Clay & Shale Industries in Ontario

Ministry Of Hon. Vincent G.
Kerrio
n . . Minister
Natural
n Mary Mogford
ReSOUrCeS Deputy Minister
Ontario
The Clay and Shale
Industries of Ontario
Prepared for the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources
by G. R. Guilleti and l. H. Joyce2
1. Industrial Minerals Consultant
2. Ontario Research Foundation
1987
1987 Queen's Printer for Ontario ISBN 0-7729-2050-8
Printed in Ontario, Canada
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Every possible effort is made to ensure the accuracy of the information con
tained in this report, but the Ministry of Natural Resources does not assume
any liability for errors that may occur. Source references are included in the
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Parts of this publication may be quoted if credit is given. It is recommended
that reference be made in the following form:
Quillet, Q.R. and Joyce, l.H.
1987: The Clay and Shale Industries of Ontario; Ontario Ministry of Natural Re
sources, 157p.
Contents
SUMMARY AND INTRODUCTION
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Industry Overview . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . .. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
PART I RESOURCES
Chapter l Clay Resources of Ontario ........... .......... .. 8
Chapter 2 Shale Resources of Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Chapter 3 Kaolin Clays of Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
PART I I HEAVY CLAY PRODUCTS
Chapter 4 Brick in Ontario . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 38
Chapter 5 Drainage Tile ......... ....... ..... ............ 55
Chapter 6 Sewer Pipe and Flue Liner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 7
Chapter 7 Expanded Aggregate ... ............ ............ 73
PART III TILE, PORCELAIN, WHITEWARES AND
REFRACTORIES
Chapter 8 Floor and Wall Tiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 92
Chapter 9 Sanitaryware .............. ...... . ........... . 104
Chapter 10 Electrical Porcelain ......... .......... ........ 112
Chapter 11 Refractories .................................118
Chapter 12 Mineral Wool.. . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . . . 127
PART IV OTHER PRODUCTS
Chapter 13 Art Pottery . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Chapter 14 Clay Roofing Tile . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Chapter 15 Clay Flowerpots and Filter Tile ................. 152
Chapter 16 Miscellaneous Clay Applications ................. 156
Hi
Acknowledgements
The authors are indebted to industry personnel for their time and interest in
permitting close examination of their operations. Various offices of the Min
istry of Natural Resources were most helpful, and in particular we wish to
recognize the considerable assistance of B. H. Feenstra in the London Of
fice, and S. R. Slawek in the Toronto Office. J. F. Cutler, Managing Direc
tor of the Clay Brick Association of Canada, gave us much useful guidance
and reviewed the chapter on bricks. E. E. Berry was largely responsible for
the chapter on expanded aggregates. Canada Brick Company Limited pro
vided the descriptions on their two Streetsville plants, and their Burlington
plant, reproduced in the chapter on bricks.
Much support and assistance was provided by staff of the Ontario Research
Foundation, in particular by L. M. Luckevich who edited the manuscript,
and by C. A. Barry and J. Foster who performed technical research. In
addition, the patience and hard work of P. M. Truglia in typing this manu
script are gratefully acknowledged. To all of these, and others possibly over
looked, the authors extend their thanks and appreciation.
IV
Summary and Introduction
Clay Si Shale Industries of Ontario
Executive Summary
All of the Ontario industries using domestic clay and
shale, and imported clays, are reviewed in detail,
with the exception of the clay filler industry which
has been previously recorded. 1 Characteristics of
the principal clay and shale raw materials are also
reviewed.
Common Clays of Ontario
Once extensively used in brickmaking, and more re
cently for drainage tile, the common surface clays of
Ontario are little used today. All are linked to the
glacial history of Ontario, and reflect the composi
tions of Ontario's bedrock. Most are red or buff-
burning calcareous illitic clays of poor ceramic qual
ity. Small deposits of interglacial clay at Toronto,
and a unique shale-derived clay at Hamilton and
Burlington, had improved ceramic properties, but
both have long since been depleted or lost to ur
banization.
Shales of Ontario
Paleozoic shales of the Queenston, Georgian Bay
and Arkona Formations are restricted to southern
Ontario where they are the bases for Ontario's
heavy clay products industries: bricks, drainage tiles
and flue linings. It is a fortunate coincidence that
the Queenston and Georgian Bay shales outcrop
near Ottawa and Toronto where they are utilized for
brickmaking, and while overall reserves are not yet
scarce, it is essential that some shale areas be pre
served for future utilization. Drill testing to confirm
shale quality is recommended for areas selected for
preservation.
Except for the Precambrian Rove Shale of the
Thunder Bay area, which is inclined to be too brittle
for ceramic purposes, shales are scarce in northern
Ontario.
Kaolin Clays of Ontario
High-quality kaolin clays of Cretaceous age occur
beneath heavy overburden in the Moose River Ba
sin of northeastern Ontario. While access is difficult
and their location remote, these deposits have the
potential to replace large imports of high quality clay
and foreign products made from such clays. A ma
jor hurdle is the cost of transporting the Moose
1. Ministry of Natural Resources, Industrial Mineral
Background Paper 5, 1984.
River clays to markets in southern Ontario and else
where.
Except for small deposits of similar clays re
cently discovered during exploration for residual
phosphate deposits in the nearby Cargill and Mar
tison Lake carbonatites, where the clays have ap
parently been protected from glacial removal by the
topography of the complexes, kaolin clays of com
mercial interest occur nowhere else in Ontario. A
variety of refractory clays, including fireclay, ball
clay and stoneware clays are interlayered with thick
deposits of quartz sand containing appreciable
amounts of fine white kaolin dispersed throughout
the sand matrix.
Bricks
Record sales of 46 4 million bricks were realized in
Ontario in 1985 from eight operating plants, the
fewest number of brick plants ever recorded in the
province. Four plants are operated by Canada Brick
Co. Ltd. in the Toronto-Hamilton area, and one
near Ottawa. Brampton Brick Ltd. operates two
plants at Toronto and Brampton, and Hamilton
Brick Ltd., one plant at Hamilton. All use shale ex
clusively; six plants use Queenston Shale and two
use Georgian Bay Shale.
While Domtar Construction Materials Ltd. and
Toronto Brick Ltd. have recently sold their brick
making operations to Canada Brick and Brampton
Brick, respectively, the industry is prosperous and
healthy. However, coloured concrete bricks, which
are less expensive than clay bricks, are gaining ac
ceptance and a significant share (about 25 percent
in 1985) of the residential home-building market.
Drainage Tile
The use of clay drainage tiles in Ontario is in serious
decline, as it is in most parts of the world, the result
of competition from plastic tubing. Five Ontario
plants produced about 10 million tiles in 1985, com
pared with a peak production of 6 8 million tiles by
about 30 plants in 196 8. Only four plants plan to
operate in 1986 , two using shale, and two using
clay, all in southwestern Ontario.
In 1985, three plants introduced a new
3.5-inch (9 cm) clay tile which was closely competi
tive in cost and performance with 4-inch (10 cm)
corrugated plastic tubing. Also, an adaptation of the
plough technique for laying plastic tubing for appli
cation in clay tile installation has brought down the
Clay A Shale Industries of Ontario
installation cost for clay tiles nearly to that for plas
tic.
Hard-pressed tile producers have experimented
with a variety of other clay products in an attempt to
remain economically viable. Wine racks, flowerpots,
roofing tiles, floor tiles, bricks, flue liners and cat
litter have been tried. However, the generally infe
rior quality of Ontario's surface clays has defeated
large-scale development of these industries, al
though plants using shale have had more encourag
ing results.
Sewer Pipe, Flue Liners
After more than a century of production in Ontario,
clay sewer pipes are no longer made in significant
quantity. Like clay drainage tiles, clay sewer pipes
are being supplanted by a concrete product in the
larger diameters and plastic pipes in the smaller
sizes. Rigid plastic pipes 6 m to 9 m in length are
less expensive, lighter in weight and more easily
handled and installed than clay pipes. National
Sewer Pipe Ltd. ceased production of clay sewer
pipes at its Mississauga plant in 1981, and only 500
to 1000 tonnes of clay pipe were produced at the
company's subsidiary in St. Thomas, Canada Vitri
fied Products Ltd., in 1985.
Clay flue liners and plastic drainage tubing were
the principal products of Canada Vitrified Products
Ltd. in 1985. Queenston Shale trucked from Bur
lington is the main raw material, and Arkona Shale
was being tested as an additive in place of fireclay
imported from Alfred, New York. Insulated steel
pipe is a significant competitor for masonry chimney
systems.
Expanded Aggregate
Concrete aggregate weighing about half as much as
sand or gravel can be made by flash-firing clay or
shale. Use of such aggregate in high-rise construc
tion projects can realize significant savings, particu
larly in structural steel requirements. Currently shale
is not being used as a raw material in the production
of expanded aggregate in Ontario.
Some of the red-burning surface clays of On
tario, and some of the Paleozoic shales, show prom
ise for the making of medium weight aggregate by
the rotary kiln process. In fact, such a product,
known as Haydite, was manufactured by Domtar
Construction Materials Ltd. in Mississauga, using
Georgian Bay Shale from 196 5 to 1980. From 1928
to 196 5 the Haydite product was a crushed ex
panded clinker which found wide acceptance, par
ticularly in the making of lighter weight concrete
blocks. Higher energy costs and environmental re
quirements led to the plant closure in 1980.
Expanded clay and shale aggregates compete
with aggregate made from steel furnace slag which
has about the same bulk density. National Slag Lim
ited of Hamilton now produces the only expanded
aggregate in Ontario.
Mineral Wool
Mineral wool competes with fibreglass for much of
the residential insulation market. Mineral wool was
made by four Ontario plants in 1985 using steel fur
nace slag as its principal raw material.
However, mineral wool can also be made from
rocks of suitable composition. From 1938 to 1978
Spun Rock Wools Ltd. produced "rock wool" from
dolomitic Rochester Shale at its plant in Thorold.
Actually, many Ontario shales, mixed with suitable
proportions of dolomite, could be so used. How
ever, where slag is readily available and of consis
tent composition, it is preferred over natural raw
materials.
Floor and Wall Tile
Ceramic floor and wall tiles are enjoying a high level
of consumer demand in North America after many
years of relative disinterest. Per capita consumption
in Italy, for example, is five times that in Canada
and ten times that of the U.S.A. Estimated Cana
dian consumption in 1985 was 12 million m2, of
which more than 90 percent was imported.
However, 1985 was an important year for floor
and wall tile in Ontario. While several older plants
had been closed in recent years, two were being
renovated for renewed production, and one major
new plant was opened in Windsor. Windsor Ce
ramic Tile Canada Ltd. was totally engineered and
supplied by German specialists. Initial production is
focussing on glazed mosaic tiles. Ultimate capacity is
expected to be 2.3 million m2, most of which will be
exported to the U.S.A. Fireclay imported from
Ohio is blended with minor amounts of local clay
and nepheline syenite.
The former Thunderbrick plant near Thunder
Bay is being renovated for split floor tile production
exclusively, using a Saskatchewan stoneware clay.
Initial production was planned for mid-1986 .
Sanitaryware
Ceramic sanitaryware fixtures are made by three
companies in Ontario, using china clay and ball clay
imported from the U.S.A., and silica and nepheline
syenite from domestic sources. Production is by
slip-casting and single-fire glazing.
American Standard Products Ltd. supplies markets
across Canada from its Toronto plant. The Trenton
plant of Crane Canada Inc. is one of three Crane
plants in Canada. Waltec Bathware, a division of
Emco Ltd., operates solely from its plant in
Cornwall.
Electrical Porcelain
Three Ontario companies produce electrical porce
lain products from imported kaolin clays, feldspar
and talc, batching them with Ontario silica and
nepheline syenite. Hamilton Porcelains Ltd. of
Brantford makes a wide variety of custom refractory
ceramic components, largely for the electrical indus
try, exporting 80 percent of its production to the
U.S.A., Japan and Europe. Smith S L Stone Ltd.
manufactures thermoset, thermoplastic and porce
lain ceramic insulators at its Georgetown plant.
Electro Porcelain Company Ltd. makes a range of
low voltage insulating products at its plant in Water
loo.
Refractories
Ten plants in Ontario produce a range of clay re
fractory products that include refractory mortars,
castables and ramming and gunning mixtures,
largely for the steel, glass and cement industries.
Stiff competition prevails in a shrinking market
caused by stagnant conditions in the consumer in
dustries. All the refractory clays are imported from
the U.S.A.
Flowerpots, Filter Tile
Halton Ceramics Ltd. of Burlington is Canada's
only producer of clay flowerpots and filtration tiles.
The company supplies about 20 percent of
Canada's market for clay flowerpots, the rest being
imported from the U.S.A., Germany and Italy.
Plastic is gradually increasing its predominant share
of the flowerpot market because of lower cost and
easier handling. However, retail consumers prefer
the appearance of clay pots, and are willing to pay a
higher price for them.
A small specialized market for clay filtration
tiles is served throughout North America, including
Mexico.
Art Pottery
Art potters include both small commercial manufac
turers and hobbyists making clay-bodied ceramic
ware mainly for decorative purposes. Vases, ash
trays, figurines and giftware, and artistic kitchen-
ware are among the most common products. Slip
casting, wet pressing, jiggering, jolleying and hand
throwing techniques are used in shaping the pieces,
and electric furnaces are most often used for firing.
Most of the clay raw materials are imported from
the U.S.A. and distributed through pottery supply
houses.
Other Products
Clays are used for many other industrial purposes
such as fillers in paper, paint, rubber and plastics,
absorbants such as cat litter, for drilling muds, and
numerous minor applications. Currently no Ontario
clay/shale raw materials are used in these applica
tions.
Clay & Shale Industries of Ontario
Introduction
Clay is a natural, earthy fine-ground material com
posed largely of a group of crystalline minerals
known as the clay minerals. These minerals are hy
drous silicates composed mainly of silica, alumina
and water. Several of these minerals also contain
appreciable quantities of iron, alkalis and alkaline
earth elements. The term "clay" may also be used
for any tine grained, natural earthy, argillaceous
material in which case, the term includes clay,
shale, or argillite and some argillaceous soils. 1
Clay is an abundant natural raw material with a
variety of uses and properties which will be dis
cussed in the ensuing chapters. In the first three
chapters, the clay and shale resources of Ontario
are described. These chapters are included to give
the reader a basic knowledge of the resources of the
province, previous and current applications for
known deposits and potential, yet untried or un-
proven, applications for both well-characterized de
posits and deposits that have not yet undergone sig
nificant investigation.
The remaining chapters discuss manufacturing
industries which use clay raw materials. Some of
these industries use domestic clay raw materials,
some use imported clay raw materials and some sub-
1. Patterson, S.H. and Murry, H.H. "Clays, Industrial
Minerals and Rocks." 4th Ed. Edited by S.J. Lefond.
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum
Engineers Inc., Port City Press, p.519-586 , 1975.
stitute non-clay raw materials in their process.
These chapters show the magnitude and scope of
the industries that use clay raw materials and the
importance of the clay and shale resources of On
tario to its economic well-being.
An important aspect in virtually all industries
using clay raw materials is technological advance
ment. For the most part, in Ontario, new technol
ogy is having an impact on existing industry as op
posed to creating new industry. This new technology
includes increasing energy efficiency, automatic
handling systems and electronic process control. If
relevant, the application of technological advances,
both domestic and foreign in origin, is described in
the context of each chapter. The creation of new
industry is discussed in the chapter on kaolin re
sources and in Part IV on other clay-using indus
tries. The kaolin resources of the province currently
are not being exploited, and may be the foundation
of new industrial growth.
Sources used for this document include the
open literature, information obtained from industry
personnel, descriptive literature provided by manu
facturers and suppliers, and information on file at
the Ontario Research Foundation, some of which
was obtained on a related trip to Europe. Wherever
possible, these information sources have been cited
and referenced in as much detail as possible.
Industry Overview
Ontario clays and shales have been the principal raw
materials for the making of brick, drainage tiles and
sewer pipes since well before the keeping of statis
tics. They have also been used in the making of flue
liners, floor tiles, structural and partition tiles, filtra
tion tiles, art pottery, flower pots, expanded aggre
gate and rock wool.
Imported clays are used in the production of
refractories and in the making of sanitaryware, elec
trical porcelain, whiteware, stoneware, earthenware,
floor and wall tiles, and art pottery. They have also
been used with domestic clays in the making of flue
liners and sewer pipes. A historical record of the
number of plants producing various clay products is
given in Table 0.1.
The heavy clay products industry is that seg
ment of the ceramics industry which deals mainly
with construction materials such as bricks, tiles,
sewer pipes and flue liners. In early times the indus
try was characterized by a profusion of small
labour-intensive plants using local surface clays and
firing with wood. Today only a few remain, and
these have become highly automated and depend
ent on shale, using gas-fired continuous tunnel
kilns. More bricks are produced annually in 8 plants
today than were produced in 186 plants in 1906 .
Paleozoic shales of the Georgian Bay,
Queenston and Arkona Formations are the most
important raw materials for Ontario's heavy clay
products. They are illitic shales, generally red-burn
ing with a short firing range, and their successful
utilization in the production of quality products is a
tribute to Ontario's heavy clay products industry.
With few exceptions, Ontario's surface clays are
poorly suited for the manufacture of ceramic prod
ucts. Almost all of them have an origin linked to the
glacial history of the province. They are impure il
litic clays, more or less calcareous and red or buff-
burning. In fact many are so calcareous that they
fail to vitrify, and burn instead to a soft porous
nearly white body of inferior quality. Where some of
the lime has been removed by leaching, a denser,
harder, less porous red-fired body of improved
quality may result. Ontario's brick industry, once
founded on clay, was forced by quality considera
tions to use shale, with the result that many former
rural brick plants without easy access to shale were
converted to the production of clay drainage tiles.
Today, in the face of competition from plastic
drainage tubing, few clay tile plants remain.
The Cretaceous kaolin clays of the Moose River
Basin in northeastern Ontario have the potential to
reduce costly imports of high quality ceramic and
filler clays plus many finished ceramic products. Re
moteness, difficult access, heavy overburden and
muskeg have hindered the exploration and develop
ment of these deposits. But except for small nearby
occurrences of similar clays within the topographic
expressions of the Cargill and Martison Lake car-
bonatites, the Moose River clays are unique in On
tario, and their economic development may ulti
mately be realized.
Clays and finely ground shales have several un
usual properties that make them suited for ceramic
purposes. These are the properties of plasticity and
vitrification. Plasticity is recognized in dry clays and
finely-ground shales when the addition of water in
sufficient amount permits the moulding of the mass
into any desired shape. Vitrification is a condition
of partial fusion whereby a glassy bond is formed by
heat. Vitrification of a clay or shale body results in
greater density and hardness, and decreased poros
ity and absorption.
Some clays have other uses besides ceramics.
Imported kaolin is used extensively as an industrial
filler, particularly for filling and coating paper.
Dolomitic shale of the Rochester Formation has a
natural composition for rock wool and was used for
that purpose at Thorold for 44 years. Georgian Bay
Shale was used for making expanded aggregate
(Haydite) in Mississauga for 37 years, and for mak
ing coated expanded aggregate for a subsequent 15
years.
TABLE 0.1 HISTORICAL RECORD OF THE NUMBER OF PLANTS
PRODUCING VARIOUS CLAY PRODUCTS.
1906 1929
Bricks
Drain Tiles
Other Heavy Clay Products
Total Number of
Rants Operating
186
51
19
192
97
84
23
145
1964
25
31
4
54
1979
15
18
3
28
1985
8
5
2
15
Note: Some plants produce more than one product
Par t l Resour ces
Clay 8i Shale Industries of Ontario
Chapt er 1 Cl ay Resour ces of On t ar i o
INTRODUCTION
Clay is widespread in Ontario, but except for the
Mesozoic kaolinite clays of the Moose River Basin
in northeastern Ontario, all are of the low grade il
lite type, the product of Pleistocene glaciation. Ac
tually, the surface clays of Ontario are a mixture of
clay minerals and non-clay materials. Among the
latter are included quartz, feldspar, calcite, dolo
mite, and minor amounts of other minerals and or
ganic debris. Both clay and non-clay minerals were
derived from bedrocks through physical and chemi
cal weathering. And since the principal weathering
agents were the glacial ice sheets of the last million
years, the compositions of the surface clays closely
reflect the underlying bedrock from which they
were scoured.
Clays derived from shales or granitic rocks are
typically low in lime content, and hence achieve a
greater degree of vitrification on firing, and a red
colour due to oxidation of iron. However, clays de
rived largely from carbonate rocks, which predomi
nate in the lowlands of the Great Lakes and James
and Hudson Bays, are limey, and on firing may fail
to vitrify, but produce instead a less dense and more
porous yellow or buff body of inferior strength and
durability.
Glacial events of the last million years have had
the most significant impact on the character and dis
tribution of surface clays in Ontario. Soil and rock
fragments gouged from the bedrock were deposited
from the ice sheets in thick dense masses of till.
Varved clays were rhythmically laid down in glacial
lakes and ponds marginal to the melting edges of
the glaciers. In warmer times, stratified clay, silt and
sand derived by stream erosion of adjacent till
plains, was deposited in lakes and ponds, and on
the flood plains of rivers.
The glacial history of Ontario is summarized by
Guillet, 2 and described by Hewitt and Karrow,4 Zol
tai 12 and Prest. 9 Previous studies on Ontario clay
deposits have been performed by Keele, 6 Vos, 11
Guillet3 and Kwong et al. 8
Clay was the principal raw material in three
plants producing drainage tiles in Ontario in 1985.
It was no longer in use for brickmaking, or for sewer
pipe, flue liners or flowerpots; and it has not been
used for expanded aggregate. In 196 4 it was the
principal raw material in 33 drainage tile and brick
plants in Ontario. 2
CLAY DEPOSIT TYPES
Most of Ontario is covered by a mantle of glacial till
that remained after the melting of the most recent
glacial ice 5,000 to 14,000 years ago. A variety of
stoneless clays was deposited about the same time
and subsequently formed horizontal layers in lakes,
ponds and river valleys. Reworking and redistribu
tion of these deposits has resulted in further depos
its, sometimes with improved ceramic properties.
The various types of clay deposits are briefly de
scribed in the following notes.
Stoneless deposits are of prime interest for clay
products. Most often they are deposited from quiet
waters, having been carried there in suspension in
river waters draining adjacent till plains. Deposits
are often stratified in horizontal layers of clay, silt
and fine sand, and they can be recognized as varved
clays, non-varved lake clays, interglacial clays, ma
rine clays and flood plain clays. Certain unstratified
clays developed to shallow depths on till plains may
be of local interest.
Var ved Cl ay s
Varved clays are the most typical deposits in glacial
lakes and the most widespread stoneless clays in
Ontario. They consist of alternating layers of clay
and silt representing deposition during winter and
summer, respectively. Clay layers are uniform,
smooth, dense and darker coloured; silt layers are
more variable, lighter coloured and thicker. Clay
layers reflect quiet water conditions beneath winter
ice; silt layers reflect the increased flows from spring
runoff and occasional turbulence of storm and
flood. Clay layers are typically less than 2 cm thick;
silt layers may be more than twice as thick as their
clay counterparts. A varve is a clay-silt couplet rep
resenting one year's deposition.
Varved clays were typically deposited in lakes
and ponds that formed along the melting edges of
the glacial ice. Today they are exposed in river and
lake banks or on the flanks of bedrock and
morainic hills. Paisley Brick and Tile was using
varved clay in making drainage tiles in 1985; 11
brick and tile plants used it in 196 4. 2
Non -Var ved Lake Cl ay s
Irregularly stratified deposits of stoneless clay have
accumulated on lake beds in more moderate condi
tions than those necessary for varve formation.
They may be rhythmically layered in coarse and fine
8
material, reflecting seasonal changes, but the layers
are less uniform in composition and thickness than
in varved clays. Wood fragments, leaves, snails and
clam shells, indicative of non-glacial conditions, are
occasionally present, as are thin lenses of sand or
fine gravel due to beach or deltaic conditions. Only
Norwich Brick and Tile (1979) Limited uses non-
varved lake clay in making drainage tiles, whereas
17 plants were active in 196 4. 2
In t er gl aci al Cl ay s
Interglacial clays are stratified lake clays that were
deposited under moderate climatic conditions be
tween periods of glaciation. In Ontario they have
only been recognized in the Toronto area and on
the James Bay Lowland. They are distinguished
from younger clays only by isotopic dating and
faunal studies, or by their position beneath obvious
glacial deposits.
Interglacial clays were once the principal raw
material for six brick plants on Greenwood Avenue
in east Toronto. 8 They were also exposed and util
ized in the clay pit adjoining the Don Valley plant of
Toronto Brick Company, 2 but they have not been
used for many years.
Mar i n e Cl ay s
Marine clays are stratified deposits of clay, silt and
sand distinguished in Ontario by the presence of
marine shells and a moderate content of montmoril
lonite. They are recognized in the Ottawa-St.
Lawrence river valleys and the James Bay Lowland.
Marine waters invaded the Ottawa and St.
Lawrence valleys in the wake of the receding ice
sheet, depositing nearly 6 0 m of stratified clay and
sand. Dochart Brick and Tile Company at Arnprior
was the only plant using marine clay, making drain
age tiles and flowerpots until the plant closed in
1982.
Fl ood Pl ai n Cl ay s
These are shallow deposits of stratified silt and clay
deposited on low flat banks of rivers and streams in
times of flood. Flood plain clays are young deposits
typically comprising reworked and redeposited
clays, or the finer portions of tills, interlayered with
fresh water shells, wood fragments and other plant
debris. Although some are small and localized,
these clays may have improved ceramic properties
because of the removal of some of their lime by
leaching. In 196 4 there were four plants using flood
plain clays,2 but in 1985 there were none.
St on el ess Ti l l
Tills are unsorted mixtures of clay, sand and silt
with a variable content of rock fragments. Till plains
that have subsequently been covered by lake waters,
as in Essex, Kent and Lambton counties, have been
modified in places by wave and current action to an
almost stone-free condition in their upper parts.
The thin modified portion usually has improved ce
ramic properties because of the leaching of some of
its lime content. In 196 4, 10 plants used these clays
for all or part of their needs. 2 In 1985, only Dres
den Tile Limited was active, but it did not plan to
operate in 1986 .
DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTER OF
ONTARIO CLAYS
Because of their deposition in the glacial Great
Lakes, which were larger ancestors of the present
Great Lakes, clay deposits tend to be marginal to
the present shorelines of the Great Lakes. Addition
ally, in northern Ontario, extensive deposits of
varved clay were deposited from glacial Lake Agas
siz in the west and Lakes Barlow-Ojibway in the
east. Figure 1.1 summarizes the general ceramic
character and distribution of Ontario clays which
are detailed more fully in the following notes.
TORONTO
In t er gl aci al Cl ay s
The Pleistocene clays that first found use in brick-
making were the interglacial clays unique to the
Toronto region. Known as the Don and Scar
borough beds, these clays were deposited about
100,000 years ago in a warm climate between the
Illinoian and Wisconsinan glacial stages. Exposed
only in deeply cut river valleys, subway excavations
and the Scarborough Bluffs, these clays appear to
be restricted to an area within 8 km of Lake Ontario
between Highland Creek on the east and Humber
River on the west.
The Don Beds are a lower fossil-bearing se
quence of stratified sand, clay and fine gravel that
was deposited in a lake 18m higher than Lake On
tario at a time when the climate was about 3 0C
warmer than at present. 10 The upper Scarborough
Beds are a similar stratified sequence which was de
posited in a lake 6 0 m higher than Lake Ontario in
a climate that averaged 6 0C cooler than the present.
Clay from the Scarborough Beds was particu
larly prized by early brickmakers for its rich maroon
fired colour. Soft mud bricks were produced by six
plants on Greenwood Avenue in east Toronto. 8 The
John Price plant, owned by Toronto Brick Limited,
MOOSONEE
Kaol i
PC E :
, , Whi t t l N ^Fi r t cl oy l
^32 \i' h 'X-"r l
o..... Y* L. I.- Oor k l
(-1 0
Kilometres
6 0
Shri
Figure 1.1 Ceramic properties of Ontario clays.
was the last to close in 196 2. It and a similar clay
section in Toronto Brick's Don Valley pit are de
scribed in an earlier report. 2
Clay from the Scarborough Beds had good plas
ticity and could be vitrified between cones 06 and
03 with a total linear shrinkage (i.e. drying plus
fired shrinkage) of percent and a cold water ab
sorption of 15 percent. Its maroon fired colour was
probably due to its derivation from Georgian Bay
Shale which is the bedrock in the Toronto area.
Ot her Cl ay s
Above the interglacial clays in Toronto are varved
clays and scattered deposits of stratified clay, all
very limey in composition. The varved clays were
deposited from meltwater ponded between glacial
ice in the Lake Ontario basin and high ground north
of the present shoreline. Several thin stony layers
within the Don Valley pit reflect a fluctuating ice
front which periodically overran the area of varved
clay deposition. The varved clays have good plastic
ity and burn to a yellow-buff colour, with a total
linear shrinkage of 4 percent and absorption of 22
percent at cone 03.
HAMILTON-BURLINGTON AREA
The best clay in southern Ontario was deposited in
two shallow lagoons separated from glacial Lake
Iroquois, the forerunner of Lake Ontario, by gravel
bars at the mouth of the Dundas valley. Sources of
the clay were nearby eroding terraces of Queenston
Shale. Both deposits were less than 1.5 m thick and
of limited extent, one extending into west Hamilton,
the other east past Aldershot.
The clay is highly plastic, smooth, red in colour
and red-burning. It is nearly of stoneware quality,
being steel hard at cone 06 with a total linear
shrinkage of 10 percent and an absorption of 7 per
cent. It has a fairly long vitrification range and fuses
(PCE) at cone 8.
Both clay deposits were extensively worked for
sewer pipe, flowerpots, pottery and other clay prod-
10
ucts, but urban development in Hamilton and High
way 403 through Burlington have rendered the re
maining reserves unavailable. In 196 2 National
Sewer Pipe Limited scraped together the last of the
clay on its lands in the present vicinity of Highway
403 and King Road. It still operates quarries in
Queenston Shale on King Road l km north of High
way 403.
The possibility that other similar deposits may
have formed in shallow depressions along the base
of the Niagara Escarpment adjacent to eroding ex
posures of Queenston Shale should not be dis
counted.
LAKE ERIE SHORE
Small deposits of stoneless clay are irregularly dis
tributed along the Lake Erie shore from Welland to
Chatham, and north to Brantford and London.
Some are grey varved clays, while others are brown
massive or thickly stratified deposits. All are rather
sandy and limey, burning to a yellow-buff colour at
cone 03 with a total linear shrinkage of 6 percent
and an absorption of 17 percent.
ESSEX, KENT AND LAMBTON COUNTI ES
An extensive till plain in the southwest corner of the
province was inundated by glacial meltwaters during
early stages in the retreat of the glacial ice. Waves
and currents appear to have caused a sifting, sorting
and leaching action which has resulted in an almost
stonefree till in the upper l m and much improved
ceramic properties. The clay is plastic, has a moder
ate firing range, and burns to a dense red body at a
low temperature. At cone 010 it has a total linear
shrinkage of 8 percent and an absorption of 12 per
cent. It has a PCE of cone 10.
Despite its shallowness, this clay attracted more
brick and tile plants than anywhere else in Canada.
Baker 1 described 6 8 plants in 1906 . There were 11
in 196 2,2 but only one in 1985, and it had an
nounced its closure in September of that year.
Originally, many of these yards were brick produc
ers, but latterly only drainage tiles were produced in
the area.
Scattered pockets of stratified flood plain clays
washed from adjoining till areas are also present.
These have properties similar to the stone-free till,
and were similarly utilized.
HURON HIGHLANDS
The large interior highland region of southwestern
Ontario, between Galt and London on the south
and Walkerton and Dundalk on the north, was
largely free of ice during the final stages of the last
glaciation. Extensive till moraines were left by the
flanking ice lobes, and a few shallow deposits of
stoneless clay were formed by the re-working of
these materials. These clays are predominantly
limey and buff-burning because they were derived
from limestone and dolostone bedrock. At cone 03
they have a total linear shrinkage of 4 percent and
absorption of 22 percent.
However, due to more complex depositional
histories, involving perhaps several stages of re
working and leaching, a few deposits with improved
ceramic properties are known. At Listowel, for ex
ample, finely laminated silty clay 2 m thick burns
red with a moderate firing range. At cone 06 it has a
combined drying and firing shrinkage of 6 percent
and absorption of 15 percent. In 196 2 it was being
used for drainage tile,2 but the plant has since
closed.
LAKE HURON AND SOUTH GEORGIAN BAY
Varved or stratified clays in deeply-cut river banks
marginal to Lake Huron, southern Georgian Bay,
and on Manitoulin Island, were deposited from gla
cial Lakes Algonquin and Warren. They are highly
plastic, calcareous, and burn to a yellow-buff
colour. At cone 06 they have a total linear shrink
age of 8 percent and absorption of 18 percent.
Drainage tiles are still made from a mixed section of
varved and stratified clays on the north bank of the
Saugeen River east of Paisley.
OTTAWA-ST. LAWRENCE VALLEYS
Stratified pink and grey marine clays and sand de
posited from the Champlain Sea in the valleys of the
Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers are the most wide
spread clays in eastern Ontario. The clay is particu
larly common between Hawkesbury and Ottawa,
underlying broad flat plains marginal to the Ottawa
River. A thin capping of sand reflects beach condi
tions that marked the final retreat of marine waters.
North of Ottawa to Pembroke an increase in the
proportions of sand and silt indicate shallow water
conditions. Marine waters of the Champlain Sea en
tered Ontario from the Hudson River valley when
the land surface had been depressed by the weight
of glacial ice. The sea retreated as the land gradu
ally rebounded, free of its glacial burden.
Champlain clay is highly plastic and red-burn
ing. At cone 06 it has a total linear shrinkage of
about 8 percent and an absorption of 15 percent,
but the firing range is short. The clay fuses at cone
03. Champlain clay was used at Arnprior until re
cent years, mostly for making drainage tiles but lat
terly also for flowerpots.
Clay Shale Industries of Ontario 11
NORTH GEORGIAN BAY
Varved clays are irregularly distributed between Pre
cambrian ridges of predominantly granitic gneisses
along the Georgian Bay shore north from Graven
hurst and along the north shore of Lake Huron.
These clays were deposited from glacial Lake Al-
gonquin or from later lake stages that filled the
Huron basin during the interval 6 ,000 to 12,000
years ago. They are red-burning clays of good plas
ticity, and at cone 06 they have a total linear shrink
age of about 9 percent and absorption of 12 per
cent.
NORTHEASTERN ONTARIO
The Clay Belt of northeastern Ontario is the bed of
the former glacial Lake Barlow-Ojibway which oc
cupied the area north of the height of land and was
ponded against the edge of the receding glacier.
Thick sections of varved clay are typical and wide
spread in the Timmins-Cochrane-Hearst-New Lis
keard area. They are moderately plastic, buff-burn
ing, and have a short firing range. At cone 06 they
have a total linear shrinkage of 6 percent and ab
sorption of about 23 percent. Source of this very
limey composition was apparently the Paleozoic car
bonate rocks of the James Bay and Hudson Bay
lowlands to the north.
Near Lake Abitibi, close to the Quebec bound
ary, a yellow-burning clay of unusually fine proper
ties occurs. Deposits of massive brown clay and grey
varved clay a few kilometres east of Iroquois Falls
are both highly plastic, smooth and buff yellow-
burning. The brown clays are steel hard at cone
010, and are not overfired at cone 03 where total
shrinkage is 14 percent and absorption 13 percent.
Kaolinitic clays of the Moose River Basin north
of Kapuskasing and Hearst are described in a sepa
rate chapter.
NORTHWESTERN ONTARIO
Varved clays are widespread in northwestern On
tario as a result of a succession of post-glacial lakes
in the Lake Superior basin and glacial Lake Agas
siz. Thick deposits are found in the banks of deep
river valleys along the north shore of Lake Superior.
They are silty, limey and buff burning. At Marathon
and Nipigon they burn to a soft porous body at cone
03; total linear shrinkage is only 2 percent and ab
sorption nearly 30 percent. Near Dorion the clays
fire to a denser buff body with a total linear shrink
Brown stratified clays are common at Thunder
Bay, and have been used intermittently for bricks,
drainage and floor tiles at Rosslyn.
Massive red clay is found over a small area near
Finmark, 40 km northwest of Thunder Bay. It is
highly plastic and burns with a short firing range to a
pale red body at cone 06 , with a total linear shrink
Glacial Lake Agassiz occupied much of the
Kenora area and extended west into Manitoba.
Scattered deposits of stratified clays mark its former
presence. At Dryden the clays are highly plastic and
red-burning. At cone 06 they have a total linear
shrinkage of 9 percent and absorption of 20 per
cent. In the Rainy River and Fort Frances area they
are limey and buff burning. At cone 03 they exhibit
combined drying and firing shrinkage of 6 percent
and absorption of 20 percent.
Clays throughout northwestern Ontario are also
described by Keele6 and most recently by
Kristjansson et al. 7 Clays of Thunder Bay are fur
ther described by Keele. 5
REFERENCES
1. Baker, M. B. "Clay and the Clay Industry of Ontario",
Ontario Bureau of Mines, Vol. 15, pt. 2, 1906 .
2. Guillet, G. R. "The Clay Products Industry of Ontario",
Ontario Department of Mines, IMR 22, 196 7.
3. Guillet, G. R. "Clay and Shale Deposits of Ontario",
Ontario Geol. Survey, MDC 15, 1977.
4. Hewitt D. F. and Karrow, P. F. "Sand and Gravel in
Southern Ontario", Ontario Department of Mines, IMR
11, 196 3.
5. Keele, J. "Clays and Shales in Vicinity of Fort William
and Port Arthur", Canada Department of Mines, Mines
Branch Summary Report No. 542, p. 105-108, 1919.
6 . Keele, J. "Preliminary Report on the Clay and Shale
Deposits of Ontario", Geol. Survey Canada, Memoir
142, 1924.
7. Kristjansson, F. J. Erdic, A. E. Hine, C. M. "Clay Re
sources of Thunder Bay-Nipigon Area", Ontario Geol.
Survey, in preparation for open file, 1986 .
8. Kwong, J. P. Martini, I. P. Narain, M. "Ceramic
Properties of Selected Shale and Clay Resources in South
Central Ontario", Ontario Geol. Survey, OFR 5571,
1985.
9. Prest, V. K. "Pleistocene Geology and Surficial Depos
its", Chapter VIII in Geology and Economic Minerals of
Canada, Econ. Geol. Series No. l, 4th edition, p.
443-495, 1957.
10. Terasmae, J. "A Palynological Study of Pleistocene In
terglacial Beds at Toronto", Part II of Contributions to
Canadian Palynology, No. 2, Geol. Survey Canada,
Bulletin 56 , 196 0.
11. Vos, M. A. "Potential Clay and Shale Resources of
Central Ontario", Ontario Div. Mines, OFR 5133,
1975.
12. Zoltai, S. C., "Glacial History of Part of Northwestern
Ontario", Proceedings, Geol. Assoc. Canada, Vol. 13,
p. 6 1-83, 196 1.
12
Chapt er 2 Shal e Resour ces of On t ar i o
INTRODUCTION
Paleozoic shales are the major raw materials for the
manufacture of heavy clay products in Ontario. Sur
face clays are now used only for drainage tile and as
a minor additive in some art pottery and floor and
wall tiles.
Eighteen Ontario shales, all but one being Pa
leozoic, have been described in a previous report.2
Of these, only three were being used in 1985 in the
production of heavy clay products. Georgian Bay
Shale was being used in two brick plants and one
cement plant in the Toronto area. Queenston Shale
was being used in five brick plants between Hamil
ton and Brampton, and in one at Ottawa; it was also
being used for flowerpots and filtration tile at Bur
lington, drainage tile at Wallenstein, and flue liners
at St. Thomas. Arkona Shale was being used for
drainage tile at Parkhill and flue liners at St.
Thomas. These three shales were also the principal
raw materials in use in 196 2 when a previous study
of the heavy clay products industry was under
taken. 1
Georgian Bay Shale was used for making
Haydite expanded aggregate at Mississauga from
1928 to 1980. Also, the Collingwood Member of
the Lindsay Formation has shown promise for
coated aggregate, hindered mainly by restricted ac
cess.
Mineral wool was made from dolomitic Roches
ter Shale at Thorold from 1938 to 1978. Both Geor
gian Bay and Queenston shales mixed with 30 to 40
percent dolomitic lime could also be used. Indeed,
most Ontario shales mixed with suitable additives
will make mineral wool of varying qualities.
Shale of the Collingwood Member of the
Lindsay Formation in south-central Ontario is a po
tential source of hydrocarbon oil, as are black
shales of the Kettle Point Formation of southwest
ern Ontario and the Long Rapids Formation of
northeastern Ontario.
In northwestern Ontario, Precambrian Rove
Shale has been used in the making of bricks, drain
age tiles and split floor tiles.
Shale resources are extensive in Ontario, al
though unevenly distributed geographically. Scarcity
is not a threat to their continued utilization except
in the Toronto-Hamilton area through pressures of
urbanization and competing land uses. Except for
these pressures, it is a fortunate coincidence that
the principal brick shales, the Georgian Bay and
Queenston Formations, are almost restricted in their
occurrence to the major market area.
GEOLOGY
Ontario is dominated by a central upland area of
crystalline Precambrian rocks, flanked on the north
and south by Phanerozoic lowlands. The principal
geological regions of Ontario are illustrated in Fig
ures 2.1 and 2.2. Except for the brittle Proterozoic
shales of the Rove Formation in the Thunder Bay
area, all Ontario shales are Paleozoic and largely
confined to the lowlands.
The Phanerozoic lowlands consist of relatively
undisturbed and unaltered Paleozoic sedimentary
rocks, irregularly mantled by unconsolidated depos
its of Pleistocene and Recent age. The southern low
land is divided by the Frontenac Axis into the Great
Lakes Lowland and the Ottawa-St. Lawrence Low
land. Shale formations in the Great Lakes Lowland
are the most important sources for clay products in
Ontario. Here, a sequence of Cambrian to
Devonian sedimentary rocks dips gently to the
southwest towards the Michigan Basin (Figure 2.2).
In the extreme southwest portion of the province
these rocks are about 1,500 m thick.
A thinner portion of the Paleozoic record is
represented by Cambrian and Ordovician sedimen
tary rocks in the Ottawa-St. Lawrence Lowland east
of the Frontenac Axis. These rocks dip gently to the
southeast, but unlike the little-disturbed Great
Lakes section, these rocks have been disturbed by
block-faulting. A restricted occurrence of shales
comparable to the Queenston and Georgian Bay
formations is present in the Ottawa area and is util
ized there for brickmaking.
The Hudson Bay Lowland is underlain by
nearly flat Paleozoic sedimentary rocks with many
similarities to those in the south. However, a re
stricted occurrence of Mesozoic sediments in the
Moose River Basin is a potential source of kaolin
clays not found elsewhere in Ontario. These are
separately described in the next chapter.
An outlier of Ordovician and Silurian rocks has
been preserved by block-faulting in the Timiskam
ing area of east-central Ontario. However, shale is
not present in significant amounts.
Clay A Shale Industries of Ontario 13
K. /Devonian
MANITOBA
LEGEND
Y//AMESOZOIC
Xvi PALEOZOIC
PRECAMBRIAN
[^Silurian : V-.V;V-. \
V^'^s.-v.-.
OTTAWA-ST. LAWRENCE
LOWLAND
Figure 2.1 Generalized geology of Ontario.
14
co
4-1
O
c
O)
o
o
(D
O
OJ
CNJ
l
O)
SHALES OF COMMERCIAL INTEREST
Four shale formations the Rove, Georgian Bay,
Queenston and Arkona are briefly described in
the following notes. These are the principal sources
of raw material for heavy clay products in Ontario.
However, the reader should note that there are
other shales which may have special value for par
ticular purposes. For example, shale of the Blue
Mountain Formation appears to be an attractive raw
material for bricks and other heavy clay products.
The Collingwood Member of the Lindsay Formation
may have special value for expanded aggregate.
Also, portions of the Rochester Formation have
been used for making rock wool because of a nearly
ideal composition. These and other shales are de
scribed more fully in a previous volume.2
SHALES OF PRINCIPAL INTEREST
Rove For mat i on
The Proterozoic Rove Formation in the Thunder
Bay area is the oldest rock in Ontario that still re
tains much of its shale characteristics. However, it is
inclined to be brittle and in some places grades to
slate. Even when finely ground, it develops insuffi
cient plasticity for extrusion equipment unless mixed
with a suitably plastic clay. In this way it was used by
Thunderbrick Ltd. (1976 - 1982) in the making of
bricks and split floor tiles. Earlier it was used for dry
pressed bricks. 2
Rove Shale is the upper of three formations that
comprise the Animikie Group. It overlies the
Gunflint Formation, mostly taconite, and the basal
Kakabeka Conglomerate. Shales of the Rove For
mation are grey-black, medium to very thin bed
ded, brittle fissile rocks interlayered in places with
siltstone and greywacke. Spheroidal calcite concre
tions up to 2 m in diameter and l m thick are occa
sionally present. The formation is essentially flat-ly
ing and widely distributed southwest of Thunder Bay
and along the west side of Sibley Peninsula. Narrow
dikes and sills of brown-weathering diabase cut the
Animikie rocks.
A more detailed description of the Rove Shale
is given by Guillet. 2 Typical chemical and mineral
composition is reproduced in Table 2.1, and ce
ramic properties in Table 2.2, based on samples
from a roadside quarry on Sibley Peninsula used
most recently by Thunderbrick Ltd.
Geor gi an Bay For mat i on
Formerly known by the names Meaford and
Dundas, the Georgian Bay Shale comprises two
TABLE 2.1 ROVE SHALE, ANALYTICAL DATA. (2)
Chemi cal Composi t i on CM*
5.84
0.68
2.72
1 .52
3.70
Si O2 60.7
AI2 O3 1 5.7
Fe2 03
CaO
MgO
Na2 O
K2 O
TIO2 0.74
CO2 1 .42
H2 CH- 3.38
H2 O- 0.82
SO3 1 .51
Mn O 0.03
Tot al 98.8
Sol ubl e Sal t s 0.85
Ign i t i on Loss 7.29
Mi n er al Composi t i on (y,)'
Quar t z
Cal ci t e
Dol omi t e
Na/Ca Fel dspar
Pot ash Fel dspar
Cl ay Mi n er al s
Il l i t e
Chl or i t e
Expan di n g mi n er al s
30
O
1
3
1
65
Abun dan t
Common
Mi n or
" 6 m sect i on exposed i n r oadsi de quar r y , Si bl ey Pen i n sul a
similar conformable units overlying shales of the
Blue Mountain Formation. The two units were pre
viously distinguished only with difficulty, the distinc
tion being based on fossil content and frequency of
hard limey and sandy layers. Except for these lay
ers, the shale is markedly soft and bluish to greenish
grey in colour. Formerly used more extensively in
brickmaking (Photo 2.1), and in the production of
expanded aggregate, Georgian Bay Shale was being
used in two brick plants and one portland cement
plant in the Toronto area in 1985.
Georgian Bay Shale is thin to medium bedded,
consisting largely of moderately soft shale, but inter
layered also with hard beds and lenses of limey or
sandy composition. These hard layers increase in
frequency towards the top of the section as well as
to the north. The formation underlies the Toronto
area as far west as Streetsville, and persists beneath
the drift along the base of the Niagara Escarpment
to outcroppings on Georgian Bay and Manitoulin Is
land. Whereas hard layers typically comprise 10 to
20 percent of the lower Georgian Bay unit in the
Toronto area, and perhaps 30 percent of the upper
unit, they are noticeably more common in outcrops
16
TABLE 2.2 ROVE SHALE, CERAMIC PROPERTIES. (2)
Water of plasticity,
Drying Shrinkage, "
PCE
Firing temp. 0 C
Cone
Fired Shrinkage, " fc
Water absorption
24 hr. cold, " X ,
5 hr. boiling, 07 o
Specific gravity
Colour
Hardness
Remarks
Upper 2.8 m*
16
1 .6
900 1 000 1 080
01 0
+0.5
06
0.3
1 7.8 1 6.8
22.7 22.2
1 .66 1 .68
03
3.2
8.6
1 3.5
1 .87
Lower 3.2 m*
16
900 1 000 1 080
01 0 06 03
14.7
17.7
1 .82
1 2.8 4.0
1 5.6 7.0
1 .89 2.1 3
Low
salmon K pale red salmon *- red
soft f hard almost hard * very hard
plasticity; gritty textured; weakly consolidated
6 msection exposed in roadside quarry, Sibley Peninsula
Photo 2.1 Don Valley quarry of Toronto Brick
Company, ea 1950 s. Georgian Bay Shale
beneath interglacial and glacial clays. Photo
courtesy Clay Brick Association of Canada.
at Georgian Bay, and on Manitoulin Island the up
per unit is represented by argillaceous limestone.
Georgian Bay Shale also occurs southeast of Ottawa
where the upper and lower units are referred to as
the Russell and Carlsbad Formations, respectively.
Individual shale beds of the Georgian Bay For
mation do not vary appreciably in composition from
place to place, but lime content of the overall for
mation increases proportionately with increasing fre
quency of hard layers. Improved ceramic perform
ance is achieved by reducing or eliminating hard
layers, and commercial practice sometimes uses
manual or mechanical sorting to accomplish this.
Table 2.3 shows the variations in chemical and min
eral composition of the various elements that com
prise the total formation.
Georgian Bay Shale has just sufficient plasticity
for modern extrusion machines; eliminating hard
layers improves its plasticity. The shale has a mod
erate firing range, and burns to an attractive
salmon-red body. Minor amounts of gypsum and
pyrite require neutralizing to prevent scum and ef
florescence. Typical ceramic properties are outlined
in Table 2.4.
Commercial use of Georgian Bay Shale in the
making of expanded aggregate in the form of a
crushed sintered product was demonstrated in the
production of Haydite at Mississauga from 1928 to
196 8, and in the production of coated aggregate
from 196 8 to 1980.
In 196 1, four quarries were operating in Geor
gian Bay Shale as the principal raw material source
for five brick plants and one expanded aggregate
plant in the Toronto area. Detailed studies of the
shale sections are contained in an earlier report. 1
Other shale exposures, including the St. Lawrence
Cement quarry in Mississauga, the Humber River
bank in Brampton, the Meaford Creek section at
Meaford, and a section near Gore Bay on
Manitoulin Island, have also been described ear
lier.2 New analytical data from shale sections at
Creemore and Meaford are included in Tables 2.3
and 2.4.
The Creemore sample was from a roadcut in
Nottawasaga Township; it was tested by Kwong et
al. 5
Two Meaford samples, representative of the up
per grey-green shale and the lower grey-blue shale,
respectively, are from the quarry of the former
Meaford Tile Company.
Clay Shale Industries of Ontario
17
TABLE 2.3 GEORGIAN BAY SHALE, ANALYTICAL DATA. (5,4,6)
Chemi cal Composi t i on (per cen t )
1 2345
Pur e Li mey San dy Ty pi cal
Shal e Beds Beds Aver age
SI02
AI2 03
Fe203
CaO
MgO
Na2O
K 2O
TI02
Ignition Loss
Tot al
58.74
1 7.90
7.50
2.37
2.84
4.03
8.26
1 00.64
34.7
9.0
30.3
t r ace
24.7
98.7
Beds
63.6
1 5.0
7 .3
trace
9.3
55.7
15.3
6 .6 0
95.2
4.63
2.82
0.93
3.51
0.89
9.22
99.6
Cr eemor e
56.75
1 5.84
6.84
3.03
2.94
0.54
4.79
0.80
8.23
99.76
6
Meaf or d
Bl ue Gr een
59.83
1 2.88
50
51
00
0.74
4.06
0.91
8.20
99.63
58.93
1 2.1 6
73
38
63
0.74
4.06
0.95
8.45
97.08
Mineral Composition
Quartz
Calcite
Dolomite
Na/Ca Feldspar
Potash Feldspar
Clay Minerals
Illite
Chlorite
Expanding Mineral
(percent)
4
Typical Average
28
7
1
3
0 .5
60
Abundant
Common
Not detected
5
Creemore
25
0 .5
0
1.5
2.0
7 0
Abundant
Abundant
Not detected
TABLE 2.4 GEORGIAN BAY SHALE, CERAMIC PROPERTIES. (1 ,5)
Wat er of pl ast i ci t y , 'X ,
Gr een St r en gt h, MPa
Dr y i n g shr i n kage, l f c
PCE
Fi r i n g t emp., 0 C
Con e
Fi r ed shr i n kage, t*,
Wat er absor pt i on
24 hr . col d, K
5 hr . boi l i n g, *A
Speci f i c gr avi t y
Col our
Har dn ess
Mod. of Rupt ur e, MPa
Remar ks
900
0 10
0.1
13.1
1 4.6
1 .94
Ty pi cal Aver age
1 8
2.3
5
1 000
06
0.6
1 1 .7
1 3.8
1 .97
1 080
03
2.4
4.3
6.8
2.20
sal mon f br own
har d K ver y har d
bl i st er ed an d over t i r ed
at con e 03
91 5
09
0.5
1 5.4
1 6.0
9.0
Cr eemor e
22.6
1.25
4.1
1 000
06
4.1
6.5
6.6
1 050
04
7.9
1.0
1 .1
1 080
03
8.2
0.3
0.3
sal mon *- r ed br own
har d f ver y har d
21 .5 30.9 39.1
sl i ght ef f l or escen ce
at con e 09
Queen st on For mat i on
One of the most distinctive rock formations in
southern Ontario, the Queenston is a thick se
quence of red shale prominently exposed along the
base and lower terraces of the Niagara Escarpment.
It occupies a position at the top of the Ordovician
system in Ontario, overlying grey Georgian Bay
Shale and underlying Whirlpool Sandstone of Silu
rian age. It is the principal raw material in five brick
plants between Hamilton and Brampton, and one in
Ottawa. It is also used in the making of flowerpots
18
-
TABLE 2.5 QUEENSTON SHALE, ANALYTICAL DATA. (1,5,3)
Chemical Composition (percent)
SiO2
AI20 3
Fe20 3
CaO
MgO
Na2O
K 2O
TiO2
Ignition loss
S0 3
Total
12345
Fm.Av. Weathered Collingwood Creemore Huttonville
51.28
13.9
6 .15
9.0 0
3.48
0 .58
3.60
0 .7 2
10 .82
0.26
99.8
56.28
16.0
6.7 7
4.7 4
2.55
0 .7 0
3.93
0 .85
7 .94
0 .33
39.82
12.76
6 .14
14.87
3.7 2
0 .26
4.19
0 .51
17.49
0 .0 3
51.32
13.6
6.94
53
0 9
10 0 .1 99.99
0 .55
4.39
0 .64
11.68
0 .0 3
10 0 .0
58.96
12.24
5.43
10
12
0 .86
3.50
0 .66
8.88
0 .0 3
10 0 .0 1
6
Geor get own
50 .1
15.0
6.96
7 .85
4.21
0 .20
4.65
55.4
16.0
7 .50
4.36
3.50
0 .21
4.86
Mineral Composition (percent)
1
Fm.Av. Range
Quartz
Calcite
Dolomite
Na/Ca feldspar
Potash feldspar
Clay minerals
Illite
Chlorite
26
11
1.8
1.3
trace
60
abundant
common
18- 34
2- 30
0 - 8
0 - 7
0 - 2
Expanding mineral trace
Samples:
(1) Average of nine quarries
(2) Typical weathered shale
(3) Bulk sample
(4) Channel sample
(4) Channel sample
(6) A. C. Martin quarry, lower 2 m
(7 ) A. C. Martin quarry, top 2.3 m
(8) Bulk sample from roadcut
3458
Collingwood Creemore Huttonville Georgetown
20
9
1.5
1
1
67 .5
abundant
common
mid
25
3
1
1
1
6 9
abundant
common
trace
30
6
1
1
1
61
abundant
common
trace
25
5.5
O
1
1
67 .5
abundant
common
mid
TABLE 2.6 QUEENSTON SHALE, TYPICAL CERAMIC PROPERTIES. (1)
Drying shrinkage, W
PCE
Firing temp., 0 C
Cone
Fired Shrinkage, K
Water absorption
24 hr. cold, y*
5 hr. boiling, y*
Hardness
Colour
1
Formation Average
17
3.2
4
90 0
0 10
O
13.4
14.2
10 0 0
0 6
O
12.3
15.2
10 80
0 3
0 .9
8.5
11.5
almost hard K hard
salmon f brown
Weathered Shale
2 0
3 . 8
5
9 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 8 0
0 1 0 0 6 0 3
0 . 5 2 . 1 3 . 5
1 2 . 1 9 . 0 4 . 0
1 3 . 5 1 1 . 0 5 . 5
hard f very hard
salmon *- red
19
CHAPTER 2 - SHALE RESOURCES
tH OB
en o
O CO
00 O
0
O CD
o o
o
r- co
C M
t- rH
CO IO
73
0)
( H
CD
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CD
O
O)
CD OS
ri O
O
rH CD
Vi O
CD U
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O
O CM
t H CO
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u.
O
m
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oc
UJ
O.
O
cc
Q.
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OC
UJ
O
1 1 1
I
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z
o
W
UJ
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TABLE 2
T3
O
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K
co C
CO
bo
at
J *
c
O t
IO O
o
O CO IO
o o
o o
IO O)
rH O
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O CO
00 O
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o o
o
O O)
o o
O CO
00 O
o
O CO
o o
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O t t
0 0
O)
nk a g e
CO O
*t IO
t H r H
CO t
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t H
O) rH
O) CM
rH
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ea * *
rH rH
ei a
t H H
CO CO
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rH rH
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tm o?
C C
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p T3 r H
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Cd ri ri
XX
ri
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cd
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ri
D
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Q.
2
73 li
O
R ema rk
co -..
20
a nd filtra tion tiles a t Burling ton, flue liners a t St.
Thoma s a nd dra ina g e tiles a t Wa llenstein.
The Queenston Forma tion forms the shoreline
of La k e Onta riofrom Nia g a ra toOa k ville, a nd its
outcrop pa ra llels the Nia g a ra Esca rpment northwa rd
throug h Owen Sound a nd C a pe C rok er, contribut
ing a cha ra cteristic redness tothe soils a long its out
crop belt. It a lsooccurs over a sma ll a rea south of
Otta wa . While much of the forma tion ha s a ra ther
ma ssive a nduniform a ppea ra nce, it is in fa ct thin to
thick ly bedded a nd somewha t va ria ble in composi
tion a nd cera mic suita bility. Thin lenses of g reen
sha le, both horizonta l a nd vertica l, a re erra tica lly
distributedbut g enera lly a re more common nea r the
middle of the sha le sequence, contributing a pro
portiona te increa se in lime content. Nodula r con
centra tions of g ypsum, other soluble sa lts, a nd lo
ca lly increa sedha rdness a ndbrittleness ma y further
limit some exposures for cla y products. In g enera l,
the sha le brea k s down rea dily by wea thering , lea v
ing a softer residua l ma teria l somewha t lea ched of
lime a ndwith improvedcera mic properties. Indeed,
some former brick a nd tile producers took a dva n
ta g e of this by limiting their qua rry exca va tions to
the upper few metres of wea thered sha le.
Lime content is hig hest nea r the middle of the
forma tion, a nd other sma ll minera l a nd chemica l
va ria tions a re tra cea ble from top tobottom of the
Queenston Sha le section. 1 Lime content a lso in
crea ses northwa rd, a nd on M a nitoulin Isla nd the
forma tion is represented by limestone a nd dolos
tone.
Queenston Sha le ha s ba rely sufficient pla sticity
for brick a ndtile extruders. Pla sticity is improvedby
na tura l wea thering a nd fine g rinding , a nd by mini
mizing the content of the more brittle g reen lenses.
The firing ra ng e is short a ndthe firedcolour is nor
ma lly sa lmon-red; both firing ra ng e a nd depth of
colour is improved with wea thered sha le.
Expa nded a g g reg a te ha s not been ma de from
Queenston Sha le in Onta rio, a lthoug h some sha le
sections ha ve fa irly g ood bloa ting cha ra cteristics.
However, bloa ting ta k es pla ce a lmost a t the point of
fusion, ma k ing it poorly suited for the production of
coa ted a g g reg a te in the rota ry k iln,
Twounique but thin deposits of redcla y a t Bur
ling ton a nd Ha milton were formed exclusively from
wea theredQueenston Sha le orig ina ting from nea rby
eroding sha le terra ces. These deposits, much re
ducedin lime by lea ching , were a lmost of stonewa re
qua lity, a nd were used extensively in the ma k ing of
sewer pipes, flowerpots a nd other pottery products.
While these deposits ha ve now been depletedor lost
tourba niza tion, wea thered Queenston Sha le, when
ever it ca n be obta ined, is still useda s a ma jor con
stituent of va rious pottery a nd a rtwa re products. Its
prepa ra tion a fter exca va tion ma y involve yea rs of
further na tura l wea thering , followed by blung ing
a nd filter-pressing .
The results of chemica l, minera log ica l a nd ce
ra mic testing of numerous cha nnel sa mples from
qua rry fa ces a ctive in 1 961 a re g iven in a previous
report. 1 Testing of severa l sa mples from Owen
Sound ha s a lso been previously reported,2 clea rly
showing the sha rp increa se in lime content of the
more northerly sha le exposures.
Avera g e composition a nd cera mic properties of
Queenston Sha le a re g iven in Ta bles 2.5 a nd 2.6,
a long with da ta for typica l wea thered sha le. New
test results for sa mples from C olling wood,
C reemore, Huttonville a nd Georg etown a re repro
duced in Ta bles 2.5 a nd 2.7.
Ar kon a For mat i on
The Ark ona Forma tion consists of soft, ea sily
wea thered, g rey sha le which, despite a tendency for
sig nifica nt scumming a nd efflorescence, is proving
tobe a n importa nt ra w ma teria l for hea vy cla y prod
ucts. Its occurrence in Onta riois restricted tothe
southwest where it is used for ma k ing dra ina g e tile
a t Pa rk hill a nd flue liners a t St. Thoma s. It wa s for
merly used a lsofor brick s a t Pa rk hill a nd dra ina g e
tile a t Thedford.
The Ark ona Forma tion is pa rt of the Ha milton
Group of limestones a ndsha les of M iddle Devonia n
a g e. The Ha milton Group comprises six forma tions
a s outlined in Ta ble 2.8. Previous descriptions1 of
the sha le exposures in twoqua rries a t Thedforda nd
Ark ona put the sha le in the Petrolia M ember, now
the Widder Forma tion, but these sha les a re now
g iven forma tion sta tus a nd pla ced lower in the g eo
log ica l record.
The a rea in which the Ha milton Group occurs
in southwestern Onta rio is shown on Fig ure 2.2.
Sca rcity of exposures ma k es it impossible todeline-
TABLE 2.8 SUBDIVISION OF THE HAMILTON
GROUP.
For mat i on Gen er al Li t hol ogy
Ipper wash Upper l i mest on e
Wi dder Cal car eous f ossl l l f er ous shal e
Hun gr y Hol l ow Py r i t e cr i n oi dal l i mest on e
Ar kon a Sof t gr ey shal e
Rockpor t Quar r y Li mest on e
Bel l Lower shal e
21
a te the Ark ona Forma tion specifica lly. The best ex
posures of Ark ona Sha le a re in the ba nk s of the
Ausa ble R iver ea st of Ark ona a t Hung ry Hollow
(Photo2.2), a nd Deck er C reek north of Thedford.
While the Thedford qua rry is now ina ctive, two
Hung ry Hollow qua rries nea r Ark ona a re supplying
a ll the ra w ma teria l for dra ina g e tile a t Pa rk hill a nd
pa rt of the ra w ma teria l for flue liners a t St.
Thoma s. Amos C . M a rtin Limited esta blished the
"South Pit" (Photo2.2, bottom) on the south ba nk
of the Ausa ble R iver a t Hung ry Hollow in 1 968. It is
in lot 22, concession VII, West Willia ms Township,
M iddlesex C ounty. In 1 979 M a rtin a lso a cquired
the "North Pit", on the north ba nk in lots 22 a nd
23, concession IX, which ha d been work ed by
Pa rk hill Brick C ompa ny from 1 963 to1 979.
The g eolog ica l section exposed in the North Pit
is described in a previous volume. 1 In the South Pit
a bout 9 m of soft sha le is exposed benea th 1 .5 to2
m of Hung ry Hollow pyritic crinoida l limestone a nd
severa l metres of Widder ca lca reous, fossiliferous
sha le. A sing le vertica l drillhole ha s proved the
Ark ona Sha le tobe 43.5 m thick a t this point. The
sha le is uniformly g rey, soft, thin bedded but ma s
sive in a ppea ra nce, spa rsely fossiliferous, wea k ly
ca lca reous, a nd ea sily wea thered to cla y. Loca l
rusty sta ining orig ina tes from the overlying pyritic
limestone beds.
Test results from previous sa mpling of the North
Pit a re reproduced in Ta bles 2.9 a nd 2.1 0.
SHALE RESOURCES
In 1 978 the C la y Brick Associa tion of C a na da spon
sored a study7 todelinea te the sha le resources of
Onta rio. Of pa rticula r interest were a rea s where the
Queenston, Georg ia n Ba y, Blue M ounta in a nd
Ark ona sha les were not excessively covered by
overburden. Using wa ter well records a s a g uide to
overburden thick ness, a rea s covered by not more
tha n 7.6 m of g la cia l drift were outlined within the
k nown sha le outcrop belts. Pa rt of south-centra l
Onta rio ha d been previously resea rched by Vos8
whoa ttempted todefine potentia l sources of both
cla y a nd sha le.
