auditory
memory.
istening @epeating sounds, numbers and
sentences.
+sk for and give
instructions.
7.7
To identify, to refute, to describe,
to e"plain.
2.B
Mse the dictionary
activities, processes
3.8
2.16
;erform a variety of
functions in a social
conte"t.
to get the appropriate meaning in
conte"t

104
TASK J.9
S$a$e 3.e$.e' ea. #$a$e2en$ "# TRUE %' FALSE.
N% S$a$e2en$ TEF
1 The PB&@ syllabus emphasi-ed that language skills
be taught in an integrated manner.
3 The listening skill allows the development of
inferencing skills.
7 ;ronunciation is taught through listening as well as
the speaking component of the syllabus.
2 There is provision for teaching pre%writing skills.
1 Teachers are encouraged to use authentic te"ts in the
classroom.
0 There is a scope for acquiring word attack skills in
both the listening and reading skills components.
B ;upils are taught to use correct conventions of writing
for different purposes.
8 ;roblem%solving skills are developed through the
reading component of PB&@ syllabus.
A ;upils are e"posed to the skills of filling in forms in the
writing component.
16 Besides the language skills, the sound system,
grammar and word lists have to be acquired by pupils
by the end of !ear 0.
J.9 T.e 2011 PRIMARY ENGLIS: LANGUAGE CURRICULUM %' 5e$$e'
1n%3n a# $.e Ku'"1u/u2 S$an&a'& Se1%/a. Ren&a. ;KSSR<
J.9.1
105
K6SR ENGLIS: 2001
E&ua$"%na/ E2).a#e#
5ultiple Intelligences
Thinking &kills
'onte"tualism
'onstructivism
Fa/ue# an& C"$"Gen#.")
G'a22a'
S%un& S(#$e2
F%a5u/a'(
Listening
Writing
Reading
Speaing
S%"a/ #1"//#
IT #1"//#
CURRICULUM GOAL
6( $.e en& %* )'"2a'( #.%%/"ng4 $.e
u''"u/u2 a"2# $% )'%&ue a /ea'ne'
3.% "#-
[ articulate
[ confident
[ of good character
[ knowledgeable
J.9.2
106
PRIMAR!
Lang"age F#$"s Lang"age Arts
LEVEL %
(YEARS 4, 5 & 6)
Si&&s ' Listening( Speaing(
Reading ) Writing
V#$a*"&ar+
(includes Science & Maths themes
as well as Gra,,ar )
Readers
-
.Literat"re/
Eng&is0 at P&a+1
Music, Poetr & !rama
LEVEL 2
(YEARS ",# & $)
Si&&s ' Listening( Speaing(
Reading ) Writing
V#$a*"&ar+
Gra,,ar .!ear 3/
.p0#ni$s ) pen,ans0ip/
Readers
% &i' &oo(s
%)ad &ird Series
Music, Poetr & !rama
STRAND 2 STRAND %
Pre's$0##&
PROPOSED NEW CURRICULUM MATRIK
J.9.8
107
PRESENT L FUTURE
2003 SYLLABUS
One syllabus (SK and SJK)
Curriculum Specificai!ns
(differen f!r SK and SJK)
"!cus !n # lan$ua$e s%ills &r!u$&
3 br!ad areas'(
)!rld !f Self
)!rld !f S!ries
)!rld !f Kn!*led$e
3 le+els !f s%ills
,ne$rai!n !f s%ills
-ducai!nal -mp&asis and ,C.
s%ills
/rammar in c!ne0
S!und Sysem
2011 STANDARDS76ASED SYLLA6US
C%n$en$ S$an&a'&# an& Lea'n"ng S$an&a'&#
;C%22%n *%' SK an& SMK<
F%u# %n 9 /anguage #1"//# "n/u&"ng !"#$u"$%
"r&s "#' $r"(("' $.'%ug. 8 5'%a& a'ea#.
A 2%&u/a' a))'%a. 3"$. *%u# %n /anguage
#1"//#4 g'a22a'4 L /anguage a'$#
P.%n"# "n Yea'# 1 an& 2.
Re"n*%'e2en$ %* gene'" #1"//# a'%## /anguage#N
e.g. )en2an#.") an& &e%&"ng
G'a22a' "n$'%&ue& *%'2a//( *'%2 Yea' 8. Taug.$
"n %n$e,$ .
E&ua$"%na/ E2).a#e# an& ICT #1"//#
A##e##2en$ 7 a %25"na$"%n %* *%'2a$"+e an&
#u22a$"+e 2e$.%&#.
J.9.9
PRINCIPLES
6a1 $% 5a#"#
building a strong foundation of competencies in basic literacy skillsQ
reading through phonics, penmanship, basic listening and speaking
Lea'n"ng "# *un4 2ean"ng*u/4 )u')%#e*u/
activities are conte"tuali-ed, meaningful and purposefulQ fun%filled
activities
Integration of skills
Tea."ng "# /ea'ne'7en$'e&
learner=s needs and salient learner factors )environment, family,
language use conte"ts, entry behaviour*
[ In$eg'a$"%n %* #a/"en$ ne3 $e.n%/%g"e#
use of I'T to facilitate and encourage meaningful language practice
creative and innovative use of the new technologies by pupils to
enhance language learning in the classroom
[ C.a'a$e'75u"/&"ng "n*u#e&
108
inculcating moral values
J.9.>
CURRICULUM TRANSFORMATION
M%&u/a' a))'%a.
Cu''"u/u2 S$an&a'&#
'ontent &tandards
earning standards
A##e##2en$ #.%%/75a#e&4 au$.en$"
Tea."ng an& /ea'n"ng *%u#
anguage &kills
anguage +rts
;honics
>rammar
J.9.?
GENERAL AIMS
P'"2a'( ; e,"$ a*$e' Yea' ?<
The #nglish anguage 'urriculum for ;rimary &chools aims to
equip pupils with basic language skills to enable them to
communicate effectively in a variety of conte"ts that=s appropriate
to the pupils level of development
Se%n&a'( ;e,"$ a*$e' F%'2 ><
;upils will be able to communicate effectively, read and respond to
te"ts independently, produce well%structured written te"ts, en4oy
and respond to literary works and make confident presentations.
J.9.I
O6MECTIFES
109
6( $.e en& %* Yea' ?4 )u)"/# #.%u/& 5e a5/e $%-