While the sha le forma tions of principa l interest
for brick ma k ing a re k nown tobe thick , common
qua rrying pra ctice is inclined towa rd rela tively sha l
low exca va tions. Hence, in ma k ing reserve ca lcula
tions in the a rea s defined a s fa voura ble in terms of
overburden thick ness, a sha le depth of 7.6 m wa s
TABLE 2.9 ARK ONA SHALE, ANALYTICAL DATA. (1)
Chemical Composition* (percent)
Si0 2
AI20 3
Fe20 3
CaO
Mgd
Na 2 O
K 2O
TiO2
CO2
H2Ot
H2O-
S0 3
Tota l
Soluble Salts
Ignition Loss
51.96
18.1
6.40
6.48
2.45
0 .21
3.82
0 .89
5.36
3.95
0 .7 0
0 .50
10 0 .8
0 .66
9.7 4
Mineral Composition* (percent)
Percent
Quartz 27
Calcite g
Dolomite - co. 5
Na/Ca Feldspar *c0 .5
Potash Feldspar *:0 .5
Clay Minerals 62
Illite
Chlorite
Abundant
Abundant
Photo 2.2 Top: Soft Arkona Shale at Hungry
Hollow. Bottom: South pit in Arkona Shale, Amos
C. Martin Ltd. Photo courtesy B.H. Feenstra.
Expan di n g mi n er al s Trace
*5 msection exposed In A. C. Martin's north pit
22
TABLE 2.1 0 ARKONA SHALE, CERAMIC PROPERTIES. (1 )
Upper 1 .5 m* Lower 3.5 m*
Drying shrinkage, " X
PCE
Firing temp., 0 C
Cone
Fired shrinkage, (X *
Water absorption
24 hr. cold, 'X .
5 hr. boiling, ' X ,
Specific gravity
Colour
Hardness
90 0
0 10
O
1 5
1 5.5
1 .78
25
4.3
6
1 000
06
3.5
7.9
8.3
1 .99
1 080
03
5.2
3.6
3.9
2.1 1
brown
hard
dark brown
very hard
Remar ks abun dan t whi t e scum; over f l r ed
*5 m sect i on exposed i n A. C. Mar t i n ' s n or t h pi t
900
01 0
O
1 5.4
1 6.1
1 .77
25
4.3
6
1 000
06
1 .7
1 0.1
1 1 .1
1 .87
1 080
03
2.6
6.3
6.7
1 .94
br own
har d
rust brown
very hard
TABLE 2.1 1 POTENTIALLY AVAILABLE RESERVES OF SUITABLE SHALE IN ONTARIO. (8)
Coun t y /Regi on
Duf f er i n
Hal t on
Ni agar a
Peel
Russel l
Si mcoe
Hami l t on -Wen t wor t h
TOTAL
Geogr aphi c
Town shi p
Mono
Mul mur
Esquesi n g
E. Flamborough
Nel son
Trafalgar
Cl i n t on
North Grimsby
Niagara
Al bi on
Cal edon
Chi n guacousy
Tor on t o
Tor on t o Gor e
Russel l
Not t awasaga
Saltfleet (now Town
of St on ey Cr eek)
Net Reser ves
Mi l l i on s
of Ton n es Hect ar es
22
1 25
1 61
1 1 3
1 42
260
1 28
71
4
30
1 4
567
26
179
1 66
260
1 22
2,390
1 34
765
981
688
870
1 ,568
783
431
28
1 82
83
3,468
1 62
1 ,093
1 ,01 2
1 ,590
749
1 4,605
considered. A bulk density of 2.24 tonnes/m3 wa s
ta k en tobe representa tive of the unbrok en sha le in
pla ce; this is a pproxima tely equiva lent to 1 71 ,751
tonnes per hecta re toa depth of 7.6 m.
C a lcula ted tonna g es were reduced by 25 per
cent toa llow for elimina tion of wa ste rock a ndother
qua rry losses. R eserves a re listed by township in Ta
ble 2.1 1 , tota lling 2,390 million tonnes within a rea s
tota lling 1 4,605 hecta res. Except for a n a rea in R us
sell Township nea r Otta wa , these reserves a re re
stricted tothe Nia g a ra Esca rpment a nd la nds ma r
g ina l toit on the ea st (Fig ure 2.3).
It ha s been estima ted tha t 3.4 tonnes of sha le
a re consumed in the ma k ing of 1 ,000 brick s.
Hence, a bout 1 .5 million tonnes of sha les, equiva
lent to9 hecta res of sha le la nds, a re consumed a n
nua lly in Onta rioa t current levels of production.
While there is no a ppa rent physica l sca rcity of
sha le, it must be remembered tha t these reserves
a re not evenly distributed a bout the province, a nd
tha t their predomina nce in the densely popula ted
Toronto-Ha milton a rea puts in jeopa rdy their a va il
a bility for future use. Indeed, these a re g ross ca lcu
la tions which ha ve not been discounted for urba ni
za tion, conflicting la nd uses, environmenta l restric-
Clay St Shale Industries of Ontario
23
,WV MUSK OK A \
t5h ,.\HAL
TOWNSHIPS
l - NOTTAWASAGA
2-MULMUR
3-RUSSELL
4 - TORONTO GORE
5 - CHINGUACOUSY
6- ESQUESING
7-NELSON
8-SALTFLEET
9- CLINTON
1 0- TRAFALGAR
Figure 2.3 Principal shale resource areas of southern Ontario.
tions, restrictive leg isla tion a nd loca l qua lity limita
tions. Even without a ll the restrictions imposed by
urba niza tion, the la ck of physica l testing is a ma jor
wea k ness in ma k ing sha le reserve ca lcula tions. Brit
tle sha le, loca l concentra tions of ha rd limey la yers,
a nd erra tic distribution of g ypsum a nd other soluble
sa lts a re only some of the unpredicta ble fea tures
tha t ca n ca use the elimina tion of some sha le loca
tions from economic use.
REFERENCES
1 . Guillet, G.R . "The C la y Products Industry of Onta rio1
Onta rioDept. of M ines, IM R 22, 206 p., 1 967.
2. Guillet, G.R . "C la y a nd Sha le Deposits of Onta rio'
Onta rioGeol. Survey, M DC 1 5, 1 1 7 p., 1 977.
3. Guillet, G.R . "M inera l R esources of South C entra l On
ta rio", Onta rioGeol. Survey, OFR 5431 , 1 55 p., 1 983.
4. K eele, J. "Prelimina ry R eport on the C la y a nd Sha le
Deposits of Onta rio", Geol. Survey C a na da , M emoir
1 42, 1 924.
5. K wong , J.P., M a rtin I.P. a nd Na ra in, M . "C era mic
Properties of Selected Sha le a nd C la y R eserves in South
C entra l Onta rio", Onta rioGeol. Survey, OFR 5571 , 60
p., 1 985.
6. Pa rk s, W.A. "The Stra tig ra phy a nd Pa leontolog y of
Torontoa ndVicinity; Pa rt A: Stra tig ra phy a nd C orrela
tion of the Dunda s Forma tion", Onta rioDept. M ines,
Vol. XXXII, pt. 7, p. 89-1 1 6., 1 923.
7. Proctor R edfern Ltd. "The C la y Brick Industry a nd
the Sha le R esources of Onta rio", for the C la y Brick As-
soc. of C a na da , July 1 978.
8. Vos, M . A. "Potentia l C la y a nd Sha le R esources of C en
tra l Onta rio", Onta rioDept. M ines, OFR 51 33, 40 p.,
1 975.
24
Chapt er 3 Kaol i n Cl ay s of On t ar i o
INTRODUCTION
K a olin (a lsok nown a s china cla y), is a pla tey min
era l composed of sta ck ed sheets of a silica te-g ib-
bsite bi-la yer. Bonding within the bi-la yer is strong
with only wea k a ttra ction between the sheets. The
structure of the cla y g ives it a 'g rea sy' feel when wet
a nd hig hly pla stic beha viour. When k a olinite is
pure, with very little substitution of a luminum a nd
silicon in the structure, it is very refra ctory a nd fires
to a pure white colour. Extensive substitution by
iron, ma g nesium a nd tita nium results in "firecla y".
The deg ree of substitution in a cla y influences its
surfa ce properties a nd thereby a ffects the rheolog i-
ca l properties. It a lsoinfluences the colour of the
cla y (both before a nd a fter firing ), its refra ctoriness
a nd its performa nce a s a filler ma teria l.
C la ys find a multitude of uses in modern indus
tria l technolog y, the most well k nown being those in
cera mics where they a ct a s not only the prime struc
tura l components, but a lso a s a pig ment a nd a
binder. Such products finda pplica tions whichra ng e
from conventiona l brick s a nd pottery tohig h-tem
pera ture-resista nt refra ctories a nd hig hly sophisti
ca ted specia lty components.
In recent yea rs, however, the tra ditiona l cera m
ics ma rk et for prepa red cla ys ha s been suppla nted
by its use a s a filler/extender ma teria l. Sucha pplica
tions ma k e use of the pla tey crysta l structure, na tu
ra l binding a ction, hig h reflectivity a nd opa cifying
properties. In a ddition, the common occurrence of
cla y minera ls ensures tha t they a re rela tively inex
pensive which, a lthoug h not a technica l require
ment, is often considered tobe hig hly desira ble.
In the cera mics industry k a olin is used in the
ma nufa cture of bone china , porcela in, stonewa re,
whitewa re* sa nita rywa re, electrica l insula tors, a nd
refra ctories a nd refra ctory a g g reg a te. Tomeet the
requirements of hig h refra ctoriness a ndwhite colour
on firing the cla y must be minera log ica lly a nd
chemica lly pure. It must a lsopossess suita ble pla s
ticity a ndTheolog ica l properties for moulding or slip
ca sting beha viour in industria l forming processes.
Another ma jor industria l use of k a olin is in the
pa per industry. K a olin finds use in coa ting s for hig h
g loss finish pa per a nd a s a filler ma teria l toproduce
opa city in the pa per. The requirements of the cla y
in this a pplica tion a re tha t it be very white a ndha ve
a hig h reflecta nce (brig htness) va lue, g rea ter tha n
909& for pa per coa ting a nd ~8596 for filler. The
Theolog ica l properties of the cla y a re a lsoimporta nt.
The industry ha s determinedtha t for a n idea l coa t
ing cla y a slurry of ~70 weig ht percent solids ha s
Theolog ica l properties suita ble for pa per coa ting a p
plica tions.
K a olin is a lsoused a s a filler in the rubber in
dustry for reinforcing or stiffening the rubber or a s a
low cost rubber pig ment. It is used in a bra sives,
pla stics a nd pa ints a s a filler or extender a nd a s a
ca rrying a g ent for pesticide dusting opera tions.
Genera lly, the g overning fa ctors for determining
the suita bility of a k a olin cla y for the a bove de
scribed a pplica tions a re:
1 . C hemica l a nd minera log ica l purity,
2. C rysta llinity,
3. Pa rticle size distribution.
The k a olin cla y used by C a na dia n industries is
imported, ma inly from the U.S.A. a nd the United
K ing dom. In 1 984 C a na da imported over 250,000
tonnes of china cla y a nd a pproxima tely 50,000
tonnes of firecla y. This is in contra st toC a na da 's
tota l ra w cla y exports of 646 tonnes. The consump
tion of k a olin a nd firecla y by the C a na dia n industry
is g iven in Ta ble 3.1 , ta k en from the yea rly review
of C la ys a nd C la y Products by the Depa rtment of
Energ y, M ines a nd R esources. 1 0
The only sig nifica nt deposits of k a olin cla y
found in Onta rioa re in the reg ion of the Ja mes Ba y
wa tershed, specifica lly in the M oose R iver Ba sin.
Extensive deposits of k a olin-silica sa nd mixtures
ha ve been found a long the M issina ibi a nd M a t
ta g a mi R ivers. The difficult terra in a nd clima te of
northern Onta rioa nd dista nce from ma rk ets ha ve
restricted development of these deposits. However,
prog ra ms ha ve been underta k en to explore these
deposits a nd a ssess their industria l potentia l, a nd
the results obta ined a ppea r encoura g ing .
Explora tion of phospha te deposits a ssocia ted
with ca rbona tite complexes in C a rg ill Township,
south of K a pusk a sing , a nd a t M a rtison La k e north
of Hea rst, ha s a lsorevea led some k a olin cla y se
quences simila r tothose of the M oose R iver Ba sin,
a ppa rently protected from g la cia l remova l by the to
pog ra phy.
25
TABLE 3.1 CANADA, CONSUMPTION (AVAILABLE DATA) OF CLAYS, BY
INDUSTRIES, 1981- 1984. (10 )
Chi n a Cl ay
Pulp and paper products2
Ceramic products
Paint and varnish
Rubber and linoleum
Other products3
Total
Bal l Cl ay
Ceramic products misc.
Refractories
Other4
Total
Fire Clay
Foundries
Refractories
Other8
Total
1 981
85,555
9,764
5,955
4,0 33
21,917
127 ,224
18,694
2,7 43
1 27,979
149,416
11,7 31
14,929
2,467
29,127
1982 1983P
(tonnes)
92,997 f
6,680
5,510
5,951
7 4,513
185,651t
1 1 ,084
11,969
7 8,951
10 2,0 0 4
8,936
1 4,546
4,1 83
27,665
97 .235
10 ,267
6,0 82
6,568
21,17 6
141,328
1 9,749
2,578
45,0 49
67 ,37 6
8,829
5,840
9,458
24,127
1984 P 1
146,689
9,37 8
5,7 0 5
7 ,225
21,660
190 ,657
16,50 6
2,280
51.0 84
69,87 0
9,857
6,803
11,383
28,0 43
1. Increase in number of paper and paper products and paper pulp companies surveyed.
2. Includes paper and paper products and paper pulp.
3. Includes refractory brick mixes, cements, glass fibre and wools, adhesives, foundry, wire and cable and other
miscellaneous products.
4. Includes structural clay products, adhesives, miscellaneous chemicals, petroleumrefining, paint and varnish
and other miscellaneous products.
5. Includes abrasives, ceramic products, concrete products, paint and varnish, petroleumrefining, and rubber
products.
P Preliminary
t Revised.
MOOSE RIVER DEPOSITS
Geol ogy
K a olin cla ys a nd qua rtz sa nds of M esozoic a g e oc
cur over a n a rea of some 1 0,000 k m2 in northea st
ern Onta rio(Fig ure 3.1 ). They form a wedg e of un
consolida ted continenta l sediments tha t ha ve been
g oug ed a nd disturbed by Pleistocene g la ciers but
were sa ved from complete remova l by deflection of
the ice over a n upla nd a rea of Preca mbria n rock s
tha t form their southern ma rg in. They rest la rg ely
on Devonia n sha le a nd limestone of the M oose
R iver Ba sin, a nda re coveredby a thick sequence of
g la cia l till, ma rine cla y, sa nd, a ndmusk eg . Access is
difficult a nd exposures a re few, but prog ra ms of
deep drilling sponsoredby the Onta rioGovernment
since 1 975 ha ve provided much useful informa tion
on the cha ra cter a nd distribution of k a olin, firecla y,
qua rtz sa nd a nd lig nite.
The M esozoic sediments of the M oose R iver
Ba sin a re mostly Lower C reta ceous in a g e, a lthoug h
a thin unit of M iddle Jura ssic a g e ha s been recog
nized in a few drillholes. The C reta ceous sediments
comprise thick sequences of k a olinitic qua rtz sa nd
interla yered with lenses of refra ctory cla y a nd lig
nite, a ll belong ing tothe M a tta g a mi Forma tion. The
M istusk wia Beds of M iddle Jura ssic a g e consist of
va ricoloured ca lca reous cla ys a nd thin horizons of
fine- to medium-g ra ined, ca lca reous a nd well-
rounded qua rtz sa nds. 1 4
The M a tta g a mi Forma tion is of pa rticula r eco
nomic interest beca use it conta ins the only sizea ble
occurrences of lig nite, k a olin a nd refra ctory cla y in
Onta rio. The forma tion conta ins twodistinct pha ses
(Fig ure 3.2): a n ea rly pha se cha ra cterizedby lig nite
a ndmuch bla ck ca rbona ceous cla y (Type A); a nda
subsequent pha se consisting predomina ntly of thick
sequences of white k a olinitic qua rtz sa nd a nd lig ht-
coloured, non-ca lca reous cla y (Type B).
A Preca mbria n ridg e k nown a s the Gra nd R a p
ids Arch ma y ha ve formed a ba rrier tothe deposi
tion further north of the young er lig ht-coloured
Type B sediments which conta in the most a ttra ctive
k a olin. North of the a rch, in the Ona k a wa na a rea ,
g rey a ndbla ck ca rbona ceous cla ys, some of firecla y
qua lity, predomina te with lig nite. Type A sediments
a lsooccur a t depth south of the a rch where they a re
overla in by thick sequences of Type B sediments.
The C reta ceous sediments were deposited in a
sha llow fresh-wa ter la k e a t the foot of the Preca m
bria n esca rpment tha t formed its southern shore
a bout 1 00 million yea rs a g o. The orig in of the k a o-
26
Mesozoi c
Mattagami Fm. (Lower Cretaceous)
Mistuskwia Beds (Middle J urassic)
Upper Devon i an
D8 Long Rapids Formation
D7 Williams Island Formation
Mi ddl e Devon i an
D6 Murray Island Formation
D5 Moose River Formation
D4 K wataboahegan Formation
Lower Devon i an
D3 Stooping River Formation
D2 Sextant Formation
Upper Si l ur i an
D1 K enogami River Formation
Pr ecambr i an Undifferentlated
Deep bor ehol e
Figure 3.1 Geology of the Moose River Basin14
Clay & Shale Industries of Ontario 27
150 - 1
10 0 -
c 50 -
0 -
- 50 - 1
1 4 3 85
Horizontal Distances (kilometres)
.9 i 135 i 11.5 11.0
Figure 3.2 East- west section through the Moose River Basin.4
lin is believed toha ve been in the wea thering of
feldspa rs in the predomina ntly g ra nitic rock s of the
Preca mbria n hig hla nds. Strea ms flowing off the
hig hla nds ca rried the wea thered products intothe
C reta ceous la k e tha t occupied the M oose R iver Ba
sin a t tha t time. M uch of the cla y ma y ha ve re
ma inedin suspension in the la k e wa ters, a nd only in
periods of extreme dryness when the wa ters eva po
ra ted wa s the cla y deposited in thick horizonta l
lenses a nd beds.
Exposures of pla stic cla y a re sca rce, a s a re the
beds of k a olinitic sa nd a nd lenses of lig nite, but
drilling ha s proved their persistence over a wide
a rea benea th hea vy overburden. Only in a few
deeply cut river ba nk s a long the M a tta g a mi a nd
M issina ibi R ivers a nd their tributa ries ca n these
cla ys a nd sa nds be seen a t times of low wa ter.
It is believedtha t the M esozoic sediments over
lie a 600 m sequence of nea rly fla t Pa leozoic rock s
of Siluria n a nd Devonia n a g e. These a re ma inly
limestones, sha les a nd eva porites of ma rine orig in.
Devonia n stra tig ra phy in the a rea is described by
Sa nford a nd Norris. 1 1
Qua terna ry sediments cover the M esozoic in
thick nesses up to1 00 m or more. These consist of
severa l till sheets interca la ted with non-g la cia l silts,
cla ys, sa nds, g ra vels a ndpea ty sediments, a ll with a
uniform ca pping of musk eg . The Qua terna ry is thor
oug hly described by Sk inner. 1 2
The a rea of principa l interest extends for 80 k m
a long the ea st-west Preca mbria n esca rpment tha t
forms the southern limit of the ba sin. Spora dic drill
ing ha s shown tha t the deposits extend up to40 k m
northwa rd from the esca rpment.
The southern edg e of the ba sin is a ccessible by
roa d from Fra serda le a nd K a pusk a sing . The ea stern
limit of the k a olin a rea is 1 5 k m west of C ora l R a p
ids on the Onta rioNorthla nd R a ilwa y. Access tothe
western pa rt of the ba sin is restricted to lumber
roa ds north from Hea rst, from which fina l a ccess
must be by winter roa d.
Kaol i n
K a olin of possible commercia l sig nifica nce occurs a s
a white ma trix between the qua rtz g ra ins in the thick
beds of qua rtz sa ndtha t comprise much of the Type
B unit.5 Horizonta l lenticula r beds of white a nd
brig htly-coloured pla stic cla y a re a lso common.
28
They consist a lmost entirely of k a olinite, a nd a re
g enera lly hig hly refra ctory.
The k a olin-qua rtz sa nd sequence is wa ter-sa tu
ra ted, a nd much of the fine white k a olin is mobi
lized in suspension throug hout the sa ndbeds, g iving
rise tok a olin-rich a nd k a olin-poor horizons. K a o
lin-rich la yers ma y conta in a s much a s 20 percent
or more of k a olinite. The possibility of mining these
beds by a pumping technique using ca sedwells, a nd
delivering the slurry by pipeline to a processing
pla nt, ha s been exa minedin some deta il a ndis con
sidered fea sible.3
A ma ximum thick ness of 1 27 m ha s been re
corded for the lig ht-coloured Type B unit in a
drillhole in the south-centra l pa rt of the ba sin.4
K a olin-bea ring sa nd horizons va ry up to20 m in
uninterrupted thick ness, but norma lly a vera g e 5 m
to1 0 m. Interbedded cla y lenses a re g enera lly thin
ner.
While there ha s been some deep explora tion
drilling by priva te interests, most field studies ha ve
been directed towa rds the few C reta ceous outcrops
in deeply cut river cha nnels. However, much of our
present k nowledg e of these deposits ha s resulted
from deep drilling prog ra ms by the Onta rioGovern
ment in recent yea rs.
Processing requirements a nd filler ma rk ets for
k a olin ha ve been recently documented.6
Cer ami c Ref r act or y Cl ay s
Dense pla stic cla ys of va rious colours form a la rg e
pa rt of the C reta ceous section, interla yered with
k a olin-bea ring qua rtz sa nds in the M oose R iver Ba
sin. M a ny a re hig hly refra ctory a nd suita ble a s
firecla ys in hig h tempera ture a pplica tions. Others
a re typica l ba ll cla ys a nd stonewa re cla ys, suita ble
for whitewa re, china a nd pottery, sewer pipe a nd
building brick s.
Deep drillholes ha ve provedthe widesprea ddis
tribution of these cla ys. But, more importa ntly,
there a re severa l loca tions where they a re rea son
a bly a ccessible, in pa rticula r a t the foot of the K i
pling da m in K ipling Township. Here cla ys ca n be
dug from the ea st ba nk of the M a tta g a mi R iver a t
times of low wa ter, a nd a thick deposit is k nown
benea th sha llow overburden on the west side, a cces
sible by roa d.
C la ys of these qua lities a re k nown nowhere else
in Onta rio. Simila r cla ys a re imported la rg ely from
Ohio a nd Pennsylva nia , a long with ma ny cera mic
a nd refra ctory products which mig ht otherwise be
ma de loca lly. However, even if they were rea dily
a ccessible, tra nsporta tion costs from northea stern
Onta riotoma rk ets in southern Onta riowould im
pose a considera ble economic constra int.
Pla stic k a olinitic cla ys of firecla y, ba ll cla y a nd
stonewa re qua lity occur in la rg e qua ntities a ndva ri
ous qua lities with lig nite a t Ona k a wa na . About 1 0
million tonnes is estima ted tooverlie the upper lig
nite bed. 1 5 In a ny qua rrying opera tion for lig nite,
these cla ys would ha ve tobe moved. They a re a
va lua ble resource, found nowhere else in Onta rio,
a nd a s much a s possible should be utilized or stock
piled. In doing so, ca re shouldbe ta k en tok eep the
va rious qua lities sepa ra te. C la ys a ssocia ted with lig
nite belong tothe Type A unit of the M a tta g a mi
Forma tion. They a re typica lly da rk g rey tobla ck be
ca use of a n a bunda nce of org a nic ca rbon, but some
become white or nea rly white on firing .
For ea sy a ccessibility, the cla ys below the K i
pling da m on the M a tta g a mi R iver a re of pa rticula r
interest. Thin beds of white, brown, red a nd olive
g rey pla stic cla y ca n be seen a t interva ls a long the
ea st ba nk , pa rticula rly a t low wa ter. These a re pri
va tely owned la nds which ha ve underg one numer
ous testing studies over the yea rs by va rious compa
nies prima rily interested in k a olin.
A g ood thick ness of va riously coloured pla stic
cla ys a lsooccurs on the west ba nk benea th sha llow
overburden. An old overg rown pit ma rk s the site of
a n ea rly a ttempt a t commercia l production. R e
mova l of further dense cla y till overburden for use
in the core of the K ipling da m ma k es this deposit
more a ccessible, thoug h still la rg ely unexposed.
In g enera l, a ll the C reta ceous cla ys a re smooth
a nd pla stic, a nd composed of k a olinite, fine qua rtz
a nd minor illite. M a ny a re hig hly refra ctory, with
pyrometric cone equiva lents in excess of 30, a nd
a lumina contents g rea ter tha n 30 per cent. M a xi
mum recorded PC E wa s 36, a nd a lumina content
38.7 percent.
The firing cha ra cteristics for numerous sa mples
ta k en throug hout the M oose R iver Ba sin by a num
ber of ea rly work ers ha ve been ta bula ted by Vos. 1 4
These illustra te the g rea t va riety of cla ys a va ila ble in
terms of PC E a nd colour, both in the fired a nd
na tura l sta te. M a ny da rk g rey tobla ck cla ys fire toa
nea rly white colour a s their ca rbon is burned off.
White burning cla ys a re preferred for most ce
ra mic uses, a nd, if of superior qua lity, mig ht find
a pplica tion in the ma k ing of fine china ,
sa nita ry wa re a ndother white wa res. C la ys tha t fire to
crea m colours, or buff, g rey, pink or red ca n find
use in the ma k ing of building brick s a ndsewer pipe,
in refra ctory mixes a nd brick s, a nd in pottery a nd
stonewa re.
For some of these uses, less refra ctory (i.e.
lower PC E) cla ys a re preferred; otherwise very hig h
firing tempera tures a re required. (The fired wa re
could be tooporous a nd soft a t lower conventiona l
firing tempera tures.) In some ca ses too, blung ing
a nd wet screening of the cla y ma y be necessa ry to
remove tra ces of sa nd g rit, mica a nd iron-bea ring
minera ls, some of which ma y otherwise result in a n
una ttra ctive speck led surfa ce a fter firing .
With the exception of the hig h volume brick
a nd refra ctory brick industry, cla ys a re seldom used
a s the sole ing redient of the cera mic composition.
Usua lly a blend of cla ys a nd/or other silica te (non-
pla stic) ing redients, such a s feldspa r a nd flint, a re
used toproduce a fired product of desired proper
ties. (In the ca se of cera mics, it is the chemica l,
physica l a nd hig h tempera ture properties which de
termine their a pplica tion.)
The most importa nt properties of cera mic cla ys
a re:
o minera l composition,
o chemica l composition (impurities),
o pla sticity (forma bility),
o defloccula tion cha ra cteristics (for prepa ra tion
of slips),
o pa rticle size distribution,
o drying shrink a g e,
o refra ctoriness (fusion point),
o vitrifica tion ra ng e or firing ra ng e,
o fired colour,
o fired properties: a bsorption; shrink a g e;
streng th; therma l expa nsion.
LABORATORY TESTI NG OF KAOLI N
The cla y deposits of the M oose R iver ba sin ha ve
been explored a s possible sources of hig h g ra de
k a olin. Ana lyses of the deposits ha ve been per
formed to determine their physica l a nd chemica l
properties a nd toa ssess their commercia l potentia l.
M ost of this work ha s been a imed a t hig h volume
pa per a nd filler a pplica tions, but some eva lua tions
ha ve been conducted todetermine cera mic proper
ties.
MISSINAIBI RIVER DEPOSIT
In the la te 1 960s Alg ocen M ines Limited obta ined
a n Explora tory Licence of Occupa tion for a 23,000
ha reg ion a long the M issina ibi R iver from M cBrien
throug h Ha bel Townships in the District of
Figure 3.3 Algocen Mines Exploratory Licence of
Occupation along the Missinaibi River? 3
C ochra ne. A pla n of this licence is shown in Fig ure
3.3. Indica ted on the fig ure a re the loca tions of
three deposits explored a s potentia l sources of k a o
lin cla y.
The k a olin of these deposits is a ssocia ted with
va rying a mounts of coa rse sa nd a nd lenses of
firecla y. A cross-section of one of the deposits is
depicted in Fig ure 3.4. The k a olin content of the
sa nd-cla y deposit is estima ted a t a pproxima tely
209& . C la y-rich lenses in the deposit conta in up to
5096 k a olin.
mbis
mb1 4
LOOKING EAST
mb22 mb23 mb27
600
met r es
Figure 3.4 Typical cross- section of kaolin clay -
sand deposit along Missinaibi Rivers
30
Raw Mat er i al Test i n g
The sa ndfra ction of the M issina ibi cla y deposit ma y
be rea dily sepa ra ted from the bulk ma teria l by a ttri
tion wa shing a nd screening , further beneficia tion
ca n be a chieved by flota tion a nd/or hig h intensity
ma g netic sepa ra tion. The sa nd fra ction is essentia lly
coa rse g ra ins, a nd the size distribution va ries some
wha t a cross the deposit; however, blending of dif
ferent screen fra ctions toproduce a composite suit
a ble for commercia l g la ss melting a pplica tions will
produce a hig h g ra de g la ss sa nd. A typica l chemica l
a na lysis of a beneficia ted, floa ted a nd/or ma g neti
ca lly clea ned g la ss sa nd is g iven in Ta ble 3.2.
The qua lity of the sa nd fra ction is compa ra ble
toma teria l currently being used in g la ss ma nufa c
ture.
X-ra y a na lysis indica tes tha t a qua ntity, of
qua rtz, ~5.096, rema ins in the -325 mesh ma teria l
which is essentia lly k a olin cla y. Further beneficia
tion to-1 0 jim a nd -2 jim pa rticle size lowers the
qua rtz content to ~496 a nd 1 96 respectively, the
va lues va rying slig htly a cross the deposit. The -325
mesh cla y fra ction a lsoconta ins sma ll a mounts of
muscovite mica , illite, a ma g netic ilmenite-type ma
teria l, a nd some a morphous ma teria l.
Size sepa ra tion of the cla y from the a ssocia ted
impurities in the fine fra ction ca n be effected on a
commercia l sca le by hydrocycloning or centrifug a l
techniques. Iron-bea ring components in the cla y
tha t g ive it a da rk colour g enera lly a re not removed
by size fra ctioning a lone. Flota tion techniques or
ma g netic sepa ra tion ma y a lsobe necessa ry tore
duce the qua ntity of these conta mina nts in the cla y.
The k a olin of the cla y deposit is well crysta l
lized, the crysta ls being well sepa ra ted a nd hexa g o
na l in sha pe. An electron microg ra ph of the cla y
pa rticles is shown in Photo3.1 . The edg es of some
of the crysta ls ha ve a roug h a ppea ra nce due tothe
TABLE 3.2 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
BENEFICIATED GLASS SAND FRACTION
FROM MISSINAIBI RIVER DEPOSIT. (7)
Compon en t
SiO2
Fe20 3
AI20 3
TIO2
C a O
MgO
K 2O
Na2O
P20 S
L.O.I.
Per cen t
99.68
0.01 4
0.1 25
0.009
0.0004
0.003
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.1 8
Photo 3.1 Electron micrograph of kaolin from
the Missinaibi River deposit.8
a dherence of sma ll pa rticles, possibly colloida l
a lumino-silica te ma teria l. Beneficia tion procedures
to remove such conta mina tion were never con
ducted.
X-ra y differentia l therma l a na lysis ha s indica ted
the cla y tobe of the k a olin type, but with a slig ht
disorder.
For mi n g/Fabr i cat i on Test i n g
Tests were performed on sa mples of cla y from the
M issina ibi R iver deposits toa ssess the potentia l of
the cla y for commercia l use. Essentia lly, the experi
ments were a imed a t a pplica tions in the pa per a nd
minera l filler industries. M inima l informa tion is
a va ila ble on cera mic properties.
The pa per industry is North America 's ma jor
consumer of k a olin. In this a pplica tion the rheolog i-
ca l properties a ndbrig htness of the cla y a re g overn
ing fa ctors for use.
Beneficia ted cla y brig htness va lues indica ted
tha t the M issina ibi k a olin is unlik ely tomeet the
g ra de for pa per coa ting without sig nifica nt improve
ments in beneficia tion technolog y. Property mea s
urements doshow tha t the k a olin ma y be suited for
use a s pa per filler. Tests ha ve been performed on
the cla y which indica te tha t the cla y is free of g rit,
equa l in a bra siveness to a n Eng lish cla y currently
used in the industry a nd produces pa per with 1 09&
hig her retention, hig her opa city, equa l smoothness,
a nd l O-1 0096 hig her densometry (inverse a ir per
mea bility) .
Under sma ll sca le testing M issina ibi k a olin wa s
a lsofoundtobe suita ble for use in rubber, with be
ha viour simila r toa commonly used North C a rolina
cla y.
31
From a cera mic point of view, the cla y is a very
pla stic fine g ra ined ma teria l with low sensitivity to
wa ter content. The pyrometric cone equiva lent is
cone 34; pure k a olin ha s a refra ctoriness of cone
35. The -325 mesh fra ction of the cla y deposit fires
toa crea m-white colour. The fired colour for the
-1 0 jim a nd -2 jim size fra ction is g rey-white. Fir
ing shrink a g e of such fra ctions of the cla y is hig h,
sug g esting tha t it ma y be more suita ble for cera mics
or refra ctories in a ca lcined form. (The ma teria l
compa red well with commercia l ca lcined k a olin a g
g reg a tes used in hig h a lumina refra ctory produc
tion.)
Bra dy a nd Dea n1 a lsostudied the potentia l of a
M issina ibi cla y deposit. This deposit is loca ted in
Bursta ll Township a long the M issina ibi R iver a nd
borders the explora tory licence of Alg ocen. Ana lysis
of this cla y showed tha t it consists ma inly of k a olin
a nd qua rtz, 6296 a nd 229fc respectively. Simila r to
the other M issina ibi deposits, the cla y is very pla stic
with hig h firing shrink a g es of the order of 1 29& . The
cla y could proba bly be used a s refra ctory g rog a fter
pre-firing . The cla y fires a t PC E ~30-32, to a
crea mish buff colour or speck led brown.
MATTAGAMI RIVER
The k a olin deposits of the M a tta g a mi R iver, a re
very simila r tothose of the M issina ibi, a nd consist
of coa rse silica in a fine cla y ma trix. The k a olin
content ha s been estima ted a t less tha n 2096. The
cla y-rich sections of the deposit a re predomina ntly
discoloured firecla y.
Fra ctiona tion of the ma teria l by a ttrition scrub
bing a nd sieving throug h a 325 mesh screen yields
+32S fra ction of white sa nd with a few bla ck speck s
which a re a ma g netic ilmenite-rela ted minera l a nd,
-325 fra ction of cla y conta ining impurities in the
form of fine silica , mica a nd a dditiona l ilmenite-
type minera l.
The -325 mesh ma teria l conta ins a pproxima tely
9096 below 1 0 jim pa rticle size. C hemica l a na lysis of
-1 0 jim ma teria l shows little a lk a li or org a nics. A
complete a na lysis is g iven in Ta ble 3.3. Electron
microg ra phs, Photo3.2, show the k a olin tobe well
formed hexa g ona l crysta ls. These sa mples ha dbeen
subjected tohig h shea r mixing a nd, a s a result, a p
pea red free of colloida l conta mina tion. The ma te
ria l is a lsolow in M nO2 , a requirement for use of
the cla y a s filler in rubber.
TABLE 3.3 COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF NORTHERN ONTARIO KAOLINS.
Missinaibi River(9)
Deposit
(- 2 J im fraction)
Chemical Analysis
Loss on Drying at 10 5 0 C 0 .86
Loss on Ignition 13.81
(after drying)
Silica 45.25
Alumina 37 .7 5
Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 0 .98
Titanium Oxide (TiO2 ) 0 .63
Manganese Oxide (MnO) 0 .0 0 4
Calcium Oxide (CaO) 0 .20
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 0 .10
Potassium Oxide (K 2O) 0 .0 7
Sodium Oxide (Na20 ) 0 .0 6
Organic Carbon 0 .0 8
Mineralogical Analysis CK)
Mattagami River(7 )
Deposit
(- 10 jim fraction)
1.0
1 3.1 8
48.33
37 .7 5
0.93
0 .27
0.01 4
0 .16
0 .16
0 .26
0 .0 4
0 .18
Theor et i cal l y
Pure
K aolinite(2)
13.96
46.54
39.50
Georgia
K aolin(2)
13.49
45.0
38.60
0 .36
1.60
0.1 4
0 .13
0.1 8
0.06
Clay Mineral
Quartz
Mica
Fe20 3
TiO2
CaO
MgO
Organic Matter
Pyrometric Cone Equivalent
95.0 3
0 .83
1.33
0 .99
0 .64
0 .20
0 .10
0 .82
34
88.0
6.7
2.7
0 .93
0 .27
0 .16
0 .16
1.0 6
30 - 32
10 0 97 .4
0
1.90
35 34- 35
32
The brig htness a nd Theolog ica l properties of the
cla y were determined toa ssess the potentia l for use
in the pa per industry. As in the ca se of the M is
sina ibi deposit, ma teria l whichcouldbe beneficia ted
tothe level requiredfor coa ting a pplica tions wa s not
found, however beneficia tion wa s a ble toimprove
the ma teria l toa level whichborders on the require
ments for pa per filler. The rheolog ica l properties of
the cla y a lsoelimina tes it for use a s coa ting g ra de
cla y. Grea t difficulty wa s experienced in developing
g ood flowing slurries a t concentra tions in excess of
609& solids.
The cla y a fter wa shing ra ng es from buff towhite
in colour. Fired to1 1 50-1 2000C , the cla y is white
sug g esting possible white wa re/stone wa re a pplica
tions.
LABORATORY TESTING OF FIRECLAYS
While the ma jority of cla ys loca tedin the Ja mes Ba y
Lowla nds a re white k a olin cla ys, other crea m, red,
g reen, ta n, g rey a nd bla ck coloured cla y sea ms a re
a lsotobe found. These colouredma teria ls a re usu
a lly referred toa s firecla ys loca lly.
X-ra y diffra ction a na lysis of the -325 mesh
fra ction of some of these ra w ma teria ls (Fig ure 3.5)
indica tes tha t they a re virtua lly a ll simila r, whether
they a re white, g rey, crea m, redor ta n coloured. Of
the sa mples eva lua ted, only the g reen cla y a ppea rs
different, due principa lly tothe presence of ben
tonite a nd illite. C hemica l a na lyses of the cla ys a re
g iven in Ta ble 3.4. (These pa rticula r sa mples were
obta ined from the M a tta g a mi R iver ba nk s.)
Exa mina tion of white a nd red cla ys more
closely (Fig ure 3.6) indica tes simila r curves, a nd
sug g ests tha t the cla y's minera ls a re identica l except
in colour (a ccessory minera l proportions proba bly
va ry beca use of the broa d g ra in size distribution of
the sa mples). M inera log ica l a na lyses of the red a nd
white firecla y (Ta ble 3.5) indica te hig h levels of
qua rtz due tothe coa rseness of the sa mple fra ction,
a nd a lsoindica te tha t hema tite is a ma jor impurity.
Pla sticity mea surements of the white a nd red
firecla ys were performed; the curves obta ined a re
g iven in Fig ure 3.7.
The white firecla y shows g ood pla sticity, the
curve being smoothly rounded a nd ha ving a n a mply
22 29 - Un...., 4.2 8.0
Photo 3.2 Electron micrograph of kaolin from
the Mattagami River deposit, s
Figure 3.5 X - ray diffraction analyses of assort
ed northern Ontario clays. 8
33
TABLE 3.4 CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF NORTHERN
Major
Oxide
Si0 2
AI20 3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
Na2O
K 2O
Ti0 2
L.O.I.
White
Fireclay
56.24
29.20
1.58
0 .13
0 .17
0 .0 4
0 .26
1.32
10 .57
Red
Fireclay
56.60
25.7 1
6.63
0 .13
0 .18
0 .0 5
0 .38
1.21
8.82
Tan Brown
Clay
55.35
29.14
1.58
0 .20
0 .13
0 .0 5
0 .10
1.37
10 .7 8
Red
Clay
55.0 4
25.15
7 .98
0 .12
0 .17
0 .0 4
0 .42
1.17
9.33
ONTARIO CLAY
Olive Green
Clay
59.90
17 .59
7 .18
1.46
2.13
0 .68
2.7 7
0 .7 8
7 .25
TABLE 3.5 MINERALOGICAL ANALYSES OF NORTHERN ONTARIO CLAYS BY
Mineral
Detected
K aolin
Quartz
Illite
Hematite
Calcite
Unidentified
White
Fireclay
60 - 7 0
25- 30
^
-
-
-
Red
Fireclay
50 - 55
25- 30
^
5
^
-
Tan Brown
Clay
60 - 7 0
25- 30
O
-
-
-
Red
Clay
50 - 55
25- 30
5
5- 10
*:1
-
Olive Green
Clay
5- 10
20
5
5- 10
-
(chlorite
bentonite
vermiculite?)
SAMPLES. (8)
Dark Grey
Clay
7 2.28
17 .84
0 .7 6
0 .0 9
0 .0 9
0 .0 3
0 .13
1.39
5.82
Cream
Clay
56.57
29.50
1.43
0 .12
0 .17
0 .0 4
0 .34
1.33
10 .24
X - RAY DIFFRACTION. (8)
Dark Grey
Clay
25- 30
60 - 7 0
-
C1
-
-
Cream
Clay
60 - 7 0
25- 30
^
-
-
-
wide pla stic ra ng e. Noforming problems a re a ntici
pa ted for this cla y.
The red firecla y is hig hly pla stic but ha s a hig h
wa ter of pla sticity, ~329fc. This could ca use drying
problems. The pla sticity curve is distorted a nd
sha rpened, possibly indica ting dila tency. This dis
tortion is rela tively minor a nd is not expected to
ca use problems except a t unusua lly hig h shea r ra tes.
The fired a ppea ra nce a nd properties of cla ys,
tog ether with their refra ctoriness (or resista nce to
hea t), is of course very importa nt totheir a pplica
tion. It is necessa ry tha t a ny products ma nufa ctured
exhibit preferred
a nd a nd a lso fire a t the pre
ferred tempera ture.
Gra dient firing s (i.e. firing of sa mples in a k iln
with a controlled wide ra ng e of tempera tures) indi
ca te the k ind of firing va ria tions tha t one mig ht g et
for a ra ng e of simila r cla ys.
The a pplica tion of g ra dient firing s tothe sa me
cla ys previously described - i.e. crea m, red, ta n,
g rey a nd g reen - indica ted how fired colour devel
oped with tempera ture a nd how densifica tion (or
the cera mic rea ction) prog ressed with increa sed fir
ing tempera tures.
It wa s shown tha t the ta n, g rey a nd crea m cla ys
become whiter with increa sing firing tempera ture. It
wa s a lso clea r tha t a t the ma ximum tempera ture
usedin the g ra dient firing of 1 2000C , nosig nifica nt
deg ree of fusion ha dta k en pla ce for these sa mples.
However, in the ca se of the red cla y, while
complete fusion ha d yet toset in, the colour ha d
become richer a nd deeper.
In the ca se of the g reen cla y, it ha d obviously
ma tured a nd fused a t a low tempera ture ~1 0000C ,
a bove which it ha d become molten a nd bloa ted.
Firing cubes of cla ys in the sa me wa y in a g ra di
ent furna ce a llows one tomonitor the development
of porosity a nd shrink a g e with tempera ture. This
ca n a lsobe useda s a g uide tothe deg ree of ma tura
tion of the cera mic, a nd hence the selection of a
suita ble firing tempera ture. Fig ure 3.8 shows how
the development of porosity with firing tempera ture
ca n be plottedfor the reda ndwhite firecla ys topro
vide informa tion on the firing cha ra cteristics.
A g entle slope, a s shown by the white cla y, indi
ca tes a broa d firing ra ng e which g ives more flexibil
ity a nd control on the finished product, while the
steep slope shown by the red cla y sug g ests shorter
firing ra ng es a nd less flexibility a nd control.
Decrea sing porosity a ndincrea sing shrink a g e in
dica te the a pproa ch of optimum firing tempera tures.
34
WHITE FIRECLAY
VJ
RED FIRECLAY
2.25
Figure 3.6 X - ray diffraction analyses of north
ern Ontario fireclays (unfired). 8
22 26 30 34 38 42 46
Water Added - Ve of dry weight
Figure 3.7 Plastigraph of northern Ontario fire
clay. WFC - white fireclay; RFC = red fireclay.8
The g ra dient firing tests indica te tha t, in g en
era l, the northern Onta riocla ys a re hig hly refra c
tory, tha t is tosa y they melt or fuse a t very hig h
tempera tures. The pyrometric cone equiva lency test
(P.C .E.) is a wa y of mea suring the fusion tempera
ture or cera mic cla ys by compa rison with sta nda rd
1 0 -
TEMPERRTURE (degC)
Figure 3.8 Average porosity (*fc) vs. firing temp
erature for northern Ontario fireclay. 8
ma teria ls of k nown fusion tempera tures a nd/or con
ditions.
Ta ble 3.6 shows, a mong st other da ta , a series of
P.C .E. cone va lues for 5 of the cla ys discussed. It
ca n be seen tha t the P.C .E. va lues va ry from 04 to
31 .
0 4 EEE
14 EEE ~1250 0 C
1 9
30
4400'
'1 500'
Toput these intoperspective:
1 0500C a nd is equiva lent toea rthenwa re
firing tempera tures
a nd is equiva lent to stonewa re
firing tempera tures
g ra des a re considered tobe
refra ctory
Typica lly, the k a olin cla ys of this a rea a re ra ted
a t cone 32, which mea ns tha t most of the resources
of this a rea ca n be consideredtobe refra ctory cla ys.
Given this informa tion, we ca n consider tha t a
ma jor opportunity exists on a technica l ba sis for the
development of a refra ctory industry; ma ybe not in
the form of refra ctory brick s, but possibly in the
form of ca lcined refra ctory a g g reg a te. For exa mple,
severa l compa nies ta k e such cla ys, pelletize them
a nd subsequently fire them toa hig h density. The
resulting product is then g roundtoprovide a n a g g re
g a te. Such ma teria l is used a s a source of a lumina in
hig h a lumina brick s a nd a s the refra ctory shell in
investment ca sting . This is a hig h priced, va lue
a dded product.
While fa irly la rg e experimenta l prog ra ms ha ve
been conducted on the k a olin cla ys of the Ja mes
Ba y Lowla nds, the ma jority of the studies ha ve con
centra ted on rela tive yields a nd possibilities for a p
plica tion in pa per products. Very few studies ha ve
been conductedtoeva lua te the ma teria l a s a cera m-
C la y Sha le Industries of Onta rio
35
TABLE 3.6 PROPERTIES OF ASSORTED CLAYS.
Clay
Sample
Cream Clay
Red Brown Clay
Dark Grey Clay
Olive Green
Clay
Tan Clay
Moisture
Content
W
24.6
25.5
14.7
28.8
24.5
Drying
Shrinkage
4.5
6.5
1 .0
7 .8
4.0
PCE
Cone
31
19
30
0 4
14
Comments
- White Firing Clay
- Refractory
- Low Firing Shrinkage
- Fires Dark Brown, Mottled
Streaks
- Food Formability
- Low Firing Shrinkage
- Approximately 90 "k Quartz
- Little K aolin
- Little Clay Value
- Little K aolin, some
Bentonite
- Bloats after 110 0 0 C
- Little Clay Value
- Cream Firing
- Good Formability
- Stoneware Clay
- Moderate Shrinkage
ic resource. In the ca se of the "firecla y" zones, vir
tua lly noco-ordina ted cera mic studies ha ve been
conducted. However, only minima l a mounts of
work ha ve been done to da te, a nd much more
needs tobe done toprove the qua lity of the re
sources a s a cera mic ra w ma teria l. Opportunities
which ha ve been discussed include:
o refra ctory a pplica tions
o firebrick
o pottery supply
o ea rthenwa re cla ys
o stonewa re cla ys a nd cla y blends
o cotta g e pottery industry.
REFERENCES
1 . Bra dy, J. G. a nd Dea n, R . S. "C era mic C la ys a nd
Sha les of Onta rio", Depa rtment of Energ y, M ines
R esources, R esea rch R eport R 1 75, 1 966.
2. "C era mic Source '86", America n C era mic Society Pub
lica tion, 1 986.
3. Derry, M ichener, Booth a nd Wa hl a nd IM D La bora to
ries Ltd. "Bore Hole M ining of Silica Sa nd a nd
K a olinite C la y in the Ja mes Ba y Lowla nds, Onta rio",
Onta rioGeol. Survey, OFR 5427, 1 983.
4. Guillet, G. R . "Fossil Fuel Prog ra m, M oose R iver Ba sin
Drilling Project, District of C ochra ne", Onta rioGeol.
Survey, OFR 5276, 1 979.
5. Guillet, G. R . "Industria l M inera l R esources of the
North C la y Belt", The Northea st M unicipa l Advisa ry
C ommittee a nd The North C la y Belt Development Asso
cia tion, K a pusk a sing , October 1 985.
6. Guillet, G. R . a nd K riens, J. "Onta rioa nd the M inera l
Filler Industry", Onta rioM inistry of Na tura l R esources,
Industria l M inera l Ba ck g round Pa per No. 5, 1 984.
7. Joyce, I. H. "Properties of Some C a na dia n K a olins a nd
Silica Sa nds", 71 st An
nua l C onvention, C a na dia n C era mic Society, 1 973.
8. Joyce, I. H. a ndFoster, J. "Exploring Industria l M iner
a ls Opportunities: A New Approa ch",
Industria l M inera ls in the North C la y
Belt of Onta rioSemina r, sponsoredby the C la y Belt As
socia tion, November, 1 985.
9. Joyce, I. H. a nd M urthy, M . K .,"Silica K a olin Depos
its of Alg ocen M ines Ltd., Pa rt III, K a olin C la y, Its
Properties a nd Potentia l Applica tions",
75th Annua l M eeting , America n C e
ra mic Society, 1 973.
1 0. Prudhomme, M . "C la ys a nd C la y Products", C a na dia n
M inera l Industry R eview, Depa rtment of Energ y, M ines
a nd R esources, 1 985.
1 1 . Sa nford, B. V. a nd Norris, A. W. "Devonia n Stra tig
ra phy of the Hudson Pla tform", Geol. Survey C a na da ,
M emoir 379, 1 975.
1 2. Sk inner, R . G. "Qua terna ry Stra tig ra phy of the M oose
R iver Ba sin, Onta rio", Geol. Survey C a na da , Bulletin
25, 1 973.
1 3. Smith, D. E. a nd M urthy, M . K . "Silica -K a olin De
posits of Alg ocen M ines Limited", The C a na dia n M in
ing a nd M eta llurg ica l Bulletin, July, 1 970.
1 4. Telford, P. G. a nd Verma , H. M . (eds.) "M esozoic
Geolog y a nd M inera l Potentia l of the M oose R iver Ba
sin", Onta rioGeol. Survey, Study 21 , 1 982.
1 5. Trusler, J. R . et a l. "Ona k a wa na Lig nitic Area , District
of C ochra ne", Onta rioDivision of M ines, OFR 51 1 1 ,
1 974.
36
Part II Heavy Clay
Products
C la y Sha le Industries of Onta rio 37
Chapter 4 Brick in Ontario
HISTORY OF BRICK PRODUCTION IN
ONTARIO
The history of brick production in Onta rio is
ma rk ed by wide swing s in consumption, reflecting
both cha ng ing technolog y a nd cha ng ing pa tterns of
use. Until the ea rly pa rt of this century, brick s a nd
na tura l stone were the most commonly used loa d-
bea ring ma teria ls for construction purposes. Build
ing s of four or five stories could be sa fely con
structedif wa ll thick nesses a t the ba se were 40 to60
cm. However, a s la nd in the urba n centres in
crea sed in va lue, ta ller building s provided the op
portunity for increa sed revenue. But thick er wa lls
were not only costly, they a lsoreduced the a rea of
usa ble floor spa ce. C onsequently, structura l steel
a nd reinforced concrete fra ming were developed to
a ct a s the structura l sk eleton on which thin wa lls
could be a pplied. The brick industry developed its
own loa d-bea ring "TTW" units toa ccomplish the
sa me thing .
Thick wa lls provided a necessa ry ma rk et for
ba ck -up brick s of lesser qua lity which were un
a voida bly produced in la rg e numbers by the uneven
firing cha ra cteristics of the ea rly k ilns. Indeed, soft
underfired brick s a nd deformed overfired ones
sometimes g rea tly exceeded the number of brick s
which were suita bly vitrified a nd sufficiently dura ble
for exterior use. Fortuna tely, improved k iln tech
nolog y closely coincidedwith the a dvent of concrete
block s, sotha t even in residentia l construction the
needwa s prima rily for a dura ble a nda ttra ctive brick
veneer.
Brick ma k ing ha s been a fea ture of Onta riohis
tory from the time of ea rliest settlement. Loca l fa m
ily enterprises using ha nd-moulding techniques with
wha tever surfa ce cla ys were a va ila ble nea rby, a nd
crude wood-fired k ilns, were the forerunners of to
da y's modern pla nts. But a dva nced brick ma k ing
technolog y, dema nd for hig her qua lity, a nd im
proved efficiency of la rg er pla nts a re reflected in a
persistent decline in the number of brick producers
throug h industry ra tiona liza tion. Only in recent
yea rs ha ve the numbers of brick s producedrea ched
the levels recorded in the ea rly 1 900s (Fig ure 4.1 ).
In 1 985 the production from eig ht pla nts fina lly ex
ceeded tha t of 1 91 0 when more tha n 1 80 pla nts
were a ctive.
The Onta rioexperience is typica l of a world
wide trend: improved technolog y, efficiency, pla nt
size a nd roa d network s ha ve va stly reduced the
1 900 1 91 0 1 920 1 930 1 940 1 950 1 960
YEARS
k
S
Figure 4.1
1985.
Brick production in Ontario, 190 0 -
numbers of producers neededtosupply the dema nd
for hig h qua lity fa cing brick s. In the U.K . in 1 939
there were 1 31 6 brick work s; in 1 982 there were
only 35. 1 8
BRICK STYLES AND SPECIFICATIONS
C la y brick s a re produced in a wide va riety of sizes,
textures a nd colours. On Ja nua ry l, 1 978, the con
struction industry of C a na da a doptedthe metric sys
tem of mea surement, a nd Ta ble 4.1 outlines the
metric dimensions of the common brick sizes ma de
in Onta rioa nd g ives the numbers of brick s needed
in ea ch ca se tocover a wa ll a rea of 1 00 m2 .
Althoug h they a re still referredtoa s cla y brick s,
brick ma nufa cturing in Onta rio is entirely from
sha le. Pa leozoic sha les of the Queenston a nd Geor
g ia n Ba y Forma tions burn na tura lly to va rious
sha des of redthroug h buff, but these colours ca n be
modified by a dditives, surfa ce coa ting s a nd firing
techniques to produce va rieties of brown, crea m
a nd cha rcoa l. Additiona lly, texturing of the brick
fa ce before firing ca n impose a wide ra ng e of roug h
finishes such a s a ntique, ba rk , brushed a nd ma tte.
Specifica tions for cla y brick s define tolera nces
for compressive streng th, wa ter a bsorption a nd di
mensiona l va ria tions. The a pplica ble sta nda rds es-
38
TABLE 4.1 CLAY BRICK SIZES IN COMMON USE
Brick Type
10 0 mm Standard Modular
150 mm T.T.W.
20 0 mm T.T.W.
10 0 mm J umbo (Saxon)
150 mm J umbo
20 0 mm J umbo
Ontario
Quebec
CSR*
Paver
" Now the standard in Ontario
Metric
W
90
140
190
90
140
190
10 1.60
95.25
90
90
Size (Actual
H
57
57
57
90
90
90
60 .33
57 .15
7 1
47
IN ONTARIO
mm)
L
190
290
290
290
290
290
212.7 3
20 3.20
225
190
IN 1985. (6)
Number of
Brick per
10 m2
(10 mm J oints)
7 46
498
498
333
333
333
638
699
TABLE 4.2 PHYSICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR CLAY BRICKS, CANADIAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION. (6)
Imper i al Met r i c Ti t l e
CSA A82.1
CSA A82.2
CSA A82.4
CSA A82.5
CSA A82.6
CSA A82.8
CSA A17 9
CSA S30 4
CSA A82.1M
CSA A82.2M
CSA A82.4M
CSA A82.5M
CSA A82.6M
CSA A82.8M
CSA A17 9M
CSA S30 4M
Burned Clay Brick
Methods of Sampling and Testing
Brick
Specification for Structural Clay
Load Bearing Wall Tile
Structural Clay Non- load Bearing
Tile
Standard Method for Sampling and
Testing Structural Clay Tile
Hollow Clay Brick
Mortar and Grout for Unit Masonry
Masonry Design and Construction for
Buildings. (NBC 197 7 Code for
Masonry Design.)
TABLE 4.3 PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR STANDARD CLAY BRICK. (3)
Mi n i mum Compr essi ve St r en gt h
(Br i ck Fl at wi se)
Gr oss Ar ea
IMPERIAL
Aver age
of Fi ve
METRIC
Aver age
of Fi ve
Designation
Type l Brick
(exposed)
Type II Brick
(not exposed)
Br i ck
psi
2,50 0
1,50 0
In di vi dual
psi
2,250
1,350
Br i ck
M Pa
In di vi dual
M Pa
16
10
Maxi mum Wat er
Absor pt i on by
5-hour Boi l i n g
per cen t
Aver age
of Fi ve
Br i ck
22.0
No limit
Individual
25.0
No limit
Maxi mum
Sat ur at i on
Coef f i ci en t *
Aver age
of Fi ve
Br i ck
0 .88
No limit
Individual
0 .90
No limit
'The saturation coefficient, or C/B Ratio, is the ratio of absorption by 24- hour submersion In
cold water to that after 5- hour submersion in boiling water.
Clay 8t Shale Industries of Ontario 39
Designation
Type l Brick
(Exposed)
Type II Brick
(not exposed)
TABLE 4.4 PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HOLLOW CLAY BRICK. (4)
Mi n i mum Compr essi ve St r en gt h
(Brick Flatwise)
Gr oss Ar ea
IMPERIAL
Average
of Five
Brick Individual
METRIC
Average
of Five
Brick Individual
psi
1,80 0
1,50 0
psi
1,50 0
1,250
M Pa
1 2.5
10 .5
M Pa
10 .5
9
Maxi mum Wat er
Absor pt i on by
5-hour Boi l i n g
per cen t
Aver age
of Fi ve
Br i ck
22.0
No limit
Individual
25.0
No limit
'The saturation coefficient, or C/B Ratio, is the ratio of absorption by 24- hour submersion in
cold water to that after 5- hour submersion In boiling water.
Maximum
Saturation
Coefficient*
Average
of Five
Brick
0 .88
No limit
Individual
0 .90
No limit
TABLE 4.5 BRICK CLASSIFICATION BY COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH. (3)
Compr essi ve St r en gt h
Aver age of 5 br i ck In di vi dual Mi n i mums
Designation
IMPERIAL
psi
METRIC
M Pa
IMPERIAL
psi
METRIC
M Pa
Type I I
(n o t ex po s ed)
Type l
(ex po s ed)
A
B
C
D
E
1 , 5 0 0 a n d o v er
2 , 5 0 0 t o 4 , 5 0 0
4 , 5 0 1 t o 6 , 0 0 0
6 , 0 0 1 t o 8 , 0 0 0
8 , 0 0 1 t o 1 0 , 0 0 0
1 0 , 0 0 1 a n d o v er
1 1 a n d o v er
1 8 t o 3 0
3 0 t o 4 2
4 2 t o 5 5
5 5 t o 7 0
Ov er 7 0
1 , 3 5 0
2 , 2 5 0
4 , 0 5 0
5 , 4 0 0
7 , 2 0 0
9 , 0 0 0
1 0
1 6
2 7
3 8
5 0
6 3
TABLE 4.6 DEVIATION TOLERANCES IN STANDARD CLAY BRICK DIMENSIONS. (3)
IMPERIAL METRIC
Maximum Permissible
Specified Deviations from Designation
Dimension Specified Dimension S
Inches
Up to 3 incl.
Over 3 to 4 incl.
Over 4 to 6 Incl.
Over 6 to 9 incl.
Over 9
lnch
3/32
1/8
3/16
1/4
5/16
lnch
1/16
3/32
1/8
5/32
7 /32
Maximum Permissible
Specified Deviations from Designation
Dimension Specified Dimension S
mm
Up to 60 incl.
Over 60 to 10 0 incl.
Over 10 0 to 150 incl.
Over 150 to 250 Incl.
Over 250
imm
2
3
5
6
8
mm
2
2
3
4
5
TABLE 4.7 DEVIATION TOLERANCES IN HOLLOW CLAY BRICK DIMENSIONS. (4)
IMPERIAL
Maxi mum
Per mi ssi bl e
Speci f i ed Devi at i on s f r om
Nomi n al Di men si on Speci f i ed Di men si on
In ches l n ch
Speci f i ed
Nomi n al Di men si on
mm
METRIC
Maxi mum
Per mi ssi bl e
Devi at i on s f r om
Specified Dimension
i mm
Up to 3 inclusive
3 to 4 incl.
4 to 6 incl.
6 to 8 Incl.
8 to 12 incl.
12 to 16 incl.
3/32
2/16
3/16
4/16
5/16
6/16
Up to 7 5 Inclusive
7 5 to 10 0 incl.
10 0 to 150 incl.
150 to 20 0 incl.
20 0 to 30 0 incl.
30 0 to 40 0 incl.
2
3
5
6
8
10
40
ta blished by the C a na dia n Sta nda rds Associa tion
a re listed in Ta ble 4.2. A summa ry of the physica l
requirements a s tostreng th a nd a bsorption in both
imperia l a ndmetric terms is g iven in Ta bles 4.3 a nd
4.4 for sta nda rd brick s a nd hollow brick s, respec
tively. C la ssifica tion of brick s is further defined by
compressive streng th for specia l loa d-bea ring a ppli
ca tions a s outlined in Ta ble 4.5. Dimensiona l toler
a nces for sta nda rd brick s a nd hollow brick s a re
g iven in Ta bles 4.6 a nd 4.7, respectively.
BRICK TECHNOLOGY
Brick s ca n be sha pedby a number of methods, a nd
in Onta riothey ha ve been ma de by ha nd-moulding
or cutting directly from a cla y ba nk , by soft mud
forming in lig htly-sa nded wood moulds, by dry
pressing (Photo 4.1 ) a nd by stiff mud extrusion.
Pla stic surfa ce cla ys or finely-g round sha les ca n be
used in a ny of these forming methods. In 1 964, soft
mud moulding , dry pressing a nd extrusion were in
use,9 but in 1 985 a ll Onta rioproduction wa s by ex
trusion of finely-g round a nd moistened sha le.
Brick technolog y is divided intofour ma in ca te
g ories, depending on the process sta g e.
1 . Extra ction a nd prepa ra tion of the ra w ma teria l
2. Sha ping or forming
3. Drying a nd firing
4. Inspection a nd pa ck a g ing
Ext r act i on an d Pr epar at i on
Sha le extra ction is now more often by ripping tha n
by drilling a nd bla sting . The ra w ma teria l ca n then
be delivered directly toa crushing a nd g rinding cir-
Photo 4.1 Early brickmaking by the dry pressed
method. Photo courtesy Clay Brick Association of
Canada.
cuit or left to'wea ther' for a period of time prior to
the comminution opera tion. (The 'wea thering * op
era tion ta k es a dva nta g e of wea ther va ria tions, e.g .
sun, ra in a nd frost tobrea k up ha rd sha le a nd im
prove its pla sticity a nd work a bility. Wea thering ma y
a lsobe effective in removing soluble sa lts by dissolu
tion in ra in wa ter.) In g enera l, in Onta rioonly red
Queenston sha les a re intentiona lly subjected toa ny
deg ree of wea thering . The Georg ia n Ba y g rey sha les
a re usua lly reducedtoa n extremely fine condition if
left tothe elements, a nd develop into unsuita ble
hig hly pla stic ma sses which a re difficult toha ndle
a nd process.
The crushing a nd g rinding opera tion usua lly
consists of a prima ry crusher such a s Ha zema g im
pa ct crusher, followed by pa n mill g rinding (usua lly
with side g ra te discha rg e but sometimes bottom
g ra te discha rg e). The g ra te size is determinedby the
g rinding cha ra cteristics a nd the extrusion qua lities
of the g round sha le. The discha rg e from the pa n
mill is subsequently delivered toa series of screen
deck s for controlled pa rticle size cla ssifica tion. All
oversize ma teria l is returnedtothe pa n mill. In g en
era l, screen sizes in the ra ng e of 8 to20 mesh a re
used to g ra de the feed ma teria l tothe extrusion
lines.
Shapi n g an d For mi n g
In Onta rio, most brick s a re formedby the extrusion
process (Fig ure 4.2). Sha le ra w ma teria l is blended
with a ppropria te a mounts of ba rium ca rbona te to
control soluble sa lts, or colouring pig ment (e.g .
limestone for buff colours, ma ng a nese dioxide for
brown colours). Blending a nd conditioning with
wa ter is a chieved in either a sing le or a number of
pug mills. The conditioned cla y is subsequently de
livered toa n extrusion ma chine (current trends a re
tohig h power extrusion ma chines such a s the J.C .