communicate with peers and adults confidently and appropriately
in formal and informal situationsQ
read and comprehend a range of #nglish te"ts for information and
en4oymentQ
write a range of te"ts using appropriate language, style and form
through a variety of mediaQ
appreciate and demonstrate understanding of #nglish language
literary or creative works for en4oymentQ and
use correct and appropriate rules of grammar in speech and
writing.
J.9.J
CONTENT AND LEARNING STANDARDS
LISTENING L SPEAKING
1.1 Pu)"/# 3"// 5e a5/e $% )'%n%une 3%'&# an& #)ea1 %n*"&en$/( 3"$. $.e
%''e$ #$'e##4 '.($.2 an& "n$%na$"%n.

1.1.1 +ble to listen and respond to stimulus given with guidance:
)a* environmental sounds
)b* instrumental sounds
)c* body percussion
)d* rhythm and thyme
)e* alliteration
)f* voice sounds
)g* oral blending and segmenting
1.1.3 +ble to listen to and en4oy simple stories.
1.1.7 +ble to listen to, say aloud and recite rhymes or sing songs with
guidance.
1.1.2 +ble to talk about a stimulus with guidance.
1.8 Pu)"/# 3"// 5e a5/e $% un&e'#$an& an& 'e#)%n& $% %'a/ $e,$# "n a
+a'"e$( %* %n$e,$#.
1.7.1 +ble to listen to and demonstrate understanding of oral te"ts by:
110
)a* giving !esH.o replies
)b* answering simple $h%?uestions
READING
3.1 Pu)"/# 3"// 5e a5/e $% a))/( 1n%3/e&ge %* #%un&# %* /e$$e'# $%
'e%gn"#e 3%'&# "n /"nea' an& n%n7/"nea' $e,$#.
3.1.1 +ble to identify and distinguish the shapes of the letters in the
alphabet.
3.1.3 +ble to recognise and articulate initial, medial and the final sounds
in single syllable words within given conte"t:
)a* s a t p
)b* i n m d
)c* g o c k
)d* ck e u r
)e* h b f,ff l,ll ss
)f * 4 v w "
)g* y -,-- qu
3.1.7 +ble to blend two to four phonemes into recognisable words and
read them aloud.
3.1.2 +ble to segment words into phonemes to spell.
2.2 Pu)"/# 3"// 5e a5/e $% &e2%n#$'a$e un&e'#$an&"ng %* a +a'"e$( %*
/"nea' an& n%n7/"nea' $e,$# "n $.e *%'2 %* )'"n$ an& n%n7)'"n$
2a$e'"a/# u#"ng a 'ange %* #$'a$eg"e# $% %n#$'u$ 2ean"ng.
3.3.1 +ble to read and apply word recognition and word attack skills
by matching words with :
)a* graphics
)b* spoken words
3.3.3 +ble to read and understand phrases in linear and non%linear
te"ts.
3.3.7 +ble to read and understand sentences )7%1 words* with
guidance.
3.3.2 +ble to read a paragraph of 7 C 1 simple sentences.
3.3.1 +ble to apply basic dictionary skills using picture dictionaries.
2.8 Pu)"/# 3"// 5e a5/e $% 'ea& "n&e)en&en$/( *%' "n*%'2a$"%n an&
enA%(2en$.
3.7.1 +ble to read simple te"ts with guidance:
)a* fiction
)b* non%fiction
WRITING
8.1 Pu)"/# 3"// 5e a5/e $% *%'2 /e$$e'# an& 3%'&# "n nea$ /eg"5/e )'"n$
"n/u&"ng u'#"+e 3'"$"ng.
7.1.1 +ble to demonstrate fine motor control of hands and fingers by:
111
)a* handling ob4ects and manipulating them.
)b* moving hands and fingers using writing apparatus
)c* using correct posture and pen hold grip
)d* scribbling in clockwise movement
)e* scribbling in anti%clockwise movement
)f* drawing simple strokes up and down
)g* drawing lines from left to right
)h* drawing patterns

7.1.3 +ble to copy and write in neat legible print:
)a* small )lowercase* letters
)b* capital )uppercase* letters
) c* numerals
)d* words
)e* phrases
)f* simple sentences
8.2 Pu)"/# 3"// 5e a5/e $% 3'"$e u#"ng a))'%)'"a$e /anguage4 *%'2 an& #$(/e
*%' a 'ange %* )u')%#e#.
7. 3.1 +ble to complete with guidance:
)a* forms with personal details
)b* lists
7.3.3 +ble to write 7%1 word sentences with guidance.
7.3.7 +ble to punctuate correctly:

)a* capital letters
)b* full stop
)c * question mark
III.8 Pu)"/# 3"// 5e a5/e $% 3'"$e an& )'e#en$ "&ea# $.'%ug. a +a'"e$( %*
2e&"a.
7.7.1 +ble to create simple non%linear te"ts using a variety of media with
guidance:
)a* greeting cards
)b* lists
J.>
LANGUAGE ARTS
9.1 Pu)"/# 3"// 5e a5/e $% enA%( an& a))'e"a$e '.(2e#4 )%e2# an&
S%ng# $.'%ug. )e'*%'2ane.
2.1.1 +ble to listen to and en4oy nursery rhymes, 4a-- chants and action
song through non%verbal response.
2.1.3 +ble to listen to and recite nursery rhymes, 4a-- chants and sing
112
action songs with correct pronunciation and rhythm.
9.2 Pu)"/# 3"// 5e a5/e $% &e2%n#$'a$e un&e'#$an&"ng %* an& e,)'e##
)e'#%na/ 'e#)%n#e $% /"$e'a'( $e,$#.
2.3.1 +ble to listen to and talk about stories with guidance:
)a* book covers
)b* pictures in books
9.8 Pu)"/# 3"// 5e a5/e $% )/an4 %'gan"Ge an& )'%&ue 'ea$"+e 3%'1# *%'
enA%(2en$.
2.7.1 +ble to produce simple creative works with guidance based on:
)a* nursery rhymes
)b* action songs
)c* 4a-- chants
)d* stories

2.7.3 +ble to take part with guidance in a performance based on:
)a* nursery rhymes
)b* action songs
)c* 4a-- chants
)d* stories
J.?
GRAMMAR
>.1 Pu)"/# 3"// 5e a5/e $% u#e &"**e'en$ 3%'& /a##e# %''e$/( an&
a))'%)'"a$e/(.
1.1.1 +ble to use nouns correctly and appropriately:
)a* common nouns
)b* proper nouns
)c* singular nouns
)d* plural nouns

>.2 Pu)"/# 3"// 5e a5/e $% %n#$'u$ +a'"%u# #en$ene $()e# %''e$/(.
1.1.3 +ble to construct declarative sentences correctly.
113
J.I
Theme 1
Theme 3
Theme 7
Theme 2
Theme 1
Theme 0
Theme B
Theme 8
Theme A
CONTENT CONFIGURATION
LISTENING L SPEAKING
READING
WRITING
GRAMMAR
LANGUAGE ARTS
D1 D2 D8 D9 D>
J.J
A MODULAR APPROAC:
LISTENING AND SPEAKING MODULE
READING MODULE
WRITING MODULE
LANGUAGE ARTS MODULE
GRAMMAR MODULE
STAGE ONE
;YEARS 1 8<
STAGE TWO
;YEARS 9 ?<
YEAR 1 YEAR 2 YEAR 8 YEAR 9 YEAR > YEAR ?
J.O S.e2e %* W%'1 Wee1/(4 Se2e#$e'
114
WEEKLY LESSON STRUCTURE
WK
T:EMEE
TOPIC
DAY ONE DAY TWO DAY T:REE DAY FOUR
LISTENING L
SPEAKING
READING WRITING LANGUAGE ARTS
1
WORLD OF
SELF4
FAMILY L
FRIENDS
% E.g.
% S", Sa$a(
S$"1#
1.1.1 +ble to listen
and respond
to stimulus
given with
guidance:
a. environmental
sounds
1.1.2 +ble to talk
about a
stimulus
with
guidance.
3.1.3 +ble to recogni-e
and articulate initial,
medial and the final
sounds in single
syllable words
within given conte"ts:
a* s
3.3.1 +ble to read and
apply word
recognition and
word attack skills
by matching words
with:
a* graphics
b* spoken
words
7.1.3 +ble to
copy
and
write in
neat
legible
print:
a* small
)lowercase*
letters
2.1.1 +ble to en4oy
nursery
rhymes ,
4a-- chants
and action
songs
through
non% verbal
response.
2.1.3 +ble to recite
nursery rhymes
and 4a-- chants,
sing action
songs with
correct
pronunciation
and rhythm.
J.O.1
SAMPLE LESSON STRUCTURE
L"#$en"ng $% en+"'%n2en$a/ #%un&#.
Ta/1"ng a5%u$ a #$"2u/u#.
L"#$en $% '.(2e#E#%ng#.
L"#$en $% #$%'"e#.
Re)ea$ #%ng %' '.(2e a*$e' $.e $ea.e'.
PRE7LISTENING
W:ILE7
LISTENING
Re"$e %' #"ng '.(2e#E#%ng#.
Se!uene )"$u'e#.
Ma$. )"$u'e# 3"$. ).'a#e#.
F"// "n $.e 5/an1# 3"$. #u"$a5/e 3%'&#.
POST7LISTENING
; S%u'e - Cu''"u/u2 De+e/%)2en$ D"+"#"%n4 2011<
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1
115
TASK J.>
1. /raw up suitable graphic organi-ers to compare and contrast between
PB&@ and P&&@.
3. #"plain briefly the educational emphases included in the PB&@.
7. Briefly describe the importance of pronunciation in P&&@.
2. #"plain with your own e"amples what you understand by Language
Arts.
1. $hat is the teaching approach employed by P&&@(
0. Is there any difference between the lesson structure proposed by
PB&@ and P&&@( #laborate with concrete e"amples.
'heck your answers with your peers and tutor.
Ta1e a 5'ea1 5e*%'e (%u 2%+e %n $% $.e ne,$ $%)".
116
TOPIC O SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN T:E
CLASSROOM
O.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic A introduces you to some issues of second language learning pertaining to
audiolingualism. It also introduces the ;;; procedure in language learning.
O.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. identify some issues of second language learning pertaining to
audiolingualism
3. e"plain the different stages in the ;;; procedure
7. devise a teaching plan using the ;;; procedure
O.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
117