Steele 90) where the brick is formed. Ba sica lly, the
extrusion process consists of pushing a column of
moist cla y throug h a die using a n a ug er. Surfa ce tex-
turing a nd surfa ce colouring with sa nd or slurries
ta k es pla ce immedia tely a fter the cla y/sha le column
lea ves the extrusion ma chine. The column is then
cut intobrick sized slices a nd a utoma tica lly loa ded
ontok iln ca rs for drying a nd firing .
Hea ting of dies ma k es extrusion much ea sier a s
it fa cilita tes the movement of the ma teria l column
throug h the die. A mea ns of introducing lubrica nt is
a lsodesig ned intothe die; wa ter, stea m or va rious
oils a re used a s lubrica nts.
Dr y i n g an d Fi r i n g
Drying of brick s is essentia lly conducted in wa rm
holding rooms a nd subsequently in tunnel dryers in
Clay 8i Shale Industries of Ontario 41
WEATHERING
RAW MATERIALH
-LOCAL SHALES
OVERSIZE
TEXTURING/SURFACE
ADDITIVES
Figure 4.2 Process flow chart for stiff plastic
extrusion of brick.
which the wa re is hea ted toa pproxima tely 2000C
a nd moisture in the product is reduced from a p
proxima tely 1 396 toless tha n 1 9fc. Hea t for the dry
ers is providedby wa ste hea t from the cooling zone
of the tunnel k iln firing opera tion. This hea t ma y be
a ug mentedby a uxilia ry hea t from sepa ra te g a s burn
ers. Drying is effectednot only by a pplica tion of the
hea t, but by ra pid a ir movement throug h the dryer
tunnel.
The firing opera tion is a chieved in tunnel k ilns
which provide hig h production ra tes a nd hig h ther
ma l efficiency. The tunnel k iln is ma de up of a se
ries of zones which a re ca refully controlled in terms
of tempera ture a nd a ir movement. Essentia lly the
k iln ca rs full of brick s move throug h the tunnel k iln
counter to the direction of a irflow. The zones
throug h which the brick s pa ss a re identified a s the
prehea t zone, the firing zone, the ra pid cool zone,
a nd the cooling zone.
The ra te of tempera ture increa se is ca refully
controlledthroug h the prehea t zone toa void cra ck s
ca usedby ca rbon burnout, incomplete drying (pres
ence of moisture) a nd a qua rtz inversion (pha se
cha ng e). The firing zone is essentia lly the soa k ing
tempera ture a t which the brick products a re heldto
a ssure tha t the cera mic rea ctions a re completed a nd
the fina l properties of the product a re a chieved. For
some products, a "fla shing zone" is used a t the end
of the firing zone in which ra w fuel is pumped into
the furna ce a nd a ir is excluded. This produces loca l
reducing conditions which ca use the iron com
pounds in the cla ys a nd sha les tocha ng e colour. A
va riety of buff, browns, reds a ndbla ck s ca n be pro
duced by this technique.
After pa ssing throug h the firing zones, the prod
ucts a re ra pidly cooled from a pproxima tely 1 0400C
to6500C by injection of cool a ir intothe tunnel by
mea ns of ra pid cool fa ns. This process sets the ce
ra mic rea ctions a nd the colour. Fina l cooling from
a pproxima tely 6500C to 1 200C is ca refully con
trolled toa void cra ck ing due tothe qua rtz inver
sion.
In spect i on an d Packagi n g
M ost modern brick pla nts use a utoma tedpa ck a g ing
systems which limit the deg ree of inspection possi
ble. Toda y ma nufa cturers a re confident of the hig h
deg ree of qua lity g enera ted by their ma nufa cturing
process. Sa mples of brick a re reg ula rly ta k en from
va rious pa rts of a k iln ca r for qua lity control testing
toensure specifica tions a re met. Visua l exa mina tion
is conducted on the feed line tothe pa ck a g ing units
for colour va ria tions a nd cra ck s, a nd inferior prod
ucts a re removed.
PRICES, COSTS AND GENERAL
ECONOMICS
Br i ck Pr i ces
Prices quoted per thousa nd brick s in 1 986 were in
the ra ng e S250-300 for M etric M odula r a nd On
ta riosizes; prices were 1 0 percent hig her for a ntique
va rieties. C SR brick s, now the most common in g en
era l use, were quoteda t S300-S340. Ba ck up brick s
were priced a t a bout S1 75, sewer brick s S325 a nd
pa vers S450-480. All prices include federa l sa les
ta x a nd delivery within the core zone between
Osha wa a nd Stoney C reek .
Fuel Cost s
Fuel is a ma jor element in the cost of brick produc
tion. Since completion of the Tra ns C a na da Pipeline
toTorontoin 1 957, na tura l g a s ha s been used ex-
42
clusively, repla cing oil which wa s more expensive.
Prior toWorldWa r H coa l wa s g enera lly usedtofire
the periodic k ilns then in use.
Prior to1 973, fuel costs were S4 toS5 per thou
sa nd brick s produced; in 1 985 they were S25 to
S50. Estima tes of fuel costs by the Onta rioproduc
ers in 1 985 ra ng ed from 25 to35 percent of tota l
production costs. However, new tunnel k ilns a re
more efficient, a nd new pla nts pla nned by C a na da
Brick a nd Bra mpton Brick a nticipa te fuel costs will
decline 25 to30 percent.
Pl an t Cost s
A new brick pla nt ca n expect toha ve a useful life
up to50 yea rs, a ssuming norma l ma intena nce a nd
occa siona l moderniza tion. At the time of writing ,
both Bra mpton Brick a nd C a na da Brick were pla n
ning new pla nt construction in the Torontoa rea .
In 1 978 the cost of a new sing le tunnel k iln
pla nt ra ted a t 35 million brick s a nnua lly wa s esti
ma ted a t S8 million. It couldbe doubledto70 mil
lion brick s ca pa city for a n a dditiona l S2 million, ex
clusive of la nd costs. 1 6 In 1 985 C a na da Brick esti
ma tedthe costs of twonew pla nts it proposes for the
Torontoa rea , with a nnua l ca pa cities of 1 50 million
brick s, a t a pproxima tely S30 million.
Bra mpton Brick a nticipa tes a cost of S1 8 million
for a new pla nt in the Torontoa rea . Production is
ra teda t 1 1 0 million brick s a nnua lly. A sing le tunnel
k iln of Europea n desig n, or twosma ller ones, hig hly
fuel efficient a nd environmenta lly "clea n", a re be
ing proposed.
Gen er al Econ omi cs
Tobe economica lly via ble, a new brick pla nt in On
ta rioshould be loca ted within 80 k m of M etropoli
ta n Toronto. If a choice must be ma de, it is prefer
a ble toha ve sha le from a remote loca tion tra ns
ported toa pla nt nea r the ma rk et centre.
In 1 978 the cost of 80 ha of suita ble sha le la nd
wa s estima ted a t S2 million toS3 million (525,000
to537,000 per ha ). Of this, a bout 24 ha would be
needed for the pla nt, a nd for a ccess roa ds a nd set
ba ck s; the rema inder providing sufficient sha le for
a t lea st 25 yea rs. 1 6
While brick s from the Torontoa rea a re shipped
throug hout the province a nd intoQuebec, most a re
consumed within a n 80 k m ra dius of the pla nt.
Truck ing costs within this a rea a vera g e 1 0 to1 5 per
cent of delivered prices. 1 6
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
Br i cks
In 1 985, the ma rk et for brick s in Onta riowa s very
strong , continuing the record sa les levels of 1 984
when more tha n 400 million cla y brick s were sold
(Ta ble 4.8). Inventories were very low, a s produc
ers were a ble tosell a ll the brick s they could pro
duce. C oncrete brick s a lso a chieved record sa les
levels, pa rtly a s a result of the insufficient supply of
cla y brick s.
But in 1 982, producers ha d la rg e unsold inven
tories of brick s when sa les were only a bout 60 per
cent of present levels. Indeed, the cyclic na ture of
brick dema nd is a ma jor problem for the industry.
In the deca de 1 965 - 1 975 the g rowth in cla y brick
shipments from Onta rio pla nts a vera g ed a bout l
percent per yea r, 1 6 a nd beca use of current strong
dema nd, g rowth in the subsequent deca de wa s
a bout the sa me. But the intervening yea rs 1 976 -
1 981 were yea rs of nog rowth, culmina ting in the
steep decline of 1 982. Ta ble 4.9 subdivides Onta rio
brick production by county or reg iona l municipa lity
for the yea rs 1 975 - 1 984.
C yclic dema ndfor brick s is a fea ture of the g en
era l economy, reflecting interest ra tes a ndthe a fflu
ence of Onta rio's popula tion; up to90 percent of
cla y brick s produced a re used in residentia l con
struction. While brick shipments were la g g ing be
hind such tra ditiona l indica tors a s number of hous
ing sta rts, popula tion increa ses, a nd g ross provincia l
product1 6 throug h the 1 960s a nd 1 970s, the increa s
ing dema ndfor la rg er houses ha s offset tha t trendin
the 1 980s.
While cla y brick s ha ve tra ditiona lly domina ted
the residentia l housing ma rk et in Onta rio, Quebec
a nd British C olumbia , other cla dding ma teria ls a re
pa rticula rly sig nifica nt in the Atla ntic provinces, the
Pra iries, a nd the northern a rea s g enera lly. Ta ble
4.1 0 g ives a reg iona l summa ry of the use of cla y
brick in residentia l housing versus its use in a rchi
tectura l a nd other ma rk ets.
Ta ble 4.1 1 is a reg iona l brea k down of cla y brick
sa les in C a na da for recent yea rs. Onta rioa ccounts
for two-thirds of tota l C a na dia n brick production.
Shal e
Beca use of the g enera lly inferior properties of sur
fa ce cla ys in Onta rio, sha le is a lmost exclusively
used for brick ma k ing toda y.
Allowing for wa sta g e in the qua rry a nd pla nt, it
ha s been estima tedtha t 3.4 tonnes of sha le a re con
sumed in the ma k ing of 1 ,000 brick s. 1 6 Hence,
43
TABLE 4.8 THE RECENT RECORD OF ANNUAL BRICK PRODUCTION
IN ONTARIO.
Millions of Bricks Value of Bricks Total Clay Products
Produced* S1,0 0 0 s SI,OOOs
1985 464
1984 423
1983 40 1
1982 255
1981 384
1980 321
197 9 367
197 8 365
197 7 361
197 6 369
197 5 348
197 4 324 25,7 52 37 ,969
197 3 355 23,67 9 34,60 1
197 2 359 21,115 31,57 0
197 1 339 18,57 7 19,815
1 970 282 1 5,275 25,1 97
1969 369 19,891 31,67 3
1968 364 18,493 30 ,629
1967 37 5 17 ,261 27 ,451
1 966 323 1 5,593 25,800
1965 319 16,394 25,131
1 964 31 3 1 5,575 23,724
1 959 272 1 5,071 22,1 75
1954 225 11,67 7 17 ,230
1949 123 4,660 7 ,435
1 944 57 1 ,342 2,347
Sources of Information:
1944- 7 4: Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources
197 5- 85: Clay Brick Association of Canada
'Consumption shown in terms of brick equivalents for 197 5- 1985
TABLE 4.9 ONTARIO BRICK PRODUCTION 197 5- 1984. (19)
(Number of bricks sold, by counties or regional municipalities)
197 5
197 6
197 7
197 8
197 9
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
Halton
7 2,927 ,0 7 7
7 9,7 91,185
82,317 ,559
7 7 ,365,30 0
7 2,7 98,0 0 0
63,223,687
7 3,252,0 0 0
53,344,0 0 0
7 7 ,257 ,0 0 0
7 5,80 1,0 0 0
Hamilton-
Wentworth
7 ,566,7 66
7 ,984,456
8,589,67 7
7 ,0 42,428
9,7 7 5.652
7 ,27 7 ,120
6,993,0 69
5,219,60 0
6,97 4,834
6,7 21,37 7
Niagara
9,7 0 4,0 0 0
10 ,10 4,0 0 0
10 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0
10 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0
4,7 44,526
Ottawa-
Carlton
31,40 6,0 0 0
34,648,0 0 0
33,7 0 6,0 0 0
31,7 46,7 0 6
35,395,417
28,10 8,0 0 0
36,60 7 ,0 63
28,396,30 3
40 ,138,614
30 ,326,7 62
Peel
181,569,7 66
196,286,7 0 8
195,539,830
20 0 ,183,295
20 4,540 ,0 0 0
180 ,532,10 4
210 ,867 ,0 0 0
143,136,0 0 0
227 ,67 2,0 0 0
255,927 ,0 0 0
York
39,57 5,0 0 0
39,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 est.
39,120 ,80 0
42,542,0 0 0
39,285,0 0 0
34,80 7 ,0 0 0
36,87 1,0 0 0
32,212,0 0 0
41,27 2,0 0 0
31,658,267
Total
415,67 6,0 0 0
367 ,815,0 0 0
369,27 5,0 0 0
368,880 ,0 0 0
366,539,0 0 0
313,948,0 0 0
364,590 ,0 0 0
262,30 8,0 0 0
393,315,0 0 0
40 0 ,434,0 0 0
TABLE 4.1 0 RESIDENTIAL USE AS A PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL CLAY BRICK SALES. (1 9)
Paci f i c Pr ai r i es On t ar i o Quebec At l an t i c
1 9 8 2 8 1 . 2 5 9 . 5 8 5 . 8 9 1 . 8 5 1 . 6
1 9 8 3 8 8 . 5 5 3 . 0 9 2 . 6 9 5 . 5 5 0 . 5
1 9 8 4 8 9 . 9 4 8 . 4 9 1 . 0 9 6 . 2 5 3 . 5
44 Clay Shale Industries of Ontario
TABLE 4.1 1 CANADIAN CLAY BRICK SALES BY REGION. (1 9)
(t housan ds of br i cks)
Paci f i c Pr ai r i es On t ar i o Quebec At l an t i c Tot al
1982 14,37 8 57 ,37 5
1983 20 ,180 52,17 4
1984 15,37 9 38,626
TAB LE 4. 12 POTENTIALLY
254,631
40 1,124
422,692
AVAILABLE RESERVES
110 ,346 17 ,651
158,7 62 23,20 9
135,684 22,590
OF SUITABLE SHALE IN
454,381
655,449
634,97 1
ONTARIO. (16)
Net Reserves
County/Region
Dufferin
Halton
Niagara
Peel
Russell
Simcoe
Hamilton- Wentworth
Total
Geographic
Township
Mono
Mulmur
Esquesing
E. Flamborough
Nelson
Trafalgar
Clinton
North Grimsby
Niagara
Albion
Caledon
Chinguacousy
Toronto
Toronto Gore
Russell
Nottawasaga
Saltfleet
Millions
of Tonnes
22
125
161
113
142
260
128
7 1
4
30
14
567
26
17 9
166
260
122
2,390
Hectares
134
7 65
981
688
87 0
1,568
7 83
431
28
182
83
3,468
162
1,0 93
1,0 12
1,590
7 49
14,60 5
a bout 1 .5 million tonnes of sha le a re consumed a n
nua lly in Onta rioa t current levels of production. At
a bulk density (in situ) of 2.24 tonnes/m3, 670,000
m3 of sha le a re consumed a nnua lly. Assuming a
work ing depth of 7.6 m (25 feet), a pproxima tely 9
hecta res of sha le la nd a re needed for current a n
nua l brick production in Onta rio.
A township-by-township eva lua tion of possible
sha le reserves benea th less tha n 7.6 m (25 feet) of
overburden, a ndunrestrictedby development or re
strictive zoning , wa s ma de in 1 978. 1 6 Ta ble 4.1 2 is a
summa ry of these reserves, tota lling 2390 million
tonnes or 1 4,605 hecta res.
C lea rly, there is nosca rcity of sha le la nds in the
province, a lthoug h they a re not evenly distributed
g eog ra phica lly. In fa ct they a re pra ctica lly restricted
tothe Toronto-Ha milton a rea a nd the lower ter
ra ces of the Nia g a ra Esca rpment. And while this is
a dva nta g eous beca use it coincides with the principa l
ma rk et a rea , it suffers from g rea ter uncerta inty a s to
a va ila bility beca use of sprea ding urba niza tion a nd
socio-environmenta l pressures. Also, most of these
la nds ha ve not been tested by drilling a nd la bora
tory eva lua tion; it is a lmost certa in tha t la rg e a rea s
will prove unsuita ble for brick ma k ing beca use of un
fa voura ble sha le qua lity. Possible resources of suit
a ble la nds will a lsobe limitedby the restrictive la nd
use zoning in the Nia g a ra Esca rpment Pla n.
MARKETING
M ore tha n 90 percent of the cla y brick s sold in On
ta rioa re usedin residentia l construction where their
loa d-bea ring function is minima l a ndtheir a ppea l is
la rg ely a esthetic. C la y brick s a re unquestiona bly the
preferred exterior finish for housing in the urba n
a rea s of southern Onta rio. In northern Onta rioa nd
other pa rts of C a na da they a re less frequently used
(Ta ble 4.1 0) beca use they a re less rea dily a va ila ble
a ndmore expensive tha n other loca l cla dding ma te
ria ls.
Architectura l, industria l a nd institutiona l con
struction consumes less tha n 1 0 percent of the cla y
brick s sold in Onta rio.
Unfortuna tely, the ma rk et for new homes is
sensitive toma ny fa ctors, of which interest ra tes on
mortg a g e loa ns, a nd popula tion trends a re only the
45
more obvious. As a result, brick sa les a re equa lly
unpredicta ble over the medium a nd long term.
In the U.S.A., between 1 -1 /2 million a nd 2
million new homes a re constructed a nnua lly. But a n
a ccelera ting trend towa rds renova tion of older
homes, pa rtly stimula ted by widesprea d urba n re
newa l prog ra ms, ha d slowed tha t g rowth in recent
yea rs by nea rly 20 percent. In the U.K ., renova tions
a re a vera g ing a bout 28 percent of new housing
units. 1 8 The a va ila bility of a ntique a nd old style
brick s for repa iring a nd enla rg ing ea rly Onta rio
homes is recog nized a s a sig nifica nt ma rk et by On
ta rioproducers. C a na da Brick , throug h its M cFa r-
ren pla nt, a nd Ha milton Brick , ca n more ea sily re
spondtospecia l orders by virtue of their ba tch-style
periodic k ilns. Bra mpton Brick will continue pro
duction of Toronto Brick 's former "John Price"
line, a nd ca n provide pressed brick s on dema nd.
M odula r housing prefa brica ted housing units
which ca n be a ssembled on site in va rious numbers
a nd config ura tions a re expectedtobecome more
sig nifica nt in the U.S.A. beca use of their lower cost
a nd a bility to"g row with the fa mily". This is a n ob
vious ma rk et for prefa brica ted brick pa nels, a n a p
plica tion tha t ha s received much resea rch but little
development in Onta rio.
Other obvious needs in Onta rio include la rg e
loa d-bea ring brick s, not now produced, a nd a
crea m-firing stonewa re brick currently produced
only on the Pra iries. The la tter wouldrequire import
of suita ble cla y, or development of the M oose R iver
k a olin cla ys in northea stern Onta rio.
One a rea of streng th for cla y brick s is the strong
dema ndfor luxury housing which fa vours tra ditiona l
a ndna tura l building ma teria ls, such a s wood, stone,
cla y brick s, floor tiles a nd roofing tiles, a lmost re
g a rdless of cost.
COMPETITIVE MATERIALS
While the g enera l consumption of cla y brick s is in
crea sing modestly, the use of a lterna tive ma teria ls is
a lsoincrea sing .
Wood, stone, a luminum a nd pla stic siding s a re
a lterna tive cla dding ma teria ls of distinctive style,
which for rea sons of persona l a esthetics, g eog ra phic
loca tion or loca l a va ila bility ma y be usedin pla ce of
brick s. But more serious competition is the concrete
brick which a ttempts toduplica te the a ppea ra nce of
cla y brick a t a lower price.
C oncrete brick s (sometimes referredtoa s "ca l
cite brick s" todisting uish them from concrete foun
da tion block s a nd a n ea rlier inferior cement brick )
ha ve been consta ntly improving in qua lity a nd a p
pea ra nce over the la st deca de, a ndtoda y a re enjoy
ing strong dema nd. Their dura bility a nd ra ng e of
colours ha s ma de it difficult for ma ny home buyers
todisting uish between cla y a nd concrete brick s.
C oncrete brick s a re 20 to 30 percent less ex
pensive tha n cla y brick s. In 1 985 they were selling
in the ra ng e of S1 90 toS220 per thousa nd, depend
ing on colour a nd texture, compa red with S230 to
more tha n S30O for cla y brick s.
In 1 980, concrete brick s ha d a bout 1 9 percent
of the brick ma rk et in Onta rio. This ha d increa sed
to20 percent by 1 982 a nd a n estima ted 25 percent
in 1 984.
The ma jor producers of concrete brick s in On
ta rioa re C a na da Building M a teria ls, Primea uArg o
Block , R ichva le Building M a teria ls, a nd Bra ntford
Brick .
ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT
Brick ya rds in Onta rio1 50 yea rs a g otook their pla ce
a long side mills, bla ck smith's shops a nd fa rms a s lo
ca l fa mily enterprises. Brick s were formed by ha nd
from loca l pla stic cla ys a nd fired by wood in crude
k ilns. They were the building block s for ma ny sec
ond g enera tion homes (a fter log s) a nd the rura l
towns of southern Onta rioa re still distinctive by the
colour a nd style of these ea rly brick s. Brick ya rds
were sma ll but numerous, a ndenvironmenta l distur
ba nce wa s la rg ely restricted tothe pa lls of brown
smok e from the wood-burning firing process.
In time, these ea rly industries beca me fewer but
la rg er. C oa l repla cedwoodin the firing process, a nd
subsequently oil a nd na tura l g a s were the preferred
fuels. Environmenta l disturba nce rea ched its pea k
in the bla ck smok e of the coa l fires.
With the a rriva l of na tura l g a s in Southern On
ta rioin 1 957, on completion of the Tra ns C a na da
Pipeline, sta ck emissions from brick k ilns were re
duced tominima l levels.
Toda y the few rema ining brick ya rds a re mod
ern, hig hly a utoma ted industries tha t ca use minima l
disturba nce tothe na tura l environment. Sha le exca
va tion uses a minimum of drilling a nd bla sting , a nd
instea d, where possible, the sha le qua rry is cha ra c
terized by broa d g entle inclines or horizonta l
benches which a re work edby toothed-rippers. This
fa cilita tes the benefits of na tura l wea thering before
the brok en sha le is eventua lly loa ded intotruck s for
ha ula g e to the pla nt which is usua lly a djoining .
M odern qua rrying pra ctices a lsota k e intoa ccount
future site reha bilita tion required by Onta rio's
Acf. 1 7
46
Finished brick s a re delivered by truck in indi
vidua l loa ds of 7,000 to 1 4,000 brick s. But truck
tra ffic is ra rely a problem on loca l roa ds; a pla nt
producing 75 million brick s a nnua lly mig ht g enera te
50 return trips per da y during the pea k sea son,
proba bly less tha n a l percent increa se in tra ffic vol
ume on a n a vera g e Onta riohig hwa y.
In 1 985, there were eig ht cla y brick pla nts oper
a ting in Onta rio. They shipped a tota l of
464,21 3,000 brick s (C la y Brick Associa tion of C a n
a da , persona l communica tion, 1 985).
Despite a n a bunda nce of sha le la nds in the
prime ma rk et a rea of southern Onta rio, a ccess to
new sha le reserves is a problem for the industry be
ca use of competing la nd uses. The leng thy a nd
costly public review procedure for qua rrying rig hts
a dds g rea tly tothe uncerta in via bility of a n industry
competing with industries for which a n a djoining pit
or qua rry is not essentia l (i.e. concrete brick ).
New brick pla nts a re pla nned in the Toronto-
Ha milton a rea before 1 990. They will be hig hly effi
cient in terms of fuel consumption, a nd hig hly pro
tective of the environment. Inevita bly they will
mea n the closing of some older less efficient pla nts
which a re now hea vily pressedby urba n g rowth, but
the net cha ng e in employment a nd economic bene
fit toOnta rioshould be minima l.
En vi r on men t al Con si der at i on s
While the cla y brick ma nufa cturing industry is not
g enera lly perceived a s a ma jor source of industria l
pollution, in a few insta nces it ha s been identifieda s
a minor source of g a seous (a nd occa siona lly pa rticu-
la te) fluorides. Fluoride emissions a re g enera tedby
the a ction of hea t during the k iln firing process, a ct
ing on fluoride a nd fluorosilica te minera ls which
ma y be present in tra ce a mounts in the cla y a nd
sha le ra w ma teria ls used for brick ma nufa cture.
However, it ha s been shown tha t fluorides from
brick pla nt emissions a re much less tha n fluorides in
norma l dieta ry a nd wa ter sources, a nd a number of
studies ha ve concluded noa dverse impa ct on hu
ma n hea lth.
The impa ct of fluoride emission control proce
dures upon energ y conserva tion in tunnel k ilns used
for ma nufa cturing cla y brick ha s been the subject of
a n ong oing study fundedby Energ y, M ines a nd R e
sources C a na da (C ANM ET). 1 0' 5- 1 5 Prelimina ry in
dica tions sug g est tha t g eolog ica l, minera log ica l a nd
chemica l va ria tions, tog ether with processing va ri
a bles, ca n sig nifica ntly a ffect fluoride emissions
from C a na dia n brick ma k ing ra w ma teria ls. It ha s
a lsobeen discovered tha t a new g enera tion of dry
a ndwet g a s scrubber systems ca pa ble of functioning
in conjunction with a tunnel k iln a re under develop
ment in Fra nce a nd Germa ny.
For ei gn Techn ol ogy
Some of the most sig nifica nt developments being
a doptedby the industry in North America a ppea r to
be Europea n in orig in. These include the previously
mentioned environmenta l control technolog y from
Germa ny, 'soft-mud' forming technolog y from Hol
la nd a nd Fra nce, k iln technolog y from Fra nce a nd
Germa ny, a nd a utoma tion in ma nufa cturing a nd
ha ndling technolog y from Spa in, Fra nce, Germa ny
a nd Ita ly.
Proba bly the most importa nt of the ma jor
trends in Europea n technolog y which mig ht finda p
plica tion in North America a re the developments in
a utoma tion a ndk iln technolog y. For exa mple, while
North America n conveying a ndpa ck a g ing technolo
g ies use powerful hydra ulic systems toha ndle a nd
move la rg e a nd hea vy volumes of product, the
Europea n a pproa ch is touse electrica l motor-drive
ha ndling systems, which a re more a mena ble to
a utoma tion a nd computer control. As a conse
quence, much of the Europea n equipment a ppea rs
less robust a nd more intrica te tha n its North Ameri
ca n counterpa rt. However, sig nifica nt g a ins a re
ma de in production economics by minimizing
la bour requirements. Fully opera ting hea vy cla y
pla nts exist in Europe1 4- 2 which a re tota lly a uto
ma ted a nduse a s few a s 2 - 6 employees per shift,
a lthoug h their production levels a re g enera lly sma ll
by North America n sta nda rds.
Improved fuel efficiencies ha ve provided the
ma jor driving force a round the world tooptimize
k iln opera ting procedures a nd desig n. Beneficia l re
sults ha ve been obta ined by improvements in k iln
insula tion by using fibrous "refra ctory wool" lining s,
using lig hter k iln-ca r deck s, improved sta ck ing of
the product loa d, incorpora tion of fuel va lues into
the product loa d (e.g . sa wdust, fly a sh), a nd the
utiliza tion of a lterna tive fuel systems (such a s sa w
dust a nd powdered coa l). M ost North America n
compa nies ha ve a pplied or tried a ll of the a bove
a nd incorpora ted those techniques which proved
beneficia l to their pa rticula r pla nt. However, the
ma jority of effort in k iln optimiza tion (pa rticula rly
for existing insta lla tions) focussed on optimizing
hea t losses a ndbetter utiliza tion of wa ste hea t1 2 for
product drying a nd pla nt hea ting , etc. A na tura l
prog ression of this a pproa ch in North America ha s
been the development of la rg er, wider k ilns (firing
more product for virtua lly equiva lent hea t losses).
M a jor efforts toimprove hea t circula tion throug hout
the k iln loa d, tog ether with combina tions of a ll of
the a bove, ha ve resulted in sig nifica nt reductions in
firing times, a nd therefore reduced fuel costs.
The a dvent of fibrous refra ctory insula tion
broug ht a bout ma ny k iln desig n cha ng es. At the
forefront were the Europea n desig nedprefa brica ted
modula r k ilns.6- 4 Such systems provided minima l
energ y loss a ndhig hly flexible desig ns. The most re
cent modifica tion of this concept is the French
"Hydroca se" k iln concept1 4 in which the k iln oper
a tes under positive pressure a ndutilizes a n underca r
g a s/a ir sea l of wa ter. C onventiona l North America n
k ilns utilize fa ns topull a ir a nd hot g a ses throug h a
tunnel k iln a nd use sa nd sea ls toprevent esca pe of
furna ce g a ses or intrusion of cold outside a ir. In the
new French k iln the bottom of the ca r is submerg ed
in wa ter toprovide the necessa ry sea l, a nd a ir is
forced intothe furna ce throug h the cooling zone to
the front a nd exit sta ck of the furna ce. The proto
type of this k iln ha s currently completed a 2-yea r
continuous pla nt tria l with excellent fuel economics
of the order of 625 Btu/lb (1 .45 M J/k g ). One of the
Europea n technolog ies which ha s not been a dopted
toa ny sig nifica nt level in C a na da is the mecha nica l
soft mud production technolog y. This technolog y is
idea lly suited to sma ll-sca le production, since it
consists of sma ll modules which ca n be ea sily com
binedtoma nufa cture la rg er qua ntities. In principle,
the technolog y uses a modern mecha nica l a pproa ch
to a n old ma nufa cturing technique; ma chines a re
used tothrow 'soft mud' lumps of cla y intosa nded
wood mouldboxes. The moulds a re then a utoma ti
ca lly converted onto a conveyor a nd the g reen
brick s a re ha ndled by conventiona l conveying , dry
ing a nd k iln technolog y.
The a dva nta g es of such a system a re:
1 . a va riety of sha pes a nd sa nded coloured prod
ucts ca n be ma nufa ctured, g iving hig h flexibil
ity;
2. the system is essentia lly simple in concept, a nd
therefore ea sy toopera te with minima l ma inte
na nce costs;
3. the system is suita ble for sma ller-sca le produc
tion (but production ma y require the use of a
hig hly efficient periodic k iln);
4. the products a re perceivedtobe of hig h qua lity
a nd hig h va lue due totheir 'a ntique' a ppea r
a nce.
Pla nts using this technolog y opera te with a minimum
of sta ff, a nd could be a dopted by a C a na dia n pro
ducer. However, the production of 'a ntique' soft
mudbrick s is a imeda t the premium endof the ma r
k et.
ONTARIO BRICK PLANTS
Eig ht pla nts produced cla y brick s in Onta rio in
1 985. The recent (1 985) a cquisition of Domta r's
opera tions a t M ississa ug a a nd Otta wa increa sed
C a na da Brick 's presence in Onta rioto five a ctive
brick pla nts. Bra mpton Brick presently opera tes
both its Bra mpton a nd Don Va lley pla nts. Ha milton
Brick is the la st of the independent fa mily-owned
pla nts which were sonumerous in yea rs pa st.
The eig ht a ctive pla nts (Fig ure 4.3) a re de
scribed on the following pa g es. Althoug h now ina c
tive, the former Thunderbrick pla nt a t Thunder Ba y
is a lsobriefly described.
BRAMPTON BRICK
Bra mpton Brick is a fa mily-owned firm tha t ha s
been ma k ing brick s for 1 20 yea rs, for most of tha t
time a t its present loca tion just north of Bra mpton.
In 1 984, it purcha sed the recently-closed pla nt of
TorontoBrick in the Don Va lley, a nd it is continu
ing , tempora rily, to opera te tha t pla nt. However,
the compa ny pla ns toopen a n a ll new pla nt in the
next few yea rs, a t whichtime the older pla nts will be
pha sed out. Urba n pressure is the ma in rea son for
ultima te closure of the Bra mpton a nd Don Va lley
sites.
Br ampt on Pl an t
The Bra mpton pla nt a nd qua rry a re described in
va rious references.9' 1 - 1 1 ' 1 3 For ma ny yea rs brick s
were ma de exclusively by the dry-press method,
a nd the compa ny na me wa s Bra mpton Pressed
Brick . But in 1 963 the Bra mpton pla nt wa s con
verted to the extrusion process, a nd currently is
ra ted a t a ca pa city of 60 million brick s a nnua lly.
The opera tion employs 1 1 0 people yea r-round.
A 25 m section of red Queenston Sha le is ex
posedin the qua rry tha t a djoins the pla nt. In recent
yea rs a minimum of bla sting ha s been usedtoloosen
the sha le. R ipping by bulldozer is g enera lly used in
stea d. The top 1 5 m of the sha le section ha s been
previously described a nd tested in deta il.9
Grinding of the sha le to 1 6 mesh is a ccom
plished by drypa ns in closed circuit with hea ted vi
bra ting screens. The brick strea m is extruded by a
J.C . Steele 90 extruder a nd the brick s a re cut by a
Steele cutter. Brick s a re a utoma tica lly set on ra il
ca rs for drying a ndfiring . Drying is a ccomplishedin
48 hours in wa ste hea t tunnels.
In 1 970 a g a s-firedtunnel k iln repla cedthe five
periodic k ilns, a nd a second tunnel k iln wa s a dded
in 1 977. Firing time is a bout 24 hours.
48
Brick s a re ma de in four sizes: Onta rio, M odu
la r, Tempoa ndM -C a t. They a re pa ck a g edin cubes
of 500 for truck delivery.
Don Val l ey Pl an t
The Don Va lley pla nt, built in 1 889, wa s k nown
successively a s The Don Va lley Pressed Brick C om
pa ny, The Don Va lley Brick Work s, a nd Toronto
Brick C ompa ny. In 1 956 it wa s a cquiredby Germa n
interests a nd wa s opera ted a s a division of United
C era mics Limited until 1 984. The site is now sla ted
for redevelopment, but Bra mpton Brick ha s pur
cha sed the pla nt a nd equipment, a nd is a llowed to
opera te tempora rily before sa lva g ing it.
In recent yea rs brick s ha ve been ma de a lmost
exclusively from Georg ia n Ba y Sha le obta ined from
a n a djoining qua rry behind the pla nt. Sha le wa s
qua rriedtoa depth of a bout 30 m. Above the sha le
is a 26 m section of g la cia l va rvedcla ys a ndinterg la
cia l sa ndy cla ys tha t ha ve a lsobeen usedin the pa st
for brick ma k ing . This section of unconsolida ted
cla ys a nd sa nds is interna tiona lly fa mous for its ex
cellent scientific record of severa l g la cia l events a nd
a n intervening wa rm interg la cia l sta g e.8
The Don Va lley pla nt is ca pa ble of g rea t diver
sity in brick ma k ing . While most of the production
toda y is extruded from a J. C . Steele 90 ma chine,
a ntique "John Price" brick s a re a lsoma de, a nd dry
press brick s a re ma de on order. Drying is a ccom
plished in wa ste-hea t tunnels. Two Ha rrop g a s-
fired tunnel k ilns a re used for most of the produc
tion, but a third sma ller tunnel k iln is used for John
Price brick s. The a pplica tion of a cera mic g la ze to
the exposed brick fa ce ha s been discontinued, a s
ha s the production of sa nd-lime brick s. Onta rio,
M odula r a nd John Price brick s a re produced.
Pr oposed Pl an t
While there ha ve been numerous dela ys due toloca l
environmenta l concerns, Bra mpton Brick expects to
proceed with a new pla nt soon. The proposed new
pla nt will ha ve a n a nnua l ca pa city of 1 1 0 million
brick s, a nd will cost a bout S1 8 million toconstruct.
It is expected tha t a J. C . Steele 90 extrusion ma
chine will ha ndle most of the production, but the
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l - BRAMPTON BRICK LIMITED , Br ampt on
2- BRAMPTON BRICK LIMITED, Tor on t o
3- CANADA BRICK LTD., St r eet svi l l e
4- CANADA BRICK LTD., McFar r en Pl an t
5- CANADA BRICK LTD , Mt Mi ssaugo
6- CANADA BRICK LTD. , Bur l i n gt on
7- CANADA BRICK LTD , Ot t awa
8- HAMILTON BRICK LTD, Hami l t on
Figure 4.3 Brick plants in Ontario.
John Price processing equipment will be reloca ted
from the Don Va lley pla nt.
A sing le la rg e tunnel k iln, or twosma ller ones,
of Europea n desig n a re pla nned. The k iln (s) a re ex
pected tobe considera bly more fuel efficient tha n
those opera ting a t Bra mpton a nd Don Va lley, a nd
will ha ve hig hly effective sta ck scrubbers for re
mova l of fluorides a nd pa nicula te ma tter.
A work force of 1 50 to200 is a nticipa ted. The
production of other cla y products such a s roofing
tiles is being considered.
CANADA BRICK
C a na da Brick is a wholly-owned subsidia ry of Ja n-
nock Limited, a C a na dia n compa ny involved a lsoin
the production of va rious steel products a nd electri
ca l components. C a na da Brick domina tes the cla y
brick industry in Onta rioa nd Quebec. With its re
cent (1 985) purcha se of Domta r's brick ma k ing fa
cilities, it now opera tes five pla nts in Onta rioa nd
twoa t La Pra irie, Quebec.
In 1 976, Ja nnock a lsoenteredthe U.S.A. brick
ma rk et with the purcha se of a pla nt a t C orunna ,
M ichig a n. Subsequent a cquisitions include the
Sipple Brick pla nt in Sta nton, K entuck y, Tiffa ny
Brick a nd a former pipe pla nt in Texa s. C urrently,
C a na da Brick opera tes three cla y pla nts a nd one
concrete pla nt in Texa s under the na me of U.S.
Brick .
C a na da Brick 's five Onta rio pla nts a re de
scribed in the following notes. In 1 985, the com
pa ny a nnounced its intention to build two new
pla nts in the a rea west of Toronto.
Can ada Br i ck, Bur l i n gt on
The Burling ton Pla nt of C a na da Brick (formerly
Dia mond C la y Products Limited) commencedbrick
production in 1 958, using Queenston Sha le from
the va lley of nea rby Bronte C reek . The pla nt a nd
pit a re loca tedin lots 3 a nd 4, concession I, N.D.S.,
in Burling ton, Ha lton R eg ion. A description of the
previous opera tion is g iven by Guillet.9
The ma jority of brick s a re produced in C SR
size, but other sizes such a s Onta rioa nd M odula r
a re a lso ma de. C a pa city of the pla nt is a pproxi
ma tely 75 million.
The sha le in the qua rry is rippedby a bulldozer
a nd pushed intoa stock pile. Sha les from other pits
a re truck ed in a nd a lso stock piled. A front-end
loa der mixes the sha les tog ive the required colours
a nd pla sticity. The sa me loa der then bring s the
mixed sha les toa hopper a t the pla nt crusher build
ing . The sha le is delivered by a pron feeder toa sin
g le roll crusher, a nd then to a rim discha rg e dry
pa n. The g round sha le is next conveyed toa ba nk
of hea ted screens va rying from 8 to1 6 mesh. Over
size from the screens is further g round in a n impa ct
crusher a nd returned to the screens. Undersize
sha le from the screens is conveyed toa feedhopper
a nd the first of twopug mills where wa ter is a dded.
The pug g edsha le is extrudedby a va cuum extruder.
Floor bins hold a reserve of g round sha le in
ca se of a brea k down in the g rinding pla nt.
The column of cla y exiting the extruder is
coa teda nd/or texturedby a ny of severa l mea ns a nd
cut intoslug s. The slug s a re pushedthroug h a ba nk
of vertica l wires spa ced a t the thick ness of individ
ua l brick . These cut g roups of brick a re pick ed up
by a setting ma chine tworows hig h, a ndpla cedon a
tunnel k iln ca r. The ca rs of g reen brick g o to a
holding a rea from which they a re sent throug h one
of three tunnel drier-k ilns.
Drying a nd firing ta k es 3 to4 da ys, pea k ing a t
up to1 0700C .
The fired brick s a re mecha nica lly unloa ded
from the ca rs, inspected for qua lity a nd reg rouped
intocubes of 500 ea ch.
The cubes a re steel stra pped a nd ca rried by
fork -lift truck s intothe stora g e ya rd, rea dy for ship
ment.
Can ada Br i ck, McFar r en Pl an t
The pla nt is loca ted on the southern limits of
Streetsville a nd wa s built in 1 91 3. The sha le qua rry
a nd the pla nt a re in lot 3, C oncession V, W.H.S.
nea r Streetsville, Peel R eg ion. Descriptions of ea r
lier opera tions a re g iven by K eele, 1 1 M ontg omery1 3
a nd Guillet.9
Brick s a re produced in a complete ra ng e of
colours, in a ntique or tra ditiona l texture, or a s pa v
ing brick .
The principa l size is Onta rio, but C SR , M odula r
a nd Jumboa re a lsoproduced.
The Queenston Sha le is removedby ripping the
fa ce with a bulldozer a nd then pushing it into a
stock pile. A front-end loa der loa ds a dump truck
which ta k es the sha le to a stora g e hopper a t the
g rinding pla nt. The sha le is fed to a sing le roll
crusher a nd then toa dry pa n. The g round sha le is
next conveyed toa set of screens, where the over
size is in a closed circuit with a ha mmer mill. The
undersize is storedin a steel bin from which it is fed
totwopug mills a nd then toa va cuum extruder.
The extruder column is cut intobrick by a ro
ta ry cutter. They a re then pla ced on drier ca rs in
50
Clay 8t Shale Industries of Ontario
300 brick cubes, which a re subsequently ha ndledby
fork -lift truck s.
The ca rs of brick a re pla ced in tunnel driers
hea ted recupera tively from the k iln exha ust. The
cubes of driedbrick a re sta ck edin one of five peri
odic k ilns where they a re fired on 7- to1 1 -da y cy
cles, pea k ing a t 1 0900C .
When the k iln is cooled, fork -lift truck s remove
the cubes of brick from the k ilns. They a re pla ced
in a sorting a rea , inspected, pa ck a g ed intocubes of
500 brick s a nd ta k en tothe stora g e ya rd rea dy for
shipment.
Can ada Br i ck, Mi ssi ssauga
Brick production a t this former Domta r loca tion
commenced in 1 91 1 . It wa s purcha sed by C a na da
Brick in mid-1 985. History a nd descriptions of the
ea rlier opera tions a re g iven by M ontg omery1 3 a nd
Guillet.9 Domta r a ctua lly opera ted twobrick pla nts
for a few yea rs on the M ississa ug a site: the orig ina l
periodic k iln pla nt which wa s closed in 1 970, a nd a
tunnel k iln pla nt constructed in 1 959 which is still
opera ting . An expa nded sha le a g g reg a te, Ha ydite,
wa s a lsoproduced during the yea rs 1 928-1 980.
Other Domta r brick pla nts in Onta rioincluded
a dry-pressedpla nt a t C heltenha m, closed in 1 964;
a nd a tunnel k iln pla nt nea r Otta wa which ha s been
opera ting since 1 961 . Domta r a lso opera ted two
brick pla nts in the sta te of M ississippi a nd the
La Pra irie pla nt in Quebec.
The Plant
Sta rting in 1 959 with a sing le tunnel k iln, a second
wa s a ddedin 1 966, bring ing the existing M ississa ug a
pla nt to a n a nnua l ca pa city of 70 million brick s.
Grey Georg ia n Ba y Sha le from the a dja cent qua rry
is crushed a nd screened to1 6 mesh in a sequence
of rolls crushers, drypa ns a nd hea ted vibra ting
screens. Tempering wa ter is a dded totwopug mills
which feed twoSteele 90 extrusion ma chines ca pa
ble of producing 25,000 brick s per hour. Ba rium
ca rbona te, limestone a nd ma ng a nese a re a dded a s
required for colour a nd scum control. Dinoa uto
ma tic sta ck ing equipment sta ck s g reen brick s for
drying a nd firing .
Brick s a re dried for a bout 48 hours in four dry
ing tunnels with ca pa cities of 1 7 ca rs ea ch. The tun
nels a re hea ted by wa ste hea t from the k iln. The
twog a s-fired tunnel k ilns ea ch hold 38 ca rs, a nd
produce finished brick s a t the ra te of 200,000 per
da y. Tota l ela psedtime in the k ilns is 40 hours. One
ca r is discha rg ed every 65 minutes from ea ch k iln.
Finished brick s a re a utoma tica lly pa lletized in
500-brick cubes. C SR , Onta rioa nd M odula r brick
sizes a re ma de, C SR being in la rg est dema nd.
The Quarry
The qua rry ha s been previously described by Guil
let. 9 Since then it ha s been deepened to27 m, a nd
is work ed by drilling a nd bla sting . C hlorides a re a
problem in the lower levels, sobrick sha le is ta k en
only from the upper 1 2 m. The lower sha le wa s for
merly usedonly in the production of Ha ydite, but in
1 985 these levels were being ba ck filled with flya sh
from Onta rioHydro's coa l-fired La k e vie w g enera t
ing pla nt.
Can ada Br i ck, Ot t awa
C a na da Brick 's Otta wa pla nt wa s built by Domta r
C onstruction M a teria ls Limited in 1 961 torepla ce
the opera tions of Otta wa Brick a nd Terra C otta
C ompa ny Limited whichwere closedin 1 960. Dom
ta r sold its pla nt to C a na da Brick in mid-1 985,
a long with its M ississa ug a pla nt. R ed QAieenston
Sha le is truck ed 26 k m tothe pla nt from a qua rry
nea r R ussell. Ea rly brick ma k ing in the Otta wa a rea
is mentioned by Ba k er, 1 K eele,1 1 M ontg omery1 3
a nd Guillet.9
Sha le is qua rrieda ndtruck edtothe pla nt under
contra ct. A stock pile in excess of 60,000 tonnes is
a ccumula ted during the summer months tofeedthe
pla nt throug h the winter. The sha le is improved for
brick ma k ing by na tura l wea thering , both in the
stock pile a nd on the qua rry floor. Pla nt feed is re
cla imed from stock pile by front-end loa der a nd is
crushed a nd g round throug h 1 6 mesh by impa ct
crusher a nd drypa n in closed circuit with four
hea ted vibra ting screens. Ground sha le is stored in
twosilos a nd conveyedtoa prima ry pug g ing section
before fina l pug g ing a nd extrusion. Brick s a re me
cha nica lly loa ded on ca rs for drying a nd firing .
A 5-tra ck holding room ha s spa ce for 40 ca rs
a hea d of the dryers. Drying is a ccomplished using
wa ste hea t a ug mentedby g a s in three tunnels which
a ccommoda te 1 4 ca rs ea ch. A g a s-fired tunnel k iln
1 22 m long ha s room for 38 ca rs, a nd fires topea k
tempera tures of 1 0500C . One ca r is discha rg ed
every 90 minutes, a nd the brick s a re mecha nica lly
unloa ded a nd steel-stra pped in cubes. C SR a nd
M odula r sizes a re produced.
The Quarry
The qua rry is in lot 1 8, concession III, R ussell
Township, in the united counties of Prescott a nd
R ussell, ta k ing a dva nta g e of a sma ll sha llow occur-
rence of red Queenston Sha le. It ha s been previ
ously described.9
Can ada Br i ck, St r eet svi l l e
The Streetsville pla nt of C a na da Brick commenced
opera tions in M a rch 1 956. Both the qua rry a nd
pla nt a re loca ted on the northwest limits of
Streetsville in lot 6, concession V, W.H.S., M issis-
sa ug a , Peel R eg ion. A description of ea rlier opera
tions is g iven by Guillet.9
The pla nt is the la rg est in Onta rio, producing
over 1 00 million brick s a nnua lly. Althoug h C SR is
the principa l size produced, Onta rio, M odula r a nd
TTW a re a lsoma de in a wide ra ng e of colours a nd
textures.
Overburden is stripped off the Queenston Sha le
by scra per-type ea rth movers. A la rg e bulldozer
then rips the fa ce of the exposedsha le a ndpushes it
intostock piles.
A front-endloa der loa ds the sha le intoa Euclid
truck for the 300 m ha ul tothe crushing pla nt hop
per. The sha le is fed first toa Dixie a ndthen a Wil
lia ms ha mmermill, then conveyed to a set of
screens. Undersize from the screens is conveyed to
one of five 455 tonne stora g e silos. The oversize
sha le is conveyed totworim discha rg e g rinders in
closed circuit with a nother set of screens, a nd the
undersize is conveyed tothe g round sha le stora g e
silos.
Feeders under the silos proportion the g round
sha le toone or both of twoextrusion lines. Ea ch
line is composed of twopug mills a nd a va cuum ex
truder.
The column of cla y exiting the extruder is
coa teda nd/or texturedby a ny of severa l mea ns a nd
cut intoslug s. The slug s a re then pushed throug h a
ba nk of vertica l wires spa ced a t the thick ness of in
dividua l brick . These cut g roups of brick a re pick ed
up, tworows hig h a ndpla cedon a tunnel k iln ca r by
a setting ma chine. The ca rs of g reen brick g otoa
holding a rea from which they a re forwa rded toone
of four tunnel drier-k ilns (Photo4.2).
Drying a nd firing ta k es 3 to4 da ys, pea k ing a t
up to1 0700C .
The firedbrick a re mecha nica lly unloa dedfrom
the ca rs, inspected for qua lity a nd reg rouped into
cubes of 500 ea ch.
The cubes a re steel stra pped a nd ca rried by
fork -lift truck s intothe stora g e ya rd, rea dy for ship
ment.
Photo 4.2 Top: gas- fired tunnel kilns. Bottom:
loading a car into tunnel kiln. Canada Brick,
Streetsville. Photo courtesy Clay Brick Association
of Canada.
HAMILTON BRICK LIMITED
The Ha milton Brick pla nt wa s built in 1 907 tota k e
a dva nta g e of a 25 m section of red Queenston Sha le
exposed in the Esca rpment behind the pla nt. Sha le
is now truck edfrom Burling ton. Descriptions of ea r
lier opera tions a re g iven by M ontg omery1 3 a ndGuil
let.9
Queenston Sha le from the Burling ton qua rries
of Na tiona l Sewer Pipe Limited is truck ed 1 5 k m
a nd stock piled behind the pla nt. Grinding of the
52 Clay Si Shale Industries of Ontario
sha le to8 mesh is a ccomplished in a 3 m Bonnot
drypa n in closed circuit with twoTyler hea ted vi
bra ting screens. M inor a mounts of ba rium ca rbon
a te, ma ng a nese dioxide a nd Lig nosol ma y be a dded
tothe g round sha le before its stora g e in a sma ll bin.
The brick strea m is extruded by a C onnet Grey
hound va cuum extruder, a nd is textured or coa ted
before cutting by a Steele No. 1 8 cutter. The g reen
brick s a re pla ced in units of 350, twounits per ca r,
for subsequent ha ndling by fork lift.
An 8-tra ck tunnel dryer is g a s-hea ted a nd ca n
a ccommoda te 1 5 ca rs per tra ck . Drying time is 48
hours a t 900C . Five beehive k ilns 1 2 m in dia meter
ea ch hold 1 00,000 brick s. They a re g a s-fired to
pea k tempera tures of 1 0400C on a burning cycle of
96 to1 00 hours.
In 1 985 a new 9.5 m squa re Swindel Dressler
downdra ft k iln wa s constructed. It is fibre linedwith
a n exterior steel shell, a nd is g a s-fired throug h 1 2
burners loca tedin vertica l ba nk s of three a t the cor
ners. The burner jets a re desig ned tocrea te hig h
velocities of hea ted a ir a round the inside periphery
of the k iln, discha rg ing throug h a centra l downdra ft
port in the floor. The new k iln is expectedtorea lize
fuel sa ving s of 30 percent, a nd will opera te on a
7-da y turnover cycle. Pea k firing tempera ture will
be 1 0700C .
Ha milton Brick estima tes their costs for fuel
a nd la bour a re ea ch a bout one-third of their tota l
costs. The pla nt opera tes yea r round with a
work force of 33, a nd produces a bout 9 million
brick s a nnua lly, prima rily in the sta nda rd Onta rio
size. Dema nd for their brick s wa s extremely hea vy
in 1 985.
THUNDERBRICK LIMITED
In 1 976, Thunderbrick Limited, a subsidia ry of
Portla nd Zementwerk e-Wossing en GmbH of
Fra nk furt, Germa ny, a cquired the R osslyn pla nt of
Superior Brick a nd Tile C ompa ny Limited nea r
Thunder Ba y. It wa s reported toha ve spent S4.8
million in redesig ning a nd outfitting the pla nt for
brick a nd split floor tile production.7 In 1 985 the
pla nt wa s optioned toGrea t La k es C era mics Lim
ited which a nticipa ted production of split floor tile
before yea r end.
The Superior brick pla nt a nd its a ssocia ted cla y
pit ha ve been describedby Guillet.9 After its a cqui
sition by Thunderbrick , the pla nt wa s tota lly reno
va ted a nd modernized for a desig ned production of
20 million brick s a nnua lly. A new cla y pit wa s esta b
lisheda pproxima tely 5 k m south of the pla nt. Here,
4.5 m of brown cla y wa s foundtooverlie a s much a s
1 7 m of blue cla y.7 Subsequently, a blend of both
cla y a nd sha le wa s used. Grea t La k es C era mics
pla ns to use a stonewa re cla y from R ock g len in
southern Sa sk a tchewa n in its floor tile production.
The Thunderbrick pla nt wa s desig ned by Ling l
of Germa ny. C la y a nd sha le prepa ra tion include
three sta g es of g rinding in Ha zema g a nd R a ymond
mills, followedby drying of the fine products before
stora g e. Ba tching is a ccomplished by a utoma tic
weig ht a nd some level detection devices, a nd the
feedis mixedin a J. C . Steele wet pa n mixer with or
without a n a uxilia ry pug mill. Both brick s a nd split
tile a re ma de by extrusion, the tile using a Breiton-
ba ck ma chine. Green wa re is loa ded on pa llets a nd
tra nsferred a utoma tica lly to holding a nd drying
rooms. From the dryers, the wa re is tra nsferred to
k iln ca rs via a Ling l setting ma chine, thence tothe
Ling l top-fired 85 m tunnel k iln.
REFERENCES
1 . Ba k er, M . B. "C la y a nd the C la y Industry of Onta rio",
Onta rioBurea uof M ines, Vol. XV, pa rt. 2, 1 906.
2. Bubenicek , J. "Steetley Pa rk house Softmud Pla nt",
88thAnnua l M eeting of the
America n C era mic Society, April, 1 985.
3. C a na dia n Sta nda rds Associa tion. Specifica tions A82-1
- A82-1 M .
4. C a na dia n Sta nda rds Associa tion. Specifica tions A82-8
- A82-8M .
5. C la y Brick Associa tion of C a na da . "Fluoride Emission
C ontrol Systems a nd the Energ y Efficiency of Tunnel
K ilns: Volume II", Energ y M ines a nd R esources C a n
a da , C ANM ET, C ontra ct R eport No. OSQ82-00090.
6. C la y Brick Associa tion of C a na da . "Technica l Notes on
Brick C onstruction", Pa per 1 0, revised Ja n. 1 978.
7. Fenwick , K . G. a nd Scott, J. F. "1 976 R eport of the
North C entra l R eg iona l Geolog ist", Annua l R eport of
the R eg iona l a nd R esident Geolog ists, Onta rioGeolog i
ca l Survey M P71 , p. 42-56, 1 977.
8. Freema n, E. B. "Toronto's Geolog ica l Pa st - An Intro
duction", Onta rioDivision of M ines, 1 976.
9. Guillet, G. R . "The C la y Products Industry of Onta rio",
Onta rioDepa rtment of M ines, IM R 22, 1 967.
1 0. Joyce, I. H., a nd Berry, E. E. "Fluoride Emission C on
trol Systems a nd the Energ y Efficiency of Tunnel K ilns:
Volume I - A C ritica l R eview a nd Proposed R esea rch
Prog ra m", Energ y, M ines a nd R esources C a na da ,
C ANM ET, R eport No. OSQ82-00090, Ja n. 1 983.
1 1 . K eele, J. "Prelimina ry R eport on the C la y a nd Sha le
Deposits of Onta rio", Geolog ica l Survey of C a na da ,
M emoir 1 42, 1 924.
1 2. Leisenberg , W. "R educing Tota l Hea t C onsumption a t
K iln a nd Dryer by M ea sures Ta k en in the K iln", Inter-
brick , Vol. 2, p. 1 5, 1 985.
1 3. M ontg omery, R . J. "The C era mic Industry of Onta rio",
Onta rioDepa rtment of M ines, Vol. XXXIX, pt 4, 1 930.
1 4. Pixley, F., "Sta te-of-the-a rt R oofing Tile Production",
84th Annua l C onvention
of C a na dia n C era mic Society, Toronto, Feb. 1 986.
1 5. Pollutech Limited. "Effect on the Energ y Efficiency of 1 7. Province of Onta rio. "Pits a nd Qua rries C ontrol Act",
Tunnel K ilns M a nufa cturing Structura l C la y Products of R .S.O. 1 980, C ha pter 378, Queen's Printer for On-
Fluoride Emission C ontrol Systems, Pha se II", Energ y, ta rio, 1 986.
M ines a nd R esources C a na da , C ANM ET, C ontra ct R e- lg R obbinS) j. ..jj. K . Structura l C la y Products", Industria l
port No. OSQ83-00230, M a rch, 1 985. M inera l^M a g a zine) No. 1 96) p.V35i Ja n'. 1 984.
1 6. Proctor R edfern Limited. "The C la y Brick Industry 1 9. Wea therson, G. L. "Onta rioM inera l Score", Onta rio
a nd the Sha le R esources of Onta rio", C la y Brick Asso- M inistry of Na tura l R esources, Video C ensus Series,
cia tion of C a na da , July, 1 978. No. l-5incl., 1 981 -1 985.
54 Clay St Shale Industries of Ontario
Chapt er 5 Dr ai n age Ti l e
DRAINAGE TILE
The production of cla y dra ina g e tile (Photo5.1 ) in
Onta rio is currently following a severe worldwide
decline. Pla stic dra ina g e tubing is g enera lly less
costly toproduce a nd insta ll, a lthoug h it rema ins to
be proven whether it is a s effective a nd dura ble in
the long term.
It wa s a fortuna te coincidence tha t the wide
sprea d pra ctice of field dra ina g e in the first ha lf of
this century (Photo5.2) provideda n opening for a n
a lterna tive product for numerous sma ll cla y brick
pla nts tha t were competing unfa voura bly with la rg e
new sha le pla nts. Surfa ce cla ys in Onta riodonot, in
g enera l, ma k e dense well-vitrified bodies, a ndtheir
use in brick ma k ing wa s increa sing ly jeopa rdized by
the superior firing qua lities of Pa leozoic sha les.
Specifica tions for dra ina g e tiles a llowed a less vitri
fied, softer a nd more porous body, irrespective of
colour or a ppea ra nce. Without the expa nding dra in
a g e tile ma rk et, ma ny loca l brick ma k ers would
Photo 5.1 Drainage tiles of
various sizes. D.A. J anes
and Son Limited, Mount
Brydges. Photo courtesy
B.H. Feenstra.
Photo 5.2 " Buckeye" , an early
clay drainage tile setter.
Photo courtesy Amos C. Martin
Ltd.
Clay Si Shale Industries of Ontario 55
ha ve long since closed. Instea d, the number of
dra ina g e tile pla nts showedstrong g rowthuntil a bout
the middle of this century, a nd then declined (Ta
ble 5.1 ).
TABLE 5.1 ACTIVE DRAINAGE TILE PLANTS FOR
SELECTED YEARS. (3)
1 985
1 964
1 929
1 906
5
31
84
51
The first producer of pla stic dra ina g e tubing in
Onta riocommenced production in 1 968, the yea r
of pea k cla y tile production when 68.4 million tiles
of 4-inch (1 0 cm) equiva lent size were nia de.
There were a lsoten producers of concrete tile a t
tha t time, but their combined production wa s only
a bout 6 million tiles.9 A ma jor decline in the num
ber of cla y tile pla nts took pla ce during a period of
expa nding production (1 929-1 964); closures tha t
reflected ina bility to modernize or compete with
more a g g ressive tile producers. C oncrete tile wa s
never a serious threa t in the sma ller sizes, but pla stic
tubing ha s ha d a sig nifica nt impa ct a nd ha s reduced
the cla y tile industry toits present low level of a ctiv
ity.
Field dra ina g e by systems of tile liners a llows
the fa rmer perha ps twoweek s ea rlier a ccess tohis
la nds in the spring a nd increa ses crop yields in wet
sea sons. It ha s been foundtobe much more effec
tive tha n open dra ina g e ditches, which wa s the
dra ina g e technique commonly used in ea rlier times.
AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE
Dra ina g e tile a nd tubing finds a pplica tion in both
a g ricultura l a nd municipa l a rea s. Ag ricultura l field
dra ina g e consumes a bout 85 percent of tile a ndtub
ing production. M unicipa l uses a re la rg ely for resi
dentia l subdivisions tocontrol surfa ce run-off.
Field dra ina g e leng thens the g rowing sea son by
permitting ea rlier a ccess tothe g roundin the spring .
It a lsoincrea ses crop yields in wet sea sons by re
moving surplus moisture, a ndit benefits crops in dry
sea sons by encoura g ing deeper root systems. The
cost of field dra ina g e is usua lly recovered within a
few yea rs throug h increa sed crop yields.
Fa rm dra ina g e is thoroug hly described in a
number of publica tions of the Onta rioM inistry of
Ag riculture a nd Food, a ll of which ha ve been writ
ten by Professor R . W. Irwin, with a ssista nce in
some ca ses from other sta ff a t the Onta rioAg ricul
tura l C olleg e, University of Guelph.
Publica tion 4
Publica tion 29
Publica tion 36
Publica tion 501
Under Onta rio's fa rmers ca n
borrow up to75 percent of the cost of the dra ina g e
work a t a n interest ra te of 4 percent. Additiona lly,
the Onta rioM inistry of Ag riculture a nd Food will
prepa re a dra ina g e survey pla n without cost tothe
fa rmer. Tiling contra ctors use continuous buck et
wheel exca va tors in la ying cla y tile. Pla stic tubing is
insta lled by a ploug h technique which ca uses mini
ma l disturba nce of the soil, a nd this technique ha s
been recently a da pted for cla y tile a s well.
Dra ina g e lines a re norma lly 4 inches (1 0 cm) in
dia meter a ndspa ced a ccording tosoil type: from 40
to50 feet (1 2-1 5 m) in cla y soils, 50 to70 feet
(1 5-20 m) in sa ndor loa m soils (Imperia l mea sure
ments a re still in g enera l use in the cla y tile indus
try). R ecommended depths a re 2 to 2-1 /2 feet
(60-75 cm) in cla y soils, 2-1 /2 to 3-1 /2 feet
(75-1 00 cm) in sa ndor loa m soils. The lines should
slope a t lea st l inch per 1 00 feet (8 cm per 1 00 m).
C ollector lines a re la rg er in dia meter tha n the nor
ma l 4 inch (1 0 cm) feeder lines a nd a re connected
tothem by Y or T joints. Discha rg e of wa ter ma y be
by g ra vity intoopen trenches or pumped a wa y from
collecting sumps a s necessa ry.
Ea rly tiling pra ctice wa s often a t more widely
spa ced interva ls tha n presently recommended. In
some ca ses compa ction of the soil by hea vy fa rm
equipment ha s necessita ted the further insta lla tion
of intermedia te lines toupg ra de the system.
In sa ndy soils a nylon sleeve a round cla y tile
ma y be necessa ry toprevent block a g e of the tile's
dra ina g e ca pa city by sa nd.
SPECIFICATIONS
C la y dra ina g e tiles a re subject tothe sta nda rds es
ta blished by the America n Society for Testing a nd
M a teria ls (ASTM ) a s set out in Desig na tion C 4
(C la y Dra in Tile) a nd Desig na tion C 498 (Perfo
ra ted C la y Dra in Tile), a nd summa rized in Ta ble
5.2. In 1 970, Onta rio ma nufa cturers officia lly
a dopted these sta nda rds except for the a bsorption
fa ctor a nd the freeze a ndtha w test in the Sta nda rd
tile cla ss. M a ny Onta riosurfa ce cla ys donot rea dily
vitrify todense bodies of low porosity, yet their per
forma nce a ppea rs toha ve been g enera lly sa tisfa c
tory.
56
Clay 81 Shale Industries of Ontario
Onta rio ma nufa cturers of concrete dra in pipe
ha ve a doptedthe sta nda rds set out in ASTM Desig
na tion C 41 2, a s summa rized in Ta ble 5.3.
Both cla y a nd concrete dra in pipe should be
stra ig ht a nd a pproxima tely circula r in cross-section.
Ends should be squa re a nd the inside surfa ces
smooth. They should be free from cra ck s, brok en
pieces, a nd check s which ma y decrea se streng th or
a dmit soil intothe dra in. Where dra in pipe ma y be
crushed by loa ds a pplied by ma chinery or other
tra ffic, or where frost is a problem, sewer pipe or
corrug a ted steel should be used.
C orrug a ted pla stic tubing must be resista nt to
chemica ls present in soils a nd g round wa ters, a nd
from deg ra da tion due toultra -violet lig ht. Toler
a nces ha ve been defined by the C a na dia n Genera l
Sta nda rds Boa rd a s specifica tion 41 -GP-29 M a
TABLE 5.2 PHYSICAL TEST REQUIREMENTS FOR CLAY DRAIN TILE.