CONTENT
SESSION NINE (3 Hours)
O.2.1 I##ue# %* Se%n& Language Lea'n"ng
The issues that will be discussed here are related to audiolingualism as it
were these issues that resulted in the introduction and use of the ;;; +pproach
or procedure in the 'ommunicative anguage Teaching 5ethod.
E,e'"#e 1-
1. $hat is the language learning theory that audiolingualism is
based on(
3. &tate the principles of audiolingualism.
7. .ame three techniques used in audiolingualism.
2. $hat are some of the shortcomings of audiolingulism(
118
!ou would have gone through in detail about audiolingualism or the audio%
lingual method in Topic 2. $hat we will discuss here briefly are the issues
related to audiolingualism which resulted in the use of ;;; +pproach.
+udiolingualism which is based on Behaviourist earning Theory relied
heavily on drills to form habits in language learning. #mphasis on accuracy of
the language through repetition of correct utterances was supported by positive
reinforcement. Dowever much of the audio%lingual method of language learning
remained at sentence level. There was limited placing of language in real%life
conte"t. Dence, there grew a need to place language in clear situational conte"t.
This lead to introduction of the ;;; +pproach.
O.2.2 T.e PPP A))'%a.
The ,Three ;s, procedure is a variation of the audiolingual method. ;;;
stands for presentation, practice and production. It is based on structural%
situational teaching where the focus is to place language in clear situational
conte"ts. It is very important to understand what ,P'e#en$a$"%nH4 HP'a$"eH
an& HP'%&u$"%n, really are, and to see how they work in together to create
effective communicative language learning.
;resentation is the beginning or introduction to learning language, with
production being the end product of the learning process, whereby a learner
becomes a ,user, of the language in contrast to a ,student, of the language.
;ractice is the process that helps a learner to progress from the initial stage
through to the final one.
This is how it works. +t the beginning of a lesson, the teacher introduces
a situation which conte"tuali-es the new language to be taught. Then the
119
language or linguistic ,model, is presented. $ith this ,model, in mind, the
students practise the new language through a variety of ,controlled, activities
such as coral repetition, individual repetition and cue%response drills. +fter
sufficient practice, the students move into ,productive, activity, where a situation
calls for the language to be used naturally without correction or control. Kor
e"ample the students can construct their own sentences. In general, for
communicative language learning to be most effective, the three stages need to
occur and flow smoothly from one stage to the ne"t.
;@#&#.T+TIO.
This is the first and the most crucial stage of the language learning
process. ;resentation involves the building of a situation requiring natural and
logical use of the new language. $hen the students recogni-e and understand
the ,situation,, they will then start building a conceptual understanding of the
meaning behind the new language, and why it will be relevant and useful to
them. $hen the situation surrounding the new language and the conceptual
meaning of it has been achieved, the new language is introduced through a
linguistic ,model,. It is this linguistic model or language presented that the
students will go on to practise and achieve naturally during a productive activity
without help.
It is important for the teacher to build on whatever #nglish the students
have already learned or have some access to when introducing a situation and
getting the students to build the concept underlying the new language. +t
primary levels, using pictures and body language are common ways of
presenting new language. /ialogues and te"t can also be used when the
students have progressed.
There are a various ways in which new language items or linguistic
Gmodels= can be presented. $hat is important is that these presentations should
have at least some of the following features: meaningful, memorable and realistic
120
e"amplesQ have logical connectionQ conte"tuali-edQ clear modelsQ sufficient
meaningful repetitionQ are brief and can be recycled
;@+'TI'#:
The practice stage is the important middle stage to communicative
language teaching. &ometimes this stage is 9over%done, or used ineffectively.
This may be due to a poor or no presentation stage. In some cases it is not used
as a natural progression or step towards production.
The type of practice activities should be appropriate to the language being
learned as well as the level and competence of the students. ;ractice is done to
ensure that the students get the accurate language as well as to get the students
to be familiar with the language. Dence an effective practice stage is one where
repetition leads to competence and accuracy.
;ractice activities need to be clear and understandable and should
promote a degree of confidence in the students. + well planned practice activity
will generate the studentsJ motivation. ;ractice activities should be challenging,
but within the reach of the students.
;ractice activities usually involve moving the students from the individual
drills to pair work such as chain pair%work, closed pair%work and open pair%work.
It is this communicative practice that leads to final stage of production.
;@O/M'TIO.:
The production stage is the most important stage of communicative
language teaching. + good indicator of a successful production is when students
move from being ,students, or learners of the language to ,users, of the
language.
The production stage involves creating a situation which requires the
students to use the language that was introduced in the presentation stage
121
independently. The situation should allow the students produce more
personali-ed language. + successful production stage depends on an effective
practice stage. This is because if the practice stage is not able to build the
students= confidence in the language then they will naturally be hesitant to
independently ,use, it in the production stage.
One of the most important things you have to remember is that production
activities should not ,tell, the students what to say. In the practice stage, the
students have most or all of the information required, but in the production stage
they do not have the information and therefore must think. +s such it would be
good if Greal life, situations are given in the production stage. >etting students
engaged in productive classroom activities can require a certain level of cognitive
ability. Dence, as teachers you should prepare well thought out and planned
activities.
&ome good e"amples of effective production activities include situational
role%plays, debates, discussions, problem%solving, narratives, descriptions,
qui--es and games.
The following demonstrates the use of the ;;; procedure:
;@#&#.T+TIO.:
The teacher shows the students the following picture and elicits some facts about
it.
The teacher points to the man carrying the 5alaysian flag to elicit the sentence
9De is carrying the 5alaysian flag: by asking 9$hat=s the man doing(:
The teacher then models the sentence 9The man is carrying the 5alaysian flag:.
This is repeated with the other people in the picture.
122