Standard Drain Tile Ext r a-Qual i t y Ti l e Heavy- Duty Drain Tile
Internal
Dla.
(mm)
10 0
125
150
20 0
250
30 0
350
37 5
40 0
Minimum
Crushing
Strength*
(kN/m)
Av. Ind.
of 5
Max. Water
Absorption by
5- Hr. Boiling
11
1 1
11
11
1 1
11
12.3
12.7
9.9
9.9
9.9
9.9
9.9
9.9
1 0.5
10 .8
Av.
o f 5
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
I n d.
1 6
1 6
1 6
1 6
1 6
1 6
1 6
1 6
Minimum
Crushing
Strength*
(kN/m)
Av. Ind.
of 5
Max. Water
Absorption by
5- Hr. Boiling
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
1 6.0
16.0
16.0
16.7
17 .5
14.4
1 4.4
1 4.4
14.4
14.4
1 4.4
1 4.4
15.0
15.7
Av.
o f 5
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
I n d.
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
Minimum
Crushing
Strength
(kN/m)
Av. Ind.
of 5
Max. Water
Absorption by
5- Hr. Boiling
20 .
20 .
20 .
21
22.6
24.8
27 .0
28.9
30 .6
18.
18.
18.
19.
20 .
22.3
24.2
26.0
27 .6
Av.
o f 5
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1
I n d.
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
1 3
Abbreviations: Dia = Diameter; Av = Average; Ind = Individual
'Strength determined by a three- edge- bearing method
Note: Tiles that exceed the maximumpermissible water absorption requirement may be tested by a freezing and thawing method. Tiles
shall not lose more than 5 percent of their original dry weight as a result of 36 freezing and thawing cycles in the Standard class, and 48
cycles in the Extra- quality and Heavy- duty classes.
Source: ASTM Designations C 4 and C 498
TABLE 5.3 PHYSICAL TEST REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE DRAIN TILE.
Standard Drain Tile Extra- Quality Tile Special Quality Tile
Nominal
Inside
Dia.
(mm)
10 0
125
150
20 0
250
30 0
350
37 5
40 0
450
50 0
550
60 0
Three Edge
Bearing
Crushing
Strength
(kN/lin m)
Min.
Av. Ind.
11.5 10 .0
11.5 10 .0
11.5 10 .0
11.5 10 .0
11.5 10 .0
11.5 10 .0
Absorption
Boiled
5
(
Hr.
**)
Max.
Av.
10
10
10
10
10
10
Ind.
11
11
11
11
11
11
Nominal
Shell
Thickness
(mm)
13
14
16
19
22
25
29
32
35
38
41
44
50
Three Edge
Bearing
Crushing
Strength
(kN/lin m)
Min.
Av. Ind.
16.0 14.5
16.0 14.5
16.0 14.5
16.0 14.5
16.0 14.5
16.0 14.5
16.0 14.5
16.0 14.5
16.0 14.5
17 .5 16.0
19.5 17 .5
21.5 19.0
23.5 21.0
Absorption
Boiled
5 Hr.
W
Max.
Av. Ind.
9 10
9 10
9 10
9 10
9 10
9 10
9 10
9 10
9 10
9 10
9 10
9 10
9 10
Three Edge
Bearing Absorption
Crushing
Strength
(kN/lin m)
Min.
Ind.
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
1 6.0
17 .5
19.5
21.5
21.5
Boiled
5 Hr.
W
Max.
Av. Ind.
Abbreviations: Av z Average; Ind = Individual; Diam= Diameter
Source: ASTM Designation C 412.
Cl a y & S h a l e I n du s t r i es o f On t a r i o 5 7
(November 1 983). Three cla sses of pla stic tubing
a re considered:
Type l - Nonperfora ted
Type 2 - Perfora ted
Type 3 - Tubing with specia l perfora tions for a ppli
ca tions other tha n a g ricultura l la nd dra ina g e
The specifica tions for pla stic tubing outline a c
cepta ble sta nda rds for dimensiona l tolera nces,
wa ter opening s, stiffness a nd impa ct resista nce. The
testing procedures a re the sa me a s those definedby
the America n Society for Testing a nd M a teria ls
(ASTM ):
D 61 8 - M ethods of conditioning pla stics a nd elec
trica l insula ting ma teria ls
D 21 22 - M ethod of determining dimensions of
thermopla stic pipe a nd fitting s
D 241 2 - M ethod of test for externa l loa ding prop
erties of pla stic pipe by pa ra llel-pla te loa ding .
TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMICS
It is a n unfortuna te fa ct tha t Onta rio's surficia l cla ys
a re g enera lly poor a s ra w ma teria ls for fired cla y
products. They tend tobe hig h in lime, a nd hence
burn toa ra ther soft porous body, sometimes crea m
or yellow-coloured a nd a lmost cha lk y in texture.
However, some red-burning cla ys dooccur, nota bly
in the Otta wa Va lley a nd in extreme southwestern
Onta rio, a nd these dovitrify over a short tempera
ture ra ng e, g iving denser a nd strong er bodies. Pa
leozoic sha les of the Queenston, Georg ia n Ba y a nd
Ark ona Forma tions a re the best ra w ma teria ls, a nd
nea rly a ll Onta rioproducers of hea vy cla y products
now use these sha les. Fig ure 5.1 illustra tes the proc
ess for dra ina g e tile production.
While some Onta riodra ina g e tiles ma de from
cla y ma y not meet a bsorption specifica tions, they
still ha ve a g ood service record in the g round. An
a ssessment of the qua lity of tiles from 30 cla y pla nts,
5 sha le pla nts a nd 5 concrete tile pla nts in 1 959
revea led tha t tiles ma de from sha les were superior
to both cla y a nd concrete tiles in streng th, a nd
equa l toconcrete tiles, but much superior tocla y
tiles in a bsorption.5 However, the study concluded
tha t, beca use of the uncerta in rela tionship between
la bora tory testing a nd a ctua l field performa nce,
"the a bsorption fa ctor (in cla y tiles) should not
ca use undue concern".5
The dra ina g e tile industry of 1 969 included 6
pla nts using sha le, 27 using cla y, 1 0 using concrete
a nd 2 pla stic pipe producers. This wa s the yea r of
ma ximum recorded cla y tile production, a nd it is
interesting to note tha t expa nding tile production
wa s la rg ely a ccounted for by sha le pla nts a s opposed
to producers using surfa ce cla ys; a g a in, cla y tile
qua lity wa s recog nized a s being low beca use of the
g enera lly inferior qua lity of Onta riocla y. However,
a ma jor fa ctor limiting g rowth in the production of
tiles from either cla y or sha le wa s a low return on
investment due tothe sma ll sca le of most opera tions
a nd other fa ctors.9
Questiona ble qua lity of some cla y tiles does not
seem toha ve been a ma jor issue in the industry's
decline. Indeed, there continues tobe more g enera l
uncerta inty a bout the long -term dura bility of pla stic
tubing . C la y tile ha s a reputa tion for long evity, with
ma ny fa rm dra ina g e systems still functioning a fter
more tha n 50 yea rs. Pla stic tubing is much more
vulnera ble toimproper insta lla tion. Its low streng th
requires tha t it be equa lly supported on a ll sides to
prevent its colla pse. M ost cla y tile producers ca n
cite ca ses where unsa tisfied fa rmers ha ve repla ced
pla stic tubing with cla y tiles. C la y tile is less ea sily
da ma g ed by rodents, a nd is rela tively una ffectedby
corrosive elements in soils a nd g round wa ters a s
compa red toboth pla stic a nd concrete pipes.
C ost of production, ha ndling a nd insta lla tion, is
the ma in issue on which pla stic pipe ha s competed
sosuccessfully with cla y tiles. C ompa red with cla y,
RAW MATERIAL
-LOCAL CLAYS
AND SHALES
WEATHERING
OVERSIZE
SHUTTLE KILN-
STORAGE
Figure 5.1 Process Flow Chart for drainage tile
production.
58
the polyethylene ra w ma teria l is very expensive, but
its extrusion intothin-wa lled corrug a ted tubing re
quires little opera ting cost or ca pita l investment.
Interna tiona lly, resea rch into improving pipe
ma teria l a nd the ma nufa cturing process ha s been
conducted in efforts toincrea se the competitiveness
of the cla y products. 1 2 M echa niza tion of the process
ha s been found toreduce the costly la bour require
ments a nd minimize the qua ntity of rejects. The
cla y tile qua lity ha s been improved by finer milling ,
increa sed considera tion of g reen densities a nd
hig her firing tempera tures, a ll of which lea d toa
hig her streng th body. Improvements in the
beneficia tion of the cla y tolower the vola tile impu
rity content ha ve a llowed these hig her firing tem
pera tures a nd ha ve reduced firing schedules toa s
low a s l hour. The production of hig h qua lity tile
under these dema nding firing conditions ha s been
rea lized by the a dvent of the roller hea rth k iln.
Fuel is a ma jor cost fa ctor in the production of
cla y tile. The A. C . M a rtin pla nt a t Pa rk hill did not
ha ve a ccess tona tura l g a s until 1 985, a nd its con
version tog a s-firing wa s not complete until the end
of 1 985. Their orig ina l oil-fired beehive k ilns a c
counted for a bout 35 percent of their tile costs, but
improved burning efficiency in a new box k iln (see
Photo5.4) reduced it to30 percent. Ga s firing wa s
expected toreduce fuel costs to25 percent of tile
cost.
Some yea rs a g o, when oil costs were nea r their
pea k , M a rtin experimented with sa wdust, using
screw conveyors a ndpneuma tic feedtothe burners,
a nd found it competitive with oil a s it wa s then
priced. However, the sa wdust proved undesira bly
a bra sive to the k iln refra ctory liners, pa rticula rly
a roundthe burner feedpoints. Even if tha t problem
could be resolved, it is doubtful tha t sa wdust could
compete with lower cost na tura l g a s. Nevertheless,
burning of the tile proved equa lly effective with sa w
dust, a nd it wa s felt tha t there were nosig nifica nt
technica l ba rriers toits use.
In 1 985, both M a rtin a ndDresden rea lized fur
ther economies by introducing a 3-1 /2-inch (9 cm)
tile which they cla imed wa s a t lea st equa l in dra in
a g e ca pa city to4-inch (1 0 cm) corrug a ted pla stic
tubing when the increa sed dra g due tothe corrug a
tions a ffects the flow ra te in the tubing . M a rtin's wa s
ma de with a slig htly thinner wa ll, resulting in a n
overa ll sa ving in weig ht of 6 pounds (2.7 k g ) for a
sta nda rd 4-inch tile a nd 4 pounds (1 .8 k g ) for the
3-1 /2-inch. These a re finding wide a ccepta nce,
pa rticula rly a s they ca n be ma rk eted a t a bout the
sa me price a s pla stic tubing (i.e. 24 cents per foot or
79 cents per metre in 1 985). Furthermore, the
ploug hing technique used in la ying pla stic tubing ,
wa s a da pted for use with cla y tile a nd is reducing
the previous 6 cents per foot (20 cents per metre)
difference in insta lla tion cost. Indeed, Dresden
cla ims tok now contra ctors whowould insta ll either
cla y tile or pla stic with nodifference in insta lla tion
cost.
In a n effort tobolster la g g ing pla nt ca pa cities,
most cla y tile producers ha ve considered producing
other cla y products a s well. Andsome ha ve success
fully converted toproduction of concrete pipes or
pla stic tubing . Brick s, wine ra ck s, flowerpots, roof
ing tiles, sewer pipes, flue liners a nd floor tiles ha ve
a ll been considered a s a llied products to cla y tile
production. Inevita bly, inferior surfa ce cla ys ha ve
ma de these a lterna tives difficult to rea lize. But
pla nts using sha le ha ve been encoura g ed by test
runs for roofing tiles, chimney flues, a nd with cer
ta in a dditives, for a ra ng e of M exica n-style floor
tiles. Additiona lly, a sma ll ma rk et exists for crushed
tile chips for use a s decora tive a g g reg a te in g a rden
ing a nd la ndsca ping .
PRODUCTI ON AND CONSUMPTI ON
Worldwide decline in production a nd use of cla y
dra ina g e tile in fa vour of pla stic tubing is prima rily a
function of price. The conversion is virtua lly com
plete in western Europea n countries. The org a nic
Fletton cla ys of Eng la nd sta lled the trend for a few
yea rs beca use they were nea rly self-firing , a nd in
1 978 their ma rk et sha re wa s still 80 percent,4 while
Onta rio's cla y tile ha ddroppedto1 9 percent. How
ever, the U.K . production ha s declinedra pidly since
1 978.8
Ta ble 5.4 tra ces the decline in production of
cla y dra ina g e tiles in Onta rio for the period
1 975-1 983. Interviews with tile producers in 1 983
g a ve these rea sons for the decline:1 0
1 . depressed overa ll economy of the ea rly 1 980s,
a nd low fa rm incomes;
2. polyethylene pipe is less expensive toproduce,
a nd is lig hter in weig ht, ea sier toha ndle, insta ll
a nd store;
3. cla y tile is subject torig orous streng th sta nda rds,
while none exists for pla stic pipe;
4. hig her cla y production costs for fuel, la bour,
ma chinery;
5. improved roa d network ha s resulted in overla p
ping ma rk et ra ng es; hence competition between
producers;
6. sma ller compa nies forced out by la rg er ones
throug h lower unit costs;
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60
7. severa l unusua lly wet spring s ha ve ma de a ccess
tofields difficult for tiling before cultiva tion, the
pea k tiling period;
8. a dditiona l costs of complying with
9. dela ys inducedby M inistries of La bour a nd En
vironment over minor infra ctions.
Other rea sons mentioned during interviews in
1 985, when the ma rk et for pla stic tubing wa s a lsoin
decline, wa s a g enera l belief in a sa tura tion effect:
tha t a la rg e proportion of the la nds owned by the
more prog ressive fa rmers ha d a lrea dy been tiled.
C la y tile producers a lsofelt tha t there wa s insuffi
cient recog nition of the fa ct tha t smooth-wa lledcla y
tiles provided better dra ina g e tha n corrug a ted pla s
tic, a nd hence cost sa ving s tha t mig ht ha ve resulted
from increa sed row spa cing ha ve not been rea lized.
However, the current trend to a less expensive
3-1 /2-inch cla y tile, sa idtoha ve the sa me dra ina g e
ca pa city a s 4-inch tubing , should a ccomplish the
sa me result.
For urba n dra ina g e projects in new subdivisions
a nd shopping ma lls, most municipa lities now specify
PVC pipe in 6 to 1 2-inch (1 5-30 cm) dia meters
beca use of ea se of insta lla tion.
In 1 983, 4-inch pla stic tubing wa s selling for
a bout 1 6 cents per foot, a nd 4-inch cla y tile 24 to
27 cents. But by 1 985, pla stic prices ha d increa sed
toa bout 23 cents a ndcla y tile to28 cents. Withthe
new 3-1 /2-inch cla y tiles selling for 24 cents, a nd
the more efficient ploug h technique for cla y tile in
sta lla tion, cla y tile dra ina g e systems in 1 985 were
closely cost-competitive with pla stic tubing .
Annua l surveys of ma nufa cturers by ma iled
questionna ires during the yea rs 1 978-1 981 inclusive
received a bout 90 percent response with results a s
shown in Ta ble 5.5. A continued hig h level of de
ma nd for pla stic dra ina g e tubing is obvious, a t the
g ra dua l expense of cla y tiles, while concrete tiles
domina te the limited ma rk et for la rg er sizes.
Fig ure 5.2 shows the loca tion of dra ina g e tile
producers, a ctive in 1 985 or recently closed.
PRODUCERS
GEORGE COULTIS AND SON LIMITED
Dra ina g e tile ha s been produced a t a pla nt just
north of Thedford for ma ny yea rs, but in 1 985 the
compa ny wa s reported tobe disma ntling its cla y-
work ing equipment. Soft Ark ona sha le from a n a d
joining pit in the va lley of Deck er C reek ha s been
the ra w ma teria l used. The pla nt is in lot 23, con-
TABLE 5.5 DRAINAGE TILES AND TUBING SOLD IN ONTARIO (NUMBER OF UNITS).
Ti l e
Di amet er
(i n ches) 1 981 1 980 1 979 1 978
Clay or
Shale
Plastic
Concrete
Undivided*
Total
4 18
5
6
7
8
10
12
19
4 127
6 5
8
134
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
21
24
1
2
157
.126,392
143,653
548,255
4,196
221,832
20 ,47 2
5,10 0
.0 89,90 0
.7 84.386
.889,389
867 ,0 69
.540 ,844
231,510
315,946
319,452
232,465
168,7 0 8
130 ,10 9
116,264
59,364
54,0 48
.627 ,866
.0 87 ,60 7
.326,217
20 ,7 95,259
47 4.7 23
97 5,37 9
29,141
338,7 41
45,459
12.434
22,67 1,136
122,7 36,949
5,892,513
666,7 57
129,296,219
261,532
331,342
17 7 ,0 23
27 0 ,464
194,485
110 ,50 4
122,992
7 4,636
55,140
1,598,118
1,60 1,553
155,267 ,0 26
21,0 69,856
481,7 7 8
1,0 19,0 69
31,859
393,193
43,247
9,924
23,0 48,926
10 3,47 7 ,136
3,911,425
594,137
10 7 ,982,698
385.687
481,7 47
40 4,239
30 7 ,87 5
163,416
94,20 9
94,659
1,931,832
1.113,599
134,0 7 7 ,655
24,0 80 ,885
97 8,60 0
1,458,7 15
21,60 7
352,846
7 6,7 45
18,157
26,987 ,555
10 6,10 5,27 2
4,257 ,60 4
7 90 .7 87
111.153.663
328.30 0
380 ,820
359,622
319,37 8
512,60 9
126,436
90 ,935
66,47 6
39,238
2,223,814
97 9,189
141,344,221
'Undivided as to size or raw material
61
i V' T- \ - ,'' \CARLETON \'"\~' ^
3\ MUSKOKA \ \ \- \J"\ N \ /.' ' ^ ^MO" T
(5K \" \ \^\ \LANARK 'v'^\V"
^VJ .-A HALIBURTON \ \1 f e ,.' ' v Y \ *x^
,
~V - f~V ~" " DUFFER!^,- .-
' i, ' /^ v T
.i. 7 \s APEEL \RM - - - " .
- .; ( * . * ~ ' ^ ^- - .s i # ' - ~
1 - GEORGE COULTIS 8 SON LTD. (Cl osed 1 985)
2- DRESDEN TILE YARD (I960 LTD. (Cl osed 1 985)
3- FLETCHER TILE LTD (Cl osed 1 981 )
4-D.A. JANES S SON LTD (Cl osed 1 982)
AMOS C. MARTIN LTD
5- PARKHILL PLANT
6-WALLENSTEIN PLANT
7- MEAFORD TILE LTD (Cl osed 1 985)
8- NORWICH BRICK 8 TILE YARD
9- PAISLEY BRICK 8 TILE CO LTD
1 0- RY D ALL BRICK 8 TILE LTD (Cl osed 1 982)
Figure 5.2 Ontario drain tile producers, active in 1981- 1985.
cession III, Bosa nquet Township, La mbton C ounty.
Descriptions of ea rlier opera tions a re g iven by
Ba k er, 1 K eele,6 M ontg omery,7 a nd Guillet.3
The soft Ark ona sha le wa s occa siona lly work ed
over in the pit toexpose it tothe benefits of na tura l
wea thering before feeding it to a Pa rk hill pug
feeder. Ba rium ca rbona te wa s a dded for scum con
trol a nd the cla y strea m wa s conveyed tothe pla nt
a nd discha rg ed throug h a Steele rolls disinteg ra tor
toa Pa rk hill pug mill. A Steele smooth-fa ced roll
crusher preceded a n F-R -H Hummer extruder.
Tiles were sta ck edin three tiers on ra il ca rs a nd
subjectedtona tura l drying on 58 shed-covereddry
ing tra ck s, ea ch tra ck holding 24 ca rs of 96 tiles.
Burning wa s a ccomplishedin four beehive k ilns, two
wood-fired a nd twooil-fired. Ea ch ha d ca pa cities
of 1 6,000 to20,000 tiles.
With a n a nnua l ca pa city of 2 million tiles, pro
duction in recent yea rs ha d declined tojust over l
million.
DRESDEN TILE YARD (1 981 ) LIMITED
Since 1 907 dra ina g e tile ha d been ma de in Dres
den, Onta rio. However, in spite of numerous inno
va tions a ndmoderniza tions over the yea rs, the com
pa ny a nnounced its closure in September 1 985 be
ca use of poor sa les. The pla nt is loca ted 1 .5 k m
north of Dresden on the ea st side of Hig hwa y 21 . It
wa s purcha sedby D. J. M cC a ug hrin in 1 946, a ndin
recent yea rs wa s ma na g ed by his son.
The pla nt ha s a n a djoining cla y pit with a 2 m
section of silty cla y, somewha t lea ched of lime in its
top 0.5 m, a s the principa l cla y source. This cla y
burns toa uniform, fa irly dense a nd ha rd sa lmon-
red body of g ood qua lity. The opera tion is loca ted
in lots 7 a nd 8, concession V Gore, C a mden Town
ship, K ent C ounty. Descriptions of ea rlier opera
tions a re g iven by M ontg omery7 a nd Guillet.3
In recent yea rs tiles were produced in 4, 5 6
a nd 8 inch (1 0, 1 2, 1 5 a nd 20 cm) dia meters by
extrusion using a Steele 40 a ug er ma chine. In 1 967
the compa ny insta lled a Ha rrop tunnel dryer a nd
tunnel k iln, the first a ndonly such insta lla tion in the
62
history of Onta rio dra ina g e tile. Both were g a s-
fired, the dryer holding 21 ca rs conta ining 540
(4-inch) tiles per ca r. C a rs moved directly from
dryer tok iln, one every 40 minutes a t ma ximum
ca pa city. The pla nt wa s ca pa ble of a n a nnua l ca pa c
ity of 7.5 million tiles, norma l production being 20
to25 ca rs per da y, 1 50 per week .
In 1 967 the compa ny produced 5.5 million tiles
(in 4-inch equiva lents) a nd wa s a nticipa ting in
crea sed a nnua l sa les. In 1 975 the four orig ina l bee
hive k ilns were in use a s well a s the tunnel k iln, but
by 1 981 the tunnel k iln a lone wa s a dequa te for the
reduceddema nd. In 1 983 a bout 2 million tiles were
produced in a slug g ish ma rk et, a nd the following
yea r 1 0-inch tile a nd wine bottle ra ck s were a dded
toproduction. Tile ma k ing in 1 985 wa s restrictedto
M a y throug h Aug ust when a little more tha n l mil
lion tiles were produced, including a new
3-1 /2-inch tile. When less tha n ha lf of these ha d
been sold by October, the compa ny a nnounced its
perma nent closing . About 25 people ha d been em
ployed during the production period, including the
compa ny's own truck ers for tile deliveries.
FLETCHER TILE LIMITED
This pla nt, built in 1 91 2, ha s been owned by R . C .
C ook since 1 964 but ha s not produced cla y tiles
since 1 981 . Loca ted a t Fletcher, the pla nt a nd its
a djoining cla y pit is in lot l, concession VIII, Til
bury Ea st Township, K ent C ounty.
Fletcher Tile now produces concrete tiles exclu
sively, in sizes g rea ter tha n 8 inches. However, prior
to closing its cla y pla nt, it experimented with the
production of 3-inch (7.5 cm) tiles for soil steriliza
tion in g reenhouses, a lsowith hexa g ona l a ndribbed
tiles, a nd with wine ra ck s.
The cla y pit a t Fletcher wa s extensive but sha l
low. Typica l of much of Essex a ndK ent C ounties, a
thin stoneless la yer a bove a silty g rey till wa s the
result of wa ve a ction in a post-g la cia l la k e. C la y for
tile ma k ing wa s exca va ted toa depth of l m, the
thick ness of the stone-free zone. It wa s rela tively
low in lime content, a ndburnedtoa ha rdredbody
of g ood qua lity a t a modera te tempera ture.
Descriptions of previous opera tions of the pla nt
a ndof the cla y a re g iven by M ontg omery7 a ndGuil
let.3
D. A. JANES AND SON LIMITED
Loca ted on the north side of Hig hwa y 2, 3 k m west
of Dela wa re a nd a bout 20 k m west of London, this
pla nt ha s not produced dra ina g e tiles since 1 982,
but is ca pa ble of renewed production if the ma rk et
improves. A thick section of buff-firing ca lca reous
cla y is a va ila ble in a n a djoining pit. The compa ny
ha s diversifiedintosa les for pla stic pipe, coa l, wood
a ndma ple syrup. The cla y tile equipment is old but
in g ood condition. Burning is a ccomplished in two
round g a s-fired downdra ft k ilns. About 500,000
tiles could be produced with a work force of ten
during a n 8-month sea son.
Descriptions of tile ma k ing a t this site a re g iven
by Ba k er, 1 M ontg omery7 a nd Guillet.3
AMOS C. MARTIN LIMITED
Amos C . M a rtin Limited opera tes twotile pla nts, a t
Wa llenstein a nd Pa rk hill. The M a rtin fa mily a c
quired the Wa llenstein pla nt in 1 91 9 a nd built the
Pa rk hill pla nt in 1 962. In 1 985 the compa ny intro
duced a 3-1 /2-inch tile, a nd this is the principa l
product of both pla nts.
Wallenstein
The Wa llenstein pla nt is in lot 20, concession I,
Peel Township, Welling ton C ounty, 6 k m west of
Elmira . Tiles ha ve been ma de on this site since
1 888. Descriptions of ea rlier opera tions a re g iven by
M ontg omery7 a nd Guillet.3
Althoug h a surfa ce cla y from a pit nea r the
pla nt wa s used for ma ny yea rs, Queenston Sha le
from the Town of Ha lton Hills is now used exclu
sively. The qua rry is work ed on a slope using a bull
dozer a nd ripper to expose the sha le to na tura l
wea thering . C hemica l composition of the top 2.3 m
of soft lea chedsha le a ndlower 2 m of ha rder sha le,
a s exposed in 1 982, is g iven in Ta ble 5.6. Sha le is
truck ed tothe Wa llenstein pla nt a s required.
TABLE 5.6 QUEENSTON SHALE, GEORGETOWN
QUARRY, AMOS C. MARTIN LIMITED. (2)
SIO2
AI20 3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
Na2O
K 20
Top 2.3 m
Leached Shale
(percent)
55.4
16.0
7 .50
4.36
3.50
0 .21
4.86
Lower 2 m
Hard Shale
(percent)
50 .1
15.0
6.96
7 .85
4.21
0 .20
4.65
Analysis by X - Ray Assay Laboratories Ltd.
At the pla nt, sha le is brok en in a Pa rk hill dou
ble-toothed roll disinteg ra tor a nd further g round in
a J. C . Steele smooth rolls crusher. Oversize from
dry screening is recircula ted tothe rolls crusher.
The tile strea m is extruded by a n F-R -H Plymouth
Junior a ug er ma chine a nd is cut by a Plymouth cut
ter a ndpa lletized for delivery todryers by fork lift.
Photo 5.3 Automatic
cutting of drainage
tile. Photo courtesy
Amos C. Martin Ltd.
Three wa ste-hea t room dryers ha ve a tota l ca
pa city of 1 00,000 tiles. Drying time is on a 4-da y
cycle toa pea k tempera ture of 950C . Burning is a c
complished in a g a s-fired shuttle k iln with a ca pa c
ity of 20,000 tiles. Burning cycle is 24 hours toa
pea k tempera ture of 9800C . Norma l production is
1 00,000 per week of dense red perfora ted tiles.
About 5 million tiles a re produced a nnua lly in
3-1 /2-inch to 1 0-inch dia meter sizes (9-25 cm).
Forty people a re employed yea r round.
Par khi l l
The Pa rk hill pla nt wa s built in 1 962 on the site of
the former H. C . Ba ird soft mud brick pla nt. Orig i
na lly using surfa ce cla ys from the vicinity of the
pla nt, Ark ona Sha le from Hung ry Hollow is now
used exclusively. The pla nt is loca ted in lot 7, con
cession XX, West Willia ms Township, M iddlesex
C ounty. The ea rly Ba ird pla nt is described by
Ba k er1 a nd M ontg omery,7 a nd a n ea rlier descrip
tion of the M a rtin pla nt is g iven by Guillet.3 A
qua rry on the south ba nk of the Ausa ble R iver (i.e.
South Pit) in lot 22, concession VII, West Willia ms
Township wa s opened in 1 968. A second qua rry
(i.e. North Pit) in lots 22 a nd 23, concession IX,
wa s a cquired from the former Pa rk hill Brick C om
pa ny in 1 979.
The soft Ark ona Sha le is fed throug h a toothed
roll which expels occa siona l limestone fra g ments be
fore pa ssing throug h a n F-R -H smooth double-roll
crusher. A Pa rk hill sing le-sha ft pug mill precedes
the F-R -H Plymouth Specia l extruder, a nd the tile
strea m is cut by a n F-R -H wire-cutter (Photo5.3).
There a re three wa ste-hea t room dryers, ea ch
with a ca pa city of 30,000 tiles. Drying time is 3 or 4
da ys. One beehive k iln, 8 m in dia meter, is now
seldom used. Instea d, a sing le periodic box k iln
(Photo 5.4) of the compa ny's own desig n holds
32,000 tiles a nd is fired toa pea k tempera ture of
1 01 00C ona production cycle tha t a vera g es twok iln
loa ds per week . Previously on oil, the pla nt wa s
scheduled to be converted to g a s in September
1 985.
Twenty people a re employed yea r round for a n
a nnua l production of 3.2 million tiles in 3-1 /2 to
1 0-inch (9 to 25 cm) dia meters, 90 percent of
which a re perfora ted for improved soil dra ina g e.
MEAFORD TILE LIMITED
In 1 972, C ontinenta l Brick a nd Tile Limited a ba n
doned its Sha llow La k e fa cility nea r Owen Sound
a nd constructed a new pla nt nea r M ea ford on lot
1 2, concession HI, St. Vincent Township, Grey
C ounty. Twopa rts of Queenston Sha le from Owen
Sound were mixed with one pa rt Georg ia n Ba y
Sha le from a qua rry nea r the pla nt. In 1 974 the
property wa s a cquired by N.S. Ba uma n of Wa l-
lenstein a ndthe na me wa s cha ng edtoM ea fordTile
Limited. The pla nt wa s closed in 1 985 beca use of
wea k dema nd for cla y tiles a nd unfa voura ble re
sea rch intothe possibility of producing roofing tiles.
After 1 974, dra ina g e tiles were ma de exclu
sively from loca l g rey sha le obta ined from a qua rry
64
Clay Si. Shale Industries of Ontario
a dja cent tothe pla nt. Here, a 1 0 m section of Geor
g ia n Ba y Sha le wa s exposed, comprising the lower
pa rt of the Humber M ember. The sha le wa s truck ed
tocovered stora g e a t the pla nt, crushedto1 6 mesh
a nd conveyed tosilo stora g e. The tile strea m wa s
extruded a nd wire-cut. Tiles were dried for 2 da ys
in a room hea ted by wa ste hea t. Firing wa s a ccom
plished in a g a s-fired shuttle k iln toa pea k tem
pera ture of 9800C .
Typica l a nnua l production wa s l to 2 million
using a work force of six for a n 8-month sea son.
NORWICH BRICK AND TILE YARD (1 979)
A tile ya rd 3 k m northwest of Norwich ha s been in
opera tion for more tha n a century, a nd ha s been
owned by Dorothy a nd Henry K leen since 1 979.
The cla y pit a ndpla nt a re in lots 1 2 a nd 1 3, conces
sion III, North Norwich Township, Oxford C ounty.
Descriptions of ea rlier opera tions a re g iven by
Ba k er, 1 M ontg omery7 a nd Guillet.3
La mina ted cla y a nd silt deposited from ponded
wa ters during retrea t of the Port Sta nley Ice is exca
va ted toa depth of 3 m in a pit a djoining the pla nt.
It is fed intoa Pa rk hill pug feeder followed by a
double conica l rolls crusher a nd a nother Pa rk hill
pug mill. Tiles a re extruded by a Brewer a ug er ma
chine a nd a re cut by a n F-R -H cutter.
Photo 5.4 Box kiln. Photo courtesy
Amos C. Martin Ltd.
There a re eig ht open-a ir drying sheds ha ving a
tota l drying ca pa city of 90,000 tiles. Avera g e drying
time is 7 to 1 0 da ys. Twobeehive k ilns of 8 m di
a meter hold22,000 tiles ea ch. They a re g a s-firedto
a pea k tempera ture of 1 0000C on a 4-da y burn cy
cle, twoda ys "stea ming " a nd twoda ys "burning ".
Turnover cycle for the k ilns is a bout 8 da ys, g iving a
production of 35,000 tiles per week . Annua l pro
duction in recent yea rs ha s been a bout 700,000 tiles
in 4 to8-inch sizes (1 0-20 cm).
PAISLEY BRICK AND TILE CO. LTD.
Esta blished a s a producer of brick s in 1 860, dra in
a g e tile ha s been the only product of Pa isley Brick
a nd Tile for ma ny yea rs. The pla nt wa s purcha sed
by J. M . Seiler in 1 948 a ndis ma na g edtoda y by his
son, J. Doug la s Seiler. The pla nt is loca ted on the
north side of the Sa ug een R iver nea r the ea stern
limits of Pa isley in lot 1 2, concession B, Elderslie
Township, Bruce C ounty. Descriptions of ea rlier op
era tions a re g iven by Ba k er, 1 M ontg omery7 a nd
Guillet.3
C la y is obta ined from a n a djoining pit a nd
stock piled in covered stora g e. It is fed tothe pla nt
throug h a pug feeder, a smooth rolls crusher a nd a
Pa rk hill pug mill before extrusion in a n America n
C la y M a chinery a ug er extruder. Tiles a re cut from
the extruded cla y column by a n F-R -H cutter.
Drying is a ccomplished in wa ste-hea t room dry
ers. A sing le a utoma tic oil-fired periodic k iln oper
a tes on a 4-da y cycle, a nd a beehive k iln provides
extra ca pa city when needed. Ga s is not a va ila ble.
Annua l production is norma lly a bout 1 .2 million
crea m-coloured tiles.
RYDALL BRICK AND TILE LIMITED
This pla nt wa s loca ted a t Elg infield, 20 k m north of
London a t the junction of Hig hwa ys 7 a nd 4, in lot
1 7, concession XVI, London Township, M iddlesex
C ounty. It wa s closed in 1 982 a nd its equipment
sold a t a uction. Descriptions of its opera tions a re
g iven by M ontg omery7 a nd Guillet.3
Orig ina lly ba sed solely on buff-firing cla y from
a pit behind the pla nt, in recent yea rs the cla y wa s
mixed with Queenston Sha le toimprove the qua lity
of the product. By itself, the loca l cla y produced a
ra ther soft, porous body on firing beca use of its hig h
ca rbona te content. M a k ing use of this fea ture, the
compa ny experimentedwith a crushed firedproduct
of hig h porosity for k itty litter, but it proved hea vy
a nd dusty compa red toesta blished products ma de
from Fuller's Ea rth. Other products eva lua ted were
sewer pipe, roofing tile a nd floor tile, but even with
the a ddition of one-third Queenston Sha le, porosi
ties were toohig h for these uses.
The pla nt wa s ca pa ble of producing 2 to3 mil
lion tiles a nnua lly with a work force of 22.
REFERENCES
Onta rioBurea uM ines, Vol. XV, pt. 2, 1 906.
2. Guillet, G. R . "M inera l R esources of South-C entra l On
ta rio", Onta rioGeol. Survey, OFR 5431 , 1 983.
Onta rioDept. M ines, IM R 22, 1 967.
4. Hope, H. "C la y Tile Still R ules in Grea t Brita in", Ag ri-
Book M a g a zine, Vol. 4, No. l, p. 1 7, 1 978.
5. Hore, F. R . "A Survey Of Ag ricultura l Dra in Tile in
Onta rio Qua lity a ndSpecifica tions", Onta rioAg ricul
tura l C olleg e, University of Guelph, Project No. A.
Eng . 49, 1 959.
1 42, 1 924.
7. M ontg omery, R . J. "The C era mic Industry of Onta rio",
Onta rioDept. M ines, Vol. XXXIX, pt. 4, 1 930.
8. R obbins, J. "U.K . Structura l C la y Products Building
on Firmer Ground", Industria l M inera ls M a g a zine, No.
1 96, p. 1 9-35, Ja n. 1 984.
9. Spencer, U. I. D. "Sta tistica l R eport - Study of M a nu
fa cturers", Onta rioDept. Ag ricul
ture Food, 1 968.
1 0. Wa tson, H. "A Survey of C la y Tile Producers",
Onta rioM inistry of Na tura l R esources,
Southwestern R eg ion, 1 983.
1 1 . Wea therson, G. L. "Onta rioM inera l Score", Onta rio
M inistry of Na tura l R esources, VideoC ensus Series No.
l toNo. 5 incl., 1 981 -1 985.
1 2. Woodfine, J. M . "Adva nces in the M a nufa cture of C e
ra mic Pipe for C a ble Duct a nd Sewer Systems", Inter-
cera m, No. 3, 1 983.
66
Chapt er 6 Sewer Pi pe an d Fl ue Li n er
INTRODUCTION
Sewer pipe production in Onta rioha s been la rg ely
a ssocia ted with a sing le compa ny since the indus
try's beg inning s in the la st century. The Toronto
a nd Ha milton Sewer Pipe C ompa ny wa s esta blished
by the New fa mily in Ha milton a bout 1 860. In
1 928 it wa s merg ed with three others toform the
Na tiona l Sewer Pipe C ompa ny Limited under
R yla nd New a s president. Those three other com
pa nies were: the Onta rio Sewer Pipe a nd C la y
Products C ompa ny, sta rted a t M imicoin 1 892; the
Dominion Sewer Pipe C ompa ny, sta rted a t Alder-
shot (Burling ton) in 1 904; a nd the Dominion
Sewer Pipe C ompa ny, sta rted a t Swa nsea in 1 905.6
Toda y (1 985), K elly New, R yla nd's son, is
president of Na tiona l Sewer Pipe Limited. Only the
compa ny's subsidia ry, C a na da Vitrified Products,
esta blished in St. Thoma s in 1 934, continues toop
era te in Onta rio, producing cla y flue liners a ndpla s
tic dra ina g e tubing , but only minor cla y sewer pipe.
The compa ny's ma in production fa cility for cla y
pipe wa s in C la rk son, built in 1 957 torepla ce the
Swa nsea pla nt; production cea sed, however, in
1 981 . The pla nts in Aldershot a nd M imicoha d
been previously closed. The Ha milton pla nt wa s
converted tobrick ma k ing in 1 963, a nd wa s closed
in the la te 1 970s.
The ea rly sewer pipe industry in Onta riowa s
founded on two sma ll deposits of red pla stic cla y
loca ted a t Aldershot (Burling ton) a nd west Ha mil
ton. These cla ys were a lmost stonewa re qua lity,
a nd they owed their va lue toa n orig in restricted to
nea rby terra ces of eroding Queenston Sha le on the
lower fla nk s of the Nia g a ra Esca rpment. In both
ca ses the cla y beds were less tha n 400 m wide, 5 k m
long a nd g enera lly less tha n 2 m thick . A low lime
content, resulting from the lea ching a nd wea thering
of red Queenston Sha le, wa s the principa l rea son
for its superior qua lity. R emna nts of the Ha milton
deposit ha ve long since been lost tourba niza tion;
the Aldershot deposit toHig hwa y 403.4
Na tiona l Sewer Pipe Limited still owns impor
ta nt reserves of Queenston Sha le on the ea st side of
K ing R oa d north of Hig hwa y 403 in Burling ton.
While under consta nt threa t of sa le or expropria tion
for municipa l la ndfill purposes, these la nds a re a n
essentia l source of sha le for the compa ny's St.
Photo 6.1 Flue liner
extrusion at Canada
Vitrified Products Ltd.,
St. Thomas. Photo
courtesy B.H. Feenstra.
A
Thoma s subsidia ry. Alsodependent on it a re Ha l-
ton C era mics Limited, the only C a na dia n producer
of cla y flowerpots a nd filtra tion tiles, a nd Ha milton
Brick Limited. The sha le section exposed in these
qua rries is unusua lly fa voura ble for vitrified cla y
products beca use of a lower lime content tha n is a v
era g e for the Queenston Forma tion.3 It is impor
ta nt, therefore, topreserve a t lea st some of these
la nds for the industries dependent on the sha le.
Ea rlier descriptions of the sewer pipe industry in
Onta rio a re g iven by Ba k er,2 M ontg omery6 a nd
Guillet.3 The Ha milton a nd Aldershot cla ys on
which the industry wa s founded a re described by
K eele5 a nd Guillet.4
TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMICS
The cla y requirements for sewer pipe a re more
string ent tha n those for most other hea vy cla y prod
ucts. Sewer pipe cla ys must be pla stic a nd toug h,
ha ve a hig h g reen a nd dry streng th, a nd vitrify toa
strong dense body of low permea bility. A long vitri
fica tion ra ng e a nd a hig h resista nce towa rping is
desira ble. Sma ll deposits of redsurfa ce cla y derived
from wea thered Queenston Sha le a t Aldershot
(Burling ton) a nd Ha milton were the only suita ble
sewer pipe cla ys in southern Onta rio, a nd these
RAW MATERI AL
-LOCAL CLAYS
AND SHALES
WEATHERI NG
MAKE-UP
WATER
OVERSIZE
SHUTTLE KILN -
PERIODIC KILN -
STORAGE
ha ve long since been depleted or lost tourba niza
tion. Their principa l a sset wa s a low lime content,
the result of lea ching during erosion a ndtra nsporta
tion from a nea rby source of Queenston Sha le.
In spite of the fa voura ble qua lity of these cla ys,
g la zing of sewer pipes wa s necessa ry tolower perme
a bility throug h the wa lls. Indeed, this wa s common
pra ctice in ma ny pa rts of the world, due ma inly to
the uneven firing cha ra cteristics of existing k iln
technolog y.
Sa lt g la zing wa s sta nda rd in the industry from
ea rly times, a nd wa s a ccomplished by throwing
shovelfuls of rock sa lt ontothe coa l or wood fires
nea r the end of the burning cycle in the beehive
periodic k ilns then commonly used. For a few yea rs
subsequently a cera mic g la ze repla cedthe sa lt g la ze,
but by the ea rly 1 960s nog la ze wa s a pplied a t a ll.
Improved k iln desig n a nd firing technolog y ha d re
sulted in g rea ter vitrifica tion a nd hence denser,
strong er a nd less permea ble cla y bodies.
Adva ncedsewer pipe technolog y fortuna tely co
incided with the fina l depletion of the red sewer
pipe cla ys a t Aldershot, ma k ing it possible touse the
more limey a nd less pla stic Queenston Sha le mixed
RAW MATERIAL
-LOCAL CLAYS
AND SHALES
WEATHERING
OVERSIZE
H20
16 to 19 0Xo
SHUTTLE KILN
PERIODIC KILN
Figure 6.1 Process flow chart for sewer pipe
and filter tile production.
STORAGE
Figure 6.2 Process flow chart for flue pipe
production.
68
TABLE 6.1 TECHNOLOGICAL IMPROVEMENTS IN HEPWORTH SEWER PIPE. (7)
Pr e-1 960 1 960-1 980 Post 1 982
Firing Time
Strength (MPa)
Energy Consumption
(kWh per metre of pipe)
7 days
15
50
2 days
25
25
1 hour
50
10
TABLE 6.2 STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR SEWER PIPE.(1 )
Mi n i mum Cr ushi n g St r en gt h (3-Edge Bear i n g St r en gt h)
Nomi n al
Si ze, i n .
3
4
6
8
1 0
1 2
1 5
1 8
2 1
24
27
30
3 3
36
3 9
42
Ext r a St r en gt h
Vi t r i f i ed Cl ay Pi pe
St an dar d St r en gt h
Vi t r i f i ed Cl ay Pi pe
Per f or at ed Vi t r i f i ed Cl ay Pi pe
Ext r a St r en gt h St an dar d St r en gt h
Ibf/linear
ft
20 0 0
20 0 0
20 0 0
220 0
240 0
260 0
290 0
330 0
3850
440 0
47 0 0
50 0 0
550 0
60 0 0
660 0
7 0 0 0
kN/linear
m
29.2
29.2
29.2
32.1
35.0
37 .9
42.3
48.2
56.2
64.2
68.6
7 3.0
80 .3
87 .6
96.3
10 2.2
Ibf/linear
ft
120 0
120 0
140 0
160 0
180 0
20 0 0
220 0
240 0
260 0
280 0
330 0
360 0
40 0 0
-
-
kN/linear
m
17 .5
17 .5
20 .4
23.4
26.3
29.2
32.1
35.0
37 .9
40 .9
48.2
52.5
58.4
-
-
Ibf/linear
ft
1250
160 0
160 0
160 0
180 0
220 0
2640
310 0
3520
-
-
-
-
-
-
kN/linear
m
18.2
23.4
23.4
23.4
26.3
32.1
38.5
45.2
51.4
-
-
-
-
-
-
Ibf/linear
ft
10 0 0
10 0 0
10 0 0
110 0
120 0
140 0
17 0 0
20 0 0
240 0
-
-
-
-
-
-
kN/linear
m
14.6
14.6
14.6
16.1
17 .5
20 .4
24.8
29.2
35.0
-
-
-
-
-
-
with imported firecla y. New extrusion ma chines,
incorpora ting hig h pressure a nd de-a iring fea tures,
did not require such pla stic cla ys a s before. The
introduction of g a s-fired tunnel k ilns a nd improved
periodic k ilns g a ve better tempera ture control a nd
more uniform hea t distribution in the firing process.
Flow cha rts for production of sewer pipe/filter
tiles a nd flue liners a re g iven in Fig ures 6.1 a nd 6.2.
The ma rk et for vitrified cla y sewer pipe ha s a ll
but been lost topla stic a nd concrete pipe producers
worldwide. However, throug h innova tive tech
niques, one compa ny in the United K ing dom ha s
successfully reversed tha t trend. Hepworth Iron
C ompa ny (Holding s) Ltd., a subsidia ry of Hepworth
C era mic Holding s PLC , is by fa r the la rg est pro
ducer of vitrifiedcla y pipe, consuming a bout 1 0,000
tonnes of cla y per week a t its twopla nts, a nd filling
nea rly 90 percent of the U.K . ma rk et for cla y pipe.
Pipes a re producedin dia meters from 4 inches to40
inches (1 0-1 00 cm) using ca refully ba tched ra w
ma teria ls, conventiona l tunnel k ilns a nd a new a d
va nced roller k iln.7
The roller k iln is much shorter tha n the conven
tiona l tunnel k iln. Pipes a re rolled horizonta lly
throug h it a nd individua lly fired a t eleva ted tem
pera tures for only l hour. Such ra pid firing ha s
required finer milling of the cla y a nd computerized
blending , plus pre-ca lcina tion tominimize the con
tent of vola tile impurities. The result ha s been
g rea tly improved fuel efficiency a nd pipes of supe
rior qua lity (Ta ble 6.1 ).
Beca use of g rea tly improved streng th, it ha s be
come possible toreduce the thick ness of the pipe
wa ll, thereby reducing ra w ma teria l a nd energ y con
sumption a nd weig ht of the finished pipe. Severa l
innova tive pipe-joining systems using polypropylene
coupling s ha ve resulted in cla y pipes being chea per
toinsta ll tha n pla stic pipes which must be embed
ded in a g ra nula r cushion toprevent puncturing .
C la y pipes now comprise a bout 80 percent of the
tota l sewer pipe ma rk et in the U.K . Pla stic a nd
concrete pipes ha ve hig her energ y requirements in
their ma nufa cturing , while the superior a cid resis
ta nce of cla y pipe g ives it a further a dva nta g e in cor
rosive environments.7
69
SPECIFICATIONS
A published specifica tion for sta nda rd streng th
sewer pipe is ASTM C 7001 . The specifica tions a re
reproduced in Ta ble 6.2.
Unlik e dra ina g e tile where product specifica
tions a re much less string ent a nd ra rely enforced,
sewer pipes must conform toa rig id set of specifica
tions a nd require superior ra w ma teria ls a nd ca re
fully controlled ma nufa cture. Principa l concerns
a re streng th, wa ter a bsorption, a cid resista nce a nd
tolera nce limits for desig na ted pipe sizes.
While dra ina g e tile is delibera tely porous, sewer
pipes must be wa ter-tig ht. M a ximum wa ter a bsorp
tion throug h the wa lls is 8 percent, a nd pla stic or
rubber coupling s a re now sta nda rd jointing ma teri
a ls.
Sta tistics a re sca rce for sewer pipe production in
pla stic a nd concrete, but a re well documented for
cla y. Ta ble 6.3, from the Onta rioM inera l Score
1 981 -1 984,8 indica tes tha t the production of cla y
sewer pipe rea ched a pea k of a bout 1 .5 million
metres in 1 976-1 977, then ra pidly declined. Al
thoug h concrete pipes were being produced in the
la te 1 960s, the a dvent of chea per pla stic pipes in
the 1 970s wa s the principa l rea son for the decline in
cla y pipe usa g e.
TABLE 6.3 CLAY SEWER PIPE PRODUCTION IN
ONTARIO. (8)
1 984
1 983
1 982
1 981 '
1 980
1 979
1 978
1 977
1 976
1 975
Vol ume
(met r es)
52,093
64,286
1 3,247
5,376
407,399
822,589
1 ,31 6,285
1 ,529,652
1 ,582,621
1 ,090,81 8
Val ue
(dol l ar s)
399,600
331 ,071
37,805
23,439
1 ,777,691
3,481 ,432
4,31 4,289
4,767,61 6
4,41 3,478
2,505,256
National Sewer Pipe's Clarkson plant closed.
Since the closing of Na tiona l Sewer Pipe's
C la rk son pla nt in 1 981 , minor production of cla y
sewer pipe ha s commenced in the St. Thoma s pla nt
of C a na da Vitrified Products Limited, but it is not
expected tobecome a substa ntia l product line for
the compa ny beca use of wea k sa les.
The a nnua l Onta rioma rk et for sewer pipe is
proba bly in the ra ng e of 1 .5 to 2 million metres,
mostly pla stic but with substa ntia l concrete pipe in
the la rg er dia meters. Less tha n 5 percent of this
ma rk et is currently served by cla y pipe. Annua l
production of cla y sewer pipe is only 500 to1 ,000
tonnes, compa red with more tha n 600,000 tonnes
in the U.K . where cla y pipe predomina tes la rg ely a s
the result of new cost-sa ving technolog y.
CANADA VITRIFIED PRODUCTS LIMITED
C a na da Vitrified Products is the only rema ining Na
tiona l Sewer Pipe cla y ma nufa cturing fa cility in On
ta rio. It produces ma inly flue lining , with minor
sewer pipe a t 60 Burwell R oa d in St. Thoma s, but it
a lsoproduces pla stic dra ina g e tubing in dia meters of
4 a nd 6 inches (1 0 a nd 1 5 cm). The compa ny em
ploys a bout 24 people in the production of their cla y
wa re. Na tiona l Sewer Pipe a lsoha s a pla nt on the
south shore of the St. La wrence R iver, ea st of
M ontrea l, where flue liners, hollow block a nd pla s
tic pipe a re ma nufa ctured la rg ely for export tothe
U.S.A.
The St. Thoma s pla nt wa s openedin 1 934, spe
cifica lly tota k e a dva nta g e of inexpensive boa t ship
ments of Pennsylva nia cla ys throug h nea rby Port
Sta nley on La k e Erie. It subsequently obta ined
both firecla y a nd sha le from Ohioby ra il, a ndmore
recently mixed these with red Aldershot cla y which
wa s truck ed from Burling ton, Onta rio. In 1 985 the
ma in ra w ma teria ls were red Queenston Sha le from
the compa ny's Burling ton qua rries a nd Devonia n
sha le of the M a chia s Forma tion from Alfred, New
Y ork , both received by truck . M a chia s Sha le is of
firecla y qua lity (Ta ble 6.4). However, the compa ny
wa s experimenting with the use of Ark ona Sha le
from the Amos C . M a rtin qua rry nea r Ark ona , in
stea d of the more costly Alfred ma teria l.
The compa ny is doing a brisk business in flue
liners, its ma jor ma rk et a t present, but some cla y
sewer pipe is still produced. Flue liners a re ma de
from a mixture of 90 percent Queenston Sha le a nd
1 0 percent Alfred Sha le. Queenston Sha le a lone is
too ea sily chipped during ha ndling in either the
g reen or fired sta te. R ecent tests seem toconfirm
tha t Ark ona Sha le is equa lly a s effective a s Alfred
Sha le in reducing this problem. Flue liners a re ma de
in va rious sizes from 8 to24 inches squa re (20-60
cm). Specifica tions for cla y flue liner a re g iven in
the ASTM sta nda rd C 31 5-78C , which deta ils the
sta nda rd dimensions a nd a ccepta ble tolera nces.
Sewer pipes a re ma de from a mixture of 60 per
cent Queenston Sha le, 35 percent Alfred Sha le a nd
5 percent Ama bel Dolostone from Nelson Ag g reg a te
C o. in Burling ton. The sma ll a ddition of dolostone
ha s been found effective in reducing wa ter a bsorp-
70
4
tion in the firedproduct. Sewer pipes a re produced
in 4 to1 2 inch (1 0-30 cm) dia meters a ndin 4 a nd
5 foot leng ths (1 20 a nd 1 50 cm).
TABLE 6.4 MACHIAS SHALE, ALFRED, NEW YORK .
Chemical Composition
Si0 2
AI20 3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
Na2O
K 20
TIO2
CO2
Ignition Loss
58,
18,
7 .7 5
0 .59
1.80
0 .52
4.26
1 .00
0.5
6.0
99.6
Mineral Composition CK)
Quartz 40
Calcite nil
Dolomite nil
Feldspar ^
Hematite 1
Clay Minerals
Illite 35
Chlorite 25
Source: Ontario Research Foundation
R a w ma teria ls a re recla imed from covered stor
a g e by front endloa der a ndfedin the ba tch propor
tions totwodrypa ns for g rinding . Discha rg e from
ea ch drypa n is collected in sepa ra te steel stora g e
bins, one for flue lining a ndone for sewer pipe pro
duction.
M ost products a re produced by two F-R -H
Junior double-sha ft pug g ing a ndde-a iring a ug er ex
truders (Photo 6.1 ), but a Bra dley a nd C ra ven
a ug er press is used for sma ll fitting s. The g reen
wa re a re a utoma tica lly loa ded on pa llets a nd tra ns
ferredtodrying rooms by fork lift. Three room dry
ers, 1 4 m by 24 m, dry the g reen product using
wa ste hea t from the k ilns a ug mented by g a s.
Firing is a ccomplished in twonew round peri
odic k ilns a ndone recta ng ula r shuttle k iln; a lsotwo
older rounddowndra ft k ilns a re usedwhen needed.
The twonew roundperiodic k ilns a re the most effi
cient, ea ch holding 75 tonnes of g reen wa re a ndre
quiring 32 hours burning toa pea k tempera ture of
1 0700C . These k ilns ea ch fea ture ten burners a t the
top, the hea t being dra wn down by a fa n in the ex
ha ust sta ck . The shuttle k iln holds 41 tonnes of
wa re a nd is fired throug h 36 burners in a burning
cycle of 35 hours. The older k ilns a re 9 m in di
a meter; ea ch is equipped with 1 0 g a s burners.
R ubber coupling s a nd other a ccessories for
sewer pipe a re a lsoma de a t the St. Thoma s pla nt.
COMPETING MATERIALS
Lik e dra ina g e tile, cla y sewer pipe ha s sig nifica nt
competition from pla stic in the sma ller dia meters,
a nd concrete pipes in dia meters g rea ter tha n 1 2
inches (30 cm). Pla stic pipes cost a pproxima tely
the sa me toproduce, but the ca pita l investment is
much sma ller a nd there a re sa ving s in ha ndling be
ca use of the lig hter weig ht of the pla stic pipes.
C a na da Vitrified Products still ma nufa ctures a
sma ll a mount of cla y sewer pipe a t its St. Thoma s
pla nt, but it is only a minor product, a pproxima tely
500 to 1 ,000 tonnes of pipe a nnua lly. Its ma jor
products a re cla y flue liners a nd pla stic dra ina g e
tubing . In spite of a strong dema nd, the compa ny
elected not toproduce pla stic sewer pipes itself be
ca use of the ra pid emerg ence of a number of new
suppliers. At one time, however, its pa rent com
pa ny, Na tiona l Sewer Pipe, did produce concrete
sewer pipes a t a nother site in Onta rio.
La rg e concrete sewer pipes ca n be ma de a t sub
sta ntia l sa ving s, a pproa ching 50 percent the cost of
equiva lent cla y pipes. In fa ct concrete pipes ha ve
controlled the ma rk et in the la rg er sizes for some
yea rs now except where exposure to corrosive
chemica ls, a s in some industria l a pplica tions, ma y
require the superior resista nce of cla y pipe. How
ever, pla stic pipes a re threa tening the ma rk et for
concrete pipes a lso, beca use of on-site sa ving s in
ha ndling a nd insta lla tion.
Pla stic sewer pipes a re ma de from thermopla stic
polyvinyl chloride (PVC ) in dia meters g enera lly 6 to
1 2 inches (1 5-30 cm) a nd in leng ths to20 or 30
feet (6-9 m). They a re typica lly smooth-wa lled
rig id pipes tha t a re lig ht in weig ht a nd sufficiently
strong toprovide ea sy ha ndling a nd rela tively inex
pensive insta lla tion.
Wherea s the cost of cla y a nd pla stic pipes ma y
be simila r, cla y pipes represent a much more ca pi
ta l-intensive industry. R a w ma teria l costs for cla y
pipe represent only 1 0 percent of the finishedprod
uct price, while feedstock for pla stic pipes is a p
proxima tely 80 percent of overa ll cost.
However, in the United K ing dom there is a
trendtowa rds tra ditiona l cla y products, due both to
a esthetics (in brick s a nd roofing tiles) a nd lower
product a nd insta lla tion costs. The hig h efficiency
of Hepworth's new roller k iln reduces the energ y
consumption for cla y vitrifica tion toa bout one-third
of tha t required for ma k ing Portla nd cement.7
Vitrified cla y flue liners a re fa cing increa sing
competition from insula ted steel pipe, a more ea sily
A
insta lled a nd less expensive chimney system tha n
tra ditiona l ma sonry units.
REFERENCES
1 . America n Society for Testing a nd M a teria ls. "Sta nda rd
Specifica tion for Vitrified C la y Pipe", ASTM C 700.
2. Ba k er, M . B. "C la y a nd the C la y Industry of Onta rio",
Onta rioBurea uof M ines, Vol. XV, pt. 2, 1 906.
4. Guillet, G. R . "C la y a nd Sha le Deposits of Onta rio",
Onta rioGeol. Survey, M DC 1 5, 1 977.
1 42, 1 924.
7. R obbins, J. "U.K . Structura l C la y Products - Building
1 96, Ja n. 1 984.
8. Wea therson, G. L. "Onta rioM inera l Score", Onta rio
M inistry of Na tura l R esources, Video C ensus Series,
No. 1 -5 incl., 1 981 -1 985.
72
Clay bShale Industries of Ontario
Chapt er 7 Expan ded Aggr egat e
INTRODUCTION
The use of low density ma teria ls in concrete ha s
been pra cticed since a ncient times. The dome of
the Pa ntheon in R ome is k nown toha ve conta ined
pumice a nd pozzola na . Althoug h it is proba ble tha t
brick a nd tile fra g ments were used a s a g g reg a tes
throug hout the history of concrete production, it
wa s not until 1 91 8 tha t a methodof producing lig ht
weig ht a g g reg a te from sha le wa s pa tented in the
United Sta tes49 by S. J. Ha yde.
The purpose of using lig htweig ht a g g reg a tes in
modern concrete is toreduce its weig ht a ndimprove
its therma l a nd a coustica l insula tion properties.
The term refers toma teri
a ls of a number of types, 1 7 the most importa nt being
the following :
o vermiculite,
o perlite,
o pumice,
o dia tomite,
o zeolites,
o expa nded cla y, sha le or sla te,
o furna ce clink er from stolier boilers
o sintered fly a sh,
o bottom a sh,
o foa med or pelletized bla st-furna ce sla g .
The dema rca tion between norma l weig ht a nd
lig htweig ht a g g reg a te is somewha t a rbitra ry. In
Europe it is common todescribe ma teria ls with den
sity less tha n 880 k g /m3 (55 Ib/ft3) a s "lig ht
weig ht".56 In North America the ma ximum unit
weig ht of lig htweig ht a g g reg a te is set a t 1 040 k g /m3
(65 Ib/ft3) for combined coa rse a nd fine ma teria ls.
Althoug h it is common for expa nded vermicu
lite a ndperlite a g g reg a tes tobe ultra -lig ht with den
sities a s low a s 80 k g /m3 (5 Ib/ft3), these ma teria ls
ha ve minima l compressive streng th a nd their use is
limited tonon-structura l a pplica tions. In concrete
or hig hwa y a pplica tions, structura l streng th is re
quired, a nd thus ma teria ls in the density ra ng e 640
to960 k g /m3 a re used. In g enera l, this cla ss of lig ht
weig ht a g g reg a tes is ma nufa ctured from the follow
ing ma teria ls:
o cla y, sha le or sla te,
o sla g ,
o fly a sh.
This cha pter is principa lly concerned with ex
pa nded a g g reg a tes ma de from cla y, sha le or sla te,
a lthoug h some considera tion must be g iven tocom
peting products ma de from fly a sh or sla g . In the
following discussion of these ma teria ls, the issues of
ra w ma teria ls, process methods, properties a nd the
history a nd future of the C a na dia n a nd Onta rio
lig htweig ht a g g reg a te industry a re considered.
THE MANUFACTURE OF LIGHTWEIGHT
AGGREGATES
RAW MATERIALS
Lig htweig ht a g g reg a tes a re g enera lly cellula r ma teri
a ls, formedby the entra inment of g a ses in a cooled
molten or semi-molten ma ss. A number of a p
proa ches ca n be used toproduce such ma teria ls,
depending la rg ely upon the a va ila ble ra w ma teria ls.
Two types of expa nded product ca n be pro
duced. The preferred type is a sea led a g g reg a te,
consisting of cellula r pellets; the other is a n open
cellula r crushed clink er product. Both a re exten
sively used in ma k ing concrete block s which a re 30
percent lig hter in weig ht tha n norma l block s a nd
twice a s effective a s insula tors for hea t a nd sound.
Beca use they a re less porous, coa ted a g g reg a tes a re
more ea sily mixed with wa ter a nd cement in the
concrete ba tch.
Some cla ys, sha les or sla tes will bloa t or expa nd
when hea ted. Tothe ma nufa cturer of brick , this is
a n undesira ble property a nd must be prevented.
The orig in of bloa ting ha s been investig a ted widely
(see references 36, 6, 31 , 52, 27, 1 6, 23, 55, 9, 53,
50). In g enera l, a cla y body requires twoqua lities
for bloa ting tota k e pla ce:
a . when it is hea ted toa tempera ture of incipient
fusion, g a s must be formed;
b. when hea ted further, the g la ss produced a t fu
sion must be of sufficient viscosity toentra p the
g a ses formed.
In brick ma k ing , the selection of ra w ma teria ls
a ndthe ra te of hea ting a re delibera tely controlledto
a void these conditions. In ma k ing expa nded a g g re
g a tes, these qua lities a re optimized.
Low density ma sses ca n be formed by cooling
molten g la ssy ma teria ls. In the opera tion of some
coa l-burning furna ces, foa medclink ers a re formed.
These, tog ether with fused bottom a sh from more
modern power pla nts, a re widely used in Europe a s
hea vy a nd medium g ra des of lig htweig ht a g g reg a tes.
Clay Si Shale Industries of Ontario 7 3
Bla st furna ce sla g ca n be foa med or pelletized to
form excellent lig htweig ht a g g reg a tes. Such ma teri
a ls a re in common use in Europe, the United Sta tes
a nd Onta rio.
An a lterna tive a pproa ch ha s been tosinter pel
lets of fly a sh. Ag g reg a tes of this type a re produced
in Europe under the na me Lyta g . M ixtures of fly
a sh a nd sha le ma y be sintered (Ta clite) or mix
tures of sha le a nd cla y ca n be bloa ted (Ag lite).
According toFleming 1 7 a ll of these a pproa ches were
being a pplied in Brita in in 1 976, but a t tha t time
Lyta g , with its sintered fly a sh, a ppea red tobe
lea ding in penetra tion of the structura l concrete
ma rk et.
In Onta rio, three a pproa ches ha ve been ta k en
tothe production of lig htweig ht a g g reg a tes:
o expa nsion of sha le,
o pelletiza tion of sla g ,
o sintering of fly a sh.
As is discussedelsewhere in this report, the only
lig htweig ht a g g reg a te presently produced in Onta rio
is ma de by pelletizing bla st furna ce sla g . All other
C a na dia n production is from cla y or sha le.
Clays and Shales for the Manufacture of
Expanded Aggregates
It ha s been g enera lly considered tha t not a ll cla ys
a nd sha les a re suita ble for ma k ing coa ted a g g re
g a tes. The required cha ra cteristics a re outlined by
Wilson54 a s follows.
"It (the ra w ma teria l) must conta in a combina
tion of fluxes tha t will develop a viscous g la ss
when hea tedtoa point of incipient fusion. Also
it must conta in a minera l or minera ls tha t will
dissocia te when the ma teria l is in the viscous
sta te a nd relea se a g a s or g a ses. If these condi
tions exist, the g a ses will be entra pped within
the g la ss formed, a nd the pa rticles of cla y or
sha le will expa nd or bloa t. The ra w ma teria ls
should a lsoha ve a fa irly wide vitrifica tion ra ng e
in order tha t the tempera ture fluctua tions within
the k iln will not ha ve tooma rk ed a n effect on
the product. It is difficult toma inta in the tem
pera ture within limits of less tha n a bout 50 de
g rees. One of the troublesome components of
cla ys a ndsha les, pa rticula rly those foundin On
ta rioa nd Quebec, is lime in the form of ca lcite.
A sma ll qua ntity is desira ble, for it a cts a s both
a flux a nd a g a s-producing a g ent. In la rg er
qua ntities, however, the fluxing a ction is exces
sive a nd a sma ll increa se in tempera ture a bove
tha t a t whichvitrifica tion ha s beg un will result in
extensive fusion. This is ca used by the forma
tion of g la ss of low viscosity."
C hemica lly, the ra w ma teria ls for lig htweig ht a g
g reg a te production ca n ra ng e considera bly in com
position between the following :
Oxi de
SiO2
AI20 3
Fe2O3
C a O
MgO
K 2 O
Na20
S0 3
Loss in ignition
Mass Percent
50 - 80
1 0-25
3-1 0
0 - 3
0 - 5
1- 10
0 - 5
0-1 .5
4- 8
Tothe extent tha t the ba sic requirements a re
met for bloa ting a nd g a s retention in the pa rtly
fused ma ss, the exa ct composition is not critica l a nd
ca n be a djusted by the use of a dditives toinduce
bloa ting or control fluxing ca pa bilities. 1 5 Typica l
bloa ting a g ents a re a lk a li or a lk a line ea rth lig nosul-
phona tes, flour a nd sodium ca rbona te.
Specia l processing needs a nd problems ha ve
been discussed by Wilson.58 If a cla y ma teria l is too
soft or finely divided, it ma y ha ve tobe pelletizedby
a disc pelletizer or extrusion ma chine prior tofiring .
If pelletizing is necessa ry, improved bloa ting ca n
sometimes be a chieved by a dding a lso a g a s-pro
ducing ma teria l, such a s lig nosulphona te or wa ste
oil, tothe pellet ba tch.
A number of cla ys a nd sha les in Onta rioshow
promise of being suita ble for expa nded a g g reg a te
production. In pa rticula r, the sha llow stoneless cla ys
of Essex a nd K ent C ounties in southwestern Onta rio
a re a lmost everywhere sa tisfa ctory for coa ted a g g re
g a te in a rota ry k iln process. Sotooa re the sha les of
the Georg ia n Ba y, Blue M ounta in a nd C a bot Hea d
Forma tions a nd the Ha milton Group.
H. S. Wilson54 ha s reported extensively on On
ta riocla ys a ndsha les. Ta ble 7.1 is a summa ry of his
technica l da ta for those cla ys a ndsha les which show
promise for production of coa ted a g g reg a te by the
rota ry k iln process. Such cla ys a ndsha les bloa t over
a sufficient tempera ture ra ng e below their a g g lomer
a ting tempera ture tha t they should be work a ble in a
commercia l process. Their bulk densities a ndcrush
ing streng ths a re g enera lly compa ra ble totha t ex
pected of commercia l products.
Ta ble 7.1 a lsoincludes Queenston Sha le, which
bloa ts in a na rrow tempera ture ra ng e tooclose to
the a g g lomera ting tempera ture for rota ry k iln use,
but a long with ma ny other Onta riocla ys a nd sha les
mig ht be suita ble for a sintering process. Bloa ting is
not necessa ry a ndshouldnot be excessive for effec
tive sintering .54
7 4
TABLE 7 .1 BLOATING CHARACTERISTICS OF
Bloating
Raw Range
Material Location (0 C)
Blue
Mountain
Georgian
Bay Shale
Queenston
Shale
Cabot Head
Shale
Arkona Shale
Eastern
Ontario Clays
Southwestern
Ontario Clays
Northern
Ontario
Clays
South of Little
Current,
Manitoulin Island
Duffins Creek,
Pickering
Ottawa East
Leitrim,
South of Ottawa
Ottawa
Southeast
Ramsayville ,
East of Ottawa
Erindale
Mississauga
Don Valley,
Toronto
Mimico
Grimsby
St. Catharines
Cheltenham
Streetsville
Burlington
Stoney Creek
Thedford
Ottawa south
Collins Lake,
North of K ingston
Cornwall
Prescott
Cumberland
Chatham
Coatsworth
Dresden
Fletcher
Tilbury
Tupperville
Lambeth
Wallenstein
Rydal Bank,
60 km east of
Sault Ste. Marie
10 90 - 1120
10 90 - 1115
to 1115
110 0 - 1125
10 90 - 1115
10 80 - 110 5
7 - 1110
1190 - 1210
110 0
1110 - 1150
10 90 - 110 5
10 7 0 - 10 95
1115- 1140
10 95- 1115
110 0 - 1140
10 50 - 10 65
110 5- 1140
110 0 - 1130
110 5- 1140
10 7 5- 1130
110 0 - 1120
10 80 - 1115
10 7 5- 110 0
SOME ONTARIO CLAYS AND SHALES. (54)
Crushing
Expansion Bulk Density Strength
(fc) (kg/m3) (MPa)
10 0
90
17 5
good
10 0
25- 180
10 0
135
7 5- 10 0
30 - 10 0
good
good
good
good
7 5
7 0 - 80
35
115
10 - 20
55
25- 35
7 5
30
40
85
65
55
45
120
35
530 - 580
640
820
660
460 - 980
590
525
530 - 655
57 5- 815
590 - 655
655- 7 85
560 - 625
7 60
40 5
640 - 7 85
595
7 20 - 7 90
565
7 35
7 35
50 5
555
60 0
7 55
490
890
3.3 - 16.8
3.2- 11.8
strong
2.2 - 14.5
3.5- 13.2
2.4- 9.5
low
2.2- 7 .2
7 .4- 10 .2
7 .2- 7 .8
2.4- 17 .6
2.7 - 10 .9
1.7 - 4.9
1.1- 4.5
1.9- 5.3
5.0 - 40 .1
2.1- 2.4
3.9
4.1- 19.0
3.2- 12.9
3.8- 13.6
5.0 - 19.3
4.2- 20 .3
2.3- 8.2
5.3- 35.7
The ra ng e of crushing streng ths for expa nded
a g g reg a tes in Ta ble 7.1 g enera lly reflect the pres
sures required to compress the a g g reg a te 2.5 cm
a nd 5 cm when pla ced 1 2.7 cm deep in a steel cyl
inder of 7.6 cm dia meter. However, these results
a re for compa ra tive eva lua tion of ra w ma teria ls
only, a nd fina l eva lua tion of a g g reg a te streng th must
be ma de in tests of the resulting concrete. 1 9 Some
work on a g g reg a te eva lua tion ha s been pub-
lished;1 9' 8' 26' 30' 57 tests include mecha nica l streng th
properties, modulus of ela sticity, a nd dura bility.
PROCESSES FOR THE PRODUCTI ON OF
EXPANDED CLAYS AND SHALES
The technica l litera ture on expa ndedcla y a ndsha le
a g g reg a tes, a nd their production, is voluminous. In
C a na da , reports by H. S. Wilson56.54,58,57,60 ha ve
been publishedby C ANM ET (C a na dia n C entre for
M inera l a nd Energ y Technolog y), Depa rtment of
Energ y, M ines a ndR esources, Otta wa . H. S. Wilson
ha s a lsoreportedextensively on expa ndedbla st fur
na ce sla g . R ecently, severa l pa tents, orig ina ting
from Germa ny a ndthe United K ing dom, ha ve been
g ra nted on novel technolog y.39' 42 ' 28' 3 In a ddition,
other recent publica tions discuss technolog ica l pro
g ress in expa nded a g g reg a te production.62 ' 34
Expa nded cla y a nd sha le a re fired either in ro
ta ry k ilns or by sintering . All C a na dia n pla nts, a nd
the ma jority of those in the United Sta tes, use ro
ta ry k ilns.56 In 1 976, Wilson reported tha t eig ht
pla nts in the United Sta tes were using the sintering
process.56
Of the 32 expa nded a g g reg a te pla nts now oper
a ting in the United Sta tes, only one, a t R oa noa k ,
Virg inia , is currently using the sinter process. The
ea rlier sinter pla nts a ll cea sedproduction during the
la te 1 970s.38
Whichever method of expa nsion is used, the
production of expa nded cla y or sha le a g g reg a tes
(Fig ure 7.1 ) comprises the following ba sic steps:
o qua rrying ,
o prepa ra tion of ra w ma teria ls,
RAW MATERIAL
-LOCAL SHALE
DISCARD *
Figure 7 .1 Process flow chart for lightweight
aggregate.
o firing (hea t trea tment),
o prepa ra tion of a g g reg a te-sized ma teria ls.
Ea ch of these sta g es of production ha s been de
scribed in deta il elsewhere.56 In 1 976 Wilson56 esti
ma tedtha t 35 percent of the tota l cost of a pla nt to
produce expa ndeda g g reg a te wa s a ssocia ted withthe
firing a nd dust collection equipment. In 1 979, some
50 percent of the cost of production of Ha ydite in
M ississa ug a wa s a lloca ted tofuel. In view of this, it
is not surprising tha t the ma in developments in
process methods ha ve been a ssocia ted with firing
a nd the energ y efficiency of hea t trea tment. Be
ca use of the importa nce of this a spect of the pro
duction process, some considera tion is g iven toit in
this report. The published litera ture conta ins more
deta iled discussions of esta blished processes a nd
new innova tions.56' 24
With the demise of the sintering process (see
a bove), the production of expa nded a g g reg a te in
North America is overwhelming ly domina ted by ro
ta ry k iln firing . M ost of the pla nts a re of a n older
type, a nd some g enera l considera tions ca n be ma de
of their qua lities a nd problems.
A rota ry k iln in its simplest form comprises a
tubula r steel structure, mountedon rollers a t a slig ht
a ng le tothe horizonta l. It is lined with refra ctory
insula tion a nd is fired from one end by a burner
fueled with g a s, oil or coa l. R a w ma teria l in a suit
a ble form (for exa mple a s g reen pellets) is intro
duceda t the endopposite from the burner. The k iln
body rota tes slowly, which a ction, combined with
the slig ht g ra dient, ca uses the ma teria l topa ss a t a
controlledra te throug h a therma l g ra dient. The ra te
of pa ssa g e (retention time) ma y be modified by the
use of flig hts, ba rriers, cha ins, cha ng es in dia meter
of the k iln structure or trefoils.
As a hea t excha ng er, the rota ry k iln is very inef
ficient; in some pla nts a s little a s 1 0 percent of the
a pplied hea t is a ctua lly used tobloa t the ma teria l.56
The rema inder is lost throug h combustion g a ses a nd
dust, ra dia tion, a nd sensible hea t in the discha rg ed
product.
By the introduction of interna l structures a nd
the recovery of hea t from the discha rg ed product,
some improvement in efficiency ca n be a tta ined.
Wilson reports tha t the most efficient k ilns (opera t
ing in 1 976) consume a pproxima tely 2070 x 1 06
J/m3 (a pproxima tely 1 .5 x 1 06 Btu/yd3). In 1 975
Bieg e a nd C ohen5 reported tha t some lig htweig ht
a g g reg a te producers were consuming a s much a s 5 x
1 O6 Btu/short ton, while pla nts using feed of low
moisture content a nd employing hea t recovery
equipment (such a s g ra te coolers) could produce a t
2 x l O6 Btu/short ton. For a product of 1 040 k g /m3
76
(65 Ib/ft3) this is equiva lent to a ra ng e of energ y
dema nd from a pproxima tely 6000 J/m3 to 2400
J/m3. Litera ture currently being supplied by the
GATX-Fuller compa ny1 5 cla ims tha t most lig ht
weig ht a g g reg a tes ca n be produced a t or below 2 x
l O6 Btu/ton (a pproxima tely 2400 J/m3) by the use
of coolers a nd k iln 'interna ls'. Such k ilns a re re
ported tobe in widesprea d use by the U.S. indus
try1 5. Energ y requirements a s low a s 1 .8 x 1 06 Btu/
ton (' 21 60 J/m3) ha ve been a tta ined for ma teria l
of 40-45 pcf (642-722 k g /m3). 1 5
In spite of these a dva nces, the rise of energ y
costs, especia lly during the 1 970s a nd ea rly 1 980s,
ha s ca used considera ble problems for the expa nded
cla y a nd sha le industry. In 1 982, 85 percent of the
U.S. industry surveyed by Herod a nd Le vine22 re
ported fuel increa ses in the previous yea r a vera g ing
1 7 percent. Avera g e increa ses of 1 6 percent were
reported in 1 983, 1 2 percent in 1 98420 a nd 33 per
cent of producers reported increa ses a vera g ing 32
percent in the 1 985 survey.21
The other ma in problem, a lsorela tedtothe fir
ing process, tha t ha s constra ined the production of
expa nded a g g reg a tes, is the control of k iln emis
sions. A recent report,40 describing the production
of lig htweig ht a g g reg a te by Texa s Industries Inc., of
Houston, Texa s, in a 3.5 by 75 m rota ry k iln, notes
tha t environmenta l protection mea sures a ssocia ted
with the pla nt would "ta k e a million dolla rs tore
pla ce". Such ca pita l expenditure is a considera ble
constra int on the development of new or upg ra ded
pla nts.
Toovercome the limita tions of the rota ry k iln,
other process a pproa ches a nd modifica tions ha ve
been introduced. One of the most successful is a
ra dica l modifica tion of the rota ry k iln production
method. Developed by R ohrba ch Technolog ie of
West Germa ny, the Lia pore process wa s introduced
in 1 967. The process ha s a hea t requirement of a p
proxima tely 2.8 x l O6 J/k g ,24 while a llowing produc
tion of a ny desired bulk density down toless tha n
300 k g /m3. The k iln opera tes in three sta g es: drying
a nd prehea ting ; expa nsion; a nd cooling . To con
serve hea t, pa rt of the cooling a ir is used for predry-
ing the cla y. A C a na dia n pa tent39 wa s issued to
R ohrba ch in 1 983 which included mea ns tomodify
conventiona l rota ry k ilns tomeet the requirements
of the Lia pore process.
The use of k iln interna l structures toimprove
hea t efficiency is well esta blished. Bieg e a ndC ohen5
found tha t such devices could result in fuel sa ving s
of a pproxima tely 650 x l O3 J/k g . An extreme form
of modifica tion of a rota ry k iln is the use of a tre
foil. A trefoil k iln, developed by Therma l C onver
sion (U.K .) Ltd., of Da nford, K ent, Eng la nd, ha s
been insta lled a t a pla nt in South Wa les for the pro
duction of lig htweig ht a g g reg a te from colliery wa ste
(sha le). The k iln ha s a trefoil cross-section sha pe
instea d of the conventiona l circula r section with a
hig h tempera ture resista nt meta l lining ra ther tha n
firebrick s. Adva nta g es cited include low therma l in
ertia (hea t ca pa city), nohea t loss throug h the shell,
low ma intena nce costs, flexible opera tion a nd g ood
mixing . It is expected to produce a g g reg a te with
density tha t ca n be controlled from 250 to 750
k g /m3 using a foa ming technique.42
C ohen ha s proposedthe use of a fluidbedrea c
tor for the production of sea led (coa ted) a g g reg a te
in the fine size g ra des required for the ma nufa cture
of concrete block . 1 0 Using a fine feed ma teria l,
la bora tory sca le tests showed tha t a product of
830-880 k g /m3 could be produced without the
stick ing a nd ring forma tion typica l of producing a g
g reg a te from fines in a rota ry k iln. Althoug h it is not
specified in the report, it is understood tha t the
'fine-feed' used wa s crusher fines a nd/or dust from
a rota ry k iln production unit. It is difficult toima g
ine how moist pelletized cla y or sha le couldbe ha n
dled in a fluid bed; nosuch problem would exist
with a dry feed. Enquiries of the Fuller C ompa ny
esta blished tha t nopla nt using fluidized-bed tech
nolog y wa s in opera tion in North America or else
where totheir k nowledg e. 1 5
THE MANUFACTURE OF EXPANDED
BLAST-FURNACE SLAG
Bla st furna ce sla g is the non-meta llic residue from
the smelting of iron ore. It is essentia lly a mixture of
ca lcium-ma g nesium-a luminum silica tes which re
ma in a fter the remova l of molten iron from the fur
na ce cha rg e of iron ore, limestone, dolomite a nd
cok e. M olten sla g , which floa ts on top of the molten
iron in the bottom of the bla st furna ce, is periodi
ca lly ta pped off a nd discha rg ed tocooling pits.
Three sla g products a re produced a s a result of
three cooling methods: a ir cooled or ha rd sla g ,
g ra nula ted sla g , a nd expa nded or foa med sla g .
Ai r Cool ed Sl ag
M ost of the molten sla g ta pped from the furna ce is
discha rg ed intola rg e open pits for na tura l a ir cool
ing . The cooling process ma y be a ccelera ted by
spra ying with wa ter once initia l solidifica tion ha s oc
curred. Even so, complete cooling ma y ta k e a s long
a s a week .
Air cooled sla g is the densest a nd strong est of
the sla g products. With a specific g ra vity of 2.0 to
2.5, it is a bout 20 percent lig hter tha n norma l g ra vel
Clay Shale Industries of Ontario 7 7
or crushed stone. Bulk density is between 1 1 00 a nd
1 350 k g /m3.
Uses for a ir cooled sla g include ra ilroa dba lla st,
rock wool ma nufa cture, roofing a g g reg a te, a spha lt
hig hwa y surfa cing , concrete a g g reg a te a nd numer
ous other construction a g g reg a te a pplica tions.
Gr an ul at ed Sl ag
Gra nula ted sla g is a g la ssy g ra nula r product formed
when molten sla g is ra pidly chilled by immersion in
wa ter. The process is usua lly one of simply pouring
the molten sla g intoa pit of wa ter. Or it ca n be pro
duced by the "jet process", whereby hig h pressure
strea ms of wa ter a re directed a g a inst a flow of mol
ten sla g , brea k ing the flow intodroplets which a re
further quenched in a wa ter pool.
Finely g roundg ra nula tedsla g in the presence of
moisture will set a ndha rden a s a cement. It is some
times used a s the principa l ing redient in ma k ing
portla nd cement, but more often it is g round with
va rying proportions of portla nd cement to ma k e
"portla nd bla st furna ce sla g cement". Or it com
prises the ma jor pa rt of "sla g cement", sometimes
with minor a dditions of lime a nd a ir-entra ining
a g ents. Gra nula ted sla g is a lsoused a s a n a g g reg a te
in hig hwa y construction a nd concrete products.
Along with the fine sized a ir cooled sla g screening s,
it is used tosome extent a s a n a g ricultura l liming
ma teria l a nd soil conditioner.
Expan ded Sl ag
A medium weig ht cellula r a g g reg a te results from the
trea tment of molten sla g with controlled a mounts of
wa ter, stea m, compressed a ir, or a combina tion of
these. Severa l methods a re used, including the
pouring of molten sla g in open pits a nd va rious me
cha nica l techniques.
In 1 968 Na tiona l Sla g of Ha milton developed a
method, now used widely throug hout the world, for
producing pelletized expa nded sla g .56' 1 2 ' 41 ' 25 In a
pa tented process,48 molten sla g is first expa nded by
wa ter spra ys, then pa ssed over a ra pidly revolving
drum conta ining fins which deflect the strea m into
droplets a ndpropel them intoa collecting a rea . The
droplets become sea led cellula r pellets during flig ht.
Pellet size is controlled by feed ra te a nd drum
speed, elimina ting the need for crushing . Bulk den
sities ra ng e between 560 a nd 1 1 00 k g /m3; the
coa rser the a g g reg a te, the lower its density. An im
porta nt fea ture of the process is the nea rly complete
sea ling in of the sulphurous fumes formerly relea sed
tothe a ir.
The principa l use for expa nded sla g is a s a n a g
g reg a te in lig htweig ht concrete products such a s
concrete block s a nd other ma sonry units a nd
preca st sha pes. It is a lsoused a s a n a g g reg a te for
on-site pouring of concrete floors a nd other struc
tura l members, pa rticula rly in multiple-storey build
ing s where less weig ht requires less structura l steel in
their construction. Beca use of its hig h content of
g la ssy ma teria l when finely g round, pelletized sla g
ha s cementitious properties a nd sla g cement ha s be
come the ma jor ma rk et for these products.
LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE FROM FLY ASH
C oa l ha s been used in Europe, pa rticula rly in Brit
a in, for the ma nufa cture of lig htweig ht a g g reg a te for
ma ny yea rs.32 In a ddition, interest ha s been shown
in the U.S.A.33- 51 recently due tosocia l pressures to
dispose of a shes usefully.
Bottom a sh (k nown a lsoa s boiler sla g ) ma y be
suita ble without further processing for some a pplica
tions a s lig htweig ht a g g reg a te. Such utiliza tion will
be g overnedby the size g ra da tion, chemica l compo
sition of soluble sa lts a ndthe presence or a bsence of
pyrites in the a sh.
Fly a sh is a potentia l ra w ma teria l for the ma nu
fa cture of lig htweig ht a g g reg a te. The ma nufa cture of
a g g reg a te from fly a sh involves sintering the ma teria l
a t 1 000 to1 2000C . A prerequisite toa ny currently
a ppliedmethodof sintering is tha t the a sh shouldbe
pelletized before firing . This is usua lly a chieved by
the use of a sha llow pa n pelletizer. The pelletized
a sh is converted tolig htweig ht a g g reg a te by firing in
a sha ft k iln, a sinter stra nd or a rota ry k iln. The
most successful process, the Lyta g process, uses a
tra velling g ra te sinter ma chine.
Fly a sh ma y bring tothe lig htweig ht a g g reg a te
process the following properties:
o ca rbon content tha t ma y contribute tothe fuel
dema nd of the sintering sta g e;
o chemica l composition simila r tothe cla ys a lso
used;
o the presence of g la ssy pha ses tha t ma y reduce
the energ y dema nds of sintering ;
o in some a shes, rea ctivity with wa ter ma y con
tribute tothe forma tion a nd qua lity of 'g reen*
pellets.
M a jor problems which ma y be a ssocia ted with
a sh use in the lig htweig ht a g g reg a te industry a re re
la ted tothe uniformity of composition of a sh a nd
the presence of soluble sa lts.
In order tobe sa tisfa ctory, the fly a sh must be
of uniform composition, pa rticula rly with respect to
ca rbon content. Idea lly, the source of the fly a sh
7 8
shouldbe a ba se-loa dsta tion, where power dema nd
is consta nt ra ther tha n a pea k -loa d sta tion where
dema nd fluctua tes. Pretrea tment ma y be necessa ry
to a djust composition, g ra in size, a nd to extra ct
components such a s iron.
The presence of wa ter-soluble sa lts, in pa rticu
la r sulpha tes, ma y lea dtoincrea sedefflorescence in
a simila r wa y totha t forming on cla y brick .
The Lyta g C ompa ny of Grea t Brita in is a mong
the lea ders in the fieldof fly a sh a g g reg a te ma nufa c
ture, a nd currently opera tes two sinter pla nts in
Eng la nd. In 1 976 M oss29 reported tha t some 4.2 x
l O6 m3 of Lyta g a g g reg a te ha dbeen usedtoproduce
a ra ng e of concretes from 1 280 k g /m3 throug h 1 762
k g /m3 a nd from 3.45 to 55.1 6 M Pa compressive
streng th.
In recent yea rs, the subject of fly a sh utiliza tion
in the ma nufa cture of lig htweig ht a g g reg a te ha s been
much discussed in C a na da , pa rticula rly in the lig ht
of the g rowing disposa l problems fa ced by the elec
trica l utility compa nies. However, a lthoug h a la rg e
pilot fa cility wa s constructedin M ississa ug a , Onta rio
in the ea rly 1 970s, nocommercia l production ha s
yet occurred.7
C ovey ha s sta ted1 3 tha t the cost of producing
lig htweig ht a g g reg a te from fly a sh is sufficiently
hig her tha n the costs of other production a p
proa ches a s torender it uncompetitive. It is under
stood tha t the only commercia l pla nt toproduce a
sintered fly a sh product in the United Sta tes is no
long er in production.38
USES, SPECIFICATIONS AND
PROPERTIES OF EXPANDED
AGGREGATES
USES
Withthe exception of the ultra -lig htweig ht ma teria ls
produced from vermiculite a nd perlite, expa nded
a g g reg a tes a re used prima rily to reduce the unit
weig ht of construction ma teria ls a ndtoprovide ther
ma l or sound insula tion. Other uses include their
a pplica tion a s ba ck fill behindstructures where ra pid
dra ina g e a nd reduced dea d-loa ds a re required; a s
sk id-resista nt a g g reg a te for a spha ltic pa vements;
a nd in va rious horticultura l products. By fa r the
la rg est sing le a pplica tion is in the ma nufa cture of
concrete block , which consumes close to70 percent
of the expa nded cla y a nd sha le produced in North
America .
Deta iled descriptions of the use of lig htweig ht
a g g reg a tes a re a va ila ble from ma ny published
sources. Wilson56 ha s reviewed the principa l a spect
of their use in both structura l concrete a ndconcrete
block , a nd C otsworth ha s discussed the use of pel-
letized sla g in concrete ma sonry. 1 2
SPECIFICATIONS
Specifica tions for the use of expa nded cla y, sha le
a nd sla g a g g reg a tes, a nd for concretes prepa red
from them, a re conta ined in the C a na dia n Sta n
da rds Associa tion (C SA) sta nda rd
C AN-A23.1 -M 77 entitled "C oncrete M a teria ls a nd
M ethods of C oncrete C onstruction". Both norma l
a nd lig hter weig ht a g g reg a tes a re covered. The pa rt
dea ling with expa nded a g g reg a tes ha s been la rg ely
ta k en from sta nda rds of the America n Society for
Testing a nd M a teria ls (ASTM ) a s follows:
C 330-77:
331 -77:
332-77:
These specifica tions ha ve to do with physica l
g ra ding a nddensities of va rious a g g reg a tes, a ndwith
streng th a nd therma l conductivity of resulting con
cretes.
PROPERTIES
Gr adi n g
As with a ny other a g g reg a te used in concrete, the
rela tive proportion of pa rticles of different sizes
(g ra ding ) of lig htweig ht a g g reg a tes profoundly a ffect
the properties of the finishedproduct. In Ta ble 7.2,
the g ra ding requirements imposed by ASTM C 330
a re g iven for seven different g ra des of a g g reg a tes for
use in structura l concrete.
Where the a g g reg a te is required for production
of concrete ma sonry, different g ra da tions a pply
(Ta ble 7.3). Simila rly, where the purpose is topro
duce insula ting concrete, the g ra da tions in Ta ble
7.4 a re required.
Den si t y
In North America , lig htweig ht a g g reg a tes g enera lly
ha ve densities between 600 a nd 1 1 00 k g /m3 (40
a nd 60 Ib/ft3).60 Ta ble 7.5 shows the requirements
reg a rding unit weig ht for lig htweig ht a g g reg a te to
meet ASTM C 330-75a . Ag g reg a tes conforming to
these sta nda rds will produce concrete with the
weig ht-streng th rela tionship shown in Ta ble 7.6.
In Europe, where therma l insula tion of concrete
is considered a prima ry fa ctor, the pra ctice is to
TABLE 7.2 GRADING REQUIREMENTS FOR LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATES FOR STRUCTURAL CONCRETE*(56)
Per cen t age (by Wei ght ) Passi n g Sel ves Havi n g Squar e Open i n gs
Size Designation
Fine aggregate:
No. 4 (4.7 5 mm) to 0
Coarse aggregate:
1 in. to 1/2 In.
(25 to 12.5 mm)
1 in. to No. 4
(25 to 4.7 5 mm)
3/4 in. to No. 4
(19 to 4.7 5 mm)
1/2 in. to No. 4
(12.5 to 4.7 5 mm)
3/8 in. to No. 8
(9.5 to 2.36 mm)
1 In.
(25.4
mm)
-
95- 10 0
95- 10 0
10 0
-
-
3/4 In.
(19.0
mm)
-
-
-
90 - 10 0
10 0
-
1/2 In.
(12.5
mm)
-
0 - 10
25- 60
-
90 - 10 0
10 0
3/8 in.
(9.5
mm)
10 0
-
-
20 - 60
40 - 80
80 - 10 0
No. 4
(4.7 5
mm)
85- 10 0
-
0 - 10
0 - 10
0 - 20
5- 40
No. 8
(2.36
mm)
-
-
-
-
0 - 10
0 - 20
No. 16 No. 50
(1.18 (30 0
mm) jim)
40 - 80 10 - 35
-
-
-
-
-
No. 10 0
(150
J im)
5- 25
-
-
-
-
-
Combined fine A coarse aggregate:
1/2 in. (12.5 mm) to
3/8 in. (9.5 mm) to 0
From ASTM C 330 - 7 5a
0 -
-
10 0
-
95- 10 0
10 0
-
90 - 10 0
50 - 80
65- 90
-
35- 90
5- 20
10 - 25
2- 15
5- 15
TABLE 7.3 GRADING REQUIREMENTS FOR LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATES
FOR CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS*. (56)
Per cen t age (by Wei ght ) Passi n g Si eves Havi n g Squar e Open i n gs
3/4 i n . 1 /2 In . 3/8 i n . No. 4 No. 8 No. 1 6 No. 50 No. 1 00
(1 9.0 (1 2.5 (9.5 (4.75 (2.36 (1 .1 8 (300 (1 50
Size Designation mm)
Fine aggregate:
No. 4 (4.7 5 mm) to 0
Coarse aggregate:
1/2 in. to No. 4
(12. 5 to 4. 7 5 mm) 10 0
3/8 in. to No. 8
(9.5 to 2.36 mm)
Combined fine A coarse aggregate:
1/2 in. (12.5 mm) to 0 10 0
3/8 in. (9.5 mm) to 0
- From ASTM C 331- 69
mm)
-
90 - 10 0
10 0
95- 10 0
10 0
mm)
10 0
40 - 80
80 - 10 0
-
90 - 10 0
mm)
85- 10 0
0 - 20
5- 40
50 - 80
65- 90
mm)
-
0 - 10
0 - 20
-
35- 65
mm) jim)
40 - 80 10 - 35
-
-
5- 20
10 - 25
J im)
5- 25
-
-
2- 15
5- 15
TABLE 7.4 GRADING REQUIREMENTS FOR GROUP II** LIGHTWEIGHT
AGGREGATES FOR INSULATING CONCRETE*. (56)
Per cen t age (by Wei ght ) Passi n g Si eves Havi n g Squar e Open i n g
3/4 i n . 1 /2 i n . 3/8 i n . No. 4 No. 8 No. 1 6 No. 30 No. 50 No. 1 00
(1 9.0 (1 2.5 (9.5 (4.75 (2.36 (1 .1 8 (600 (300 (1 50
Si ze Desi gn at i on mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) mm) ji m) ji m)
Fi n e aggr egat e:
No. 4 (4.75 mm) t o O - 1 00 85-1 00 - 40-80 - 1 0-35 5-25
Coar se aggr egat e:
1/2 in. to No. 4
(1 2.5 t o 4.75 mm) 1 00 90-1 00 40-80 0-20 0-1 0 -
3/8 in. to No. 8
(4.7 5 to 2.36 mm) - 10 0 80 - 10 0 5- 40 0 - 20 -
No. 4 t o No. 8
(4.75 t o 2.36 mm) - - 1 00 90-1 00 0-20 -
Combi n ed f i n e an d coar se aggr egat e:
1/2 in. (12.5 mm)
t oO 1 00 95-1 00 - 50-80 - 5-20 2-1 5
3/8 in. (9.5 mm)
t oO - 1 00 90-1 00 65-90 35-65 - - 1 0-25 5-1 5
- From ASTM C 332-66
" Group II aggr egat es ar e those produced from expanded clay, shale or slate
80 Clay A Shale Industries of Ontario
produce lig htweig ht a g g reg a te of lower density (320
to800 k g /m3) tha n in North America . This should
be ta k en intoa ccount when considera tion is g iven to
Europea n production methods in terms of their a p
plica tion in North America .
TABLE 7.5 MAXIMUM UNIT WEIGHT OF LIGHT
WEIGHT AGGREGATE*. (56)
Si ze Desi gn at i on
Fi n e aggr egat e
Coar se aggr egat e
Combi n ed f i n e an d
coar se aggr egat e
' Fr om ASTM C 330-75a
Dr y , Loose Un i t Wei ght
Ib/f t 3 kg/m3
70
55
65
1 1 20
880
1 040
Ther mal Pr oper t i es
C oncern with the therma l insula tion properties of
lig htweig ht a g g reg a te centres on the therma l proper
ties of lig htweig ht concrete. Wilson60 ha s reported
the following da ta rela ting concrete density tother
ma l conductivity.
Range of Concrete
Dens i ty ( kg l m3 )
17 0 0 to 190 0
500 t o 1 500
Range of Thermal
Conducti vi ty ( WlmK)
0.68 t o 0.77
(at ambient temperatures)
0.75 t o 0.95
(at 30 0 0 C)57
0.1 0 t o 0.35
(at ambient temperatures)18
The moisture content of the concrete ha s a ma
jor influence on therma l conductivity a nd must be
controlled during mea surements.
Pr oper t i es of Expan ded Sl ag
Depending upon the source of the sla g a nd the
process used for expa nsion, the properties of sla g
a g g reg a tes va ry considera bly. The density ma y ra ng e
from 400 to1 1 20 k g /m3. Therma l conductivities re
ported by Wilson56 a re shown in Ta ble 7.7. The
therma l a nd structura l properties of concretes ma de
from expa nded sla g s ha ve been reviewed by Wil
son56 who a lsoha s reported the properties of ex
pa nded sla g concrete ma sonry units shown in Ta ble
7.8.
THE LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE
INDUSTRY IN CANADA
EXPANDED CLAY AND SHALE
The first ma nufa cturedlig htweig ht a g g reg a te in C a n
a da wa s produced a t C ook sville (now M ississa ug a ),
Onta rioin 1 927. Termed Ha ydite, it wa s ma de a t
the sa me site by Domta r Inc. from 1 928 until 1 980
when the pla nt closed. From 1 927 until 1 953, when
a second pla nt wa s built in C a lg a ry, Alberta , C a na
dia n production wa s limited tothis one source. By
the end of 1 954, four pla nts were in opera tion with
a tota l a nnua l production of 1 30,000 m3. Produc
tion ca pa city continuedtoincrea se to1 960, with 1 0
pla nts producing 279,000 m3. Production increa sed
to390,000 m3 from 9 pla nts by 1 965. Until 1 977,
production g rew a nd fina lly fluctua ted between
550,000 a nd 740,000 m3. 56- 60 In 1 977 it wa s a t
576,600 m3, a nd ha s since continued to decline
(see Ta ble 7.1 0). At the time of writing , the compa
nies listedin Ta ble 7.9 a re reportedly in production.
Another pla nt ownedby Avon Ag g reg a tes Ltd.,
a t M into, New Brunswick , while still in pla ce, ha s
not produced a g g reg a te since 1 984, sa les being lim
ited to ma teria l in stock .61 From 1 978 to da te,
pla nts a t M ississa ug a , Onta rio (Domta r Inc.),
Na ma o, Alberta (Aerlite Products Ltd.) a nd M into,
New Brunswick ha ve cea sed production. As is dis
cussed elsewhere in this cha pter, the decline in pro
duction a nd consumption of expa nded cla y a nd
sha le a g g reg a tes is not isola ted toC a na da . The in
dustry in the United Sta tes ha s a lsoshown a stea dy
reduction over a simila r time period.
EXPANDED SLAG
Until a bout 1 920, when it sta rtedtobe crusheda nd
screenedfor ra ilwa y ba lla st a ndroa dsurfa cing , bla st
furna ce sla g wa s trea ted a s a wa ste product in C a n
a da . The first production of expa nded sla g wa s in
Sydney, Nova Scotia , from 1 947 to 1 968. It ha s
been produced in Ha milton, Onta rio, since 1 954,
where Na tiona l Sla g Limited continues to be the
only C a na dia n producer of expa nded sla g for use a s
a g g reg a te.
PRODUCTION OF EXPANDED AGGREGATE IN
ONTARIO
There ha ve been three a ttempts toesta blish lig ht
weig ht a g g reg a te production in Onta rio: the Ha ydite
pla nt of Domta r Inc. a t M ississa ug a ; the expa nded
(pelletized) sla g production of Na tiona l Sla g Ltd. in
Ha milton; a nd a n a ttempt toproduce sintered fly
a sh a g g reg a te by Enercon Ltd. a t the Onta rio
Hydro, La k eview power sta tion. Of these, only the
pelletized sla g opera tion is in production toda y.
Domt ar In c., Hay di t e
An expa ndedsha le a g g reg a te, k nown a s Ha ydite a f
ter its inventor S.l. Ha y de, wa s ma de by Domta r
81
TABLE 7 .6 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN WEIGHT AND STRENGTH OF STRUCTURAL CONCRETE*. (56)
Average Unit
Weight, max.
Ib/ft3
115
110
10 5
From ASTM C 330 - 7 5a
kg/m3
2
2
2
Average 28- day
Splitting Tensile
Strength, min.
psi
290
290
290
M Pa
2
2
2
Average 28- day
Compressive
Strength, mln.
psi
40 0 0 or
more
30 0 0
250 0
M Pa
23 or
more
21
17
TABLE 7.7 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF EXPANDED SLAG. (56)
Coarse Expanded Slag
1/2 in. to No. 4: 40 Ib/ft3
(12.5 to 4.8 mm : 640 kg/m3)
Thermal Conductivity
Blended Expanded Slag
1/2 in. to dust : 60 Ib/ft3
(12.5 mm to dust : 960 kg/m3)
Thermal Conductivity
Mean Temp.
o C op
199.2 92.9
213.6 10 0 .9
248.7 120 .4
Btu in./hr
ft.2 deg F
0 .7 7
0 .7 8
0 .97
W/rr^C
0 .11
0 .11
0 .14
Mean Temp.
oc op
217 .9 10 3.3
233.6 112.0
250 .5 121.4
255.2 124.0
Btu in./hr
ft2 deg F
1.16
1.25
1.32
1.42
WMi0 C
0 .17
0 .18
0 .19
0 .20
TABLE 7.8 PROPERTIES OF EXPANDED SLAG CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS*. (56)
Btu in./hr. ft2 deg F
2.60
Soun d Absor pt i on
4 in. (10 2 mm) hollow block
fine texture
coarse texture
8 in. (20 3 mm) solid block
Sound Transmission
8 in. (20 3 mm) hollow block
unplastered
1 in. (25 mm) plaster
Thermal Insulation
90 Ib/ft3 (1440 kg/m3) concrete
Fire Resistance
4.7 in. (118.4 mm) thickness
Modulus of Elasticity
Block of average compressive
strength
Compressive Strength
Drying Shrinkage
* Information supplied by National Slag Ltd.
** The absorbed fraction of the sound energy incident on a material.
1.6 x 10 e
Noise Reduction Coefficient**
0 .60
0 .50
0 .7 5
Deci bel Loss
45.0
52.6
W/mK
0 .37
Rating
4 hour
M Pa
1.1 x 10 4
Meets ASTM specification
(Designation C 331- 69)
Low pressure cured; pre- dried,
have low residual shrinkage.
High pressure cured: normally
less total shrinkage than other
lightweight masonry.
82
TABLE 7.9 EXPANDED AGGREGATE PLANTS IN
CANADA. (45,61 )
Name
Apex Aggregates Ltd.
Cindercrete Products Ltd.
Consolidated Concrete Ltd.
Consolidated Concrete Ltd.
Genstar, Edcon Block Div.
K ildonan Concrete
Products Ltd.
National Slag Ltd.
Location
Saskatoon, Sask.
Reglna, Sask.
Calgary, Alta.
Edmonton, Alta.
Edmonton, Alta.
Winnipeg, Man.
Hamilton, Ont.
Raw
Material
Clay
Clay
Shale
Clay
Clay
Clay
Slag
Inc. a t M ississa ug a from 1 928 to 1 980. A volume
expa nsion of a bout 1 00 percent resulted in a n a g
g reg a te weig hing a bout 650 k g /m3, 40 percent the
weig ht of norma l sa nd, g ra vel a nd crushed stone.
The pla nt a nd process ha ve been described by
Wilson.59 Georg ia n Ba y Sha le wa s obta ined from a n
a djoining qua rry, which a lso served the needs of
Domta r's brick pla nt a t the sa me site. Ha ydite wa s
produced in rota ry k ilns, a nd the resulting clink er
wa s crushed a nd screened tova rious sizes. Grea test
dema nd wa s for Ha ydite sa nd, prima rily for use in
concrete block where its uniformity of colour a nd
texture resulted in a premium product. The rea dy-
mix concrete ma rk et wa s next in terms of volume,
followed by a va riety of refra ctory uses.
An increa sing chloride content with depth in
the Domta r sha le qua rry resulted in the lower levels
being work ed exclusively for Ha ydite. C hlorides
produce a n undesira ble scum or efflorescence on
brick surfa ces. While the qua rry ha d been deep
enedtonea rly 30 m, sha le from the lower ha lf wa s
only used for ma k ing Ha ydite.
In 1 965, a fourth rota ry k iln wa s insta lled to
ma k e coa ted a g g reg a te from pelletized sha le. By
1 975 the cost of fuel (na tura l g a s) ha d increa sedto
a bout 50 percent of the overa ll cost of the a g g re
g a te, a ndthe three older k ilns were shut down. The
fourth k iln continued toproduce a t the ra te of 1 50
m37da y (53,000 m3 a nnua lly) until 1 980.
Increa sing fuel costs a nd environmenta l pres
sures a g a inst the sha le dust in sta ck emissions forced
closure of the pla nt in December 1 980.
Nat i on al Sl ag Li mi t ed
Na tiona l Sla g Limited of Windermere R oa d in
Ha milton purcha ses sla g from the bla st furna ces of
Stelco a nd Dofa sco. It is truck ed from the iron
work s, either a s a ir-cooled sla g or expa nded sla g .
Uses for the sla g include numerous a pplica tions a s
construction a g g reg a te, ra ilwa y ba lla st, minera l wool
ma nufa cture a nd sla g cement. 1 4
The a ir cooled va riety is the sta nda rd wa ste
product of the furna ces a nd is a bout 20 percent
lig hter tha n stone. It ha s a specific g ra vity of 2.2
(bulk density of 1 200 k g /m3). From stock pile the
sla g is recla imedby dra g line a ndloa dedtoa hopper
feeding a pick ing belt for the remova l of iron. A
cone crusher with a n 8 cm discha rg e is followed by
screens which provide 1 0 product sizes. Three ma g
netic pulleys ha ndle the remova l of iron from va ri
ous screened fra ctions. A la rg e sla g ma rk et is in the
ma nufa cture of minera l wool, for which 5 cm to8
cm lump is preferred. M uch of the 3 cm fra ction is
usedin roa dbuilding . C rushedsla g ha s a very desir
a ble pa rticle sha pe a minimum of sla bby or splin
tery pa rticles a ndhence the l cm size is preferred
toother ma teria ls for industria l roofing (fla t roofs),
a nd finer sizes a re used a lsoa s g ra nules in a spha lt
shing les.
Expa nded sla g wa s formerly ha ndled in a sepa
ra te but simila r crushing circuit. It wa s a lsoreceived
by truck from the steel pla nts where it wa s ma de by
a dding wa ter tothe molten sla g in fa cilities set up by
Na tiona l Sla g . The explosive evolution of stea m re
sulted in increa sed porosity. Bulk densities of the
crushed products ra ng ed between 670 a nd 880
k g /m3, lig hter densities fa vouring the coa rser prod
ucts.
Na tiona l Sla g pioneered the development of a
process for producing coa ted expa nded a g g reg a te,
a nd in 1 968 beg a n its commercia l production. The
technique is now extensively used worldwide. The
sla g strea m is expa nded by wa ter spra ys, then de
flected a nd propelled by the fins of a revolving
drum. C ellula r sla g droplets a re chilled a nd sea led
during their pa ssa g e throug h the a ir toa collecting
a rea . The process benefits by producing a superior
product a nd by sea ling in much of the sulphurous
g a ses formerly relea sed to the a tmosphere. Ex
pa ndedsla g g ra nules a re producedin controlledsize
ra ng es of l to1 0 mm, with bulk densities of 840 to
1 070 k g /m3.
En er con In c.
In the ea rly 1 970s, Enercon Ltd. of Toronto, devel
oped a nd insta lled a n a sh beneficia tion pla nt a t the
La k eview Genera ting Sta tion.7 The pla nt wa s devel
oped toco-produce lig htweig ht a g g reg a te a nd poz-
zola ns with concurrent sepa ra tion of other va lua ble
fra ctions from the a sh. A la rg e pilot fa cility wa s con
structed in M ississa ug a , Onta rio, but nosig nifica nt
commercia l production occurred, a nd the pla nt ha s
been disma ntled.4
Clay St Shale Industries of Ontario 83

DECLINE OF THE EXPANDED AGGREGATE
INDUSTRY IN NORTH AMERICA
In the lig ht of the previously noted reductions in
production of expa nded cla y a nd sha le a g g reg a tes,
both in C a na da a ndthe U.S., a ndthe closure of the
only pla nt in Onta rio, it is useful to exa mine the
ma nner of this decline a nd its proba ble ca uses.
A number of fa ctors a ppea r toha ve a ffectedthe
industry in North America a t a bout the sa me time.
Firstly, sta rting in 1 973, crude oil a nd hence other
energ y costs rose dra ma tica lly (Fig ure 7.2). Sec
ondly, throug hout the 1 960s a nd 1 970s, the North
America n public beca me a wa re of the ha za rds of
industria l pollution, a nd considera ble pressure wa s
exerted throug h leg isla tion a nd reg ula tion toreduce
a ll industria l emissions. Thirdly, the North Ameri
ca n economy went throug h a recession second only
totha t of the 1 930s. This resulted in a substa ntia l
slowing of the ra te of spending on new construction
a nd severely limited ma rk ets for construction prod
ucts. Fina lly, new products enteredthe construction
ma rk etpla ce, such a s pelletized sla g a nd repla ce
ments for concrete block .
Cost of Fuel
M ention ha s a lrea dy been ma de of the fuel cost in
crea ses fa ced by U.S. producers over the period
1 982 to1 985. These were imposed a fter the ma jor
increa ses of the 1 970s. There is nomea ns toseg re
g a te fuel costs a s a principa l fa ctor in the decline of
the U.S. industry, beca use fuel costs were la rg ely a
ca use of other recessiona ry problems. However, the
3 1 2
o 1 0
H 6
IMPORTED OIL PRICE l
U.S. PRODUCTION OF
LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE
" CANADIAN PRODUCTION OF
LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE
DOMESTIC OIL PRICE
245:'
<
200
t
1 6 5
4
1 2
B
4
1 970 71 72 74 75 76
YEAR
78 79 I960
Figure 7 .2 Imported and domestic oil prices since
197 0 , in current Canadian dollars per barrel
compared with lightweight aggregate production.
potentia l influence of fuel costs on production costs
for expa nded a g g reg a te is sig nifica nt, a nd a chrono
log ica l correla tion is clea rly seen in the U.S. da ta
shown in Fig ure 7.2, with severe production cuts
following immedia tely upon the first of the ra pid oil
cost increa ses. Of interest is the observa tion tha t
C a na dia n production wa s una ffected by either of
the ma jor oil price increa ses. The decline of the C a
na dia n industry occurred a fter 1 981 when oil prices
were much less vola tile.
Expan ded Aggr egat e Pr oduct i on an d
Con st r uct i on Act i vi t y , 1 975 t o 1 984
Canada
In Ta ble 7.1 0 the a nnua l production da ta for lig ht
weig ht a g g reg a te from expa nded cla y a nd sha le a re
reported for the yea rs 1 975 to1 984. For compa ri
son, a nnua l construction a ctivity in S (current) a nd
S(1 975) is reported for the sa me period.
C onsidering the da ta on production from 1 975
to 1 980, C a na dia n production wa s rela tively con
sta nt, fluctua ting from lows of 520,000 m3 tohig hs
of 660,000 m3. In 1 981 a decline in production
sta rted, in step with a sha rp fa ll in the a vera g e va lue
in both S (current) a nd S (l975) of the product.
From 1 981 to 1 984 production fell by 71 percent
from 520,000 m3. C oncurrently, prices rose in
S (current) but were eroded by infla tion a nd re
ma inedla rg ely uncha ng edfrom their 1 979, previous
pea k va lue, in S (1 975).
During the sa me period, 1 975 to1 984, the tota l
va lue of C a na dia n construction, considered in
S(1 975), rose toa pea k in 1 981 a nd then declined
slig htly (by 1 8 percent) to1 984. The ma g nitude of
the cycle in construction wa s fa r less tha n tha t for
expa ndeda g g reg a te. Includedin Ta ble 7.1 0 a re two
computed "Utiliza tion Fa ctors" rela ting the a nnua l
qua ntity of a g g reg a te produced tothe va lue of C a
na dia n construction for both S (current) a nd
5(1 975).
C lea rly, it is a ppa rent tha t with or without the
influence of infla tion on the costs of construction,
lig htweig ht a g g reg a te stea dily lost its pla ce a s a con
struction ma teria l in C a na da from 1 976 on.
Uni ted States
Ta ble 7.1 1 shows simila r da ta (a vera g e va lues a re
not a va ila ble for expa nded a g g reg a te from U.S.
sources) for U.S. production of expa nded cla y,
sha le a nd sla te. While less severe, the pa ttern is
simila r totha t for C a na dia n production, with reduc
tion in qua ntity produced being reported for 9 out
of 1 1 consecutive yea rs.
84 Clay St, Shale Industries of Ontario
TABLE 7.1 0 PRODUCTION OF LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE AND TOTAL VALUE OF CONSTRUCTION
IN CANADA, 1 975 TO 1 984.
Year
m3
Pr oduct i on
Chan ge Val ue
f c S (000)
Avg. Pr i ce (l /m3)
S(cur r en t ) 1 (1 975)
S(ml l l l on s)
Con st r uct i on Val ue
S(cur r en t ) S(1 975)
Ut i l i zat i on Fact or
m3/! (mi l l i on )
S (cur r en t ) S (1 975)
1 975
1 976
1 977
1 978
1 979
1 980
1 981
1 982
1 983
1 984
566,254
661 ,908
576,637
520,752
521 ,71 8
624,069
51 9,809
260,247
204,284
1 49,524
-
16.89
- 12.88
- 9.69
0 .19
19.62
- 16.7 1
- 49.93
- 21.50
- 26.81
5,422
7 ,530
6,920
6,892
8,486
10 ,261
7 ,0 91
5,832
5,0 50
3,560
9.58
1 1 .38
1 2.00
1 3.23
1 6.27
1 6.44
1 3.64
22.41
24.72
23.81
9.58
1 0.39
1 0.24
1 0.60
1 1 .81
1 0.75
8.1 0
1 1 .96
1 2.47
1 1 .69
28,376
33,1 31
35,803
38,1 90
43,023
48,327
56,884
56,065
55,948
56,1 30
28,376
30,253
30,499
30,31 6
30,776
31 ,604
33,787
29,932
28,222
27,557
20.0
20.0
16.1
1 3.8
1 2.3
1 2.9
9.1
4.6
3.7
2.7
20.0
21 .9
1 8.9
1 7.2
1 7.0
1 9.7
1 5.4
8.7
7.2
5.4
Sour ces:
(a) Dat a on t he pr oduct i on of l i ght wei ght aggr egat e wer e t aken f r om r el evan t i ssues of " Can adi an Mi n er al s Year book" (44)
(b) Def l at or f or S (Can adi an ) based upon 1 985 s 1 00 f r om r ef er en ce(46)
(c) Val ue of con st r uct i on f r om r ef er en ce(43)^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
TAB LE 7.11
Ye ar
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
PRODUCTION OF LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE AND TOTAL VALUE OF CONSTRUCTION
IN UNITED STATES, 1 973 TO 1 984.
Pr oduct i on
Short
Tons
(X 10 0 0 )
11,658
10 ,0 31
8,139
6,181
6,258
6,190
5,681
5,438
4,917
4,0 34
4,396
4,37 8
yd3*
13,285,47 0
11,431,339
9,27 5,214
7 ,0 43,87 5
7 ,131,624
7 ,0 54,131
6,47 4,0 7 4
6,197 ,151
5,60 3,419
4,597 ,151
5,0 0 9,687
4,989,17 4
m3*
10 ,157 ,47 1
8,7 39,886
7 ,0 91,410
5,385,429
5,452,518
5,393,27 0
4,949,7 85
4,7 38,0 62
4.284,121
3,514,7 7 4
3,830 ,180
3,814,497
ft Chang*
-
- 13.96
- 18.86
- 24.0 6
1.25
- 1.0 9
- 8.22
- 4.28
- 9.58
- 17 .96
8.97
- 0 .41
Con st r uct i on Val ue
SUS(bi l l i on ) S (1 977)
1 36
1 51
174
206
230
231
238
230
* Cal cul at ed val ues based upon un i t wei ght of 65 Ib/f t 3 f or l i ght wei ght aggr egat e.
Sour ces:
(a) Pr oduct i on dat a f r om U.S. Bur eau of Mi n es(2)
(b) Con st r uct i on val ue f r om U.S. Bur eau of Cen sus(47)
15 2
163
174
182
179
161
15 8
15 1
167
182
Ut i l i zat i on Fact or
m37(mi l l i on )
S (cur r en t ) S (1 977)
52.1
35,
31,
26
21 ,
20.5
1 6.0
15.3
46.7
33.0
31 .3
29.6
27.7
29.4
27.2
23.3
22.9
21 .0
In a nnua l reviews of the sta tus of lig htweig ht a g
g reg a te production, a s ea ch decline ha s been re
ported, it ha s been a ttributedtoslowing of construc
tion a ctivity. 1 However, a na lysis of the da ta in Ta ble
7.1 1 shows tha t a lthoug h a ma jor cycle ha s occurred
in construction a ctivity in the United Sta tes (pea k
ing in 1 978 a ndfa lling toa minimum in 1 982, when
consideredin S(1 977)), nocorresponding cycle ha s
a ppea red in sa les of expa nded a g g reg a te. As the
utiliza tion fa ctors show, in spite of optimistic fore
ca sts in the tra de litera ture, the industry ha s shown
a stea dy reduction in its position in the construction
ma rk etpla ce.
Expan ded Aggr egat e Pr oduct i on an d t he
Con cr et e Pr oduct s Man uf act ur i n g In dust r y
Canada
In Ta ble 7.1 2 the distribution of consumption of ex
pa ndedcla y a nd sha le a g g reg a tes by enduse is pre
sented. As is seen, some 75 to80 percent of the
a g g reg a te produced is used in concrete block . A
simila r distribution of use is reported for the United
Sta tes (see below). The da ta in Ta ble 7.1 2 a re
somewha t mislea ding in tha t a percenta g e of declin
ing tota l qua ntity of ma teria l is reported (see Ta ble
7.1 0). A more rea listic a pprecia tion ca n be formed
TABLE 7.1 2 CANADIAN CONSUMPTION OF EXPANDED CLAY AND SHALE
PERCENTAGE BY END USE, 1 979 t o 1 984. (44)
Product Type
Concrete block
Precast concrete
Ready- mixed
concrete
Miscellaneous
197 9
7 4.7
6.4
13.7
5.2
1980
7 9.2
4.3
13.3
3.2
Percent
1981
7 6.7
6.5
14.6
2.2
1982
7 8.7
11.5
4.3
5.5
1983
80 .6
7 .8
6.5
5.1
TABLE 7.1 3 VALUE OF CANADIAN MANUFACTURED CONCRETE PRODUCTS,
1 979 TO 1 983.
Pr oduct Ty pe
Concrete block
(SIC 354)
Pr ecast con cr et e
(SIC 3542)
Ready -mi xed
con cr et e
(SIC 3551 )
1 979 1 980 1 981 1 982
Val ue shi pped, t housan d S (cur r en t )
1 4,795
1 29,271
687,898
1 4,396
1 44,870
736,484
1 5,988
228,522
905,471
1 1 ,31 2
263,431
843,469
Con cr et e bl ock 1 0,746
(SIC 354)
Pr ecast con cr et e 93,894
(SIC 3542)
Ready -mi xed 499,645
con cr et e
(SIC 3551 )
Sour ces: St at i st i cs Can ada
CAT. 44-21 9
CAT. 44-21 1
CAT. 44-205
Val ue shi pped, t housan d S(1 975)
9,41 4 9,496 6,039
94,740 1 35,733 1 40,642
481 ,634 537,81 2 450,31 5
1 983
8,864
201 ,632
864,023
4,471
1 01 ,71 0
435,844
by considera tion of the va lue of product shippedby
end use, presented in Ta ble 7.1 3 in current a nd
(1 975) dolla rs.
In Ta ble 7.1 4 a n a na lysis is g iven in terms of the
distribution of qua ntity shipped, va lue in S (current)
a ndthe proportion of the va lue of the enduse prod
uct tha t is representedby the va lue of the a g g reg a te.
From these da ta , it is rea sona ble tonote tha t,
C a na da wide, from 1 979 to1 983 the following g en
era l fa ctors a re a ppa rent.
1 . The concrete block ma rk et fell from S1 4.8 mil
lion toS8.9 million. In terms of consta nt dolla rs
(1 975), this decline wa s from S1 0.7 million to
S 4.5 million. With a corresponding fa ll in unit
shipments from 25.5 million to8.9 million.
2. With the exception of uneven performa nce in
1 980-1 981 , the va lue of lig htweig ht a g g reg a te,
a s a proportion of the va lue of shippedconcrete
block , rema ined rela tively uncha ng ed a t 43 to
46 percent.
3. During the sa me period, both preca st concrete
a nd rea dy-mix concrete shipments ma inta ined
a rela tively consta nt va lue (in 1 975 dolla rs).
However, the sha re of the va lue a lloca ted to
lig htweig ht a g g reg a te in both of these products
fell from 0.42 to0.20 percent in preca st, a nd
from 0.1 7 to0.04 percent in rea dy-mixed con
crete.
Thus, a lthoug h the proportion of expa nded a g
g reg a te sold toblock increa sed, consumption de
clined with the declining ma rk et for block . At the
sa me time, expa ndeda g g reg a te fa iledtoma inta in its
sma ll position a s a ma teria l for other construction
products.
It must be concluded tha t the decline in use of
concrete block (with possibly some competition
from sla g ) wa s the ma jor influence on the decline of
the C a na dia n expa ndeda g g reg a te industry. This wa s
86
TABLE 7.1 4 ANALYSIS OF CANADIAN CONSUMPTION OF EXPANDED CLAY AND
SHALE IN CONCRETE PRODUCTS, 1 979 TO 1 983.
Pr oduct Ty pe
Concrete block
Precast concrete
Ready- mixed concrete
Concrete block
Precast concrete
1 979
389,723
33,390
71 ,475
6,339,042
543,1 04
1 ,1 62,582
1 980 1 981 1 982
Cal cul at ed con sumpt i on (m37y ear )
494,263
26,835
83,001
398,694
33,788
75,892
204,81 4
29,928
1 1 ,1 91
Cal cul at ed Val ue (S (cur r en t )/y ear )
8,1 26,71 2
441 ,223
1 ,364,71 3
5,438,797
460,91 5
1 ,035,286
4,589,784
670,680
250,776
1 983
1 64,652
1 5,934
1 3,279
4,070,300
393,900
328,250
Val ue of aggr egat e as per cen t of val ue of f i n i shed pr oduct
Concrete block
Precast concrete
42.85
0 .42
0 .17
56.5
0 .25
0 .19
34.0
0 .20
0 .11
40 .6
0 .25
0 .0 3
45.9
0 .20
0 .0 4
TABLE 7.1 5 U.S. CONSUMPTION OF EXPANDED CLAY AND SHALE BY END USE, 1 979 TO 1 984. (1 )
Pr oduct
Ty pe
Concrete
block
Structural
concrete
Highway
surfacing
Other
Tot al
1 979
3,804,1 38
1 ,261 ,981
470,894
no data
5,537,01 3
1 980
3,554,894
1 ,357,060
346,1 07
1 79,568
5,437,629
1981
Short tons
2,983,586
1,550 ,0 7 4
230 ,856
129,246
4,893,7 62
1982
2,152,0 47
1,259,189
236,688
384,40 3
4,0 34,327
1 983
2,480,786
1 ,322,067
288,276
304,61 6
4,395,445
1 984
2,671 ,21 0
1 ,1 94,245
447,774
64,709
4,377,938
Per cen t age di st r i but i on
Concrete
block
Structural
concrete
Highway
surfacing
Other
68.7
22.8
8.5
65.4
24.9
6.3
3.3
61.0
31.7
4.7
2.6
53.34
31.2
5.9
9.5
56.4
30 .1
6.5
6.9
61.0
27 .3
10 .2
1.5
not compensa ted for by a n increa se in utiliza tion in
other products.
Uni ted States
In the United Sta tes, a lthoug h da ta a re reported1
differently (Ta ble 7.1 5), the g enera l pa ttern of end
use is simila r, with concrete block being the ma jor
consumer of expa nded a g g reg a te. In compa rison
with C a na da , the producers of expa nded a g g reg a te
depend less on concrete block (53 to69 percent)
a ndmore on concrete for structura l purposes (23 to
32 percent) for their ma rk ets. As in C a na da , the
dema nd from the concrete block industry ha s fa llen
somewha t, but less dra stica lly. Some sig ns of recov
ery a re a ppa rent in 1 983-1 984.
H. C . R obinson (M a na g ing Director, Expa nded
C la y, Sha le a nd Sla te Institute) ha s been quoted37
a s noting tha t the expa nded a g g reg a te industry is
"ma k ing hea dwa y in reca pturing the wa ll a nd di
vider wa ll ma rk et from the ma nufa cturers of steel
stud wa lls a nd the sheet rock people".
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Over the pa st 30 yea rs, the production of expa nded
a g g reg a te from cla y a nd sha le in C a na da ha s pa ssed
throug h one complete cycle of g rowth a nd decline,
from its 1 954 production level of 1 30,000 m3 toa
pea k of 625,000 m3 by 1 984, with little evidence of
immedia te recovery in the nea r term.
In 1 976 the Editor of Industria l M inera ls,
R .F.S. Fleming , 1 7 a ddressed the question "Ha ve
lig htweig ht a g g reg a tes a promising future a nd, if so,
which ones? " in the following wa y.
"It is g enera lly considered tha t they ha ve a
promising future a ll rig ht but it is so fa r a wa y
tha t the best wa y tolose money is tog o into
lig htweig ht a g g reg a tes in the present. This
chronolog ic provisoa lludes tothe hig h a nd ris
ing cost of hea t-processing tha t ma ny of them
require, toproduce in ma ny ca ses a n a g g reg a te
with few a dva nta g es a ndindeedma ny disa dva n
ta g es a s compa red with a dense a g g reg a te lik e
sa nda ndg ra vel, which needs only tobe dug up,
wa shed a nd g ra ded, a nd which ma k es a
strong er concrete, requiring less reinforcing .
The Verney C ommittee, whose report on the
future of U.K . a g g reg a tes in g enera l wa s pub
lished la st June (1 976), wa s in fa ct somewha t
sceptica l a bout the future prospects for lig ht
weig ht a g g reg a tes.
"All this sug g ests tha t, tosecure a g rowing ma r
k et, a lig htweig ht a g g reg a te ha s tooffer some
thing more tha n lig htness in weig ht, a s well a s be
competitive in initia l cost. If, for insta nce, it ca n
offer continuing sa ving s over a long term, such
a s sa ving s in energ y for hea ting a building
throug h exceptiona lly g ood insula tion proper
ties, then it should be a ssured of a secure fu
ture."
C lea rly, the promise ha s not been fulfilled in
C a na da or in the United Sta tes. If ma rk ets a re tobe
developed in Onta rio for lig htweig ht a g g reg a te, a
number of fa ctors will ha ve tobe met:
o uses must be found, on a substa ntia l sca le, in
products tha t ha ve displa ced concrete block
from the construction industry;
o a broa dra ng e of uses must be soug ht toprevent
dependency upon one prima ry ma rk et seg ment;
o low energ y consumption production methods
from low-cost ra w ma teria ls will ha ve tobe de
veloped;
o use in hig hwa y pa vement should be investig a ted
a nd exploited if a ppropria te.
All of these require substa ntia l expenditure on
resea rch, development a nd ca pita l pla nt. Given tha t
there is now noproducer of lig htweig ht a g g reg a te
from cla y or sha le in Onta rioa nd tha t competition
from expa nded sla g is lik ely torema in strong , it
seems unlik ely tha t investment ca pita l will move into
this a ctivity in the short term.
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33. Pfeifer, D. W. "Fly Ash Ag g reg a te Lig htweig ht C on
crete", Portla nd C ement Assoc., R esea rch a nd Devel
opment Bulletin, 1 969, America n C oncrete
Institute, Journa l, M a r. 1 971 .
34. Pha len, Jr., T. E. "Development of Expa nded Sha les a s
a Ba se Ag g reg a te for Lig htweig ht Insula ting C oncrete in
R oofs a nd Wa lls", Proceeding s: Adva nces in M a teri
a ls Technolog y in the America s, 6th Intera merica n C on
ference on M a teria ls Technolog y, Sa n Fra nscisco.Aug .
1 2-1 5, 1 980, America n Society of M eta llurg ica l Eng i
neers, Vol. l, 1 980.