;@+'TI'#:
The teacher gets the students to repeat the sentences in chorus.
The teacher picks individual students to repeat the sentences.
The teacher gives a cue )woman in yellow* and gets the students to respond.
;@O/M'TIO.:
The teacher asks students to construct their own sentences e.g. think about what
their family members are doing at the moment.
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1
/evise a teaching plan to show your understanding of the ;;; procedure.
123
TOPIC 10 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN T:E
CLASSROOM
10.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 16 provides you with input on alternatives to ;resentation, ;ractice, and
;roduction. It also deals with the teaching implications of these alternatives in
the primary #T classroom.
1. name the alternatives to ;resentation, ;ractice, and ;roduction
3. e"plain the alternatives to ;resentation, ;ractice, and ;roduction
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7. e"plain the teaching implications of the alternatives in the primary #T
classroom

CONTENT
SESSION TEN (3 Hours)
10.2.1 A/$e'na$"+e# $% P'e#en$a$"%n4 P'a$"e an& P'%&u$"%n
The ;;; +pproach or procedure in the 'ommunicative anguage
Teaching 5ethod which was introduced in the mid 1A06=s came under criticism in
the 1AA6=s.
E,e'"#e 1-
125
1. /o you use the ;;; procedure in your classroom( $hy(
3. $hat are the strengths of the ;;; procedure(
7. $hat are the shortcomings of the ;;; procedure(
One of the main criticisms of the ;;; procedure is that it is teacher%
centred. This is in contrast with the humanistic and learner%centred approach that
was prevalent in the 1AA6=s. The fact is that the ;;; procedure assumes
learners learn Gin straight lines=, that is, starting from no knowledge, through very
structured sentence%based patterns straight to instantaneous production was not
favourable to many. +ccording to $oodward )1AA7* language cannot be broken
down into small bits and pieces to learn as it is full of Ginterlocking variables and
systems=. ewis )1AA7* was not in favour of the ;;; approach as he felt that it
did not reflect neither the nature of language nor the nature of learning. It could
also be a waste of time and demotivating especially if you might be teaching
what the students already know.
One of the first people to suggest an alternative to the ;;; procedure was
Peith Fohnson in 1A83. Dis suggestion called the Gdeep%end strategy= was a
variation of the ;;; procedure. De encouraged students into immediate
production, in other words throwing them in the deep end. The teacher can see if
and where the students have difficulties in the language in the production stage.
The teacher goes back to either the presentation or practice stage after the
production stage if deemed necessary.
Byrne )1A80* had similar views as Fohnson. Dowever, he 4oined the three
stages of presentation, practice and production into a circle. Dere teachers and
students can decide at which stage to begin the procedure. Kigure 1 below
shows Byrne=s alternative approach.
.