35. R icha rd, T. W. "C reep a nd Drying Shrink a g e of Lig ht
weig ht a nd Norma l weig ht C oncretes", US Na tiona l
Technica l Informa tion Service, R eport PB 1 9521 3,
M a rch 4, 1 964.
36. R iley, C . M . "R ela tion of C hemica l Properties tothe
Bloa ting of C la ys", Journa l America n C era mic Society,
Vol. 30, No. 4, p. 1 21 -1 28, 1 951 .
37. R obertson, J. L., "Lig htweig ht Ag g reg a te: 596 In
crea se", R ock Products, p.52-53, Dec. 1 985.
38. R obinson, H. C ., M a na g ing Director, Expa nded C la y,
Sha le a nd Sla te Institute, R ock ville, M a ryla nd,
Ja n. 1 986.
39. R ohrba ch, H. J. "Production of Expa nded Sha le a nd
C la y", C a na dia n Pa tent 1 ,1 45,543, M a y 3, 1 983.
40. R uk a vina , M . "TXI Offers Precoa ted Product", R ock
Products, p.36-39, Oct. 1 985.
41 . Sha nnon, J. J. "Anti-Pollution M a chine Boosts Sla g
Ag g reg a te Output", R ock Products, p.82-83, Nov.
1 970.
42. Sherwen, R . G. "M ethod a nd Appa ra tus for Producing
Fired M a teria l", Germa n Pa tent 2,809,224, Sept. 7,
1 978.
43. Sta tistics C a na da . "C onstruction in C a na da ", C AT.
64-201 , 1 983.
44. Stonehouse.D. "M inera l Ag g reg a tes" C a na dia n M in
era ls Y ea rbook , 1 970 to 1 983,
45. Stonehouse, D. H. "M inera l Ag g reg a tes 1 983-84",
C a na dia n M inera ls Y ea rbook , 1 983-1 984.
46. Stonehouse, D., Advisor, M inera l Policy Bra nch, En
erg y, M ines a nd R esources, C a na da ,
1 986.
47. U.S.C ensus, "Sta tistica l Abstra ct of the United Sta tes
1 985", 1 05th Edition, U.S. Burea u of the C ensus,
Wa shing ton, D.C ., 1 984.
48. U.S. Pa tent 3,594,1 42, 1 971 .
49. U.S. Pa tent 1 ,255,878, 1 91 8.
50. Utley, R . W., Lovell, L. H. a nd Spicer, T. S. "The
Prepa ra tion of C oa l R efuse for the M a nufa cture of
Lig htweig ht Ag g reg a te", Tra nsa ctions, Society of M in
ing Eng ineers of America n Inst. M ech. Eng ineers,
Vol.232, p.346-352, 1 965.
51 . Violetta , D. C . a nd Nelson, J. C . "Fly Ash Pelletiz-
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Eng ineers of America n Inst. M ech. Eng ineers, Feb.
1 966.
52. Vrublevsk y, L. E. "C a uses of Bloa ting in C la y R ock s",
Gla ss a ndC era mics, Vol. 1 9, No. l, 1 962.
Stek lo i K era mik a , Vol. 1 9, No. l, p. 22-24
1 962.)
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C la ys a nd Sha les in Onta rio", M ines Bra nch (C a na da ),
Technica l Bulletin TB51 , 1 963.
55. Wilson, H. S. "Improving Lig htweig ht Ag g reg a te Prop
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a da , M ines Bra nch Investig a tion R eport IR 71 -43, 35p.,
1 973.
56. Wilson, H. S., "Lig htweig ht Ag g reg a tes for Structura l
C oncrete", Energ y, M ines a nd R esources C a na da ,
C ANM ET R eport 76-1 2, 1 976.
57. Wilson, H. S. "A C ompa ra tive Study of Lig htweig ht
Ag g reg a tes in Structura l C oncrete", Energ y, M ines a nd
R esources C a na da , C ANM ET R eport 79-1 0, M a r.
1 979.
58. Wilson, H. S., "Lig htweig ht Ag g reg a tes: Properties,
Applica tions a nd Outlook ", Energ y, M ines a nd R e
sources C a na da , C ANM ET R eport 79-33, Aug . 1 979.
59. Wilson, H. S., "Assessment of a n Expa nded C la y 61 . Wilson, H. S., C a na dia n C entre for M inera l a nd En-
Lig htweig ht Ag g reg a te in Structura l C oncrete", Energ y, erg y Technolog y (C ANM ET), Otta wa , corn-
M ines a nd R esources C a na da , C ANM ET R eport Ja n 1 986
80-5E, Nov. 1 979.
60. Wilson, H. S., "Lig htweig ht Ag g reg a tes: Properties,
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1 980. g reg a tes ,Vol.5, No.2, p. 1 35-1 36, 1 983.
90 Clay A Shale Industries of Ontario
Part III Tile, Porcelain,
Whitewares and Refractories
Chapt er 8 Fl oor an d Wal l Ti l es
INTRODUCTION
C era mic floor a nd wa ll tiles tra ditiona lly ha ve been
ma de from mixtures of ba ll cla y, sa nd, fluxes a nd
colours, a nd in Europe these a re still commonly
used. In North America , wolla stonite, pyrophyllite,
ta lc a nd nepheline syenite a re a lsoimporta nt ing re
dients. The finely-g round mixtures a re sha ped by
hydra ulic pressing or extrusion, a nd ma y be g la zed,
ung la zed or eng obed in sing le or multiple firing
eyles. Tiles a re sold individua lly or in mosa ics a d
hering toa ra yon mesh ba ck ing . They a re usedboth
indoors a nd outdoors a s the finishing ma teria l for
wa lls, floors, swimming pools, k itchens a nd ba th
rooms.
World production is in excess of 700,000,000
m2 , of which Ita ly a ccounts for more tha n one-
third. The U.S.A. is recog nized a s a ma jor g rowth
a rea for floor a nd wa ll tile use. In recent yea rs,
C a na da ha s imported more tha n 90 percent of its
consumption.
Windsor C era mic Tile C a na da Limited, which
commenced production a t Windsor, Onta rio, in
1 985, is a n a ll-new, modern a nd hig hly-a utoma ted
fa cility, a nd the ma jor producer in C a na da . Grea t
La k es C era mics, lea sed the Thunderbrick pla nt a t
Thunder Ba y in 1 985, a ndpla ns toproduce split tile
for floor a pplica tions. D. A. White C ompa ny
Limited of K ing ston, the former Frontena c Floor
a nd Wa ll Tile C ompa ny, wa s closed in 1 982. The
pla nt ha s since been boug ht by Pilk ing ton C era mic
Tile a nd re-opened a s C lifton C era mic Tile.
PRODUCTS AND SPECIFICATIONS
C era mic floor a nd wa ll tiles a re building ma teria ls
specifica lly desig ned for use a s floor a nd wa ll cover
ing s, both interior a nd exterior. They ma y be
g la zed, ung la zed or eng obes. Gla zes a re impervious
g la ssy coa ting s; eng obes a re ma tte, cla y-ba sedcoa t
ing s which ma y be porous. In a pplica tion, they a re
fixed in pla ce by a dhesives, a nd the joints a re filled
by coloured cementitious g routs. Sma ller tiles ma y
be sold a s mosa ics, pre-a ssembled with a ra yon
mesh ba ck ing for ea sier a pplica tion.
There a re three principa l tile-forming proc
esses: extrusion, pressing a ndca sting . Extrudedtiles
a re formed in a pla stic sta te, either a s individua ls or
twoa tta ched for la ter splitting . Dry pressing usua lly
employs hydra ulic presses producing multiple num
bers of tiles with ea ch cycle. C a sting uses moulds
a nd cla y slips. In West Germa ny, Ha ndle a nd Ling l
ha ve jointly developed equipment toproduce thin
wa ll tile by a n electrophoresis technique.2 North
America n pra ctice recog nizes the following tile
types.
a re formed either by pressing
or extrusion. They a re usua lly 0.6 to 1 .0 cm
thick (1 /4 to3/8 inches), a nd ha ve a n a rea less
tha n 39 cm2 (6 squa re inches). They ma y be of
porcela in or na tura l cla y composition.
a re thin-bodied g la zed
tiles tha t a re usua lly non-vitreous, suita ble for
interior decora tive residentia l wa ll use where
streng th is not required.
a re g la zed or ung la zedporcela in or na tu
ra l cla y tiles formed by dry-pressing a nd being
39 cm2 (6 squa re inches) or more in size.
a re cera mic mosa ic or pa ver tiles tha t
a re dense, impervious, fine g ra ined a nd smooth
with sha rply formed edg es, g enera lly ma de by
dry-pressing .
a re g la zed or ung la zed tiles 39 cm2 (6
squa re inches) or more in size, ma de by extru
sion of na tura l cla y or sha le.
a re g la zed tiles suita ble for interior use;
they a re usua lly non-vitreous a nd a re not ex
pected towithsta nd excessive impa ct or be sub
jected tofreezing a nd tha wing .
Sta nda rds for cera mic floor a nd wa ll tiles a re
esta blished in the U.S.A. by the America n Society
for Testing a nd M a teria ls (ASTM ). Properties
mea sured a re listed in Ta ble 8.1 . Europea n sta n
da rds a re even more dema nding , with esta blished
specifica tions for wea r resista nce, linea r therma l ex
pa nsion, chemica l resista nce a nd frost resista nce in
a ddition to those covered by ASTM .4 Europea n
pra ctice cla ssifies tiles a ccording towa ter a bsorption
a s g iven in Ta ble 8.2.
TECHNOLOGY
The three principle ma nufa cturing techniques for
cera mic floor a nd wa ll tile a re extrusion, pressing
a nd ca sting . These a re sepa ra tely discussed in the
following notes, la rg ely ta k en from "Wa ll a nd Floor
Tiles"4.
92
TABLE 8.1 PROPERTIES SPECIFIED BY ASTM FOR
CERAMIC FLOOR AND WALL TILES. (4)
Gl azed
Wal l
Ti l e
Cer ami c
Mosai c
Ti l e
Quar r y
Ti l e
Paver
Ti l e
Non- destructive tests:
Thickness
Facial dimension
Spacers
Warpage
Wedging
Colour uniformity
Electrical properties
Destructive tests:
Water absorption
Crazing
Thermal shock
Bond strength
Breaking strength
Abrasive hardness
(glazed tile only)
EXTRUSION
Spl i t Ti l es
Split tiles a re extrudeda s double tiles, wea k ly joined
ba ck toba ck , a nd split intoindividua ls a fter firing .
C la ys of stonewa re qua lity a re a dequa te ra w ma teri
a ls, a ndOnta rio's brick sha les mig ht be suita ble, but
the Thunderbrick pla nt fa iled a t lea st in pa rt due to
poor qua lity cla y a nd sha le in the Thunder Ba y
a rea . Grea t La k es C era mics wa s re-opening the
Thunderbrick pla nt in 1 985, with pla ns to use a
cone 9 or 1 0 stonewa re cla y from R ock g len in
southern Sa sk a tchewa n for the exclusive production
of split floor tiles. Feldspa r or nepheline syenite ma y
be a ddedtolower the firing tempera ture, a nd sa nd
ma y be included toreduce pla sticity.
Va cuum extrusion using suita ble dies (Fig ure
8.1 ) in conventiona l brick a ndtile extruders (Photo
8.1 ) is followedby cutting ma chines desig nednot to
deform the tiles or lea ve ra g g ed or ridg ed edg es.
Tunnel dryers a re considered most fuel efficient.
Dried tiles a re a utoma tica lly sta ck ed on edg e for
pa ssa g e throug h one or more g la zing units, followed
TABLE 8.2 EUROPEAN TILE CLASSIFICATION.
Wat er Absor pt i on
Cl assi f i cat i on
Group l
Group II a
Group II b
Group III
less than 3
3 to 6
6 to 10
More than 10
by further drying . The ma in g la zes in use a re zircon
specified feldspa r g la zes, but for more rustic fin
ishes, g la zes ba sedon chea per ra w ma teria ls sucha s
ba sa lt, phonolite or pumice a re used.
After g la zing a nd further drying , the tiles a re
a utoma tica lly tra nsferred a nd sta ck ed on k iln ca rs.
Tunnel k ilns fired nea r the top a re preferred; en
erg y consumption with overhea d firing is 2700 to
3000 k J per k ilog ra m of tiles. Automa tic or ma nua l
unloa ding is followedby ma chine splitting a ndma n
ua l sorting .
Germa n sta nda rd DIN 1 91 66 defines split tiles
a s hig h streng th, wea ther a nd corrosion resista nt
components which a re divided intotwog roups a c
cording to a bsorption: for g rey-white tiles, mea n
wa ter a bsorption ma y not exceed 3 percent; for
colouredtiles, 6 percent. Fluctua tions in leng th a nd
CORE STIRRUP
CORE BAR
" BRAK E'
rs:^
- *-
P
1
3
3
^-
c
\
* . -
1
Not To Scale
Figure 8.1 Die design for split tile production.
Photo 8.1 Split
tile extrusion line.
brea dth ma y not exceed 1 0 percent. Specifica
tions a lsodea l with stra ig htness of edg e, corner a n
g les a nd evenness of surfa ce. The tile fa ce must be
uniform a nd free of cra zing a nd blisters. Bending
streng th must be a t lea st 20 M Pa . Scra tch resis
ta nce, therma l expa nsion, therma l shock resista nce,
colour a nd lig ht fa stness a lsoha ve desig na ted limits.
Frost a nd a cid resista nce is essentia l.
In di vi dual l y Ext r uded Ti l es
Both qua rry a nd mosa ic tiles ca n be individua lly
ma de by cutting a n extruded cla y strea m, followed
by g la zing , pressing a ndpunching . C oloured qua rry
tiles ca n be ma de from iron-rich illite sha les, such
a s Onta rio's brick sha les, using conventiona l prepa
ra tion a nd va cuum extrusion. Usua lly, a dry g la ze is
sifted from revolving screens ontothe cut pla stic
seg ments a ndis pressedintothe cla y surfa ce in such
a wa y a s to produce smooth or roug h surfa ces.
La rg er tiles ca n be produced by rolling out a n ex
truded seg ment. Firing ca n be effectively done in a
sing le la yer using roller hea rth k ilns.
Individua lly extruded tiles ca n be used on wa ll,
floor a nd fa ca de covering s. Europea n sta nda rds
specify frost resista nce in a ddition towa ter a bsorp
tion, but ASTM Specifica tion C 373 only specifies
wa ter a bsorption.
DRY PRESSING
Dry finely g round cla y bodies ca n be pressed in tile
moulds under hig hpressure a ndsubsequently g la zed
if desired. Gla zing , however, is norma l, a nd multi
ple firing is common. Sing le firing is g enera lly used
for stonewa re a ndcottoforte in Europe, a nd for mo
sa ic, pa ver, qua rry a nd g la zed wa ll tiles in the
U.S.A. But for thin ea rthenwa re, ma jolica a nd cot
toforte, twoor three firing s ma y be usedtofa cilita te
mecha nica l decora tion.
In Europe, lig ht stonewa re is ba sed a lmost ex
clusively on ba ll cla ys plus feldspa r, qua rtz a nd re
jects. In the U.S.A., coloured stonewa re sometimes
uses sha le with firecla y a ndcha motte (ca lcinedpla s
tic k a olinitic cla y). The new Windsor C era mics
pla nt in southwestern Onta riouses a n Ohiofirecla y
with or without loca l surfa ce cla y a nd nepheline
syenite.
Ita lia n coloured cottoforte a nd simila r Spa nish
tiles a re sometimes ma de from a sing le loca l cla y
plus some ca lcined ma teria l. A typica l cottoforte
cla y ma y be hig hly ca lca reous, lik e ma ny Onta rio
surfa ce cla ys, a nd ha ve the properties a nd firing
cha ra cteristics shown in Ta ble 8.3.
In the U.S.A., pyrophyllite, ta lc a nd wolla s
tonite a re the principa l ra w ma teria ls for g rey-white
tile bodies. They permit energ y-efficient, sing le fa st
firing of wa ll tiles in sizes such a s 1 1 .4 cm x 1 1 .4 cm
(4-1 /2 x 4-1 /2 inches), 1 5.2 cm x 1 5.2 cm (6 x 6
inches) a nd 20.3 cm x 20.3 cm (8x8 inches).
94
TABLE 8.3 TYPICAL COLOURED COTTOFORTE CLAY. (4)
Chemi cal Composi t i on Cfc):
SI0 2
AI20 3
Fe20 3
Ti0 2
C a O
MgO
49.37
1 8.31
4.59
0.54
8.60
3.1 3
K2 0
Na2 O
S03
Cr COg
LOI
2.35
0.97
0.03
0.1 4
11.97
Fi r ed pr oper t i es:
Fi r i n g Li n ear Fi r i n g
Temper at ur e Shr i n kage
( 0 C) W
9 8 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 2 0
1 0 4 0
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.9
Fi r ed Wei ght
Loss
C*)
11.5
11.2
1 1 .0
1 1 .4
Wat er
Absor pt i on
CM
15.4
1 4.8
1 5.0
1 5.6
Fi r ed
Col our
Yellow
Pink
Pink
Pink
Pyrophyllite, (Al2 O3.4SiO2 .H2 O) when used a s
a pa rtia l substitute for flint a nd feldspa r in wa ll tile
bodies, contributes toa reduction in therma l expa n
sion, moisture expa nsion a nd contra ction.
Ta lc (3M g O.4SiO2 .H2 O) ma y constitute a s
much a s 50 percent of feldspa r-free bodies, or 1 0
percent of feldspa r-bea ring bodies. It permits ra pid
firing of the tile without cra zing of the g la ze.
Wolla stonite (C a O.SiO2 ) ma y constitute a s
much a s 50 percent of porous wa ll tile bodies, con
tributing reducedshrink a g e a ndg oodtherma l shock
resista nce.
Ta lc, wolla stonite a nd pyrophyllite a re little
used in Europe beca use they a re not rea dily a va il
a ble. Instea d, wa ll tile bodies conta in a s ma ny a s
fifteen different ing redients, including white firing
ca rbona ceous ba ll cla ys low in iron, ra w a ndrefined
k a olin, cha lk a nd feldspa r. In contra st to the
coloured Ita lia n a nd Spa nish bodies, this body fires
toa white tocrea m colour.
Some typica l tile body formula tions a re g iven in
Ta ble 8.4.
Prepa ra tion of floor a ndwa ll tile ba tches ca n be
either wet or dry (Fig ure 8.2). In the wet method,
a s ma ny of the ing redients a s possible a re prepa red
in a blung er, a nd the resulting slip is dried to4-6
percent moisture in a spra y dryer. Dry prepa ra tion
lends itself tosimple ba tch compositions of only a
few ing redients. Ha rdma teria ls such a s brok en tiles,
brick s a ndother cha mottes a re g round sepa ra tely in
tra ditiona l crushing a nd g rinding circuits before
mixing with cla ys. Prepa red ba tch ma teria ls a re
storedin silos before use, pa rtly toensure even dis
tribution of moisture content.
Hydra ulic tile presses ha ve mostly repla ced the
friction screw press. Pressing forces ca n ra ng e be
tween 1 000 k N a nd 1 0,000 k N, la rg er tiles requiring
g rea ter pressures tha n sma ller tiles. Pressing a g ents
a re sometimes a ddedtothe slip before spra y drying
to improve the bulk density a nd compressive
streng th of the tile.
In the sing le firing process, roller ba scule dryers
a re preferred before firing . Sta ck -loa ded tunnel
dryers, or vertica l dryers for individua l tiles, a re
usedin multiple firing processes. For cottoforte a nd
simila r products, prelimina ry drying ma y be neces
sa ry a hea d of tunnel dryers, but not when fa st dry
ers a re used. Hea t consumption of a t lea st 8 M J/k g
of eva pora tedwa ter is typica l of fa st dryers; 3 M J/k g
for tra ditiona l tunnel dryers, a nd 4 to5.3 M J/k g for
microwa ve dryers.
Open fla me tunnel k ilns a re tra ditiona lly used
for biscuit firing . White ea rthenwa re is fired a t
1 0000C to1 2300C ; cottoforte, cottoa nd ma jolica
a t a bout 1 0000C . Automa tic sta ck ing ma chines a re
used for loa ding k iln ca rs, a nd semi-a utoma tic
g ra bs a re used for unloa ding . Sorting for cra ck ed
a nd chippedtiles is not usua lly cost effective unless
rejects exceed 5 percent.
Biscuit wa re ma y be pa ck ed for shipment to
other finishing pla nts, or conveyed tothe g la zing
unit. R a w g la zes a re used a t a bout 1 2000C , a bout
the sa me tempera ture used for sing le fired stone
wa re. Frit g la zes require strong fluxes tolower their
firing tempera ture, a nd this ma y mea n reduced
chemica l resista nce in the finished g la ze. Fillers
such a s corundum, ca lcined a lumina a nd zircon
cfc
TABLE 8.4 TYPICAL TILE BODY FORMULATIONS. (3)
Ti l e Ty pe
Body
Conventional
European
Lime body
Ta lc
High wollastonite
Talc- pyrophillite
Quarry
Vitrified
clay body
Vitrified
clay body
Porosity
Porous
Porous
Porous
Porous
Porous
Porous
Vitrified
Vitrified
Body Col our
Whi t e
White
White
White
White
Red- brown
Various
Body For mul at i on (" X.)*
China clay
Ball clay
Quartz
Feldspar
China clay
Ball clay
Quartz
Feldspar
Lime
Talc
Ball clay
Wollastonite
Wollastonite
China clay
Quartz
Ta lc
Pyrophyllite
Ball clay
Quartz
Lime
Common clay
Feldspar
Ball clay
Feldspar
Talc
25
25
35
10
1 0
30
45
5
1 0
67
28
5
55
30
15
35
16
24
1 7
8
80-90
1 0-20
70
20
1 0
Ball clay or
plastic fireclay 95- 10 0
Small amounts of fluxes
* Most body formulations Include about 50X o of milled rejected fired
tiles. Other small additions include glass cullet, and pigments where
coloured or speckled bodies are required.
provide wea r resista nce in floor tiles. Fa shion dic
ta tes whether pla in smooth g la zes or rustic textures
a re in dema nd.
Frits a nd cera mic colours a re ma de a lmost ex
clusively by specia list firms. C olour uniformity a nd
the a bility toreproduce previous colours in precise
sha des is a ma jor problem in the tile industry. A
colour compa rison test is widely used a s a ba sis for
a ccepta ble wa re. Besides colour, the physica l prop
erties of ma jor interest in tile-ma k ing a re density,
coefficient of expa nsion a ndsoftening tempera ture.
Gla zes ca n be a ppliedin a va riety of wa ys. Press
g la zing a pplies a dry g la ze ontothe g reen tile body
a t the sa me time a s it is being compressed intoits
mould. For this process, the g la ze is dried a nd
g ra nula ted in a spra y dryer.7 Dry g la zing is usua lly
a ppliedtog reen tiles tha t ha ve been conditionedby
a sizing solution, then finished in a sing le firing cy
cle. Simila r g la zing ma chines a re used for the wet
g la zing of tile bodies for sing le or multiple firing .
Tile decora ting techniques include ha nd pa int
ing , tra nsfers a nd screen printing . Ha nd pa inting
ha s long been a n a rt in southern Europea n countries
where tra ditiona lly it wa s done on the ra w g la ze. In
crea sing ly, it is now being done on g lost wa re which
fa cilita tes stora g e a nd tra nsport with minima l da m
a g e. Ha nd pa inted tra nsfers a re a n indirect ha nd
pa inting technique tha t doesn't require the a rtist to
spend long hours in the fa ctory. However, printing ,
using the silk screen, is the principa l tile decora ting
process toda y. Up tofour colours ca n be printedby
the indirect screen process, permitting either under-
g la ze or ong la ze decora tion. When there a re more
tha n four colours, tra nsfers a re usua lly necessa ry.
Silk screen printing requires the prepa ra tion of
printing media a nd colour in suita ble g rinding mills,
96
BALL CLAYS AND OTHER RAW MATERIALS
Figure 8.2 Unit operations associated with wet
preparation compared to spray drying.
DRUM WITH SCREENS
CHAIN
Figure 8.3 Rotary screen printing of tiles.
resulting in a pa ste with predetermined Theolog ica l
properties a nd consistency. Screen printing units
ca n opera te either periodica lly or continuously. Fla t
screen printers a re periodic a nd ca n print sing le or
severa l tiles a t the sa me time, ma ximum output be
ing a bout 1 00 tiles per minute. C ontinuous rota ry
screen printing (Fig ure 8.3) ca n norma lly produce
1 30 to21 0 tiles per minute, but the system is often
limited totwocolours beca use of hig h opera tiona l
speeds a nd slig htly lower precision.
A more deta iled discussion of tile decora ting is
g iven by Drews.4
ONTARIO PRODUCERS
Until 1 982, there were four C a na dia n producers of
cera mic floor a nd wa ll tiles. These were D. A.
White C o. Ltd. in K ing ston, H a nd R Johnson
(C a na da ) Ltd. in Ha milton, M a ple Lea f C era mic
Industries Ltd. in M ontrea l, a ndPolyk er Inc. in Be-
ca ncour. D. A. White, Polyk er a nd H a nd R
Johnson (C a na da ) Ltd. ha ve since cea sed opera
tion. H a nd R Johnson wa s importing 400,000 to
600,000 m2 of bisque a nnua lly for conversion into
semi-decora ted wa ll tiles. 1
Three new Onta rioproducers in 1 985, Windsor
C era mic Tile C a na da Ltd., C lifton C era mic Tile a nd
Grea t La k es C era mics, a re described on the follow
ing pa g es. A list of the a ddresses of the opera ting
tile pla nts is g iven a t the end of this cha pter.
WINDSOR CERAMIC TILE CANADA LIMITED
A ma jor a ddition toC a na da 's productive ca pa city
for floor a nd wa ll tiles wa s the esta blishment of
Windsor C era mic Tile in Windsor. It commenced
opera tion in 1 985. Tota l ca pita l investment wa s sa id
tobe S32 million.
M a k ing use of a n existing building conta ining
1 2,000 m2 of floor spa ce, the a ll new production
equipment wa s eng ineereda nd suppliedby the Ger
ma n firm of R iedha mmer Industrieofenba n GmbH.
The pla nt incorpora tes the la test foreig n technolog y
in its process.
A la rg e covered stora g e a rea conta ins stock piles
of Pennsylva nia n-a g e undercla y from the C a nton
a rea of northea stern Ohio, a nd surfa ce cla y from
the M cGreg or qua rry of Allied C hemica l of C a na da
Ltd., ea st of Amherstberg . Initia l production runs
were performed using a ba tch consisting of Ohio
cla y, surfa ce cla y from the M cGreg or qua rry a nd
nepheline syenite.
The cla ys a re recla imed by front-end loa der
a nd proportiona lly fed toa hopper which feeds two
flint pebble mills for wet g rinding . They a re dis
cha rg ed toone of twola rg e concrete a g ita tor ta nk s
6 m deep, sepa ra ted from ea ch other by filter
screens. Fina l chemica l a nd minera l a dditives a re
introduced a nd mixed a t this point. The slurry, a t
60 percent solids, is pumpedtothe Dorst spra y dry
er 20 m hig h. It is g a s fired to 5000C , reducing
moisture content to 8 percent, a nd is ca pa ble of
eva pora ting 3,000 litres of wa ter per hour for a pro-
duction of 4.5 tonnes of pa lletized g ra nules per
hour. These a re stored in two70-tonne silos for ul
tima te delivery tothe tile process.
Seven Dorst tile presses a re fed by overhea d
buck et conveyors. Sixty 5 cm x 5 cm tiles ca n be
pressed with ea ch cycle a nd tra nsferred tothe g la z
ing conveyor by suction pick -up (Photo 8.2).
Gla zes a re a ppliedwet in a spra y hoodtha t encloses
the conveyor (Photo8.3). Fifteen colours, including
five decora tor colours, ha ve been developed for the
Photo 8.2 Tile
press and
pneumatic trans
fer arm. Windsor
Ceramic Tile
Canada Ltd.
Photo 8.3 Glaze hood. Windsor
Ceramic Tile Canada Ltd.
98
Photo 8.4
Production line at
Windsor Ceramic
Tile Canada Ltd.
lines, is a va ila ble for compa ny resea rch a nd
tra ct studies.
GREAT LAKES CERAMICS
Grea t La k es C era mics is a new compa ny tha t, in
1 985. lea sedthe Thunderbrick pla nt a t R osslyn, 1 0
k m west of Thunder Ba y. Grea t La k es C era mics ex
pect tosta rt production of on-g la zed qua rry tile in
1 986. They a nticipa te a sta rting production ra te of
~2 million squa re feet/yea r (1 86,000 m2 ). The tiles
were tobe ma de using a stonewa re cla y from R ock -
g len in southern Sa sk a tchewa n instea d of the loca l
cla y a nd sha le which ha d not proved suita ble for
Thunderbrick in their a ttempt toma k e both brick s
a ndsplit floor tiles. Loca l feldspa r wa s being consid
ered a s a flux toreduce the cone 9-1 0 firing ra ng e
of the stonewa re cla y.
The Thunderbrick pla nt wa s eng ineered a nd
desig nedby the Germa n firm Ling l in 1 976 a t a cost
of S4.8 million.5 It includes some crushing , g rind
ing , screening a nddrying equipment which wa s nec
essa ry for sha le processing , but ma y not be needed
with the Sa sk a tchewa n cla y. An a utoma tic ba tch
weig hing system will, however, be used in the pro
duction of split tiles. A J.C . Steele wet pa n mixer
will be used with or without a pug mill, discha rg ing
to a Breitenba ck extruder. Extruded tiles will be
conveyed on pa llets toa holding room a nd dryer.
semi-ma tte a nd brig ht g la zed series. Pa stel, a ntique
a nd swimming pool series a re under development.
There a re three fa st-fire, sled-type, g a s-fired
tunnel k ilns, ea ch of which provides the combined
functions of prehea ting , firing a nd cooling . The fir
ing cycle is 35 to70 minutes, depending on the size
of the tile. Pea k firing tempera tures a re a bout
1 2000C a nd ea ch k iln is ca pa ble of producing
nea rly 3,000 m2 of tile per da y.
Finished tiles a re a utoma tica lly removed a nd
forwa rded for inspection, sorting a nd pa ck ing .
There a re four lines (Photo8.4) for mosa ic prepa
ra tion, a nd twenty sta ff on ea ch line a ffix tiles to
ra yon ba ck ing in va rious size units.
Althoug h initia l production will focus on g la zed
mosa ic, both brig ht a ndma tte, the compa ny's prod
uct line will a lsofea ture a g la zed texture series, un-
g la zed porcela in mosa ic, porcela in floor tile a nd
qua rry tile. Ultima te pla nt ca pa city is expected to
rea ch 2.3 million m2 of tile per yea r. Production will
be predomina ntly in the popula r 5 cm x 5 cm, 7.5
cm x 7.5 cm, a nd 1 0 cm x 1 0 cm sizes. The pla nt is
expected toemploy 1 75 yea r round.
An extensive resea rch la bora tory, including a
sma ller sca le complete duplica tion of the production
con-
The dried tiles will be sta ck ed on k iln ca rs by a
Ling l setting ma chine. The fibre-lined Ling l tunnel
k iln is top-fired with g a s a nd is 85 m long . Pa ired
tiles will be split a fter firing .
CLIFTON CERAMIC TILE
The pla nt, previously owned by D. A. White C o.
in K ing ston, closed in 1 982. It ha s since been re
opened a s C lifton C era mic Tile, owned by
Pilk ing ton C era mic Tile.
The pla nt opera tion ha s rema ined essentia lly
the sa me a s tha t used by the previous owners. The
equipment from the former opera tion is in use with
some upg ra ding a nd improvements effected. Proc
ess improvements a nd increa sed a utoma tion ha ve
a llowed the new owners tosubsta ntia lly increa se the
production throug hput per work er. They a re pres
ently opera ting with a sta ff of 30-40, a pproxima tely
4096 less employees tha n under D. A. White's op
era tion.
C lifton C era mic produces commercia l floor tile,
both g la zed a nd ung la zed. Process specifics a nd
production ra tes a re considered proprieta ry infor
ma tion a nd a re not a va ila ble for publica tion.
The compa ny a t present uses imported cla y us
ing the sa me sources a s D. A. White previously.
They ha ve a lsobeen involved in work investig a ting
the potentia l of severa l sa mples of northern Onta rio
cla y for tile production. This work ha s constituted
la bora tory testing a nd sma ll-sca le production tests.
At present, the cla ys a re not commercia lly mined
but the testing performed ha s indica ted tha t future
development is wa rra nted.
Worldproduction of cera mic floor a ndwa ll tiles wa s
a bout 700 million m2 in 1 983, orig ina ting from the
countries listed in Ta ble 8.5. Ita ly's domina nt posi
tion a ccounts for a bout 60 percent of West Euro-
TABLE 8.5 MAJOR PRODUCING COUNTRIES
FOR CERAMIC FLOOR AND WALL TILES. (9)
Per cen t of
Wor l d Pr oduct i on
pea n production. Ita ly's a nnua l production in 1 950
wa s 7 million m2 ; in 1 977 it wa s 260 million m2 , a
37-fold increa se.4
Foreig n technolog y in tile-ma k ing , especia lly in
Fra nce a nd Ita ly, ha s concentra ted on increa sed
a utoma tion a nd computerized process control. This
ha s ledtohig her production yields, closer control of
the process, thereby increa sing tile qua lity a nd a re
duction in ma nufa cturing cost by reducing la bour
expenses. By incorpora ting these improvements, a s
in the Windsor C era mic Tile pla nt, C a na da ca n
hope to improve its competitiveness in the world
ma rk et.
M a rk et dema nd for cera mic tile in C a na da in
crea sed a t a n a nnua l ra te of 7 percent from 1 976 to
1 980, rea ching a level of 9.3 million m2 in 1 981 . By
1 985 it wa s estima ted a t 1 2 million m2 . 1 0
A federa l study of the cera mic tile industry in
C a na da in 1 982 is the source of the following infor
ma tion on C a na da 's production a nd consumption. 1
Until 1 982 there were four C a na dia n producers, two
in Onta rioa nd twoin Quebec. These were:
o D. A. White C o. Ltd., K ing ston,
o H a nd R Johnson (C a na da ) Ltd., Ha milton,
o M a ple Lea f C era mic Industries Ltd., M ontrea l,
o Polyk er Inc., Beca ncour.
D. A. White C o. Ltd. of K ing ston cea sedop
era tions in 1 982. It ha d a n a nnua l ca pa city of
400,000 m2 of cera mic floor tiles.
H a nd R Johnson (C a na da ) Ltd. of Ha milton
wa s importing bisque from its pa rent compa ny a nd
converting it tosemi-decora ted wa ll tiles. Its a nnua l
ca pa city wa s a bout 500,000 m2 , 80 percent for ex
port tothe U.S.A.
M a ple Lea f C era mic Industries Ltd. of
M ontrea l, a wholly owned subsidia ry of Olympia
Floor a nd Wa ll Tile, wa s ma k ing pla in 1 0.8 cm x
1 0.8 cm wa ll tile. Pla nt ca pa city wa s a bout 700,000
m2 a nnua lly.
Polyk er Inc. of Beca ncour went intoba nk ruptcy
in 1 982. It wa s the most modern C a na dia n pla nt,
equipped with a g ood tunnel k iln a nd a new fa st
firing production line which wa s nea rly completed.
Annua l production of a bout 700,000 m2 of g la zed
Ita ly
Ja pa n
Bra zil
Spa in
Germa ny
Fra nce
U.S.A.
All Others
37
1 2
1 2
1 0
7
4
4
1 4
a iivi ung ia *.cv4 iiuui uico wa oa iiuwipa icu.
Tota l C a na dia n ca pa city with these four pla nts
opera ting wa s a bout 2.3 million m2 , but with both
floor tile pla nts closed, ca pa city wa s ha lveda ndlim
ited towa ll tiles. Lik ewise, employment in the in
dustry wa s ha lved toa bout 1 70. And since ha lf of
domestic production wa s exported tothe U.S.A.,
"95 percent of C a na da 's consumption wa s imported.
100
TABLE 8.6 ONTARIO IMPORTS OF CERAMIC TILE BY COUNTRY 1984. (8)
Quantity In m2
Tiles
Tiles, ceramic, Tiles, ceramic, earthenware,
floor and wall, floor and wall, 6 cm and
Country
United K ingdom
Malta
Denmark
France
Germany, West
Greece
Italy
Netherlands
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
Israel
Sri Lanka
Hong K ong
J apan
K orea, South
Taiwan
Thailand
Brazil
Mexico
United States
Total Quantity
Value (SOOO)
unfinished,
6 cm x 6 cm
166
0
0
0
1,486
0
47 ,686
0
0
33,315
0
0
0
0
219,7 56
7 7 ,67 3
0
4,0 13
0
0
2,835
386,930
3,0 44
6 cm x 6 cm
and over
113,290
0
2,314
19,557
7 9,158
636
2,230 ,0 35
23,30 3
132,868
1,667 ,527
11,0 12
117 ,583
4,0 42
0
465,662
0
0
7 ,926
10 1,7 82
18,352
9,488
5,0 0 4,536
33,457
Tiles, paving,
earthenware
22,241
0
0
0
31,37 8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1,60 2
57 ,221
591
Tiles, quarry,
earthenware
21
0
0
0
0
3,7 20
7 14
0
15,10 8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9,489
29,0 52
244
over, square,
unfinished
0
0
860
0
0
0
0
1,7 11
0
0
0
0
7 36
0
0
0
0
0
0
3,30 7
34
Tiles,
earthenware
not elsewhere
specified
16
1
0
0
16
0
0
26
0
8
0
0
0
12
2
0
1
0
0
23
10 8
213
-
New production of split tile in 1 985 by Grea t La k es
C era mics a t Thunder Ba y, a nd floor a nd wa ll tiles
by Windsor C era mic Tile C a na da Ltd. will la rg ely
be exported tothe U.S.A. C lea rly, a n opportunity
exists for g rea ter production for domestic ma rk ets.
Production in the U.S.A. a ccounts for a bout 60
percent of domestic consumption. The rest is im
ported ma inly from Ja pa n, Ita ly, M exicoa nd K o
rea . A brea k down of Onta riotile imports by country
is g iven in Ta ble 8.6.
C era mic floor a nd wa ll tiles a re enjoying a hig h
level of consumer dema nd in North America . Ita l
ia n tile ma k ers believe the U.S.A. ha s the g rea test
potentia l for g rowth in the world toda y, if only be
ca use of the present very low level of consumption.
Per ca pita use of cera mic tile is nea rly twice a s hig h
in C a na da a s in the U.S.A., six times a s hig h in
Bra zil a nd more tha n ten times in Ita ly.
During the period 1 976-1 981 new housing units
in the U.S.A. increa sed only 2 percent, while sa les
of cera mic tiles were up 1 4 percent. However,
remodelling of older homes increa seda bout 1 per
cent per yea r, consuming more cera mic tiles tha n
new construction. Andbeca use of fa ster setting a d-
hesives a nd g routs, the do-it-yourself sector now
represents 20 percent of the tota l U.S.A. ma r
k et.4, 6
MARKETING
A g oodsa les distribution network is essentia l for a ny
tile producer. Olympia Floor a nd Wa ll Tile C om
pa ny enjoys a bout 70 percent of the C a na dia n ma r
k et; C entra l Supply C ompa ny 1 0-1 2 percent. Only
1 0 percent of Olympia 's volume is ma nufa cturedby
its M ontrea l subsidia ry, M a ple Lea f C era mic Indus
tries; the rest is imported. C entra l Supply imports
most of its tiles, but ma rk ets some from H a nd R
Johnson. D. A. White a nd Polyk er ha d their own
distribution network . Some 30 to50 a dditiona l firms
a cross C a na da a re independent distributors. 1
In the U.S.A. there a re a bout 2,500 distributors
of cera mic tiles, led by a n effective C era mic Tile
Distributors' Associa tion. Their first premise is tha t
ma rk ets for cera mic tile exist wherever there a re
construction surfa ces, old or new. Furthermore, a ny
wa ll or floor, indoor or outdoor, ca n benefit from
cera mic tile. The Ita lia n tile tra de a ssocia tion ha s
invested in a multimillion dolla r consumer a dvertis
ing prog ra m a imed a t a rchitects, desig ners, distribu
tors a ndhomeowners in the U.S.A. in a n a ttempt to
sell more Ita lia n-ma de tile.6
With the increa sed cost of petroleum-ba sed
products, cera mic floor a nd wa ll tiles ha ve become
very cost competitive with other types of floor cov
ering s in recent yea rs.
ENERGY AND ECONOMICS
With the exception of Windsor C era mic Tile a nd
Grea t La k es C era mics, C a na da 's tile pla nts a re old
a nd inefficient. In g enera l, they use twice a s much
energ y a s Europea n pla nts, but beca use energ y is
less expensive in C a na da , it constitutes a bout the
sa me proportion of opera tion costs, a bout 1 0 per
cent.
Using na tura l g a s, the C a na dia n energ y cost in
1 982 wa s a bout SIper m2 for fa st firing k ilns a nd
S0.65 toSIper m2 for tra ditiona l tunnel k ilns. A
recently built tunnel k iln a t the Polyk er pla nt in
Quebec ha s a n energ y cost of nea rly S 2 per m2 using
propa ne g a s a s the fuel. 1
Direct a nd indirect la bour costs in C a na da 's
older pla nts represented up to40 percent of tota l
opera ting cost a s compa redto20 or 25 percent in a
modern pla nt. According to Berg eron, 1 a bout
400,000 m2 of tiles a re produced by a la bour force
of 1 00 in C a na da , wherea s the a vera g e in Europe is
700,000 m2 per 1 00 employees. C urrent Europea n
pra ctice is torebuild completely a nd modernize tile
pla nts a fter seven yea rs,6 a pra ctice tha t is fa cilita ted
in Ita ly by g overnment ta xa tion tha t a llows complete
a mortiza tion of equipment over a period of six
yea rs. 1
A modern tile pla nt toda y represents a consid
era ble investment. The a ll new Windsor C era mic
Tile pla nt a t Windsor, Onta rio, cost a pproxima tely
S30 million in 1 985.
PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES
M a ny of C a na da 's floor a nd wa ll tile pla nts require
upda ting . Old equipment, processes a ndtechnolog y
mea n hig her energ y, la bour a nd ma intena nce costs
rela tive toma jor foreig n competitors. However, new
production fa cilities a t Windsor, a nd a rejuvena ted
split tile fa cility a t Thunder Ba y, should, for the first
time, ma k e the bulk of Onta rio's production rea
sona bly competitive with other world producers.
Unfortuna tely, a ll of Onta rio's pla nts dependon
imports of ra w ma teria l: Windsor C era mic Tile uses
ba ll cla y from Ohio; Grea t La k es C era mics uses
stonewa re cla y from Sa sk a tchewa n; a nd H a nd R
Johnson imports bisque. Esca la ting tra nsporta tion
costs ha ve resulted in ra w ma teria l costs a pproa ch
ing 40 percent of tota l opera ting costs in some in
sta nces, a va lue three tofour times hig her tha n for
eig n competitors. Tobe competitive, ra w ma teria l
cost, including tra nsporta tion costs, should be less
tha n S2 per m2 of finished tiles.
Onta rioha s the potentia l tobe self-sufficient in
these k a olin-type cla ys, throug h its undevelopedre
sources in the M oose R iver Ba sin of northea stern
Onta rio. However, their remoteness from ma jor tile
ma rk ets would not lik ely a llow for a ny improvement
in the tra nsporta tion cost fa ctor.
M ore tha n ha lf of Onta rio's production of floor
a nd wa ll tiles is exported tothe U.S.A., lea ving a
la rg e domestic ma rk et dependent la rg ely on im
ports. In spite of two new producing fa cilities in
1 985, a n opportunity exists for much increa sedpro
duction for the ra pidly g rowing Onta rioma rk et.
However, tobe successful, new pla nts should
seek foreig n technica l a ssista nce a nd ma na g ement.
M ost of the more a dva nced technolog y a nd equip
ment orig ina tes in Ita ly a nd Germa ny. Where sa les
of Ita lia n tiles ha ve been pa rticula rly strong , the
trend toda y is for Ita lia n tile ma rk ets toesta blish
new production fa cilities in tha t a rea a s a mea ns of
a ssuring their continueddomina nce in tha t ma rk et.6
As in ma ny of the ma jor Europea n tile produc
ing countries, g overnment a ssista nce in a spects of
ta xa tion, resea rch a nd development, a nd interna
tiona l sa les promotion, is a ma jor a sset in the devel
opment of a strong industry.
APPENDIX- FLOOR AND WALL TILE
MANUFACTURERS IN ONTARIO (1 986)
1 . C lifton C era mic Tiles Inc.
Box 578
60 C a ssidy Street
K ing ston, Onta rio
K 7L 4X1
(61 3) 549-5932
2. Grea t La k es C era mics
R R #5 R osslyn R oa d
Thunder Ba y, Onta rio
P7C 5M 9
(807) 939-2645
3. Windsor C era mic Tile C a na da Ltd.
5550 Ojibwa y Pa rk wa y
Windsor, Onta rio
N9C 3Y 3
(51 9) 969-5050
REFERENCES
1 . Berg eron, M . "The C era mic Tile Industry, Sector Pro
file", C a na da Dept. Industry, Tra de a nd C ommerce,
December 1 982.
102
"C ompa nies Join Forces on New Tile-ma k ing Tech
nique", C era mic Industries Journa l, p. 24-25, April
1 978.
3. C ubbon, R . C . P., Till, J. R . "Prepa ra tion of C era mic
Bodies", C era mic M onog ra phs, Ha ndbook of C era mics,
Intercera m, Vol. 31 , No. 2, 1 982.
4. Drews, M . "Wa ll a nd Floor Tiles", C era mic M ono
g ra phs, Ha ndbook of C era mics, Inter
cera m Vol. 32, No. 3, 1 983.
5. Fenwick , K . G. a nd Scott, J. F. "1 976 R eport of the
North C entra l R eg iona l Geolog ist", Annua l R eport of
the R eg iona l a nd R esident Geolog ists, Onta rioGeolog i
ca l Survey M P71 , p. 42-56, 1 977.
6. Fitzg era ld, J. V. "C era mic Tile M a k ers Gea r Up For
M illenium", Tile C ouncil of America Inc., C era mic In
dustry, June 1 982.
7. K a reiev, J. P. "Simulta neous Pressing of the C era mic
Body a nd Gla ze La yer in the M a nufa cture of Tiles",
Stek loi K era mik a , Vol. 8, p. 1 9-20, 1 982.
8. Prud'homme, M ichel. Energ y, M ines a nd R esources
C a na da , Industria l M inera ls Division, Otta wa ,
1 985.
9. Tile C ouncil of America , Inc. "Wa ll a nd
Floor Tiles", C era mic M onog ra phs, Ha ndbook of C e
ra mics, Intercera m Vol. 32, No. 3,
1 983.
1 0. Windsor C era mic Tile C a na da Ltd., Windsor, Onta rio,
Prog ress R eport No. l, 1 985.
Clay Se Shale Industries of Ontario
103
Chapt er 9 San i t ar y war e
INTRODUCTION
There a re three ma nufa cturers of cera mic
sa nita rywa re fixtures in Onta rio (Fig ure 9.1 ),
na mely:
o America n Sta nda rd Products of Toronto
o C ra ne C a na da Inc. of Trenton, a nd
o Wa ltec Ba thwa re of C ornwa ll.
Pla nt a ddresses a re g iven in a n a ppendix a t the
end of this cha pter.
The Toronto-ba sedAmerica n Sta nda rdpla nt is
the la rg est of the three, a nd supplies a na tionwide
ma rk et from this sing le loca tion. The C ra ne C a na da
Inc. fa cility in Trenton is one of three pla nts oper
a ted by the compa ny, a nd is desig ned tomeet the
ma rk et dema nds of centra l C a na da plus some U.S.
export. (The compa ny's Quebec a ndBritishC olum
bia opera tions meet the ma rk et requirements of
ea stern a nd western C a na da , respectively). Wa ltec
Ba thwa re of C ornwa ll is the sma llest ma nufa cturer,
a nd sa tisfies a reg iona l ma rk et.
Ea ch of the ma nufa cturers produces tra ditiona l
sa nita rywa re product lines by slip ca sting techniques
(solid-ca sting a nd dra in-ca sting ). The principa l in
g redients of the ca sting slips a re china cla ys a ndba ll
cla ys which a re importedfrom the southern sta tes of
the U.S.A., tog ether with nepheline syenite a nd sil
ica which a re obta ined loca lly.
All products a re sing le fired g la zed pieces, a ll
g la zes being prepa red 'ra w' (a s opposed tofritted
prepa redg la zes). At this time the industry is experi
encing noenvironmenta l pressures, a lthoug h ca re is
ta k en tocontrol effluents from the g la zing opera
tions toprevent the esca pe of hea vy meta l ions to
the loca l environment.
X V" \ \ A \.\
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1 - AMERICAN STANDARD PRODUCTS LTD. .Tor on t o
2- CRANE CANADA INC. , Tr en t on
3- WALTEC BATHWARE DIVISION OF EMCO LTD ,
Figure 9.1 Manufacturers of sanitaryware in Ontario.
104 Clay 81 Shale Industries of Ontario
The industry is a lsofully a wa re of the M inistry
of La bour g uidelines on the ha za rds of silica dust
a ndha s ta k en steps tomeet the requiredsta nda rds.
MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
SLIP CASTING TECHNIQUE
Sa nita rywa re is ma nufa ctured exclusively by tra di
tiona l slip ca sting techniques (Fig ure 9.2). Fa brica
tion is a chieved by pouring the desired qua ntity of
a n a ppropria te slip (or slurry) intoa one-, two- or
more pa rt pla ster mould a nd a llowing the slip tore
ma in in the mould for a "ca sting -up" period. Dur
ing this time the mould, which is porous, a bsorbs
wa ter from the slip a dja cent toits wa lls such tha t a n
even la yer of cla y g ra dua lly builds up over its entire
interna l surfa ce. The ca sting -up period is selected
soa s toprovide a cla y la yer of a ppropria te thick
ness. At the end of this periodthe rema ining slip is
poured off a nd the mould, a nd ca sting which re
ma ins in it, a re dried sufficiently to ena ble the
mould tobe disma ntled a nd the ca sting removed
without da ma g e.
Solid items ca n be simila rly ma nufa ctured by
using double wa ll ca sting techniques, where the slip
is poured between twopa rts of a mould (one ma le
a nd the other fema le). This ensures not only tha t
both the interna l a nd externa l surfa ces will be
clea rly defined, but a lsotha t the wa ll thick ness will
be precisely a s required.
For hig hly complex pieces, such a s a toilet bowl
or bidet, different components ma y be ca st sepa
ra tely a nd the fina l product a ssembled by stick ing
the individua l pieces tog ether with cla y slip a fter
they ha ve been removed from the pla ster moulds.
Products a re subsequently dried, surfa ce finished,
g la zed a nd fired.
Althoug h the a bove description is rela tively sim
plistic, it ca n be seen tha t slip ca sting is a fa irly
leng thy process in which the controlling sequence is
the 'ca sting -up' time. This pa rticula r property is
g overned by a number of va ria bles a s follows:
BULK DRY CLAY
BALL CLAYS CHINA CLAYS
k-DEFLOCCULANT-
PROPORTIONING
BULK SLURRIED CLAY
SLURRIED BALL CLAY,
CHINA CLAY
STORAGE SILO
Figure 9.2 Process flow chart
for sanitaryware production.
NEPHELINE SYENITE
i -FLINT
r DEFLOCCULANT
l l j-MAKEUP WATER
Clay bShale Industries of Ontario
105
i. mould porosity,
li. slip properties,
iii. ra w ma teria ls type a ndpa rticle size distribution.
Of these, items (ii) a nd (iii) a re very closely
controlledduring slip prepa ra tion sta g e (in the 'slip-
house') where the ra w ma teria ls a re blended.
PARAMETERS GOVERNING SLIP CASTING
PROCESS
Moul d Por osi t y
The remova l of wa ter from cla y-wa ter slips by pla s
ter moulds is a chieved by ca pilla ry a ction throug h
inter-connected pores between the la th-lik e g yp
sum crysta ls which ma k e up the mould. These pores
a re sufficiently sma ll to prevent mig ra tion of the
common solid pa rticle constituents of the slip into
the body of the mould. The a bsorption cha ra cteris
tics of pla ster moulds, tog ether with their ha rdness,
dura bility a nd a bra sion resista nce, a re a function of
the pla ster type a nd ra tioof pla ster towa ter usedin
fa brica ting the mould. Whilst g ood ca sting pla ster
moulds exhibit hig h a bsorption ra tes a nd g ood com
pressive streng th, their ha rdness a nd a bra sion resis
ta nce is not especia lly g ood. C onsequently, for pot
tery ma nufa cture on a la rg e sca le, a compromise be
tween hig h a bsorption ra tes a nd g ood dura bility is
required if the moulds a re to exhibit rea sona ble
work ing lifetimes (e.g . 1 00 ca sts).
In order toa chieve rea sona ble production ra tes,
moulds need tobe used repea tedly. This requires
tha t they be dried between use; this ca n be a prob
lem when multiple ca sts (i.e. 2 per shift) a re re
quired for a sing le mould. Thus, mould porosity
must a lsobe desig ned tofa cilita te drying (evolution
of wa ter) a s well a s a bsorption of wa ter.
Sl i p Pr oper t i es
The ra te a t which the cla y la yer builds up a t the
surfa ce of the pla ster mould is, of course, a lso
hig hly dependent upon such slip properties a s con
centra tion (or specific g ra vity) a nd fluidity. The
more concentra ted the slip, the more ra pid is the
deposition of the cla y la yer. However, tofa cilita te
ha ndling a ndin order toobta in a smooth ca st finish,
the slip must a lsoexhibit rea sona ble fluidity; thus a
compromise must be obta ined between the concen
tra tion a nd the fluidity of the slip for optimum ca st
ing . This is a ided by the use of defloccula ting
a g ents, such a s sodium silica te a nd/or a lk a li meta l
sa lts, which reduce the viscosity of the slip, thus a l
lowing the concentra tion to be increa sed a t the
sa me time tha t fluidity is improved. Without the use
of defloccula nts, sa tisfa ctory fluidity could only be
obta ined a t rela tively low slip densities, a nd if used
in this form, long ca sting times a ndinferior products
would be obta ined. C onsequently, a ll ca sting slips
utilize defloccula nts.
An a dditiona l importa nt property exhibited by
cera mic slips (pa rticula rly cla y-ba sed ones) is
thixotropy. This term describes the a bility of a slip
to'thick en' on sta nding once a g ita tion ha s been re
moved. This 'thick ening ' effect is importa nt in slip
ca sting in tha t it sta bilizes the slurry during the time
tha t it is in the mould a nd a lsoprovides a network
for the mig ra tion of wa ter throug h the ca st la yer on
the surfa ce of the mould a nd a ccelera tes ca sting
time. M ost slips exhibit na tura l thixotropy, but those
which a re defloccula ted by very powerful defloc
cula nts exhibit very little. In the hig h productivity
environment of a sa nita rywa re pla nt this property
requires rig id control. This is a chieved by ca reful
control of the slip concentra tion, ra w ma teria ls se
lection a nd defloccula nt a ddition plus the a ddition
of floccula ting ions. All thing s being equa l, the
hig her the slip density, the g rea ter the thixotropic
effect.
For sa tisfa ctory ca sting , a slip must therefore
possess certa in flow properties. While nouniversa l
rules ca n be sta ted, it ha s been found tha t ma ny
ca sting slips opera te best with a fa irly hig h fluidity
a nda modera te thixotropy. Since some thixotropy is
required, sodium silica te is ra rely used a lone a s a
defloccula nt in sa nita rywa re ma nufa cture, but is
usua lly a dded a s a mixture with sodium ca rbona te
a nd ca lcium sulpha te which produces the
thixotropic effects.
Raw Mat er i al s an d Par t i cl e Si ze Di st r i but i on
Once a la yer of cla y ha s been deposited upon the
surfa ce of a pla ster mould during the slip ca sting
opera tion, the ra te of remova l of wa ter from the
cla y slip becomes not only a function of the a bsorp
tion cha ra cteristics of the mould ma teria ls, but a lso
of the permea bility of the deposited cla y la yer tothe
wa ter film. In well defloccula ted systems, the pla te
lik e cla y crysta ls tend toform fla t oriented imper
mea ble la yers. Thixotropy, tog ether with the incor
pora tion of ma teria ls of va rying pa rticle size, g rea tly
a ids the permea bility, or dra ining cha ra cteristics, of
the ca st la yer. M a teria ls which a re too coa rse or
dense should not be incorpora ted, however, since
they ma y settle in the mould, producing a non-uni
form ca st product a nd subsequent cra ck ing on dry
ing .
M ost common cla y minera ls a re extremely fine,
a nd exist in a na rrow size ra ng e, usua lly well below
2 urn in dia meter. Slip ca sting of sing le component
1 06
systems of such ma teria ls g ives rise tovery slow ca st
ing ra tes a nd results in brittle ca sts a nd poor dra in
a g e due toclose pa ck ing of the cla y-pa rticles con
ta inedwithin the ca st la yer. C onsequently, most slip
ca sting formula tions consist of a blend of cla y types
(a nd size fra ctions). C hina cla ys (k a olinites) pro
vide coa rse fra ction cla ys, while ba ll cla ys contribute
fine fra ction ma teria ls (plus a contribution tog reen
streng th).
FINISHING AND FIRING
Subsequent to the slip ca sting opera tion,
sa nita rywa re products a re drieda ndsurfa ce finished
(toremove fla sh a nd mould-sea m lines). The fin
ished wa re is then g la zed, inva ria bly by spra ying
techniques using ra w g la ze formula tions (i.e. g la zes
prepa red from slurries of na tura l minera ls such a s
cla y, feldspa r, flux, opa cifiers such a s zirconium sili
ca te, a nd pig ments). Firing is usua lly conducted in
muffled k ilns; both continuous tunnel a nd intermit
tent types a re used. Some compa nies fire simple
pieces in direct-fire k ilns (nomuffle), but this pra c
tice is not universa lly a ccepted.
DEVELOPING TECHNOLOGY
The sa nita rywa re industry ha s severa l emerg ing
technolog ies which ma y find commercia l a pplica tion
in the nea r future. M ost of these a re essentia lly
a imed a t productivity improvements, minimizing
production costs by:
o improvement of mould turna round time,
o improvements in mould life,
o minimiza tion of fuel costs,
o increa sed a utoma tion.
In a ddition tothe a bove, product qua lity im
provements ha ve been a nd a re being a chieved a s a
result of:
o cha ng es in slip formula tion,
o ra w ma teria ls selection,
o ra w ma teria ls blending ,
o improved qua lity control.
The ma jor technolog ies which a re lik ely toim
pa ct or a re currently impa cting upon the
sa nita rywa re industry a re described below.
CONVERSION OF CLAY SUPPLIERS TO
BLENDED SLURRIES
Tra ditiona lly, the sa nita rywa re industry purcha sed
a ll of its ra w ma teria ls in dry powdered form a nd
prepa red the required cla y slips a ccording tosta n
da rd formula s by weig ht-ba tching techniques. This
technique, thoug h well tried a nd tested, is prone to
errors, a nd qua lity control ca n be a problem a s the
slips 'a g e' a nd the flow properties a nd pa rticle size
distribution cha ng e.
In recent yea rs (since a bout 1 970) ma jor cla y
suppliers in the southern sta tes of the U.S.A. ha ve
moved tosupplying the cla ys in slurry form6. 8 (du
plica ting the supply system whichthey ha ve used for
the pa per industry for ma ny yea rs). Proba bly the
lea ders in this field a re C yprus M ines, the K en
tuck y-Tennessee C la y C ompa ny, a nd H. C . Spink s
C ompa ny. In a ll ca ses, the supplier provides a cus
tom, pa rtia lly defloccula ted, blended cla y slurry of
china cla y (a t 70 percent solids), or ba ll cla y (a t 60
percent solids), tog ether with specifica tions a nd
qua lity control da ta (viscosity, etc.) for ea ch ca r
supplied. Ag ing effects a nd slurry sta biliza tion ta k e
pla ce during tra nsit tothe user industry such tha t on
a rriva l a t the sa nita rywa re pla nt, the user effectively
only needs toa djust the formula by a dding ma k e
up wa ter a nd the non-pla stic ing redients of silica
a nd feldspa r (nepheline syenite) tog ether with fina l
a djustment of the flow properties by a ddition of
defloccula nts (a nd floccula nts) before the slip is
rea dy for use. The slurried ra w ma teria ls a re ca re
fully controlled a nd g ua ra nteed to perform. This
fa ctor is effectively elimina ting the pra ctice of oper
a ting a conventiona l slip house.
A ma jor modifica tion of this technolog y is cur
rently under development by the H. C . Spink s
C ompa ny, which enta ils not only custom blending of
selectedcla y types but a lsocomputer controlledcus
tom blending of optimized pa rticle size. 1 0. 4- 2 It is
reportedtha t this development will be opera tiona l in
1 986.
Two of the three Onta riopla nts currently re
ceive a ll of their cla y supplies in slurry form; the
third receives a portion of its ra w ma teria l in this
form a nd expects toincrea se this proportion in the
nea r future. It is reported8 tha t a pproxima tely 50
percent of the sa nita rywa re pla nts in North America
ha d converted toslurry systems by 1 981 .
AUTOMATED CASTING SYSTEMS
Automa ted ca sting systems ha ve been under eva lu
a tion a nd development for severa l yea rs. Essen
tia lly, the systems developed a re ba sed on the sa me
principle a s ma nua l ca sting except tha t the ma chine
conta ins ba nk s of mould ca rriers on a n indexing de
vice upon which the moulds a utoma tica lly proceed
throug h the following cycle:
a . filling of moulds with slip,
b. ca sting up,
c. discha rg e of slip,
107
d. drying of ca st in mould,
e. remova l of ca st (a ma nua l opera tion),
f. drying of mould.
Automa ted ca sting systems reputedly show the
following a dva nta g es over ma nua l ca sting opera
tions:
a . increa sedproductivity per opera tor (a sing le op
era tor is g enera lly required per ma chine),
b. requires only semi-sk illed opera tors,
c. reduces spa ce requirement,
d. reduces mould ha ndling , thereby increa sing the
work ing life of moulds,
e. reduces losses of discha rg e slip,
f. improves consistency a nd qua lity of product, by
utilizing a sta nda rdca sting -up time which is me
cha nica lly controlled.
If however, conventiona l cla y slips with long
ca sting -up times a re used, then for a utoma tic sys
tems to be effective, physica lly la rg e (long ) ma
chines a re required tog ether with the use of a la rg e
number of moulds a t a ny one time. Thus, in order
tog a in ma ximum a dva nta g e a nd sa ving from a uto
ma tic ca sting systems, short ca sting -up periods a re
preferred.
While the productivity of ma nua l ca sting is
la rg ely controlledby the ca sting -up time, this is not
true for a utoma tic ca sting systems. Since the moulds
a re a utoma tica lly filleda nd emptied, once in opera
tion the controlling sequence of the equipment is
the indexing time (i.e. the ra te of a dva nce of ea ch
ba nk of mouldca rriers). The ca sting -up sequence is
a ccommoda ted by a djusting the leng th of the ma
chine tog ive the desired ca st thick ness. Thus, the
ra te of production depends solely upon the ra te of
remova l of moulds from the ca rriers, extra ction of
the wa re a nd repla cement of the empty moulds
ba ck in the ca rriers by the ma chine opera tor. The
indexing time is set such tha t the ma chine opera tor
ca n ca rry out this sequence of opera tions for ea ch
ba nk of moulds between ea ch a dva nce.
M ore recent developments in Ja pa n a nd, to
some extent, in the U.S.A. a ndGrea t Brita in1 ha ve
seen the use of robots a nd fully a utoma tedpla nt de
sig ns toimprove productivity. At this time, informa
tion on such systems is proprieta ry.
PRESSURE CASTING
Possibly the most sig nifica nt development in
sa nita rywa re ma nufa cture in recent yea rs is the
pressure ca sting technolog y recently developed in
Europe9 a nd currently underg oing tests in Europe
a nd North America . This technique uses porous
pla stic moulds intowhich ca sting slips a re pumped
under a pressure of a pproxima tely 2 M Pa . The new
pla stic mould g ives rise tosuperior surfa ce finishes
compa red to conventiona l pla ster mould with the
ma in production controlling pa ra meters being pres
sure, wa ll thick ness a ndthe de wa tering properties of
the slurry itself. In essence, the moulding system
work s in a ma nner simila r toa filter press. The k ey
benefit of the technolog y is tha t products ca n be
produced tohig her tolera nces in a tota l cycle time
of 6-1 0 minutes, 24 hours ea ch da y. The residua l
moisture in the product produced is 1 -2 percent
less tha n tha t obta inedby slip ca sting , a nd a s a con
sequence it ca n be rea dily removed from the mould
by a pulse of compressed a ir, immedia tely a fter the
pressure is relea sed a nd the surplus slip ha s been
dra ined.
Thus the technolog y a llows a multiple shift op
era tion using a sing le ma chine; flexibility is ma in
ta ined by a ra pid mould cha ng ing ca pa bility. Less
work ing a rea is a lsorequired, a nd a sing le mould
will suffice for ea ch sha pe required (work ing life is
estima ted tobe multiple thousa nd moulding s). In
a ddition, hea vy ma nua l work is a voided for produc
tion of la rg e k erns.
Such a system provides a solution toma ny of
the productivity problems fa cing the industry, how
ever it must be recog nizedtha t some desig n cha ng es
ma y be needed toa ccommoda te the mecha nics of
pressure moulding .