126
Kigure 1: Byrne=s +lternative +pproach
Darmer )366B* suggested #&+: #ngage, &tudy and +ctivate as an
alternative to the ;;; procedure. E is for engage. >etting the students
emotionally engaged with what is going on is important to ensure effective
learning. S stands for study. Dere the focus of the teaching and learning
process is on how something is constructed. The study may focus on forms of
the language such as relative clauses, specific intonation patterns, developing a
paragraph etc. The teacher can draw the attention of students to the form of the
language during a communicative task or the students themselves may notice
the form of the language. A stands for activate. +t this stage students are
encouraged to use all or any of the language they know. Teachers can plan
communicative activities to activate students= knowledge. @eading for pleasure
or interest also helps students activate their language knowledge.
There are three basic lesson procedures in #&+. The first is the G&traight
+rrows= lesson procedure. This procedure is sequential in nature. The teacher
engages the students via the presentation of situations, pictures or other means.
The study stage involves the e"planation of meanings and forms of the language
by the teacher. The teacher models the forms of the language and the students
repeat and practise them. +ctivation of the new language is done when students
use the language to form their own sentences.
The second basic lesson procedure is called the GBoomerang= procedure.
The order here is #+&. Kirst the teacher gets the students emotionally engaged
with the lesson. Then the teacher gets the students to do a task for e"ample a
written task, a simulation activity or a communicative game. +fter the activity, the
127
students study some aspects of the language that were incorrectly used by them
or what they lack.
The final procedure is known as the G;atchwork= lesson procedure. Dere
the teacher may follow various sequences. The teacher may get the students
engaged first, followed by activating their knowledge before studying some
language forms before moving on to other activation activities. These may be
followed by re%engaging the students and ending with more study on language
forms.
Kigures 1 to 7 depicts the different lesson procedures of #&+.

128
E,e'"#e 2-
1. ist the alternatives to ;;; procedure.
3. #"plain the #&+ procedure.
7. /iscuss the similarities and differences between the three
lesson procedures of #&+.
10.2.2 Tea."ng I2)/"a$"%n# %* $.e A/$e'na$"+e# "n $.e P'"2a'( S.%%/
C/a##'%%2
The various frameworks suggested as alternatives for the ;;; procedure
such as Fohnson=s Gdeep%end strategy=, Byrne=s alternative approach and
Darmer=s #&+ imply that teachers should shift from a sequential, teacher%
centred approach to a more humanistic and leaner%centred approach. Teachers
should bear in mind that getting students emotionally engaged is vital for
effective learning. +s such, teachers should minimi-e their criticism and
encourage their young learners to be engaged in what is going on in the
classroom. &tudents should have positive feelings about what and how they are
learning.
The teacher should be well%versed in the forms of the language. There
would be teachable moments where the teacher needs to focus on the forms of
the language. This is something that the teacher must be prepared for. In other
words preparing for eventualities for the study phase.
The teacher should be creative to design communicative tasks that will
activate students= language knowledge. +ctivities prepared should encourage
students to use of much knowledge of the language that they have. These
activities should develop a desire for the students to communicate.
129
Tu$%'"a/ Ta#1
/evise a teaching plan using any of the alternative frameworks discussed above.
$hat are the possible challenges you might face in carrying out the teaching
plan(

130

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TSL3103 ELT METHODOLOGY

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