R eports from the industry indica te tha t this
technolog y is being well received in North America .
ELECTROPHORETIC CASTING
R esea rch ha s been conductedin Europe on cera mic
forming by electrophoretic deposition of cla y from
slip. A process ca lled "Volupha nt"7 ha s been devel
oped tocompete with tra ditiona l slip ca sting :
Step 1 . Twoa nodes, sha pedtoform the surfa ces of
the ca st piece a re immersed in the slip.
Step 2. A double-sided ca thode fits between the
a nodes lea ving a 1 2 mm electrode g a p on
either side.
Step 3. Slip is fed intothe electrode g a p throug h a
hole in the ca thode.
Step 4. Deposition is ca rried out for a number of
minutes, the time dependent on the desired
wa ll thick ness.
Step 5. The a nodes a re moved a pa rt a nd the ca th
ode withdra wn.
108
Step 6. The twola yers of deposit, i.e. on either a n
ode, a re pressedtog ether a ndthe piece re
moved.
It ha s been sug g ested tha t, beca use of the sym
metry of the formed piece, stresses incurred during
drying a nd firing the wa re will ba la nce out, a nd a
lower reject ra te will result. The process is suitedfor
the ma nufa cture of la rg e pieces of wa re.
MOULD AND WARE DRYING TECHNOLOGY
Sa nita rywa re pla nts which require multiple ca sts per
shift or per da y suffer from serious bottleneck s in
turna round time for drying a nd ha ndling of the
moulds before further use a nd drying of the g reen
wa re in the mouldprior toremova l a nddisma ntling .
A new technolog y which ha s been a pplied tothis
problem is microwa ve drying ;5 it ha s a lsobeen used
toa ccelera te ca sting ra tes, thus speeding up the to
ta l process.
It ha s been observed tha t a pplica tion of micro
wa ve techniques ca n completely elimina te the need
for mould drying . Furthermore, in a situa tion where
2 ca sts per shift were proving difficult, up to3 ca sts
were obta ined in 1 .5 hours using this technolog y.
M icrowa ve technolog y is still in the resea rch
sta g e a nd is experiencing some difficulty being a c
cepted by the industry, a lthoug h it is certa inly a t
tra cting some interest.
FIRING TECHNOLOGY
Firing technolog y continues tobe of ma jor interest
tothe sa nita rywa re industry, both from the a spect of
energ y conserva tion a nd from improved product
qua lity. As previously sta ted, firing technolog y usu
a lly involves muffled tunnel k iln firing . However, it
ha s been sug g ested by ma nufa cturers tha t different
k iln systems would be preferred if new pla nts were
tobe commissioned toda y.
Direct fire roller hea rth k ilns a re cited a s pro
viding the most modern technolog y where tota l fir
ing times (cold tocold) of 8 hours a re quoted.
ONTARIO OPERATORS
AMERI CAN STANDARD PRODUCTS
The America n Sta nda rdpottery in Torontois a sub
sidia ry of a U.S. pa rent compa ny. The pottery wa s
foundedin 1 91 8 a s a spin-off industry of "C a st Iron
Sa nita rywa re". This pla nt services the tota l C a na
dia n ma rk et, ma nufa cturing a full ra ng e of products
in both price a nd sophistica tion.
Raw Mat er i al s
C hina cla ys (k a olin) a re imported from Georg ia ,
(U.S.A.) a nda lsofrom Grea t Brita in. Ba ll cla ys a re
imported from K entuck y a nd Tennessee in the
U.S.A. Nepheline syenite is obta ined from Onta rio.
Silica is obta ined from Onta rioSlip M odifiers a nd
defloccula nts a re obta ined from loca l suppliers.
C urrently, the ba ll cla y is obta ined in slurry
form, wherea s the china cla y is received dry a nd is
used tocustomize, modify a nd control slip proper
ties.
Man uf act ur i n g Pr ocess
At present, the compa ny opera tes a sta nda rd 'slip
house' body prepa ra tion procedure which is la bour
intensive. C omponents a re ba tched by weig ht a nd
pneuma tica lly conveyed to the mixing opera tion.
The prepa red slips a re closely monitored a nd con
trolled prior todelivery tothe ca sting shop where
ma nua l, semi-a utoma tic a nd a utoma tic ca sting
techniques a re employed (depending on the product
line).
Slip ca sting time is a pproxima tely l hour, with a
cycle time of a pproxima tely 3-1 /2 hours from a s
sembly, ca sting a nd disma ntling of mould. Ta rg ets
of 2 ca sts per shift a re a tta ined for a ll but la rg e-size
products which a re subjected toa sing le ca st cycle.
M ould drying is seen to be a serious bottleneck
when meeting such production ra tes.
After disma ntling of the mould a nd remova l of
the wa re, the products a re dried in g a s dryers a nd
then subjected tosurfa ce finishing a nd inspection.
Both ma nua l a nd a utoma tic techniques for surfa ce
finishing a re used. All products a re subsequently
spra y g la zed on conveyors.
R a w g la ze formula tions ma y conta in cla ys, feld
spa rs, silica , zinc oxide, ba rium ca rbona te, ta lc,
whiting , wolla stonite, zirconium silica te a ndpig ment
sta ins. Such formula tions, a lthoug h providing g ood
a dhesion tothe body, ca n be a source of problems
in fa st firing cycles.
Firing is conducted in five tunnel k ilns, one of
which is a 'direct-fire' k iln, a nd four of which a re
muffle k ilns. Twoof the k ilns a re reta ined for re fire
purposes, a s is a sing le intermittent direct fire k iln.
Gen er al Obser vat i on s
In g enera l terms, the supply of ra w ma teria ls by a
sing le source is seen a s a problem. C ommercia l us
ers g enera lly prefer toma inta in a t lea st twosources
of supply for k ey ing redients. The recent a cquisition
of I.M .C .'s nepheline syenite opera tions by Indus-
min ma y be a sig nifica nt source of concern. It is
109
interesting tonote tha t if it were a va ila ble, a pota s
sium feldspa r would be preferred for slip ca sting
over nepheline syenite.
The supply of cla y slurries from U.S. sources is
not seen a s a problem; qua lity is hig h a nd competi
tion between suppliers is ensuring continuity of sup
ply a nd g ood service.
CRANE CANADA INC.
C ra ne C a na da Inc. is a division of C ra ne C orpora
tion of the U.S.A. The Trenton pottery wa s con
structed in 1 968 a nd beca me opera tiona l in 1 969.
C onstruction wa s pa rt of C ra ne C a na da 's philoso
phy of using sma ll production pla nts toserve a re
g iona l ma rk et. C onsequently, this pla nt essentia lly
serves centra l C a na da (Onta rio a nd pa rts of
M a nitoba ), tog ether with some export ma rk ets in
the U.S.A.
The Trenton pottery wa s orig ina lly desig ned to
specifica lly use only cla y slurry ra w ma teria l a ndwa s
the first of its k ind pioneering the technolog y. The
purpose of the pla nt wa s toproduce hig h volumes of
a limited product line. It produces up to300,000
items per yea r with a sta ff of a pproxima tely 1 00.
Raw Mat er i al s
C hina cla ys a re imported from Georg ia , U.S.A. Ba ll
cla ys a re imported from K entuck y a nd Tennessee.
Silica is oba ined from Onta rioa nd Quebec sources.
Nepheline syenite is obta ined from Onta riosources.
The cla ys a s previously sta ted a re purcha sed in
premixed slurry blends of three k a olin cla ys a nd
three ba ll cla ys. Every ca r suppliedis testedprior to,
a nd a fter, receiving shipment for qua lity control
purposes. Typica lly, the following properties a re
tested: filtra tion cha ra cteristics, defloccula tion
curve/viscosity, colour, sulpha te level, pa rticle size
distribution.
The ra w ma teria ls a re directly blung ed, further
defloccula nt is a dded tothe cla y slurries, a nd silica
a nd nepheline syenite a re a lso a dded; viscosity is
then a djusted, a nd occa siona lly ba g g ed ma teria l is
a dded toa djust pa rticle size distribution.
The prepa red slip is delivered to the ca sting
shop where ca st times of a pproxima tely l hour a re
used. Twoca sts per shift a re a chievedusing a cycle
time-a ssembly to disma ntle of a pproxima tely 3
hours. Products a re left to a ir-dry in the ca sting
shop for 24 hours before being force-dried in
La ng ley g a s dryers for a pproxima tely 1 2 hours.
Wa re is subsequently inspected, finished a nd pre
pa red for g la zing .
All items a re ha nd spra y g la zed, using sta nda rd
ra w g la zes, on g reen wa re a nd fired in a Swindell
Dressler g a s fired muffle tunnel k iln. Firing times of
1 8 to20 hours, cold tocold, a re typica l. A second
direct fire sma ll tunnel k iln is reta inedfor refiring of
products.
Gen er al Obser vat i on s
Pressure ca sting technolog y, tog ether with other
mecha nisedtechniques, require hig h volume tojus
tify insta lla tion; this could prove difficult for sma ller
pla nts.
La va tory bowls ma rk etedtolow wa ter use a rea s
ma y g ive rise toma jor desig n cha ng es resulting in
expensive hea vy units (4.5 litres nomina l wa ter
flush) with low recovery.
WALTEC BATHWARE
Wa ltec Ba th wa re's C ornwa ll pottery wa s orig ina lly
desig neda ndconstructedby Ea stern potteries in the
ea rly 1 970s, a nd la ter purcha sed by Wa ltec Inc., a
ma jor C a na dia n ma nufa cturer of plumbing wa re, in
the ea rly 1 980s. In 1 984 Emco, a nother ma jor
ma nufa cturer of plumbing wa re, which is a subsidi
a ry of M a scoLtd. in the U.S.A., a cquired Wa ltec.
The C ornwa ll pottery is the only cera mic ma nufa c
turing opera tion within the corpora tion.
The pla nt wa s orig ina lly desig ned to produce
hig h volume, low price sa nita rywa re; however, this
ma nda te is cha ng ing , a nd the compa ny currently
ma nufa ctures a broa d ra ng e of product types a nd
ma rk ets its product a cross the whole country. Prod
ucts include la va tories, ta nk s, sink s a nd bidets.
In a ddition tothe cera mic sa nita rywa re prod
ucts ma nufa ctured a t the C ornwa ll pla nt, a comple
menta ry ra ng e of a crylic ba thtubs, whirlpools a nd
shower sta lls (in ma tching colours) a re a lsoma de.
Raw Mat er i al s
C hina cla ys a re imported from Georg ia , U.S.A. Ba ll
Silica is obta ined from Quebec sources. Nepheline
syenite is obta ined from Onta riosources.
The cla y ra w ma teria ls a re purcha sed in
premixed slurry blends. Every ca r supplied is tested
prior to, a nd a fter, receiving shipment for qua lity
control purposes.
1 1 0
Clay Se Shale Industries of Ontario
The ra w ma teria ls a re directly blung ed in a 5-da y
stora g e ta nk where other ra w ma teria ls a nd further
defloccula nts a nd property modifying ing redients
a re a dded. The slurry is subsequently a g ed for 5
da ys prior touse toensure sta biliza tion of the slip.
The prepa red slip is delivered to the ca sting
shop where ca st times of a pproxima tely l hour a re
used. Two ca sts per da y a re sta nda rd pra ctice on
la va tory bowls, a ll other products a re subjectedtoa
sing le ca st cycle. All ca sting opera tions a re con
ducted ma nua lly. After demoulding , products a re
left toa ir-dry for 24 hours a nd then force dried
using excess hea t from the k iln. Dried wa re is then
inspected a nd finished a nd subsequently spra y
g la zed. All g la zed wa re is essentia lly ra w g la zed, a l
thoug h some formula tions doconta in a sma ll qua n
tity of fritted ma teria l. Sta nda rd components of the
g la ze include cla ys, feldspa rs, zinc oxide, zirconium
silica te, whiting a nd pig ments.
Gla zed products a re fired in a 90 m long roller
hea rth k iln a nd subjected toa fa st firing cycle of
a pproxima tely 1 1 hours (cold tocold). (Twohun
dred a nd twenty bowls a nd 1 90 ta nk s ca n be fired
per da y). A direct fire periodic k iln with a 24 hour
firing cycle is used for re firing purposes a nd a lsoto
fire complex products a nd ma ny of the coloured
g la ze products. R a pid firing in the roller hea rth k iln
occa siona lly crea tes problems of colour a nd g la ze
ma tura tion for some coloured products. Approxi
ma tely 70 percent of the products ma nufa ctureda re
white.
NEW BUSINESS OPPORTUNITIES
Tra ditiona lly, sa nita rywa re fixtures a re white or sin
g le coloured g la zed products with no decora tion.
Ba throom desig n trends a re currently including a
hig h level of on-g la ze decora tion for ba throom til
ing , a nd some Europea n compa nies a re responding
tothis trend by incorpora ting complementa ry on-
g la ze decora tion (deca ls) on their product line.3 To
incorpora te a specia lty decora tion line intoa hig h
productivity sa nita rywa re pla nt would be a ma jor
source of problems, for the opera tion wouldrequire
not only a dditiona l la bour a nd ha ndling , but a lsoa n
a dditiona l k iln a nd necessa ry spa ce.
It seems fea sible, however, tha t a seconda ry
pla nt or ma nufa cturer coulddevelop this technolog y
a nd a pply decora tion toproducts which ha ve been
purcha sed from a prima ry supplier. In this wa y, a
sma ll business could be developed in which custom
desig ns a nda wide ra ng e of "a ddedva lue" a esthetic
desig ns could be incorpora ted intowha t ha s previ
ously been a 'pla in' product line.
APPENDIX- SANITARYWARE
MANUFACTURERS IN ONTARIO (1 986)
1 . America n Sta nda rd Products
80 Wa rd Street
Toronto, Onta rio
M 6H 4A7
(41 6) 536-1 078
2. C ra ne C a na da Inc.
420 Sidney Street
Trenton, Onta rio.
K 8V 5R 6
(61 3) 392-3591
3. Wa ltec Ba thwa re Div.
805 Bounda ry R oa d
C ornwa ll, Onta rio
K 6H 5T3
(61 3) 933-451 1
REFERENCES
1 . "500,000 Vitreous C hina Pieces Every Y ea r From Ar-
mita g e Sha nk s", C era mic Industries Journa l, June
1 983.
2. America n Sta nda rd Products, Toronto,
1 985.
3. Ba chelor, P., P.C .I. C onsulta nts, Ha milton, Bermuda ,
1 985.
4. C ra ne C a na da Inc., Trenton, Onta rio,
1 985.
5. Fisher, G. "C era mic Producers Explore M icrowa ve
Processing ", C era mic Industry, Vol. 1 21 , No. l, p. 40,
July 1 983.
6. Ha nk s, Jr., C . F. "R eformula tion of C a sting Bodies Us
ing Slurries", C era mic Eng ineering Science Proceed
ing s, p. 954, Sept. 1 981 .
7. Hennick e, J. a nd Hennick e, H.W. "Electrophoresis
C era mic Forming by Deposition from Slips in a n Electric
Field", C era mic M onog ra ph 1 .4.3, Inter-
cera m, No. 4, 1 982.
8. M iller, K . D. "Slurried Slip C onversion by a
Sa nita rywa re M a nufa cturer", C era mic Eng ineering
Science Proceeding s, p.969, Sept. 1 981 .
9. Niffk a , H., Dorst-M a schinen-und Anla g enba u. "Pres
sure C a sting of Sa nita rywa re a R evolutiona ry New
Technolog y", 87th Annua l M eeting of
America n C era mic Society, M a y 1 985.
1 0. R obbins, J. "C era mic White wa re a n Overview of R a w
M a teria ls Supply", Industria l M inera ls, No.204, p. 31 ,
Sept. 1 984.
111
Chapter 10 Electrical Porcelain
INTRODUCTION
INDUSTRIAL OPERATIONS
Three ma jor compa nies domina te the Onta rio-
ba sed electrica l porcela in business a t the present
time (Fig ure 1 0.1 ), na mely:
o Ha milton Porcela ins Ltd. of Bra ntford,
o Smith Stone Ltd. of Georg etown,
o ElectroPorcela in C ompa ny Ltd. of Wa terloo.
Ea ch of these compa nies essentia lly ma nufa c
tures a diversifiedproduct line of low tension porce
la in a ndspecia l refra ctory products, a ndha s loca ted
a solid ma rk et niche.
Up until the la te 1 970s, Onta rioa lsopossessed
a very a ctive hig h tension porcela in industry in the
form of: C a na dia n Porcela ins of Ha milton, a ndC a
na dia n OhioBra ss of Nia g a ra Fa lls, both of whom
ma nufa ctured hig h volta g e insula tors predomina ntly
for the domestic ma rk et. These twocompa nies re
cently cea sed opera tions, a nd a t the time of writing
it ha s been reported tha t the C a na dia n Porcela in
fa cilities ha ve been a cquired by La pp Insula tor
C ompa ny of the U.S.A.
The porcela in cera mic body formula tions used
by a ll producers a re ba sed on tra ditiona l formula
tions, a ll of the cla y components being imported
from the U.S.A., tog ether with some feldspa rs a nd
ta lcs. Only silica a ndnepheline syenite a re obta ined
from C a na dia n (Onta rio) suppliers.
None of the ma nufa cturers currently experi
ences a ny environmenta l problems, a nd neither do
they a nticipa te a ny in the immedia te future. They
a re a ll conscious of current occupa tiona l hea lth
reg ula tions concerning use of silica dust, a nd ha ve
ta k en steps to ensure tha t they meet M inistry of
La bour g uidelines.
RENFREW
S\ OTTAWA- f " USSt u
\ ,--* -,-v ,' ' ' \CAR I-ETON \'\'
,- - - ,
r OX ' * \Cv ' ' LANARK \ S - ft, '
&V) ,\ HALIBURTON \ \** 3 \ Y \ ^ S
-, V T \ ,.^ -'\ \\\ \ /^MVK.l A/'
" ~X ~ - * \ - ,- ''' *v \v, - i '- - \- ' V" ^ S
v' ' \ s
l - HAMILTON PORCELAINS LTD., Br an t f or d
Z- SMITH AND STONE LTD. , Geor get own
Tt- ELECTRO PORCELAIN COMPANY LTD. , Wat er l oo
Figure 10 .1 Manufacturers of electrical porcelain in Ontario.
112
PRODUCT DEFINITIONS
is typica lly a hig hly vitrefied
body consisting essentia lly of mullite a nd qua rtz
crysta ls embedded in a g la ssy ma trix, the rela tive
proportions of which a re a djusted toproduce de
sired properties. The products a re ma nufa cturedto
withsta nd norma l domestic volta g es, typica l a pplica
tions being la mp holders, fuse holders, connectors,
a pplia nce pa rts, telephone insula tors, a nd a eria l in
sula tors. Items ma y be g la zed or ung la zed.
is typica lly a fully
vitrefied body (which exhibits zero wa ter a bsorp
tion) which is a lsog la zed. The products show excel
lent resista nce tofreeze-tha w a ction a nd g ood me
cha nica l streng th in both tension a nd compression.
Typica l products a re suspension insula tors for hig h
volta g e tra nsmission lines a nd switchg ea r. There a re
ba sica lly three types of insula tors: tension, post a nd
hollow. These a re shown in Fig ure 1 0.2. Includedin
the dia g ra m a re typica l sizes a nd mecha nica l re
quirements for ea ch.
t Load
Cop a pin type.
Tensile loads 40 - 530 kN
Core dia.
45-200
mm
Solid core type-
Tensile loads 40 - 530 K N
i *Load
l H- oad
- Dio's 20 0 - 60 0 mm
Bending moments
(height x load ) - 60 kNm
C ore dia .
45-200
mm
Solid core unit.
Bending moments
(height x load )= 60 kNm
PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS
The sta nda rds for hig h volta g e insula tors a re usua lly
set from the requirements of the utilities, these com
pa nies a nd their suppliers being the ma jor users of
hig h tension porcela in. Typica l qua lity sta nda rds re
quired for the cera mic in order tomeet the fina l
product sta nda rd a re g iven in Ta ble 1 0.1 .
The electrica l a ndmecha nica l specifica tions for
hig h volta g e insula tors ca n be found in the ANSI,
NEM A, C EM A a nd ASA sta nda rds: specifica tions
a re g iven for ea ch type of insula tor a ndtheir va rious
cla ss numbers.
RAW MATERIALS AND PROCESSES
The electrica l insula ting power of porcela in depends
principa lly on the texture a nd density of the cera m
ic, a nd these in turn a re controlled ma inly by the
chemica l composition a ndthe firing opera tion; how
ever, every sta g e of insula tor ma nufa cture contrib
utes to exploiting the electrica l a nd mecha nica l
properties of porcela in toits full a dva nta g e. The
body formula tion prepa ra tion is simila r totha t used
for domestic porcela in a nd white wa re, the ma in in
g redients being cla y, feldspa r a nd silica . Electrica l
porcela ins tendtoconta in hig her proportions of ba ll
cla y (a s opposed tochina cla y) since whiteness is
not a prerequisite for the body, a nd since ba ll cla ys
g enera te hig her work a bility a nd hig her g reen
streng th. Typica l formula tions for electrica l porce
la in a re g iven in Ta ble 1 0.2.
In the 1 970s, the science of electrica l porcela in
ma nufa cture a dva nced considera bly1 a nd formula
tions ha ve been developed which a re fa r different
from the conventiona l 'textbook ' recipes.
M icrostructura l va ria tions toimprove streng th9 ha ve
concentra ted on developing the g rowth of a cicula r
crysta ls of mullite within the ma trix a nd ha s in-
TABLE 1 0.1 HI-VOLTAGE INSULATORS - QUALITY
STANDARDS FOR CERAMIC BODY. (2)
Tensile Strength
Compression Strength
Modulus of Rupture (unglazed)
Modulus of Rupture (glazed)
Modulus of Elasticity
Specific Gravity
Density
Coefficient Linear Expansion
Dielectric up to 3/8*
Dielectric 1 1 2 - 1"
Dielectric Constant
Power Factor 10 0 0 v
Hardness MOH
Moisture Absorption
5,0 0 0 psi
60 ,0 0 0 psi
11,0 0 0 psi
15,0 0 0 psi
10 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 psi
2.4
0 .0 87 IDS./in.3
20 - 250 0 C
- 5 x 10 - " /inch/0 C
250 kv/lnch
17 0 kv/inch
6.3
0 .8
7 .0
0 .0
Figure 10 .2 High tension porcelain insulators.
113
TABLE 10 .2 TYPICAL FORMULATIONS OF ELECTRIC
PORCELAINS AND RELATED BODIES. (3)
Body Formulation
Body (wt. y* )
Hard porcelain Clay 40 - 50
(fired under Quartz 35- 45
reducing conditions) Feldspar 15- 20
Soft porcelain China clays and
Ball clays 50
Quartz 25
Feldspar 25
Aluminous porcelain China clays and
Ball clays 35- 60
Calcined alumina 20 - 40
Feldspar 15- 30
Steatite Talc 7 0 - 85
Clay and
Feldspar 1 5- 30
Steatite (low loss type) Talc 7 5- 85
Clay 5- 10
BaCOg 10 - 15
Cordierite Clay 30 - 50
Talc 40 - 50
AI2O3 10 - 30
Electrical refractory body Clay 60 - 80
Grog 20 - 40
Fir
RAW MA1
DRY BL
'
HIGH INI
S MIX
MAK E- UP
WATER
1
FREE FLOWING
PELLETIZED POWDER
1
PRESSING,
STAMPING
1
MOULD RELEASE
PRE
i
DRYING
1
FIRING
\
\- * INSPE
FERIALS " K AOL'N
C.HIML.9 Q AI i f- | AVC
ENDED " *|- J : CLAYS
- K YANITE
- FELDSPAR
.- ZIRCON
FENSITY
CO V
- ^
MAK E- UP
WATER
i
PLASTIC MIX
i
DEAIRING
EX TRUSION
. i
RNING- UNFIRED
SSING- SHAPING
i
DRYING
1
FIRING
x
CTION V' S
lure 10 .3 Process flow chart for semi- drv or
plastic forming of electrical porcelain products.
eluded incorpora tion of minera ls such a s sillima nite
a ndk ya nite tog ether with a lumina a t the expense of
silica a nd feldspa r minera ls. R esea rchers ha ve a lso
studied the influence of minera lizers such a s ZnO,
TiO2 , Fe2 O3, B2 O3 a nd M nO2 on the microstruc
ture, streng th a nd firing ra ng e of the porcela in.5
A porcela in with a hig h cristoba lite content ha s
been developed in Ja pa n7 which exhibits exception
a lly hig h streng th without the hig h cost g enera lly a s
socia ted with equiva lent a lumina conta ining formu
la tions. The cristoba lite crysta llizes from hig hly sili
ceous bodies in the form of extremely fine pa rticles.
The whole empha sis of modern electrica l porcela in
ma nufa cture ha s since shifted to a nd
crysta lline bodies which possess hig h streng th a nd
donot develop a ny excessive loca lized stresses in
use.
The impa ct of the energ y crisis in the
mid-1 970s a nd subsequent a ttempts to minimize
energ y consumption in cera mic ma nufa cturing op
era tions ha s resulted in ma jor g a ins in not only en
erg y but a lsomicrostructura l eng ineering for electri
ca l porcela in. The use of fine pa rticle sized silica
ha s been shown6 tobe beneficia l in developing g ood
mecha nica l streng ths during fa st-firing conditions,
while the simulta neous use of nepheline syenite a s a
flux sig nifica ntly minimizes microfla w development.
It is g enera lly considered by the industry tha t
pota ssium feldspa rs a re the preferred fluxing ing re
dient due tobeneficia l electrica l properties a nd in
crea sed firing ra ng e,8 but its use is pa rticula rly de
termined by its a va ila bility a nd supplies of a lterna
tives such a s sodium feldspa r a nd nepheline
syenite. 1 0
The repla cement of flint by zircon ha s been
foundtog rea tly improve the tensile streng th a nd di
electric consta nt of electrica l porcela in.4 However,
the hig h cost of g round zircon ha s limited the com
mercia l interest in zircon-porcela ins a t present.
M a nufa cturing (forming ) processes (Fig ure
1 0.3) g enera lly used by the electrica l porcela in in
dustry a re:
o Low tension a pplica tions: semi-dry processing ,
extrusion, extrusion a nd turning , slip ca sting ,
o Hig h tension a pplica tions: extrusion a nd turn
ing , slip ca sting , jolleying , wa rm pressing (of
pla stic ma ss).
114
HIGH VOLTAGE INSULATORS
CURRENT BUSINESS SCENARIO
Hig h volta g e cera mic insula tors find a pplica tion in
g enera ting sta tions, tra nsmission lines, sub-sta tions
a nd the distribution network .
The g rowth of this ma rk et is controlled by fa c
tors out of the control of producing compa nies, for
exa mple: tra nsmission a nd g enera ting sta tion busi
ness is g enera tedby construction of sta te or provin
cia l systems (e.g . hydro-electric da ms, nuclea r
power sta tions, therma l g enera ting sta tions), a nd
tra nsmission tonew or g rowing la rg e industria l a nd/
or residentia l a rea s. Simila rly, the distribution a s
pects of the business a re determinedby urba n a rea
g rowth.
In the la te 1 970s a nd ea rly 1 980s these a spects
of the C a na dia n a ndthe U.S.A. ma rk etpla ce sta bi
lized. Power supplies beca me a dequa te a nd nonew
fa cilities a nd/or systems were being developed; con
sequently, the ma rk et declined ra pidly.
Export opportunities to g rowing second a nd
third world countries a lsodeteriora ted due toeco
nomic problems (a bility to borrow funds a nd fi
na nce ma jor ca pita l projects) a nd competition from
hig h qua lity Ja pa nese products.
In the a bsence of new domestic ca pita l power
g enera ting fa cilities a nd tra nsmission/distribution
business, the only opportunity rema ining toa C a na
dia n producer is the 'repla cement* business which is
rela tively sma ll. This is currently being servicedvery
efficiently by Ja pa nese producers. It could, how
ever, provide a via ble opportunity toa well
org a nized (a utoma ted) domestic ma nufa cturer. In
this event, product qua lity would needtobe hig h to
repla ce current hig h qua lity Ja pa nese products.
TECHNI CAL DEVELOPMENTS REQ UI RED
Technica l improvements a re still required by the
user industry a nd ma y provide opportunities for fu
ture business developments. These a re:
o improved resista nce tora diointerference volt
a g e (e.g . by a pplica tion of conducting g la zes),
o improved ca ntilever streng th (e.g . development
of hig h streng th, hig h a lumina bodies),
o improved a rc tra ck ing resista nce (e.g . develop
ment of a semi-conducting g la ze), improved
pollution resista nce (e.g . use of semi-conduct
ing g la ze todry wetted surfa ces throug h hea ting
effect).
ONTARIO MANUFACTURERS
HAMILTON PORCELAINS LIMITED
The Ha milton Porcela ins C ompa ny wa s founded
orig ina lly in 1 852 a ndma nufa ctureda wide ra ng e of
household cera mic k erns; electrica l porcela ins be
ca me a specia lty in the 1 940s. Since tha t time, the
compa ny ha s diversified from simply ma nufa cturing
electrica l porcela in to a wide va riety of industria l
custom refra ctory cera mic components (up to1 000
different items), a lthoug h the core of its ma rk et is
still rela ted tothe electrica l industry.
The compa ny ha s a strong commitment tore
sea rch a nd development a ndtechnica l a ssista nce to
its customers. These twoitems a re cited a s k ey in
g redients tothe compa ny's current success.
At this time, 80 percent of the compa ny's prod
ucts a re exported toma rk ets in the U.S.A., Ja pa n,
Europe a nd La tin America .
Pr ocess Techn ol ogy
The process technolog y a ppliedby Ha milton Porce
la ins is essentia lly a dry pressing process. C era mic
formula tions a re mixed dry in a n Eirich hig h inten
sity mixer, wa ter is then a dded toproduce a con
trolled, moist, free-flowing g ra nula r powder (up to
1 8 percent wa ter) which is then compression
moulded. A hig h deg ree of tolera nce a nd complex
ity is usua lly a chieved in the pressed wa re by a ppli
ca tion of g ood die-desig n a nd a firm understa nding
of the ra w ma teria l a ndunfiredproduct properties.
Products a re fired in either a tunnel k iln (to
cone 1 1 ) or a "top-ha t" periodic k iln (tocone 1 6).
Raw Mat er i al s
All of the products ma nufa cturedby Ha milton Por
cela ins conta in some cla y minera ls, ra ng ing from a
low of 1 0 percent in non-porcela in products (where
it is essentia lly used a s a binder) toa hig h of 50
percent where it is used a s a n integ ra l pa rt of the
porcela in body chemistry.
K a olin a nd ba ll cla y a re imported from the
U.S.A., ma inly from K entuck y a nd Tennessee.
Three types of ta lc a re used, a ll a re imported; they
include a chloritic ta lc from C a lifornia which is hig h
in a lumina content, a New Y ork ta lc a nd a French
ta lc. (C a na dia n ta lcs a re considered tobe unsuit
a ble for use.) K ya nite, mullite a nd pyrophyllite a re
imported for use in specia lty refra ctory products.
Bentonite is imported from Wyoming for use a s a
binder. Pota ssium feldspa r is imported from C uster
in South Da k ota for use a s a flux. Zircon flour a nd
zircon sa nd a re imported from the U.S.A.
115
Nepheline syenite from Onta riois useda s the ma jor
fluxing ing redient in porcela in formula tions, the
presence of sodium ions is not seen a s a ma jor prob
lem for electrica l a pplica tions. Peca n nut shell flour
is imported from the U.S.A. a s a pressing a id. All
ma teria ls a re received in ba g s a nd pa lletized for
ea se of ma teria ls ha ndling a nd ba tch formula tion.
Pr oduct s
M a jor electrica l products ma nufa cturedby the com
pa ny a re:
Arc chutes for use in hig h volta g e
circuit brea k ers a nd contra ctors, eng ineered in
the ra ng e of 1 ,000 to1 5,000 volts a nd 1 00 to
1 ,000 m.v.a . They exhibit properties such a s:
excellent a rc interruption a bility, hig h electrica l
impa ct resista nce, g ood therma l conductivity,
low electrica l losses, hig h ha rdness, erosion re
sista nce a nd therma l shock resista nce.
Applia nce pa rts, neon insula
tors, va rious electrica l insula tors, fa rm fence in
sula tors. These ma y be g la zed or ung la zed.
SMITH *t STONE LIMITED
Smith A Stone Limited currently ma nufa cture ther-
moset, thermopla stic a nd porcela in cera mic insula
tors tog ether with a ra ng e of household
(sa nita rywa re) a nd refra ctory cera mic products.
The electrica l porcela in portion of the combined
product line is for low tension insula tor a pplica tions.
Essentia lly the process technolog y a pplied by Smith
Stone is todry mix in a n Eirich hig h intensity
mixer a ndthen a ddwa ter toprovide a suita ble feed
for a de-a iring extrusion ma chine. The extruded
products a re subsequently 'turned' toproduce the
desired sha pe prior todrying a ndfiring . In a ddition,
a limited number of products a re dry pressed from a
g ra nula r product a lsoproducedin the Eirich mixer.
Dried products a re fired in either a g a s fired
Swindell Dressler Tunnel k iln or a g a s firedperiodic
k iln to cone 1 1 /1 2. Approxima tely 50 percent of
the product line is g la zed.
Raw Mat er i al s
All of the products ma nufa cturedby Smith Stone
a re cla y ba sed "porcela in" type bodies.
K a olin a nd ba ll cla ys a re imported from the
U.S.A. Pyrophyllite is imported from the U.S.A.
Silica is obta ined from St. C a nute in Quebec.
Nepheline syenite from Onta riois used a s a fluxing
ing redient.
ELECTRO PORCELAIN COMPANY LTD.
Electro Porcela in C ompa ny Ltd. ma nufa cture a
ra ng e of low volta g e insula ting products for the elec
trica l a pplia nce a nd la mp industry, tog ether with
custom switch g ea r a nd refra ctory industria l prod
ucts. The tota l production a mounts toa bout 2700
k g /week .
The C ompa ny's ma nufa cturing process is ba sed on
dry pressing a nd subsequent tunnel k iln firing (2
k ilns). R a w ma teria ls a re dry mixed in a M uller type
mixer a nd subsequently wetted toproduce a g ra nu
la r 'pressing ' mix. All items a re fired in a g a s fired
tunnel k iln a t cone 1 1 a fter drying ; both g la zed a nd
ung la zed products a re ma nufa ctured.
Raw Mat er i al s
All of the products a re cla y ba sedporcela in bodies.
K a olin cla ys a re imported from Georg ia . Ba ll
Feldspa r is imported from C onnecticut. Nepheline
syenite from Onta riois currently being used a s a
pa rtia l repla cement for the U.S. feldspa r. Ta lc is
imported from M onta na a nd New Y ork (C a na dia n
ta lcs eva lua tedtoda te ha ve been foundtobe unsa t
isfa ctory). Silica is obta ined in Onta rio. In a ddition
tothe a bove, a sma ll a mount of pyrophyllite is used.
All ra w ma teria ls a re receivedin ba g s toa idma
teria ls ha ndling a nd ba tch formula tion.
NEW TECHNOLOGY
The electrica l performa nce of cera mic ma teria ls is
g overned by the microstructure a nd surfa ce condi
tion (presence of defects, etc.). New hig h technol
og y cera mics for a pplica tion in electrica l a nd elec
tronic systems a re being developed with a n 'eng i
neered' microstructure conta ining controlled
dopa nts a ndimpurities toproduce the desiredprop
erties. Althoug h these new cera mics a re fa r re
moved from the tra ditiona l electrica l porcela in
products, it seems lik ely tha t some technolog y tra ns
fer couldoccur toimprove performa nce. The recent
ra pid rise in the qua lity of Ja pa nese products ha s
a lsobeen reflected by the ra pid developments of
their hig h technolog y 'fine' cera mics.
There would certa inly a ppea r tobe sig nifica nt
opportunity to develop improved g la zed products
for hig h volta g e a pplica tions. The effects of pollu-
116 Clay 81 Shale Industries of Ontario
tion a nd wa ter on fla shover mig ht be minimized
with the use of suita ble semi-conducting g la zes.
Fina lly, va cuum circuit brea k ers a re emerg ing
a s a sig nifica nt a lterna tive toconventiona l a ir ma g
netic circuit brea k ers. This will require a technolog y
a nd/or product cha ng e for suppliers.
APPENDIX - ELECTRICAL PORCELAIN
MANUFACTURERS IN ONTARIO (1986)
1 . Ha milton Porcela ins Ltd.
25 C a mpbell Street
Bra ntford, Onta rio
N3T 5N9
(51 9) 753-261 5
2. Smith a nd Stone Ltd.
2 Glen R oa d
Georg etown, Onta rio
L7J 2P4
(41 6) 457-6000
3. ElectroPorcela in C o. Ltd.
1 73 R og er Street
P.O. Box 400, Sta tion K -W
Wa terloo, Onta rio
N2J 4A9
(51 9) 576-2555
REFERENCES
1 . Bloor, E. C . "Electica l Porcela in R eview II Technica l
Aspects", Journa l British C era mic Soc. Vol.7, No. 5,
p. 1 29-1 34, 1 970.
2. C oy, J., Onta rio R esea rch Founda tion, M ississa ug a ,
Onta rio, 1 986.
3. C ubbon, R . C . P. a nd Till, J. R . "Prepa ra tion of C e
ra mic Bodies", C era mic M onog ra ph, Supplement toIn-
tercera m, 1 980.
4. Dev, A. a nd C ook , R . L. "Zircon a nd Alumina
Streng thened Hig h Tension Insula tors", C era mic Indus
try, Vol. 98, No.5, p.24-26, M a y-June, 1 972.
5. Grimsha w, R . W. "The C hemistry i Physics of C la ys",
John Wiley Sons, N.Y ., 1 971 .
6. Holmstrom, N. G. "Fa st Firing of Tria xia l Porcela in",
America n C era mics Society, Bulletin, Vol. 60, No. 4,
p. 470, 1 981 .
7. Johnson, P. a nd R obinson, W. G. "Development of
Pottery Bodies - Electrica l Porcela in",
M eeting of the Pottery Section, Stok e-on-Trent, Oct.
1 974.
8. R obbins, J. "C era mic Whitewa re a n Overview of R a w
M a teria ls Supply", Industria l M inera ls, No.204, p. 31 ,
Sept. 1 984.
9. Schroeder, J. E. "Inexpensive Hig h-Streng th Electrica l
Porcela in", America n C era mics Society, Bulletin, Vol.
57, No. 5, p. 526, 1 978.
1 0. Wa tson, I. "Feldspa thic Fluxes the R iva lry R e
viewed", Industria l M inera ls, Vol.1 63, p. 21 , April
1 981 .
117
Chapt er 1 1 Ref r act or i es
INTRODUCTION
In g enera l terms, the world refra ctory industry ha s
been in decline during recent yea rs, a nd a lthoug h
1 984 showed some improvements,5 the increa sed
production took pla ce in third world countries; the
North America n ma rk et continued to decrea se.9
The rea sons for the decline a re ma ny, but the prin
cipa l ones a re:
i. the decline of the steel industry (a pproxima tely
60 percent of a ll refra ctories consumed in the
world a re used toma k e steel);
ii. cha ng ing technolog y (pa rticula rly in steelma k ing
processes where continuous ca sting is displa cing
ing ot ca sting );
iii. the energ y crisis of the mid-1 970s;
iv. the economic recession of the ea rly 1 980s;
v. ma jor cha ng es in ma teria ls use pa tterns in con
sumer industries.
The cla y refra ctories industry of Onta rioha s fol
lowed this g enera l trend experienced by the North
America n ma rk et.
In the la te 1 960s or ea rly 1 970s, the principa l
refra ctory product wa s brick or other preformed
sha pes, such a s a rches, wedg es, k eys, a nd ja mbs.
These products were dry pressed on mecha nica l or
hydra ulic presses a nd fired. These products ha ve
since been suppla ntedby wha t a re often termed
refra ctories a s the ma
jor component of the cla y ba sedrefra ctory industry.
This cla ss of refra ctories, the formula tions for which
a re hig hly proprieta ry a nd closely g ua rded, include
refra ctory morta rs, ca sta bles, moulda bles, ra mming
mixes a ndg unning mixes. In a ddition, one compa ny
ma nufa ctures a n insula ting refra ctory a luminosili
ca te cera mic fibre which it preforms intoa line of
desired refra ctory sha pes.
The following compa nies ha ve been identified
a s a ctive in the production (Fig ure 1 1 .1 ) of this
ra ng e of products. A list of a ddresses is g iven in the
a ppendix a t the end of the cha pter.
o A. P. Green of Weston a nd Acton
o C ontinenta l R efra ctories of Oa k ville
o C . E. R efra ctories of Wella nd
o Ba bcock Wilcox of Burling ton
o Plibricoof Burling ton
o North America n R efra ctories of C a ledonia
o BM IR efra ctories of Smithville
o Frontier R efra ctories of Grimsby
o Genera l R efra ctories of Smithville.
M ost of the a bove a re bra nch pla nts or C a na
dia n divisions of U.S. corpora tions a nd rely on the
pa rent compa nies for supply of ra w ma teria ls from
ca ptive sources. Twoof the a bove a re sma ll inde
pendent C a na dia n compa nies.
In compa rison tothe refra ctory brick ma rk et,
the monolithic refra ctory ma rk et is less well de
fined, rela tively sma ll but of hig h va lue. M a jor ma r
k ets served include:
o the steel industry (refra ctory lining s),
o the g la ss industry (g la ss ta nk s),
o the cement industry (rota ry k iln refra ctory lin
ing s).
These ma rk ets a re hig hly competitive a nd
shrink ing in size. Fa ctors which a re seen tocontrib
ute tothis decline a re:
o ma nufa cturing technolog y cha ng es in steel
ma nufa cture,
o la ck of new insta lla tions under construction (ex
cess ca pa city),
o increa sed qua lity a nd life of current refra ctory
products,
o reduced ma intena nce of insta lla tions.
The predomina nt fa ctors contributing tothe de
cline of the refra ctories industry a re undoubtedly
the ma jor cha ng es which ha ve occurred in the steel
industry. The a ccelera ted move tocontinuous ca st
ing technolog y observed in North America is being
driven by the sig nifica nt economic benefits which
a ccrue from this process. It is not a nticipa ted tha t
this technolog y will sig nifica ntly increa se the size of
the steel industry, however it will displa ce the less
efficient ing ot ca sting technolog y. It shouldbe noted
tha t in Ja pa n, a pproxima tely 90 percent of a ll steel
produced is g enera ted by continuous ca sting , while
in Europe 70 percent of steel is produced by this
technique; in North America 45 to 50 percent is
continuously ca st. At the present time, C a na da typi
fies the rest of North America with a pproxima tely
40 percent of its production being g enera tedby con
tinuous ca sting . However, new developments within
the country's ma jor producers will ra ise this level to
a pproxima tely 80-85 percent by 1 987.
C oupledwith the conversion tocontinuous ca st
ing technolog y is a n a ccompa nying dema nd for
hig her purity steel a nd improved refra ctory service
(or performa nce). R efra ctory ma nufa cturers a re,
1 1 8
Clay 81 Shale Industries of Ontario
A.P. Gr een Ref r act or i es (Can ada) Lt d.
1 . West on Pl an t
2. Act on Pl an t
3. Con t i n en t al Ref r act or i es Lt d., Oakvl l l e
4. C.E. Ref r act or i es Lt d. Wel l an d
5. Babcock 4 Wl l cox Ref r act or i es Lt d.,
Bur l i n gt on
7. Nor t h Amer i can Ref r act or i es Lt d.,
Cal edon i a
8. BMI Ref r act or i es Lt d., Smi t hvi l l e
9. Fr on t i er Ref r act or i es Lt d., Gr i msby
1 0. Gen er al Ref r act or i es, Smi t hvi l l e
Figure 11.1 Clay refractory manufacturers in Ontario.
therefore, required to supply products tha t la st
long er, yield clea ner (purer) steels a ndcost less per
unit of steel produced. This in turn requires im
provedconsistency a ndthe development of new im
proved ma teria ls tomeet the new dema nds a ndthe
cha ng es in use pa tterns. The net result of these re
quirements is tha t the tota l tonna g e of refra ctories
used by the steel industry ha s decrea sed a s hig her
performa nce (long er la sting ) ma teria ls ha ve dis
pla ced lower qua lity ma teria ls used in the pa st.
It ha s been noted1 1 tha t with very few excep
tions, the firecla y a nd medium a lumina refra ctories
a re being displa ced; while hig h-a lumina , chrome-
a lumina , ma g nesia a nd zirconia refra ctories a re a l
rea dy finding wide a ccepta nce. It is consideredtha t
refra ctory ma nufa cturers needtoutilize these ma te
ria ls a nd combina tions thereof in conjunction with
minor a dditives a nd new a nd/or improved bonding
a g ents toyieldrefra ctories with improvedwea r resis
ta nce streng th a nd therma l shock resista nce. The
objective of such blends should not necessa rily be
the production of lower cost refra ctories but hig her
purity steels a nd lower refra ctory cost per unit of
steel produced.
PRODUCT DEFINITIONS AND PROCESS
TECHNOLOGY
CLASSIFICATION OF REFRACTORIES
The cla ssifica tion of refra ctories ca n be a pproa ched
in severa l wa ys, Ta ble 1 1 .1 provides a g uide tore
fra ctory compounds a nd the ra w ma teria ls from
which they a re ma de. Proba bly the most common
cla ssifica tion system is into'a cid' a nd 'ba sic' prod
ucts. The a cid refra ctories a re consideredtobe the
silica refra ctories a nd those in the a lumina -silica
g roup with a hig h silica content, wherea s ma g nesia ,
dolomite, chromite a nd forsterite a re cla ssified a s
ba sic refra ctories. The hig h a lumina content refra c
tories from the a lumina -silica g roup a re considered
neutra l.
Ta ble 1 1 .1 indica tes tha t cla y ba sedrefra ctories
fit intothe a lumina -silica g rouping .
119
TABLE 1 1 .1 REFRACTORY COMPOUNDS. (3)
Ref r act or y Ty pe
Silica
SiO2
Alumina- silica
AI,Oa i SIO,
Alumina
AI20 3
Magnesia
MgO
Magnesia- lime
MgO 4CaO
Magnesia-
chromite
Magnesia- silica
MgO 8c SiO2
Chromite
FeCr2O4
Zirconium
compounds
Carbon
C
Silicon carbide
SIC
Sub- section
Regular
Super- duty
Insulating
Low alumina
(^S- X , AI2O3)
High alumina
AI2O3)
Chrome/magnesia
(<50 % MgO)
Magnesia/chrome
MgO)
Forsterite
Zirconla (ZrO2)
Zircon (ZrSIO4 )
Raw Material (s)
Ganister, silica sand
Perlite, dolomite
Flint and plastic fireclays
K aolin
Bauxite clays
K yanite, silimanite and
andalusite
Synthetic mullite
Diaspore
Bauxite (calcined)
Bayer- process alumina
Magnesite or seawater
magnesia
Dolomite (sometimes
enriched with magnesia)
Olivine
Chromite (chrome ore)
Zircon sand
Graphite (natural or
synthetic) or coke
Silica and petroleum coke
REFRACTORY BRICKS
R efra ctory brick s ca n be ma nufa cturedby a ll of the
sta nda rd forming processes of moulding , extrusion
a nd pressing . The C a na dia n experience ha s been
tra ditiona lly one of prepa ring formula tions in ba tchs
using muller mixers a ndbla de type mixers a nd sub
sequently pressing the desired sha pes using either
mecha nica l or hydra ulic presses.
Pressing is a preferredmethodof fa brica tion be
ca use of the hig h tolera nces a nd sha pe control re
quiredwhen products a re la id up dry or in a n inter
lock ing mode. Severa l sta nda rd texts2 ' e ' 1 4 a re
a va ila ble which describe refra ctory brick technolog y
in deta il a ndshouldbe referredtofor further infor
ma tion.
REFRACTORY FIBRE INSULATION
R efra ctory cera mic fibres beca me commercia lly
a va ila ble in the la te 1 960s a nd a re employed essen
tia lly a s a therma l insula tor. Their development es
ca la tedwith the energ y crisis of the mid-1 970s such
tha t their use ha s become sta nda rd pra ctice in a l
most a ll refra ctory a pplica tions where insula tion is
required.
The most common type of cera mic fibre a re the
a luminosilica te types derived from cla ys a lthoug h
some a lumina a nd silica fibres a re a lsoa va ila ble.
Fibres ma y be ma nufa cturedin a va riety of wa ys
a nd in a ll ca ses the processes a re proprieta ry a nd
hig hly g ua rded. However, most commercia l fibres
a re produced by melting a ppropria te ra w ma teria ls
a nd then forming the fibre in one of twowa ys:4
1 20
*C
1 600
1 400
1 200
1 000
800
600
400
200
Qlass Fibre
Asbestos
Mineral Wool
Calcium Silicate
5. Silica Fibre
8
Vermiculite
Aluminosilicate
Standard Fibre
Aluminosilicate
High Duty Fibre
Figure 11.2 Maximum service temperatures
of common insulating materials.
1 . by pouring the melt in a strea m a nd then bla st
ing the strea m with compressed a ir or other
g a ses which brea k s the strea m intofine fibrous
ma teria l; or
2. by pouring the melt onto the periphery of a
spinning disc such tha t the liquid is thrown off
a t a ta ng ent by centrifug a l forces, ca using fibres
toform. This technique tends toform long silk y
fibres.
Other techniques a re a lsoa va ila ble, the most
noteworthy of which is tha t used for ma nufa cturing
a lumina ("Sa ffil") fibres. This process involves the
ra pid drying of sta bilized suspensions or hydrother
ma l solutions.
Fig ure 1 1 .2 shows typica l service tempera tures
of insula ting refra ctory fibres compa red to other
common therma l insula ting ma teria ls.
REFRACTORY MORTARS AND MONOLITHIC
PRODUCTS
Ref r act or y Mor t ar s
R efra ctory morta rs a re used to bond individua l
brick s tog ether intoone solid unit. They a lsoha ve
the seconda ry functions of protecting the unexposed
surfa ces from a tta ck by sla g a ndproviding resista nce
to infiltra tion by cold a ir or the outwa rd flow of
g a ses. There a re twotypes of morta r - hea t-setting
a nd a ir-setting - but the ba sis of both is a fired re
fra ctory a g g reg a te mixedwith a pla stic bonding cla y.
Hea t-setting morta rs a re g enera lly composed of
nothing but a g g reg a te a nd bonding cla y a nd rely on
firing in service toproduce a cera mic bond. Air-set
ting morta rs conta in a specia l bonding a g ent, com
monly sodium silica te (wa ter g la ss), in a ddition to
the a g g reg a te a nd the pla stic cla y. The sodium sili
ca te sets toform a strong chemica l bond a fter dry
ing a t room tempera ture. A cera mic bond will form
in the a ir-setting morta r a t hig h tempera tures, but
the streng th of the chemica l bond is reta ined a t in
termedia te tempera tures. The initia l cost of the a ir-
setting morta r is g rea ter tha n tha t of the hea t-setting
va riety, but it is often more economica l in service
beca use of its properties.
The ra ng e of compositions for morta rs va ries
considera bly, but a prima ry requirement is tha t the
morta r sha ll be compa tible with the brick s. The re
fra ctory a g g reg a te used is therefore usua lly close to
the composition of the brick itself. The most com
mon a g g reg a tes a re firecla y, ma g nesite, chromite,
a lumina , silica a nd silicon ca rbide. Simila r formula
tions a re often used a s coa ting s toimprove resis
ta nce toa bra sion a nd sla g erosion.
Mon ol i t hi cs
A monolithic structure, by definition, is one which
ha s nojoints, a nd the field of monolithic refra cto
ries comprises virtua lly a ll refra ctories except brick s
a ndmorta rs. These bulk refra ctory ma teria ls a re a p
plied tothe furna ce in a number of different wa ys
but a re best cla ssified in the four g roups - ca sta bles,
moulda bles, ra mming mixes a nd g unning mixes.
They were orig ina lly developed for the ma intena nce
of furna ces but a re now widely used a s whole fur
na ce lining s.
a re in essence hig h-tempera ture con
cretes a nd a re ma de from g ra ded refra ctory a g g re
g a tes bonded with hydra ulic setting cements. They
a re suppliedin a dry condition, a ndonly wa ter need
be a dded for insta lla tion. Some form of mould or
shuttering is put intoposition, the wet mix is ca st,
a ndta mping or mecha nica l vibra tion is employedto
obta in optimum density. Alterna tively, a ca sta ble
ma y be 'g unned' into position pneuma tica lly, or
built up in sta g es by simple trowelling . Lik e ordina ry
building concrete ma de from portla nd cement, no
hea t is required todevelop the streng th, a nd the
concrete sets in a ir toform a strong hydra ulic bond.
The cement usedin refra ctory ca sta bles is a ca lcium
a lumina te type. The a g g reg a te is hig h-burned
firecla y or k a olin, a nd for insula ting ca sta bles a
lig htweig ht ma teria l such a s dia tomite, perlite or ver
miculite is often used.
(or pla stic refra ctories) consist of
fired a nd g ra ded refra ctory a g g reg a tes which ha ve
been blended with pla stic cla ys a nd mixed with
wa ter tothe desired consistency. This lea ves them
in a stiff, pla stic condition which a llows them tobe
121
ALUMINOSILICATE
AND HIGH ALUMINA
REFRACTORIES
- KAOLIN
- FIRECLAY
- ALUMINA
- SILICA
- KYANITE
RAW MATERIALS
BASIC REFRACTORIES
- MAGNESIA
- CHROMIC OXIDE
- OLIVINE
for the preparation of specialty
refractories.
- H20
- BINDER 9
- REFRACTORY
CEMENT
l. RAMMING MIX ES
1
PLASTIC
MIX ING
1
DEAIRING
EX TRUSION
1
SLAB
CUTTER
1
P'.ASTIC WRAP
AND PACK AGING
2. GUNNING MIX ES
3. CASTABLES
A
DRY
MIX ING
1
BAGGING
- REFRACTORY
CEMENT
- BINDERS
positioned in a furna ce a nd ra mmed intopla ce,
either by ha nd or with a pneuma tic ha mmer. When
in position the ma teria l is fired toform a cera mic
bond by the furna ce itself. A va riety of a g g reg a te
ma teria ls ma y be used including hig h a nd low a lu
mina cla ys a nd chrome ore. The pla stic bonding
a g ent is nea rly a lwa ys a ca refully selected pla stic
cla y, but sma ll a mounts of phospha te a re sometimes
a dded tohig h-a lumina a g g reg a te.
a re very simila r tomoulda bles
except tha t they conta in little or nobonding ma te
ria l. They a re ba sed on g round a nd sized a g g reg a te
of va rying compositions including silica , firecla y,
hig h-a lumina ma teria l, ma g nesite, chromite, silicon
ca rbide a ndzircon. They a re poundedintopla ce by
mecha nica l mea ns a nd fired in situby the furna ce
itself.
ma y be dra wn from a ny of the
three preceding ca teg ories, but they a re g enera lly
nea rest toca sta bles. The ba sic difference is tha t the
g ra ding of the a g g reg a te a nd the moisture content
a re a ltered toma k e them suita ble for g un a pplica
tion. The mix is spra yed on tothe desired surfa ce
by compressed a ir throug h a hose. Wa ter is a dded
either in the cha mber of the g un or a t the nozzle,
but the la tter is g enera lly preferred a s it g ives more
control. Once a pplied the mix is a llowed toset in
the norma l wa y before firing . The method is ex
tremely ra pid a nd, beca use of improved g unning
techniques, ha s been the fa stest a rea of g rowth in
the refra ctories industry.
One thing tha t a ll monolithic refra ctories ha ve
in common is tha t some form of is usua lly
necessa ry toensure tha t the ma teria l stick s firmly to
the surfa ce. The a nchors ma y be refra ctory brick
sha pes or hea t-resisting a lloy steel supports, fixedto
the surfa ce a t interva ls, but they must be strong
enoug h tohold the refra ctory firmly a nd be flexible
enoug h toa llow it some movement under therma l
stress.
The prepa ra tion techniques (Fig ure 1 1 .3) for
ea ch of the a bove a re simple cera mic ba tch mixing
procedures using muller mixers, pa n mixers a nd
bla de mixers in wet or dry form. M a teria ls a re usu
a lly pa ck a g ed in 50 pound (23 k g ) pa ils or ba g s.
The ba tching of the formula tion is of course
necessa rily importa nt a nd ca re must be ta k en8 in
selecting the size distribution of a g g reg a te compo
nents if optimum property development is tobe a t
ta ined.
DEVELOPING TECHNOLOGY
It is reported1 2 tha t trends a re developing a wa y from
wa ter ba sedsystems for monolithic refra ctories. It is
well k nown tha t control of moisture content, curing
tempera ture a nd a mbient outside tempera tures
when prepa ring ca sta bles a re ma jor fa ctors in the
fina l success of the product. Alsoma ny, if not a ll,
a re sensitive to dry-out procedures a nd hea ting
ra tes. This is critica l for industries such a s the steel
industry where down-time needs tobe minimized
a nd ra pid hea ting ra tes a re desired.
122
Ja pa nese resea rch7 is currently a imed a t devel
oping hig h streng th ca sta ble products which ca n ri
va l sta nda rd 'sha ped' products a nd 'fla me-g un
ning '1 3 (or fla me spra ying ) of g unning mixes for im
proved ra pid repa ir of refra ctory insta lla tions.
R ecycling of refra ctory in the form of a g g reg a te
for monolithic refra ctory formula tions is g rowing in
interest;1 0 a ll of the compa nies use some a g g reg a te
from this source a nd, one C a na dia n ra w ma teria ls
supply compa ny1 ha s initia ted a business tosupply
crushed a nd g ra ded ma teria l a s a sta nda rd ra w ma
teria l tomonolithic ma nufa cturers.
ONTARIO OPERATIONS
The hig h deg ree of competition in a shrink ing ma r
k et ha s resulted in much ca ution on the pa rt of the
producers for disclosing informa tion on formula
tions a nd ra w ma teria ls used.
PLIBRICO COMPANY
The PlibricoC ompa ny of Burling ton ha s been oper
a ting in C a na da for more tha n 50 yea rs. The com
pa ny is a subsidia ry of the PlibricoC ompa ny of C hi
ca g o, U.S.A. The compa ny's product line includes
monolithic cera mics of which a pproxima tely 1 0 per
cent a re formed by pressing . The ba la nce of the
production is in pla stic mixes, ca sta bles a nd mor
ta rs. All products a re either a luminosilica te or hig h
a lumina refra ctory g ra des.
The compa ny serves the following ma rk ets:
o steel industry,
o non-ferrous meta ls industry,
o petrochemica l industry,
o minera l processing .
Products a re sold only in C a na da with noU.S.
exports; some ma teria ls a re exported to offshore
countries but g enera lly only for Government a ided
projects where C a na dia n content is ma nda tory.
Raw Mat er i al s
Firecla ys a nd ba ll cla ys a re imported from the
U.S.A. in bulk shipments. R efra ctory ba uxites, a lu
mina a nd binding a g ents a re obta ined from C a na
dia n sources.
C a na dia n ra w ma teria ls wouldbe consideredfor
a pplica tion a s long a s cost competitiveness couldbe
ma inta ined.
Pr ocessi n g Techn ol ogy
Bulk ra w ma teria ls a re dried, crushed a ndblended
using sta nda rd techniques. C a sta ble products a re
subsequently ba g g ed. Pla stic mixes a re extrudedbe
fore pa ck a g ing while pressed products a re dry
pressed by mecha nica l hydra ulic techniques.
Twoshuttle periodic k ilns a re reta ined for firing
brick products a nd specia lty sha pes. (Approxi
ma tely 1 0 percent of tota l production is fired.)
NORTH AMERICAN REFRACTORIES
North America n R efra ctories Ltd. is a subsidia ry of
The Allied C orpora tion, a nd ha s been opera ting in
C a ledonia for a pproxima tely 20 yea rs. The com
pa ny employs a bout 30 people, of which a pproxi
ma tely one-ha lf a re directly involved in production.
The compa ny ma nufa ctures hig h a lumina , ba sic
a nd ma g nesite refra ctory products, hig h hea t mor
ta rs, ca sta bles, ra mming a nd g unning mixes. M ost
of the products a re desig ned for quick insta lla tion
a ndrepa ir work . R efra ctory brick s a re not included
in the compa ny's product line.
Products a re ma rk eted only in C a na da a nd pri
ma rily tosteel pla nts a lthoug h the following a ddi
tiona l ma rk ets a re a lsoserved:
o minera ls processing industry,
o cement industry,
o foundry industry,
o g la ss industry.
All products a re ba tch formula ted. R a w ma teria ls
a re blended a nd binders such a s ca lcium a lumina te
a nd phosphoric a cid a dded. R a w ma teria ls a re
mixed in a n Eirich mixer. Dry products a re subse
quently ba g g ed while pla stic mixes a re fedtoa n ex
truder/shredder a nd wire cut before pa ck a g ing .
None of the products a re fired. Tota l produc
tion is between 3600 a nd 4500 tonnes per yea r of
which a bout ha lf is cla y mixes a nd ha lf is hig h a lu
mina mixes.
Raw Mat er i al s
A wide va riety of cla ys a re imported from the
U.S.A. including k a olin, ba ll cla y a ndfirecla ys. The
cla ys a re selected on the ba sis of their a lumina con
tents a nd iron impurities. Approxima tely
1 800-2300 tonnes of cla y a re imported ea ch yea r.
R efra ctory ba uxites a nd firecla y tog ether with
ma g nesite a re purcha sed from ca ptive sources or
throug h the pa rent compa ny.
A. P. GREEN REFRACTORIES
A. P. Green R efra ctories (C a na da ) Ltd. is a subsidi
a ry of a ma jor U.S. refra ctories compa ny; the C a na -
Clay Si. Shale Industries of Ontario 123
dia n compa ny is a division of C a na dia n Gypsum
C ompa ny which in turn is owned by U.S. Gypsum.
The compa ny ha s been ma rk eting refra ctories in
C a na da for over 50 yea rs, a nd ma nufa cturing prod
ucts loca lly since the 1 940s. The compa ny opera tes
twopla nts in Onta rio, one in Weston a nd the other
in Acton.
The Weston pla nt ma nufa ctures specia lty re
fra ctory products, ca sta bles, pla stics a nd morta rs,
ma inly in the a luminosilica te a nd hig h a lumina re
fra ctory g roups. Products ra ng e from low duty to
hig h duty a nd super duty refra ctories. (Super duty
refra ctories a re those conta ining up to95 percent
A1 2 O3.) Insula ting ca sta bles conta ining vermiculite,
perlite a nd insula ting g rog a re a lsoincluded in the
product line, a s a re some a lumina -chrome mixes.
The Acton pla nt produces hig h hea t duty re
fra ctory brick a s its ma in product tog ether with
firecla y crucibles for a ssa ying purposes.
The compa ny's ma jor ma rk et is the steel indus
try towhich 40-60 percent of tota l production is
dedica ted, other ma rk ets include:
o foundry industry,
o cera mic k iln lining s,
o hea vy cla y industry.
M ost of the ma rk et is in Onta rio, a lthoug h some
products a re exported tothe U.S.A.
Raw Mat er i al s
Hig h a lumina cla ys a re imported from the U.S.A.
(some from ca ptive sources). R efra ctory ba uxite
cla ys a re imported from South America a nd C hina .
Ba ll cla ys a re imported from K entuck y a ndTennes
see. Firecla ys a re imported from ca ptive sources in
M exicoa ndM issouri a nda re a lsopurcha sedin Sa s
k a tchewa n. Alumina is purcha sed from both C a na
dia n a nd U.S. sources. Silica is imported from Illi
nois. C hrome is imported from the U.S.A. Ver
miculite is purcha sed in C a na da . Perlite is pur
cha sed in C a na da .
At the Weston pla nt 5400-7300 tonnes per yea r
of cla y a re used a s ra w ma teria l.
Tota l production is 1 3,600-1 6,300 tonnes of re
fra ctories per yea r.
At the Acton pla nt tota l cla y consumption is
2700 tonnes per yea r; products a re 1 00 percent cla y
ba sed.
All ma teria ls a re received preg round to required
specifica tions, some of the cla y products a re re
ceived in bulk form, others a re purcha sed in ba g s.
R a w ma teria l mixing is a chieved in a C lea rfill
wet mixer or a Simpson dry mixer. Pla stic products
a re extruded in 25 k g block s or pa ck a g ed, dry
mixed products a re simply ba g g ed.
Brick s a re producedby dry mixing a s a bove a nd
subsequent dry pressing using mecha nica l a nd hy
dra ulic presses.
CONTINENTAL REFRACTORIES
C ontinenta l R efra ctories Ltd.'s Oa k ville pla nt wa s
formerly owned by the K a iser R efra ctories C om
pa ny. In 1 984, the K a iser compa ny sold its refra c
tory opera tions toits employees a nd a new com
pa ny, Na tiona l R efra ctories, wa s formed. In Ja nua ry
1 985, the C ontinenta l R efra ctories C ompa ny wa s
crea ted for the C a na dia n opera tion a s a wholly
owned subsidia ry of Na tiona l R efra ctories.
The compa ny ma nufa ctures ba sic refra ctory
specia lties a nd cla y a lumina specia lties,
(monolithics) for the C a na dia n ma rk et. Industries
served include:
o steel industry,
o foundry industry,
o g la ss industry.
R efra ctory brick s were produced up until the
la te 1 970s but production wa s discontinued when
the economic downturn seriously reducedca pita l in
vestment in new pla nts.
Raw Mat er i al s
C la ys a re imported from the U.S.A. from ca ptive
sources. C a lcined cla ys a re imported from the
U.S.A. R efra ctory ba uxites a re imported from
South America . Ta bula r a nd ca lcined a lumina a re
purcha sed from C a na dia n a nd U.S. sources. Bond
ing a g ents a re imported from the U.S.A. Grog (re
cycled refra ctory) is purcha sed from C a na dia n
sources.
All ra w ma teria ls a re purcha sed in ba g s throug h
the pa rent corpora tion; C a na dia n ra w ma teria ls
must be cost effective in order toreceive preference
over corpora te buying policy.
Process technolog y a t C ontinenta l R efra ctories is es
sentia lly one of mixing a nd pa ck a g ing with a la rg e
1 24 Clay Si Shale Industries of Ontario
ma nua l la bour component. M ixing is a chieved in
La nca ster mixers for coa rse g ra ined dry products
a nd in a Simpson mix-muller for fine g ra ined wet
products. Dry products a re pa ck a g ed in ba g s semi-
a utoma tica lly; wet products a re pa ck a g ed in 2-1 /2
g a llon (1 1 litre) pa ils.
BABCOCK f t WILCOXREFRACTORIES
Ba bcock A Wilcox R efra ctories Ltd. of Burling ton is
a C a na dia n subsidia ry of Ba bcock Wilcox of New
Orlea ns, U.S.A., which in turn is ownedby M cDer-
mott Inc. of New Orlea ns. The Burling ton pla nt ha s
opera ted since 1 965, initia lly under the na me of
Sta nda rd R efra ctories.
The compa ny's ma jor product is a hig h tem
pera ture cera mic fibre insula tion (K a owool) in the
form of bulk fibre a ndva cuum-formedsha pes. Sec
onda ry products a re refra ctory ca sta bles, morta rs
a nd pla stic mixes. Products a re ma rk eted only in
C a na da .
C era mic fibre products find service in the fol
lowing industries:
o steel industry,
o a luminum industry,
o commercia l k iln a nd furna ce insta lla tions,
o g la ss industry,
o commercia l therma l insula tion.
Raw Mat er i al s
C hina cla ys a re imported from Georg ia (ca ptive
source). Ba ll cla ys a re importedfrom the C a rolina s.
C a lcined k a olin is imported from Georg ia . Firecla ys
a re imported from the U.S.A. R efra ctory ba uxites
a re imported from South America . K ya nite is im
ported from the U.S.A. Alumina is purcha sed in
C a na da a nd the U.S.A.
Tota l cla y imports a re 3600-4500 tonnes per
yea r.
Man uf act ur i n g Techn ol ogy
Cerami c Fi bre Products
The ma nufa cturing process for "k a owool" is a pro
prieta ry process a nd noinforma tion on the process
is a va ila ble.
Monoli thi c Products
The ma nufa cturing process for monolithic products
is simply one of weig ht ba tching , mixing a nd pa ck
a g ing . Pla stic products a re mixed in a muller mixer,
extrudedintoblock s, wire cut tosize a ndpa ck a g ed,
dry mixed products a re simply ba g g ed. M orta r
mixes a re supplied wet in drums of up to340 k g
ba tches.
FRONTIER REFRACTORIES
Frontier R efra ctories Ltd. is a ma nufa cturer of re
fra ctory removing a nd g unning mixes. The ma jority
of the products a re formula ted for use in iron ma k
ing ca st house opera tions. The compa ny serves the
domestic ma rk et with only a sma ll a mount exported
tothe United Sta tes.
Frontier imports cla y from the United Sta tes,
a nd uses a milled a nd a ir dried ba ll cla y in the
mixes. Approxima tely 45 tonnes of cla y a re usedin
one yea r. The process specifics for the prepa ra tion
of the mixes a re proprieta ry informa tion a nd were
not relea sed by the compa ny.
BMI REFRACTORIES
BM I R efra ctories Ltd. produces monolithic spe
cia lty refra ctories, including ra mming , g unning a nd
ta mping mixes. The compa ny serves a domestic
ma rk et only.
The compa ny ba sica lly employs a ba tching -mix-
ing -pa ck a g ing opera tion. They ha ve three process
lines; a dry mixing process for the cement ca sta bles,
a wet mixing line for the wa ter-ba sed ra mming
mixes, a nd a third line for the ta r bonded specia l
ties.
BM Iimport their cla y from the U.S.A. a nduse
predomina ntly ba ll cla ys with a sma ll a mount of a
crude firecla y. They estima te a consumption ra te of
a pproxima tely 900 tonnes of cla y per yea r.
GENERAL REFRACTORIES
Genera l R efra ctories Ltd. is currently expa nding its
product line toinclude a lumina -ba sed specia lty re
fra ctories. The compa ny pla ns toproduce g unning ,
ra mming a nd pla stic mixes. The cla y will be im
portedfrom the U.S.A. Noda ta a re a va ila ble, how
ever, on estima ted consumptions.
C. E. REFRACTORIES
C . E. R efra ctories Ltd. produces g unning a nd ra m
ming mixes a nd ca sta ble refra ctories. The compa ny
imports cla y from the U.S.A. M a inly ba ll cla y is
usedin the mixes; a very sma ll a mount of firecla y is
a lsoused. R oug hly 450 tonnes of cla y is used per
yea r.
The process a t C . E. R efra ctories is ba sica lly
ba tching -mixing -pa ck a g ing . The compa ny serves
predomina ntly a domestic ma rk et with a bout 95
percent of the sa les in C a na da .
PRODUCT AND MARK ET TREND
OBSERVATIONS
By fa r the ma jority of monolithic refra ctories find
a pplica tion in the steel industry. R ecent technolog i
ca l cha ng es in tha t industry such a s direct ca sting
a nd the elimina tion of ca sting pits tog ether with im
proved performa nce of modern products, ha ve
g iven rise toa decrea se in the ma rk et for monolithic
products. Increa sedcompetition in a shrink ing ma r
k et requires development of new a nd improved
products toensure a nd sta bilize ma rk et sha re.
Among technica l developments which a re being
considered, is the elimina tion of inorg a nic binders
a nd their repla cement with org a nic systems; lower
wa ter a nd cement contents a re considered toim
prove dura bility a nd sla g resista nce.
Another technolog y whichprovides a n opportu
nity for development is the desig n a nda pplica tion of
refra ctory coa ting s which a re more compa tible with
the sla g chemistry. Idea lly the a dhesion of the sla g
tothe coa ting a nd the subsequent crea tion of a n
interfa ce or bounda ry la yer could set up a ba rrier
a g a inst corrosion a nd erosion, a nd a g a in improve
the life of the refra ctory.
APPENDIX - PRODUCERS OF
REFRACTORIES IN ONTARIO (1986)
1 . A. P. Green R efra ctories (C a na da ) Ltd.
234 R osemount Avenue
Weston, Onta rio
M 9N 3C 4
(41 6) 241 -5241
2. A. P. Green R efra ctories (C a na da ) Ltd.
1 59 Perth Street
Acton, Onta rio
L7J 1 C 9
(51 9) 853-0840
3. C ontinenta l R efra ctories Ltd.
P.O. Box 488
Bronte R oa d
Oa k ville, Onta rio
L6J 5A8
(41 6) 827-41 55
4. C . E. R efra ctories Ltd.
Prince C ha rles Drive
Wella nd, Onta rio
L3B 5P4
(41 6) 732-4441
5. Genera l R efra ctories
Smithville, Onta rio
LOR 2AO
(41 6) 957-331 1
6. Ba bcock Wilcox R efra ctories Ltd.
1 1 85 Wa lk ers Line N.
Burling ton, Onta rio
L7M 1 L1
(41 6) 335-341 4
7. PlibricoC o.
P.O. Box 4355
Fa irview Street
Burling ton, Onta rio
L7R 3Y 7
(41 6) 639-8660
8. North America n R efra ctories Ltd.
201 Sterling Street West
P.O. Box 40
C a ledonia , Onta rio
NO A 1 AO
(41 6) 765-4404
9. BM IR efra ctories Ltd.
P.O. Box 490
Industria l Pa rk R oa d
Smithville, Onta rio
LOR 2AO
(41 6) 957-2301
1 0. Frontier R efra ctories Ltd.
P.O. Box 427
Durha m R oa d
Grimsby, Onta rio
L3M 4H8
(41 6) 945-1 998
REFERENCES
1 . Ba rnes Ltd., W.R ., Wa terdown, Onta rio,
1 986.
2. C hesters, J. H. "R efra ctories Production a nd Proper
ties", The Iron a nd Steel Institute, London, 1 973.
3. C oope, B. M . "Industria l M inera ls R efra ctories Sur
vey", R a w M a teria ls for the R efra ctories Industry, ed.
B.M . C oope a nd E.M . Dick son, M eta l Bulletin Jour
na ls, p.1 5, 1 981 .
4. Dick son, E. M . "C era mic Fibres", R a w M a teria ls for
the R efra ctories Industry, ed. B.M . C oope a nd E.M .
Dick son, M eta l Bulletin Journa ls, p. 1 59, 1 981 .
5. Dick son, T. "The R efra ctory Industry - Where it is Go
ing ", R efra ctory R a w M a teria ls, Industria l M inera ls
C onference, Atla nta , Dec. 1 985.
6. Grimsha w, R . "The C hemistry a nd Physics of C la ys",
Fourth Edition, John Wiley Sons, N.Y ., 1 980.
7. Ha ya shi, T. a nd Nishio, H. "R ecent Trends In R efra c
tories Technolog y In Ja pa n", Industria l M inera ls R e
fra ctories Supplement, p. 1 7, 1 983.
8. Heilich, R . P., M a cZura , G. a nd R ohr, F. J. "Preci
sion C a st 92-979fc Alumina C era mics Bonded with C a l
cium Alumina te C ement", America n C era mics Society,
Bulletin, Vol. 50 No.6, p.548, 1 971 .
9. M a rtineck , C . "Ba sic R efra ctories", R efra ctory R a w
M a teria ls, Industria l M inera ls C onference, Atla nta ,
Dec. 1 985.
1 0. Oxna rd, R . T. "A Processing Pla nt for R efra ctory R ecy
cling ", Industria l M inera ls R efra ctories Supplement, p.
1 06, 1 983.
1 1 . R a msey, G. L. "R efra ctories for C ontinuous C a sting ",
R efra ctory R a w M a teria ls, Industria l M inera ls C onfer
ence, Atla nta , Dec. 1 985.
1 2. Schroth, P. "R efra ctories for the 1 980's", Industria l
M inera ls R efra ctories Supplement, p. 9, 1 983.
1 3. Sperl, H., Sta hl und Eisen, No. 2, 1 980,
"R ecent Trends In R efra ctories Technolog y In Ja pa n",
Industria l M inera ls R efra ctories Supplement, p. 25,
1 983.
1 4. Ta ylor, H. F., Fleming s, M . C . a ndWulf, J. "Foundry
Eng ineering ", John Wiley Sons, N.Y ., 1 959.
126
Chapt er 1 2 Mi n er al Wool
INTRODUCTION
M inera l wool is a fibrous, g la ssy ma teria l used a s a
low-cost insula ting ma teria l. It is produced in a
two-sta g e process consisting of a ra w ma teria l melt
ing step, followed by a fibriza tion step. In Onta rio
the ra w ma teria l usedis bla st furna ce sla g . However,
a rg illa ceous dolostones, ca lca reous sha les, ba sa lt
a nd other meta llurg ica l sla g s ca n a lsobe used. In
most ca ses, the a ddition of sma ll a mounts of silica
a nd/or nepheline syenite tothe ra w ma teria l ca n im
prove the qua lity of the fibre.
First recorded production of minera l wool wa s
in Wa les a round the middle of the la st century. In
the U.S.A., wool wa s first produced from sla g in
1 870 a t Greenfield, New Jersey. However, produc
tion wa s not substa ntia l until 1 897 when a pla nt a t
Alexa ndria , India na , commenced opera tions using
siliceous dolostone from nea rby deposits. 1 3- 29 Sla g
wool wa s first ma de in Germa ny a bout 1 870.
Ea rly producers in Onta rioincluded C a na dia n
Johns-M a nville C ompa ny Limited in Sca rboroug h,
Gypsum, Lime a nd Ala ba stine (C a na da ) Limited a t
C a ledonia , a nd Spun R ock Wools Limited in
Thorold, a ll of which ha ve since closed. C urrently
there a re four pla nts opera ting in Onta rio, these be
ing :
o C a na dia n Gypsum C ompa ny, Weston,
o Pa rtek Insula tions Limited, Sa rnia ,
o R oxul C ompa ny, M ilton.
Onta rio pla nts (Fig ure 1 2.1 ) produce a bout
1 00,000tonnes of minera l wool a nnua lly, a bout ha lf
of which is exported tothe U.S.A.
M inera l wool competes directly with fibreg la ss.
It is superior tofibreg la ss in refra ctoriness a ndinsu
la ting properties, but la ck s its g ood white colour, a n
l - SPUN ROCK WOOLS LTD, Thor ol d (cl osed 1 978)
Z-BISHOP FIBRETEK INC., Tor on t o (cl osed 1 966)
3- CANADIAN GYPSUM COMPANY, West on
4- PARTEK INSULATIONS LTD, Sar n i a
5- ROXUL COMPANY , Mi l t on
Figure 12.1 Mineral wool producers in Ontario.
1 27
a ppea ra nce of purity a ndthe a bility for wea ving into
cloth. M inera l wool is ma rk eted la rg ely a s loose in
sula tion for pouring or blowing intoresidentia l a ttics
a nd wa lls. Unlik e fibreg la ss, minera l wool does not
settle a pprecia bly a fter insta lla tion. Hence, its in
sta lledthick ness persists over time, wherea s g ra dua l
loss of entra pped a ir in fibreg la ss ca n result in a
thinner insula ting bla nk et tha n orig ina lly insta lled.
M inera l wool ca n a lsobe pressed with a binder
intorig id ba tts a ndboa rds of a ny size, or rolled for
pipe insula tion. It is a ma jor ing redient in fire resis
ta nt a coustica l ceiling tiles, a nd finds specia l a ppli
ca tion a s insula tion in prefa brica ted chimneys a nd
other hig h-tempera ture uses.
Other recent a pplica tions for minera l wool a nd
minera l wool wa ste a re a s a thick ener in drilling flu
ids a ndin horticulture. Experiments ha ve been per
formed on g rowing va rious crops in minera l wool
a nd on using minera l wool wa ste a s a soil a mend
ment. M inera l wool wa ste ha s a lso found a pplica
tion a s a ra w ma teria l in the ma nufa cture of brick s.
RAW MATERIALS
M inera l wool ca n be ma de from a va riety of na tu
ra lly occurring rock s a nd minera ls including sha le,
ba sa lt, a rg illa ceous dolostone, a s well a s most meta l
lurg ica l sla g s (Photo1 2.1 ). Toa ll of these a re usu
a lly a dded some silica , dolomite or nepheline
syenite a s necessa ry toa chieve a ba tch composition
in the ra ng e shown in Ta ble 1 2.1 . Such a chemica l
composition is k nown from empirica l evidence a nd
from pha se dia g ra ms, toproduce a melt of the de
sired viscosity a nd a fibre of g ood qua lity.
Other ra w ma teria ls recently investig a ted in
clude a sbestos mine a nd a sbestos-cement ta il
ing s,9- 32 a nd cement k iln dust.2 The a ddition of zir
conium oxide for a lk a li resista nce1 4 a nd chromium
oxide for corrosion resista nce7 ha ve a lsobeen inves
tig a ted.
Of the va rious techniques used for proportion
ing of the ra w ma teria ls, twoa re in common pra c
tice: the use of pha se equilibrium dia g ra ms, a nd a
considera tion of the a cidtoba se ra tio. In the C a O-
M g O-Al2 O3-SiO2 a nd the C a O-M g O-
Al2 O3-SiO2-Fe2O3-FeO systems, the rela tionship
between viscosity, tempera ture a nd composition ha s
been published.23- 27 Thus by choosing a n opera ting
tempera ture a nd a desired viscosity, a composition
in terms of these oxides is indica ted. Good wool
usua lly results from viscosities between 6 a nd 1 2
poise (0.6-1 .2 Pa .s) a t tempera tures between 1 400
a nd 1 4500C .34
Experiments on the viscosity-tempera ture rela
tionship of va rious mixtures incorpora ting sla g ,
qua rtz, tra p rock , limestone a nd nepheline syenite
wa ste ha ve a lsobeen performed.28 Fina lly, the use
of density a nd surfa ce tension a s pa ra meters in the
ma nufa cture of minera l wool ha s been investi
g a ted;40 a model describing the rela tionship between
ba tch composition a nd melt surfa ce tension ha s
been presented.
Photo 12.1 Mineral
wool raw materials:
(left to right) sand
stone, slag, neph
eline syenite.
Photo courtesy of
Roxul Company.
1 28
Lime, ma g nesia , a lumina a nd silica a re the pre
domina nt releva nt oxides in the ma nufa cture of
minera l wool. Individua lly they a ll ha ve melting
tempera tures hig her tha n those obta ined in cupola
furna ces, however, when combined, they rea dily
fuse a t lower tempera tures. Some mixes tha t g ive
the lowest fusion tempera tures (i.e. eutectics) a re
listed in Ta ble 1 2.2. R a w ma teria ls usedin the min
era l wool ba tch a re ea ch rich in one or more of the
four essentia l oxides.
Shal e
M inera l wool ca n be ma de from mixtures of sha le
a nd dolomitic lime; it ha s a lsobeen produced com
mercia lly in Onta riofrom a rg illa ceous dolostone. In
1 933 there were 1 0 rock wool pla nts a nd 9 sla g
pla nts in the U.S.A. 1 8 The ma ny sources of molten
sla g s of va rious compositions ha ve reduced the im
porta nce of na tura l sources. 1 7
La bora tory testing ha s shown tha t fibre ma de
from a mixture of 60 percent Georg ia n Ba y Sha le
(formerly Dunda s Sha le) a nd 40 percent dolomitic
lime is of g ood qua lity a nd whiteness but ha s lower
tensile streng th tha n sla g fibre.34 Simila r tests using
a blendof 76 percent Queenston Sha le a nd 30 per
cent dolomitic lime produceda strong er fibre which,
however, wa s still wea k er tha n sla g fibre.34
M ost Onta riosha les couldbe usedin the ma nu
fa cture of minera l wool, with suita ble blending with
dolomitic lime or dolomite.
Sl ag
Sla g s from the bla st furna ce smelting of iron a re the
most widely usedra w ma teria l beca use of a va ila bility
a nd cost. However, steel sla g from the refining of
iron tosteel, a nd nick el or copper sla g s ca n a lsobe
used. Sla g compositions a re ra rely idea l, a nd a ddi
tions of silica or nepheline syenite a re usua lly neces
sa ry tog et the rig ht melt viscosity. (Sla g ha s been
used in some insta nces without a dditives in severa l
TABLE 1 2.1 COMPOSITION OF MINERAL WOOL RAW MATERIALS.
Reference
SiO2
AI20 3
Fe20 3
CaO
MgO
S0 3
LOI
Alkalis
Desired
Range
(15)
24- 32
8- 12
2- 3
16- 21
10 - 13
26- 29
Tota l
Hami l t on
Sl ag
(34)
38.21
8.21
0.67
36.97
1 3.1
1 .5
O
98.7
Rochester
Thorold
(13)
24.28
11.16
0 .84
21.53
11.23
1.24
29.10
Shale
St. Davids
(16)
25.33
9.50
2.57
21.10
10 .50
27 .7 3
2.56
Geor gi an
Bay Shale
(1 9)
55.66
1 5.30
6.60
4.63
2.82
0.78
9.22
Queen st on
Shal e
(1 9)
51 .28
1 3.90
6.15
9.00
3.48
0.26
1 1 .08
99.38 99.29
TABLE 1 2.2 MELTING POINTS OF THE MAIN MINERAL WOOL OXIDES AND
SOME OF THEIR BINARY AND TERNARY EUTECTICS. (24)
Oxi des
C a O
MgO
AI2 03
Si 02
Bi n ar y Eut ect i cs
CaO-AI2 O 3
C a O-SIO2
MgO-Si O2
AI2 O 3-Si O2
Ter n ar y Eut ect i cs
CaO-AI2O 3-Si O2
MgO-AI2 O3-Si O2
CaO-MgO-AI2 O3
Mel t i n g
Poi n t
( 0 C)
2570
2800
2040
1728
1 397
1 438
1 547
1 595
1 1 65
1 347
1 345
Mi x Pr opor t i on s (*f c)
CaO MgO AI 2 O3 Si O2
1 00
50.3
36.0
23.3
41 .5
1 00
35.0
1 00
49.7
5.7
14.7
20.3 1 8.3
6.7 51 .8
1 00
64.0
65.0
94.3
62.0
61 .4
129
pla nts in the U.S.A.38) C urrent Onta rio pra ctice
fa vours the use of a combina tion of bla st furna ce
sla g a nd silica , whichproduces a wool of g oodqua l
ity a nd whiteness. Nepheline syenite ca n a lso be
a dded tosla g , a lone or combined with silica .
Sla g s produced in the smelting of ba se meta ls
tendtoconta in more iron tha n is desira ble, resulting
in da rk er coloured wool. Perha ps the most serious
disa dva nta g e in using sla g s is their sulphur content
which, when oxidized a nd expelled in the flue
g a ses, requires pollution control mea sures. A typica l
composition of bla st furna ce sla g from Ha milton
steel pla nts is g iven in Ta ble 1 2.1 . Sla g ha s been the
principa l ra w ma teria l for minera l wool in North
America since World Wa r II.29
Basal t
R ock s of g a bbroic composition a re being used in
some pla nts in the U.S.A. a s the principa l ra w ma
teria l for minera l wool. Some commercia l "ba sa lt"
fibres ha ve reinforcing properties compa ra ble to
fibreg la ss, with g rea ter refra ctoriness, better a dhe
sion toepoxy resins a ndsuperior a lk a li resista nce.37
Experiments with meta ba sa lt from Ha velock ,
Onta rio, mixed with 30 percent Ha milton bla st fur
na ce sla g ha ve produced a g ood qua lity fibre of a
g reyish colour.34
Wol l ast on i t e
Wolla stonite, ca lcium silica te, is used in Finla nd,
finely g round with dolomite a nd cok e, a s a ra w ma
teria l for minera l wool. Its use without a dditives ha s
a lsobeen reported.24
PROCESS TECHNOLOGY
The ma nufa cture of minera l wool is essentia lly a
two-sta g e process involving first the melting of the
rock or sla g ba tch, a nd secondly the conversion of
the melt intofibre (Fig ure 1 2.2). A description of
pla nt requirements for minera l wool ma nufa cture, 1
a s well a s a census of U.S. ma nufa cturers,39 ha ve
been published.
M elting is g enera lly a ccomplished in a cupola
(Fig ure 1 2.3), a wa ter-ja ck eted vertica l steel fur
na ce, unlined except for a refra ctory ba se. An
eva lua tion of refra ctories for minera l wool furna ces
ha s been published.8 C ombustion a ir a ndsometimes
na tura l g a s a nd oxyg en a re introducednea r the ba se
throug h a number of jets. The principa l fuel is cok e
which is mixed with the other ba tch constituents
a ndfedintothe top of the cupola . The melt collects
in a pool a t the ba se a nd is dra wn off continuously
in a thin strea m tothe fibrizing unit. As melt is with
dra wn, new cha rg es of cok e a nd sla g or rock de
scendtowa rds the melting zone. Tempera ture in the
melting zone is ma inta ined a t a bout 1 5000C . When
using sla g , sma ll qua ntities of molten iron which sink
to the bottom of the melt pool a re periodica lly
ta pped off.
C upola s in use toda y require ra w ma teria l in
lump form, g enera lly coa rser tha n 5 cm, toa llow
the flow of combustion g a ses throug h the ma teria l.
Finer pa rticula tes ma y be entra inedin the flue g a ses
Not e: Appr oxi mat e compar i son of
Si 0 2 i AI20 3
CoO i MgO
Collecting Chamber
40 'xl2'x5'
3 ,
"
CJ
Bl owi n g
Nozzl e
En dl ess Bel t
Wool r ock 3,000 Ib El ect r i c power (appr ox. 40kw-hr .
Coke(appr ox-) l ,200l b Cool i n g wat er (appr oxJ4,000 gal .
St eam(appr ox.) 3,000l b Di r ect l abor I6man -hr .
Per t on of
r ock wool
Figure 12.2 Schematic diagram of a mineral wool plant by the blowing method.33
130
Mat er i al Feedi n g
Fr om Hopper
Cool i n g Jacket
Figure 12.3 Schematic diagram
of the mineral wool cupola furnace
and spinning wheel.
Col l ect i on Chamber
To Baggi n g
Fi br e Bl an ket
Spi n n i n g Wheel
ca using both ra w ma teria l loss a nd a ir pollution.
Electric a rc furna ces, in use elsewhere, ha ve the a d
va nta g e of being a ble toprocess finer ra w ma teria ls
without product loss. In the ca se of fria ble ra w ma
teria ls such a s sa ndstone or sha le this ma y be a sig
nifica nt a dva nta g e in terms of ma ximizing utiliza tion
of the resource. In isola ted ca ses, reverba tory fur
na ces ha ve been used in minera l wool production,
but neither they nor electric a rc furna ces a re a s fuel
efficient a s cupola s. There ha s been a stea dy strea m
of published a rticles a nd pa tents reg a rding minera l
wool furna ces. R ecent developments include use of
g a s electric combina tion furna ces, 1 0- 35 oxyg en injec
tion in sha ft furna ces, 1 8 conversion from a hot-bla st
cupola furna ce toa cold-bla st opera tion, 1 1 a ndhea t
recovery.36 In a ddition, a unit for remelting minera l
wool wa stes ha s a lsobeen discussed.31
Fibrizing is a ccomplished in three of the On
ta riopla nts by feeding a thin strea m of melt intoa
vertica l config ura tion of four spinning g rooved
wheels. The fourth pla nt uses a horizonta l config u
ra tion. The strea m is brok en intobea ds which a re
flung from the spinning wheels; the velocity of the
bea dresults in a long ta il being formed, the ta il g iv
ing the product its fibrous na ture. Fibres ca n a lsobe
produced by directing a hig h pressure strea m of a ir
or stea m a g a inst the melt droplets, a process which
wa s used in the C a ledonia pla nt before its closing .
Stea m a t a pressure of nea rly 0.7 M Pa (1 00 psi) wa s
directed a g a inst the strea m of melt converting drop
lets tofibres. Spinning produces a long er fibre tha n
the pressurized strea m process.
Ag a in, there ha ve been ma ny pa pers a nd pa t
ents reg a rding fibriza tion. R ecent nota ble develop
ments include a n a ppa ra tus for intercepting pa rtia l
fibres ejected from the difibrilla tion wheels3 a nd re
g enera tion of the work ing surfa ce of the fibre spin
ning disc.21 - 22
In a ll ca ses the qua lity of the fibre is rela ted
ma inly tothe viscosity of the melt a nd, toa lesser
extent, the thick ness of the melt strea m. A toovis
cous strea m yields thick er, more brittle fibres, while
a low viscosity strea m yields short fibres with poor
felting qua lities. The viscosity a lsoa ffects the pro
duction ra te with lower viscosities yielding increa sed
production. Viscosity is prima rily controlled by
chemica l composition of the ba tch: the more silica ,
the hig her the viscosity a nd thick er the fibre. The
idea l is a fibre between 3 a nd 1 0 microns in dia me
ter, a nd this requires ca reful proportioning of the
ba tch plus close monitoring of the cupola melting
zone a nd speed of the spinners. M ethods for esti
ma ting fibre leng ths by lig ht sca ttering ha ve recently
been published.5- 6
131
&O " 3
l S
oq
O
O
c
l
o
*
2 .S o
cq
c 0 5
(O
Q.
O
O
x
o
(T.
^
V)
0)
o
o
J S
Q.
" o
o
0
D
O)
I i
** vj ^)
o a
K O
5 5
1 32
Photo 12.2 Spinners forming mineral wool
fibres. Photo courtesy of Roxul Company.
Depending on the end use of the product, dif
ferent a dditives ma y be spra yed ontothe fibres a t
this sta g e.
In the ma k ing of rig id insula ting boa rds a nd
ba tts, a s much a s 1 0 percent of a resin binder is
spra yed on the fibre a s it is stripped from the spin
ners by a strea m of a ir. An emulsified oil ma y a lso
be a dded a t this sta g e tocontrol dust or for wa ter
proofing .
The a ir strea m not only moves the fibre from
the spinning wheels, but effects a pa rtia l sepa ra tion
of fibre a nd "shot", the unfibrized bea ds of ha rd
ened melt. Throug h a closely controlled a ir system,
the wool is collected uniformly on a conveyor belt
whose speed determines the thick ness of the min
era l wool bla nk et being formed. A cyclonic sepa ra
tor a ppa ra tus ha s recently been pa tented which, in
combina tion with a rota ting screen filter, sepa ra tes
wool from shot.25
Lea ving the collection cha mber, the wool bla n
k et is directed toa ny of severa l product lines. To
produce loose wool, the bla nk et is pa ssed between
contra rota ting toothed rolls, k nown a s g ra nula tors,
which shred the bla nk et a nd further sepa ra te shot
tha t is subsequently removed by screening or
cycloning . Toproduce other products, the bla nk et
ca n be rolledintopipe insula tion, or for rig idboa rds
or ba tts, the resin impreg na ted wool bla nk et is
cured in a hot a ir oven, then cut intoa ny size by
circula r sa ws mounted a bove the conveyor.
New minera l wool products a re consta ntly being
developed a ndpa tented. A few recent ones include
minera l wool with a vertica l fibre orienta tion (result
ing in hig her streng th) 1 2 a utocla ve trea ted minera l
wool28 a nd desicca nt impreg na ted minera l wool for
use a s a drying a g ent.4
Loose wool is either ba g g ed or ba led, a nd sold
a s loose insula tion tha t ca n be either poured or
blown into a ttics a nd wa ll pa rtitions. Densities of
boa rds a nd ba tts a s hig h a s 250 k g /m3 (1 6 pcf) a re
possible.
M inera l wool products a re subject tosta nda rds
esta blishedby the America n Society of Testing a nd
M a teria ls (ASTM C 764-73), a nd the C a na dia n
Government Specifica tions Boa rd (C GSB
51 -GP-9M , 51 -GP-1 0M , 51 -GP-1 1 M ). These in
clude sta nda rds for therma l tra nsmission, specifica
tions for ba tt insula tion a nd loose fill insula tion,
loose fill density a nd mea n specific hea t.
A fina l considera tion in minera l wool ma nufa c
ture is a n environmenta l one. A ma jor problem for
minera l wool ma nufa cturers is the conta inment of
sulphur-conta ining flue g a ses, especia lly when using
meta llurg ica l sla g s a s ra w ma teria ls. Sulphur is a lso
present in cok e. Ela bora te collection a nd incinera t
ing systems ma y be necessa ry in these insta nces to
ensure a clea n a ir environment. Na tura l rock ma te
ria ls a re sig nifica ntly lower in sulphur content, a nd
most of these a ir pollution control mea sures a re not
necessa ry when they a re the ra w ma teria l.
ONTARIO MINERAL WOOL PRODUCERS
As a result of field a ndla bora tory studies in 1 931 by
the M ines Bra nch, C a na da Depa rtment of M ines,
three compa nies were formed in 1 934 toeng a g e in
the ma nufa cture of rock wool using a rg illa ceous
dolostone from the Nia g a ra a rea . These compa nies
were: 1 6
o The R ock Wool C ompa ny of C a na da Limited,
o Queenston R ock Wool Limited,
o Spun R ock Wools Limited.
Only Spun R ock Wools Limited a chieved sus
ta ined commercia l production, a t Thorold. Its op
era tions a re described on the following pa g es, a long
with the four sla g wool pla nts which were opera ting
in 1 985.
In 1 936, R ock wool C orpora tion (C a na da ) Lim
ited beg a n production a t Bra ntford using na tura l
rock from the Nia g a ra a rea , 1 7 but the venture wa s
a ppa rently shortlived.
C a na dia n Johns-M a nville C ompa ny Limited
beg a n production of minera l wool a t Asbestos, Que
bec, in 1 935, a nd wa s experimenting with some of
the loca l rock s a s pla nt feed. 1 7 Johns-M a nville a lso
produced sla g wool a t a pla nt in Sca rboroug h. Gyp
sum, Lime a nd Ala ba stine (C a na da ) Limited for
merly produced wool a t C a ledonia .
C la y Sha le Industries of Ontario 1 33
Photo 12.3 Mineral wool fibre
before pressing into batts.
Photo courtesy Roxul Company.
Photo 12.4 Fibre batts after
the addition of binder and
pressing. Photo courtesy
Roxul Company.
Photo 12.5 Fibre batts cut to
width by circular saws. Photo
courtesy Roxul Company.
134
SPUN ROCK WOOLS LIMITED
In 1 934, Spun R ock Wools Limited commenced
production of rock wool a t Thoroldusing loca l a rg il
la ceous dolostone which ha d a na tura lly suita ble
composition without a dditives. This stone belong s to
the R ochester Forma tion of the M iddle Siluria n
C linton Group, a sequence of dolostone a nd sha le
1 2 to1 8m thick . The forma tion thins ra pidly tothe
west a nd north, a nd suita ble stone is pra ctica lly re
stricted toa 1 2 k m zone between Thorold a nd the
Nia g a ra R iver. The R ochester Forma tion underlies
Decew Dolomite, ma k ing a ccess difficult except
where qua rrying ha s removed the overlying rock s.
However, g ood exposure ca n be seen a t va rious
points in the Nia g a ra Esca rpment.
The R ochester Forma tion consists of da rk g rey,
soft tomodera tely ha rd, thin a ndvery thin bedded,
fossiliferous dolomitic sha le (or a rg illa ceous dolos
tone) interla yered with ha rd g rey-brown beds of
dolomitic limestone tha t increa se in frequency to
wa rds the top of the section. C a lcite a nd dolomite
a ctua lly comprise a bout 60 percent of the minera l
content of the rock .20
Suita ble stone is a ccessible in the qua rry floors
of Queenston Qua rries Limited a t St. Da vids a nd
Wa lk er Brothers Limited a t Thorold. In 1 932
Queenston Qua rries testedthe R ochester Forma tion
by drilling , a nd foundit tobe 1 8m thick a t their St.
Da vids qua rry. La bora tory testing by the M ines
Bra nch, Otta wa , indica ted the entire section wa s
suita ble for rock wool. 1 6 C hemica l a na lysis of the
top 7.5 m is reproducedin Ta ble 1 2.1 . Ana lysis of a
simila r section a t Thorold is a lso g iven in Ta ble
1 2.1 .
Spun R ock Wools Limited developed a n inno
va tive process for producing wool a t their Thorold
pla nt. Instea d of the conventiona l cok e-firedcupo
la furna ce, lump stone wa s melted in resista nce a rc
type electric furna ces. Fibrizing wa s a ccomplished
by mecha nica l mea ns ra ther tha n by stea m or com
pressed a ir.
Three l tonne tilting furna ces were used in the
pla nt, twoof which were controlledby one opera tor
from a centra l control sta tion from whichthe opera
tion of the furna ces a nd the fibriza tion process
could be observed simulta neously. Furna ces were
ta pped a nd cha rg ed a lmost continuously. When the
furna ces were tilted, a strea m of molten rock wa s
deflected ta ng entia lly by a hig h speed disc, turning
a t a bout 4,000 rpm, resulting in the forma tion of
long silk y fibres. The opera tor controlled the tilt,
a nd hence the width of the molten strea m, a nd a lso
the speed of the revolving disc which determined
the fibre leng th.30
Wool wa s removed from the vicinity of the disc
by a current of a ir a nd directed a g a inst the wa lls of
a tub with sufficient force toremove much of the
hea vier shot, while the wool wa s collected in a
cha mber 5 m squa re. M ost of the production wa s
ba g g ed in units of 0.1 m3. Norma l bulk density of
the wool wa s 48 k g /m3, but for more severe tem
pera ture conditions a wool of twice this density wa s
ma rk eted. An unusua lly white wool could a lsobe
ma de for specia l purposes. Output wa s a bout 2.5
tonnes per da y.
Althoug h the process wa s technica lly via ble, the
pla nt wa s closed in 1 978 for la ck of funds for
needed pla nt expa nsion.
BISHOP FIBRETEK INC.*
Formerly k nown a s Bishop Building M a teria ls,
Bishop Fibretek Inc. is loca ted a t 21 Fleeceline
R oa d in West Toronto. The compa ny ma k es min
era l wool from a blend of bla st furna ce sla g a nd
sa ndstone. The sla g is received in lump form (-1 0
cm H-4 cm) from Na tiona l Sla g in Ha milton. Sa nd
stone from the Potsda m Forma tion nea r K ing ston is
supplied by D.A. Foley. Both ra w ma teria ls a re
stock piled a dja cent tothe pla nt.
A cok e-fired sha ft furna ce, or cupola , is oper
a ted continuously, melting the sla g a nd sa ndstone
which a re periodica lly introduced a t the top, with
cok e, in ba tches of a bout 450 k g . C ok e comprises
1 6 percent of the ba tch while sa ndstone comprises 7
to 1 6 percent, depending on the end use of the
product. The sa ndstone concentra tion controls the
viscosity of the melt, a ndthe cha ra cter of the result
ing wool fibre is la rg ely determined by viscosity.
The melt collects in a pool a t the ba se of the
cupola where a ir a nd oxyg en a re introduced to
ma inta in a pea k tempera ture of 1 425-1 4500C .
Sma ll a mounts of molten iron from the sla g a re peri
odica lly ta pped from the bottom of the pool. The
cupola is essentia lly a steel shell which is cooled by
circula ting wa ter. There is norefra ctory liner except
a t the ba se.
M elt is ta k en by overflow from the pool via a n
inclined troug h, a nd discha rg ed a s a strea m onto
four spinning g roovedwheels. These divide the melt
intosma ll droplets which a re stretched intofibre by
a strea m of hig h pressure a ir.
Spun ma teria l is dra wn ontoa moving wire belt,
forming a bla nk et tha t is conveyed throug h severa l
*At the time of writing , Bishop Fibretek wa s in the process
of suspending opera tions.
g ra nula tors where non-fibrous shot is sepa ra ted a nd
subsequently removed. The g ra nula tors a re spik ed
cylinders which rota te in opposite directions. Shot is
removed on revolving screens which a lso serve to
complete the nodula tion of the wool.
There a re four ma in wool products, these being :
1 . wool used in the ma nufa cture of ceiling tiles,
2. wool mixed with a cement binder for use a s
spra yed fireproofing on structura l steel,
3. wool mixed with silica fume (very fine silica ) for
use a s a n insula tion in meta l chimneys,
4. wool used in residentia l insula tion.
The first three products a re shipped in ca rd
boa rd-covered ba les of 230 to350 k g , compressed
tobulk densities of a bout 280 k g /m3. R esidentia l
wool is ma rk eted under the na me "Fleece Line" in
1 5 k g ba g s, either for blowing or pouring a s loose-
fill insula tion. Pla nt ca pa city is a bout 1 2,000 tonnes
a nnua lly.
CANADIAN GYPSUM COMPANY
In a ddition to its g ypsum mining , processing a nd
boa rd ma nufa cturing pla nt a t Ha g ersville, C a na dia n
Gypsum C ompa ny produces minera l wool a t its
pla nt a t 21 Oa k Street in Weston. A subsidia ry of
USG C orp. (formerly U.S. Gypsum), the compa ny
commenced opera tions a t the Weston site in 1 937.
While sla g is the ba sic ra w ma teria l in the Weston
pla nt, ba sa lt is used in some of the U.S. pla nts.
The Weston pla nt wa s enla rg ed in 1 948. Pre
sent ca pa city is 37,000 tonnes a nnua lly but minor
process cha ng es a re expected toeffect a n increa se
to45,000 tonnes. There a re twosepa ra te processing
lines, ea ch with its own cupola . One produces only
g ra nula ted wool, while the other produces either
g ra nula tedwool or wool ba tts. Fibre is producedus
ing horizonta l spinners in a process tha t fa vours
g ra nula ted wool.
Sla g from the Ha milton steel opera tions is sup
pliedtothe pla nt by truck by Na tiona l Sla g Limited.
Either nepheline syenite or qua rtzite is blendedwith
the sla g . The a ddition of nepheline syenite results in
a better fibre except for its g rey colour; qua rtzite is
used where a whiter colour is preferred.
C ok e is the ma in fuel a nd is a dded with the
other ra w ma teria ls a t the top of the cupola s; a ug
menta tion by na tura l g a s is usedin the melting zone.
Gra nula ted wool is the compa ny's principa l
product, most of which is ba g g ed for shipment by
truck . Ba tts ha ve not been produced since 1 980.
Approxima tely 25 percent of C GC 's ma rk et is in in
dustria l a pplica tions such a s chimney insula tion a nd
other refra ctory uses; the rest is in wool tobe blown
for use a s loose fill insula tion. R enova tion a nd up
g ra ding of the insula tion in older homes is currently
a sig nifica nt ma rk et. The compa ny a lsoemploys its
own insta llers toensure a consta nt sta nda rd of in
sta lled qua lity.
C a na dia n Gypsum serves ma inly the C a na dia n
ma rk et, lea ving the U.S. ma rk et toits a ffilia tes in
tha t country.
PARTEK INSULATIONS LIMITED
On M a rch l, 1 985, Pa rtek Insula tions Limited offi
cia lly a ssumedcontrol of Holmes Insula tion Limited
a t 561 Scott R oa d in Sa rnia . The pla nt wa s orig i
na lly openedunder the na me Holmes Foundry Lim
ited. Pa rtek 's pa rent compa ny, Oy Pa rtek Ab, is a
Finnish compa ny with extensive experience in min
era l wool production a nd technolog y.
The Pa rtek pla nt is a rela tively la rg e producer,
employing two cupola s fed by steel sla g from the
Detroit a rea . A conventiona l vertica l config ura tion
of four spinners is used. The product is mostly loose
wool for industria l uses with pipe wra p a s the ma jor
a pplica tion. M ost of the production is exported to
the U.S.A.
ROXUL COMPANY
R oxul C ompa ny is a division of Sta nda rd Industries
Limited, a ma jor C a na dia n producer of construc
tion ma teria ls. The R oxul pla nt is loca ted a t 551
Ha rrop Drive in M ilton. It is C a na da 's newest min
era l wool producer, in opera tion since 1 980.
The R oxul pla nt (Fig ure 1 2.4) wa s desig ned
a nd built with the a ssista nce of the Swedish firm,
Jung ers, which ha s been involved in a pproxima tely
35 simila r insta lla tions worldwide. The principa l ra w
ma teria ls, cok e, sla g , silica a nd nepheline syenite,
a re received by truck a nd stored in sepa ra te bins.
Ba tches a re a utoma tica lly proportioned a ndcha rg ed
tothe cupola a t the ra te of a bout 8 cha rg es per
hour. A typica l cha rg e will consist of 450 k g of sla g ,
60 k g ea ch of sa ndstone a ndnepheline syenite, a nd
90 k g of cok e. From the time it is introduced a t the
top of the cupola it ta k es a bout 90 minutes for the
ra w ma teria l topa ss throug h the system.
Sla g is obta ined from Na tiona l Sla g Limited in
Ha milton, nepheline syenite from Indusmin Limited
in Nephton, pink sa ndstone from W.R . Ba rnes Lim
ited, a nd cok e from suppliers in Tona wa nda , N.Y .,
a nd Erie, Ohio.
The melting zone a t the ba se of the cupola is
ma inta ined a t a bout 1 5500C ; oxyg en injection is
136 Clay 8i Shale Industries of Ontario
performed a t seven points a round the ba se, a nd a ir
is introduced a t fourteen points. The melt is dis
cha rg ed in a thin strea m throug h a vertica l config u
ra tion of g rooved spinner wheels (Photo1 2.2). The
first wheel is fixed a t 3,524 rpm, but the speeds of
the other three wheels a re va ria ble toa ma ximum of
7,745 rpm. Simulta neously with the fibrizing of the
melt, oil a nd resin binders a re sometimes spra yed
ontothe fibres a s required for subsequent process
ing .
An a ir strea m conveys the fibres from the spin
ner wheels toa collection cha mber where they settle
uniformly ontoa conveyor belt. Speed of the belt
determines the thick ness a nd density of the wool
bla nk et. The wool bla nk et ca n be processed either
for loose wool insula tion, rolled for pipe insula tion
or further processedfor rig idboa rds a ndba tts (Pho
tos 1 2.3-1 2.5). The loose wool line includes a
g ra nula ting system a nd cyclone for the remova l of
shot, followedby ba ling or ba g g ing of the loose wool
product.
For boa rds a ndba tts the wool bla nk et is pa ssed
between upper a nd lower press ba nds of a curing
oven. The a djusta ble opening between the ba nds
determines the thick ness of the finished product.
C uring of the resin binder is a ccomplishedby circu
la ting hot a ir. Boa rd densities a s hig h a s 250 k g /m3
a re possible (1 6 pcf). After discha rg ing throug h a
cooling a rea , the boa rds a re cut to a ny desired
leng th, width a nd thick ness.
In 1 984 the compa ny produced a bout 3,000
tonnes of loose wool in ba g s, 1 0,000 tonnes in ba les
a nd 3,000 tonnes of rig id boa rds a ndba tts. M ost is
exported tothe U.S.A.
REFERENCES
1 . Ag ency for Interna tiona l Development. "Pla nt R equire
ments for M a nufa cture of M inera l Wool", US Na tiona l
Technica l Informa tion Service, R eport PB-1 75 525,
M a rch 1 962.
2. Ali, M . A., Allema n, J. E. (ed.) a ndK a va na g h, J. T.
(ed.) "Utiliza tion of Industria l Wa stes - a n Economic
Opportunity", Proceeding s of the 1 4th M id-Atla ntic
C onference on Industria l Wa ste, Ann Arbor Sci., p.
468-77, 1 982.
3. Ank ersson, B. "Appa ra tus a ndM ethods for Intercepting
Pa rtia l M inera l Fibers Ejected from R ota ting Defibrilla -
tion Wheels in R olling of M inera l M elts", Swedish Pa t
ent 422321 B, M a rch l, 1 982.
4. Anza i, K . "Desicca nts", Ja pa nese Pa tent 79 1 58390,
Dec. 1 4, 1 979.
5. Atk inson, A. W. a nd La nca ster, J. L. "R a pid Tech
nique for Estima ting Fiber Leng ths of M inera l Wools
a nd Other Sta ples", Journa l Test. Eva l., Vol. 1 0, No.
2, p. 33-37, M a r. 1 982.
6. Bessette, F. "Determina tion of M inera l Fiber Size by
Lig ht Sca ttering ", C a na dia n Journa l Spectroscopy,
Vol.27, No.4, p.1 1 2-1 6, 1 982.
7. C herepa nov, A. M ., Popov, O. N. a nd Ginter, S. E.
"C orrosion R esista nt R efra ctory Ba sed on C hromium
Oxide", Stek loI K era mik a , Vol.4, p. 1 2-1 3, 1 980.
8. C obble, J. R . a nd Ha nsen, J. P. "Eva lua tion of R efra c
tories for M inera l Wool Furna ces", US Na tiona l Tech
nica l Informa tion Service R eport PB-250 642/6 SL, De
cember 1 975.
9. C ossette, M ., Aitcur, P. C ., La la ncette, J. M ., M oo-
Y oung , M . a nd Fa rquha r, J. G. (ed.) "Integ ra ted Proc
ess for Producing Severa l Products from Asbestos Ta il
ing s", Proceeding s: Interna tiona l Symposium on Wa ste
Trea tment a nd Utiliza tion, Perg a mon Press, p.
307-321 , 1 979.
1 0. Dok oupil, J., Boucny, L. a nd Za dra zil, J. "M odel Ga s-
Electric Unit for M elting a nd Further Processing of Solid
Wa stes from M inera l Fiber Production", C ement,
Wa pnoAzbestocement, Vol.3, p.370-373, 1 982.
1 1 . Geisler, R . "C ha ng eover of the Hot-Bla st C upola Fur
na ce toC old-Bla st Opera tion in M inera l Wool M a nu
fa cture", Ba ustoffindustrie, Vol.27, No.2, p.61 -63,
1 984.
1 2. Gessner, D., a nd Steck ert, R . "M inera l Wool Products
with Vertica l Fiber Orienta tion", Germa n Dem. R ep.
Pa tent 1 6081 7A3, April 04, 1 984.
1 3. Gillespie, J. R . "The M a nufa cture of M inera l Wool",
C a na dia n Inst. M ining M eta llurg y, Bulletin, p.
20-24, Ja n. 1 948.
1 4. Gorlov, Y . P., Ustenk o, A. A., Zvona rev, M . G. a nd
K ondera t'ev, V. P. "M inera l Wool", USSR Pa tent
71 8388, Feb. 28, 1 980.
1 5. Goudg e, M .F. "R a w M a teria ls for the M a nufa cture of
R ock Wool", C a na da M ines Bra nch, M emoir 50, 1 931 .
1 6. Goudg e, M . F. "R ock Wool - Its M a nufa cture, C ha ra c
teristics a nd Uses", Journa l C a na dia n C era mic Society,
Vol. 4, p. 1 0-1 6, 1 935.
1 7. Goudg e, M . F. "R ock Wool", C a na dia n Inst. M ining
a nd M eta llurg y, Tra nsa ctions Vol. 39, p. 623-637,
1 936.
1 8. Gross, G. a ndFa rja hn, D. "Oxyg en in Sha ft Furna ces -
New R esults in the M a nufa cture of Therma l Insula tors",
Ga s Ak tull, Vol.25, p. 1 0-1 4, 1 983.
1 9. Guillet, G.R . "The C la y Products Industry of Onta rio",
20. Guillet, G. R , "C la y a nd Sha le Deposits of Onta rio",
Onta rioGeol. Survey, M DC 1 5, 1 977.
21 . Ha no, O. "Submerg ed-Arc Surfa cing of Fiber Spinning
Disk s", Zva ra nie, Vol.28, No.8, p.238-242, 1 979.
22. K limpel, A., Gronek , M . a nd K a czma rzyk , M . "R e
g enera ting the Work ing Surfa ce of the Spinning Disk for
M inera l Wool M a nufa cture from Ba sa lt", Zeszyty
Na uk owe, Politichnik 's Sla sk iej, Vol.63, p. 1 3-2 3,
1 979.
23. La k a tos, T., Joha nsson, L. G. a nd Simming sk oeld, B.
"Viscosity a nd Liquidus Tempera ture R ela tions in the
M inera l-Wool Pa rt of the SiO2 -Al2 O3-C a O, M g O-
FeO-Fe2 O3 System", Gla stek nisk Tidsk r'ift, Vol.36,
No.4, p. 51 -55, 1 981 .
24. La the, F. E. "C ompositions Suita ble for M inera l
Wool", Journa l C a na dia n C era mic Society, Vol. 1 8, p.
60-72, 1 949.
Clay 8i Shale Industries of Ontario 1 37
La ug hlin, S. J. a ndC la ypool, R . J. "C yclonic Sepa ra tor
Appa ra tus", U.S. Pa tent 4477269A, Oct. 1 984.
26. M a rk in, A. P., K rya zeva , V. P. a nd Sta mbulk o, A. V.
"M onolithiza tion of M inera l Wool During Autocla ve
Trea tment", Stroitel'nye M a teria ly, No.3, p.25-26,
1 983.
27. M echin, J. S., Tin BooY ee a nd Ha nna , D. L. Journa l
America n C era mic Society, No.35, p. 322-325, 1 952.
28. Quon, D. H. a nd Wa ng , S. S. "Viscosity-Tempera ture
R ela tionship of M a teria ls Used for the Experimenta l
Production of M inera l Wool", Journa l C a na dia n C e
ra mic Society, Vol. 50, p. 1 7-22, 1 981 .
29. R itchie, K . M . "M inera l Wool-R ock Sla g a nd Gla ss
Wool" Industria l M inera ls a nd R ock s, 3rd Ed., J. L.
Gillson, ed., p. 595-604, 1 960.
30. "R ock Wool M a de in Electric Furna ces a nd Spun",
R ock Products M a g a zine, p. 75, Ja n. 1 937.
31 . Sa ndier, V. G., Gilod, V. Y . a nd K uk sin, I. I. "Utili
za tion of Wa stes from M inera l Wool Production in a
Specia l M elting Unit", Stroitel'nye M a teria ly, No.6,
p.5-6, 1 981 .
32. Shek urov, V. F. "Use of Wa stes from Asbestos-C ement
Production for Prepa ring M inera l Wool Articles",
Stroitel'nye M a teria ly, No. 1 2, p. 9-1 0, 1 982.
33. Shreve, R .N. "The C hemica l Process Industries", 2nd
Ed., Toronto, M cGra w-Hill, 1 956.
34. Silva , J., "Alterna te R a w M a teria ls in the Production of
M inera l Wool", University of
Toronto, Dept. C hemica l Eng ineering , 1 982.
35. Soza ev, G. B., Vinitsk ii, A. L. a nd Goberis, S. Y .
"Experiment in Using a Ga s-Electrica l Ba th Furna ce in
M inera l Wool M a nufa cture", Stroitel'nye M a teria ly,
No.6, p.23-25, 1 980.
36. Strneg il, H., R ichter, M . a nd Gra f, S. "Opera tion of a
M inera l Wool Producing Appa ra tus with Extensive Hea t
Excha ng e", Germa n Dem. R ep. Pa tent 1 43243, Aug .
1 980.
37. Subra ma nia n, R . V. a nd Austin, H. F. "Ba sa lt
Fibres", Ha ndbook of Fillers a nd R einforced Pla stics,
H. K a tz i J. M ilewsk i, eds., Va n Nostra nd R einholt,
New Y ork , p. 504-51 0, 1 978.
38. Thoenen, J. R . "M inera l
M ines, 1 C 6984R , 1 940.
Wool", U.S. Burea u of
39. US Burea u of the C ensus, "C ensus of M a nufa cturers:
1 972 (Prelimina ry R eport), M inera l Wool, SIC 3296",
US Na tiona l Technica l Informa tion Service report
C OM -74-70397/6, Ja n. 1 974.
40. Winer, A. A. a nd Pilg rim, R . F., "Density a nd Surfa ce
Tension a s Pa ra meters in the Processing of M inera l In
sula tion", Journa l C a na dia n C era mic Society, Vol. 49,
p. 22-27, 1 980.
1 38
Part IV Other Products
C la y Sha le Industries of Onta rio 1 39
Chapter 13 Art Pottery
INTRODUCTION
Art pottery is a term g enera lly usedtodescribe wa re
produced by the sma ll ma nufa cturer or hobby pot
ter for decora tive purposes. This product ra ng e in
cludes va ses, a shtra ys, fig urines a nd g iftwa re. The
definition ca n a lsobe extended toinclude decora
tive but functiona l pottery such a s k itchenwa re a nd
la mps.
The a rt pottery industry in Onta riora ng es from
the "one-ma n" hobbyist tola rg e la mp ma nufa ctur
ers. The la rg er opera tions predomina ntly use slip
ca sting processes for hig h output; some compa nies
a lsoemploy wet pressing or jig g ering a nd jolleying
techniques. The sma ll potters a lsouse slip ca sting
processes a nd for specia lty k erns, some ha ndthrow
ing .
The ma rk et for a rt pottery is ma inly domestic
but a sma ll a mount is exported tothe U.S.A. The
potters fa ce g rea test competition from foreig n coun
tries such a s K orea a nd Ja pa n where ma ss produc
tion a llows less expensive production a nd conse
quently chea per wa re.
A la rg e number of cera mic ma nufa cturers use a
ta lc body or #200 ca sting body for their wa re. The
ra w ma teria ls composition of the body is g iven in
Ta ble 1 3.1 . This body wa s orig ina lly developed for
the hobby cera mic industry, but ha s since been ex
tensively a doptedby the commercia l cera mic ma nu
fa cturers. Individua l ma nufa cturers ha ve a da pted
the body totheir pa rticula r requirements by substi
tution of ba ll cla ys or repla cement of whiting by ba r
ium ca rbona te or nepheline syenite.
There a re severa l rea sons for the industry's use
of a ta lc body. They include:
o cost
o consta nt a va ila bility of ra w ma teria ls
o wide physica l opera ting cha ra cteristics
o wide firing ra ng e
o simplicity
o white burning
o very a da pta ble tomost g la zes or other decora
tion types.
The cera mic ma nufa cturers of Onta rioca n be
sepa ra ted intotwog roups, (1 ) those whoma nufa c
ture their own body a nd (2) those whopurcha se a
body from a commercia l slip ma nufa cturer. The
potters, whoma nufa cture their own body ma y pur
cha se ra w ma teria ls directly from the source or
throug h a C a na dia n distributor.
TABLE 13.1
Cone 0 6
#20 0 - CASTING BODY.
Talc Nytal 10 0 HR
Tennessee # 5 Ball Clay
K entucky OM #4 Ball Clay
Whiting
Total dry weight
Water
Soda Ash
Sodium Silicate
64 Ibs.
16 Ibs.
16 Ibs.
4 Ibs.
10 0 Ibs.
44 Ibs.
1.0 oz
5.5 oz
CLAY SUPPLIERS
There a re twoma in commercia l slip ma nufa cturers
in Onta rio, Al-M a c Slip C ompa ny of Bra mpton,
a nd Burl-M a c Slip of Burling ton.
Al-M a c Slip compa ny imports cla y from the
U.S.A., a pproxima tely 425 tonnes of ba ll cla y a nd
71 0 tonnes of ta lc a re usedper yea r. Of the compa
ny's tota l sa les, more tha n 95 percent comes from
the sa le of premixed slips. Prima ry customers in
clude sma ll tea ching studios a nd commercia l ce
ra mic ma nufa cturers. Al-M a c a lsosupplies dry mix
of a 60 percent ta lc body.
Burl-M a c imports 500 to700 tonnes of cla y per
yea r from U.S. sources for production of ta lc body
slips. The ma in buyers of the slip a re hobby stores.
The Pottery Supply House in Oa k ville, Tuck ers
Pottery Supply in M a rk ha m a nd Stra tford C la y Sup
ply of Stra tford a lsosupply cla y bodies tothe ce
ra mic ma nufa cturers.
Pottery Supply House supplies a ta lc body a nd
va rious other specia lty bodies for their customers.
The compa ny imports 200 tonnes of cla y per yea r
from the U.S.A. They a lsouse over 1 30 tonnes of
cla y per yea r from a firecla y mine in Nova Scotia
tha t they opera te. In a ddition tobeing a ra w ma te
ria l source, the compa ny supplies g la zes, k ilns a nd
equipment tothe hobby industry.
Tuck ers Pottery Supply produces pug g ed cla y
for potters a nd a lsosupplies sma ll a mounts of dry
ma teria l. The compa ny sells in tota l a pproxima tely
30 bodies ra ng ing from ea rthenwa re throug h topor
cela in. C ustom blended mixes a re a lso a va ila ble.
M ost of the bodies a re sold toprofessiona l potters
with some sa les tothe hobbyist a nd schools. C la y is
imported ma inly from America n sources, roug hly l
140
TABLE 13.2 SELECTED ART POTTERY MANUFACTURERS IN ONTARIO.
Raw Materials
Company
Antony's Art
Design
Toronto
Alan R. Daly
Ltd, Toronto
Aristocrat
Lamp, Toronto
Edgewood
Potteries
Toronto
Horizon
Ceramics
Erin
MBM Ceramics
Ceramics
Erin
Royal
Ceramics
Weston
Smith 4
Stone Ltd
Georgetown
Sunrise Fine
Bone China Co.
North York
Plant
Size
Medium
~30
employees
Medium
~25
employees
Medium
~20
employees
Medium
~20
employees
Small
~8
employees
Medium
~20
employees
Medium
Large
Medium
~30
employees
20 of whom
are handi
capped
Types and Sources
- use talc body
- buy raw materials
from Ferro, prepare
own slip
- clay from United
States bought
through AI- Mac
- slip prepared in-
house
- obtain clay
directly from
American sources
- Import clay
directly from
United States
- slip mixed In-
house
- talc body
- obtain clay from
Pottery Supply
House
- kaolin body
- mix own slip
using clay
Imported from
United States
- talc body
- get clay directly
from U.S. sources
- obtain clays from
the United
States
- kaolin body
- import clay from
the United
K ingdom.
Annual Clay
Consumption
~130 tonnes
~135 tonnes
~135 tonnes
55- 90 tonnes
25- 45 tonnes
410 - 450 tonnes
~180 tonnes
~330 tonnes
of ball clay
~155 tonnes
of kaolin
~90 tonnes
Process
- slip casting
- fire in 17
hobby kilns.
- slip casting
- fire In 4
electric
Intermittent
kilns
- slip casting
- slip casting
process
- fire in 5
electric
Intermittent
kilns
- use 4 large
electric
shuttle
kilns
- slip casting
process
- 3 electric
kilns
- modern plant
using state-
of- the- art
equipment
- slip casting
- electric
Intermittent
kilns, 2 large
1 small
- at present
slip casting
process only
but are chang
ing process to
include jiggering
and jolleying
Products and Market
- manufacture ceramic lamps
and accessories
- sell to retailers,
distributors in Canada
U.S., and Australia
- export ~10 " fc.
- manufacture lamps, vases
ashtrays
- serve domestic and
foreign markets, sales
to U.S. just opened.
- ceramic lamp and vase
manufacturer
- sell product across
Canada.
- manufacture vases,
deli- bowls and
giftware.
- market product across
North America, ~25*fc
exported to U.S.
- no longer sell mixed
clay to hobbyists, now
sell only finished
ceramic ware, I.e. lamps
vases and accessories.
- mainly produce bath
room accessories.
- manufacture lamps, vases
and accessories
- sell to retailers only
- electrical porcelain
(major)
bathroom accessories
(minor)
- market includes Canada,
United States, and
previously, some work in
South America.
- produce fine bone china
teaware, giftware and
hotelware
- export ~15*fc to United
States and New Zealand
1 41
TABLE 13.2 CONTINUED.
Raw Materials
Company
McMaster
Pottery
Dundas
Pic- N- Do
Oakville
G. B. Distrib
utors
Blue Mountain
Collingwood
Rainbow
Pottery
Collingwood
Northwind
Stoneware
J anes Pottery
Factory
North Bay
Don Zver
Pottery
Troy, Ontario
Plant
Size
Medium
15- 20
employees
Small
Small
8 employ
ees
Medium
12 employ
ees
Small
3 employees
Small
4 employees
Small-
medium
Employs
5- 7 full or
part time
staff
Types and Sources
- produce a red body
using residual
clays
- 630 /0 local ball
clay obtained
from Ferro
- mainly talc body
- clay mix is
purchased from
Ferro
- talc body
- purchase slip
from Burlington
Ceramic
(Burl Mac)
- use local clays
and Queenston
shale (from
Shelburne area)
- use clay from
United States
bought through
Stratford Clay
Supply
- stoneware body
- buys raw material
from Tucker
Supply and mixes
slip in- house
- buys stoneware
body, wet mix from
Pottery Supply House
Annual Clay
Consumption Process
~3.5 tonnes - use slip cast-
ball clay ing and press
ing techniques
- fire In small
gas fired
tunnel kiln
~7 0 tonnes - slip casting
- fire In 7
hobby kilns
~7 0 0 litres - slip casting
slip per week - use 7 large
hobby kilns
~225 tonnes - slip casting
- produce porous
body suitable
for dip
glazing
~7 tonnes - slip casting,
hand throwing
no longer used
- fire In 6
small hobby
kilns
~2 tonnes - 85*X ) slip
casting, ^5%
hand throwing
- fires In elect
ric shuttle
kiln
14- 15 tonnes - hand building
or throwing
process
Products and Market
- manufacture artware and
tableware
- supply chain stores
predominantly, export
~2% to the U.S.
- produce finished ceramic
ware.
- market product wholesale
to distributors and
retailers,
- produce kitchen and
houseware .
- selling to Canadian
retailers.
- produce giftware, vases
and accessories
- exports count for ~20 *fc
of total sales.
- produce kitchenware, oven
ware and functional
pieces
- produces functional
pottery, popular piece
being a creamer milk
jug
- sells ware to Southern
Ontario market, majority
of sales from studio
million k g per yea r. Some cla y is a lso broug ht in
from the United K ing dom.
FerroIndustria l Products in Oa k ville a nd C hi
ca g oVitreous in Ing ersoll ma y a lsobe included a s
sources for ra w ma teria ls for potters. While their
prima ry function is the ma nufa cture of g la ze or
ena mel frits, they a lsosupply cla y tosma ll potters
a nd the a pplia nce industry, the la tter for use in
g la ze or ena mel ba tches. For sma ll potters, Ferro
will recommend a body formula a nd provide the
component ra w ma teria ls. Noda ta were a va ila ble
from these twocompa nies on qua ntities of cla y sold
tocera mic ma nufa cturers a nd potters.
ART POTTERY MANUFACTURE
Onta rio ha s numerous a rt pottery ma nufa cturers;
the ma jority a re sma ll producers employing fewer
tha n 1 0 people. While the numbers a re toog rea t to
doa n exha ustive study, severa l ma nufa cturers were
1 42
surveyed toobta in a n overa ll view of the industry
with pa rticula r reg a rdtocla y sources a ndconsump
tion. A summa ry of the finding s is presented in Ta
ble 1 3.2. Some of the la rg er ma nufa cturers ha ve
been reviewed in g rea ter deta il.
As a g enera l summa ry of the a rt pottery indus
try in Onta rioit ca n be sa id tha t:
o most cla y is imported from U.S. sources;
o the la rg er compa nies produce ma inly la mps a nd
va ses using a ta lc body;
o the ma rk et for Onta rioa rt pottery is ma inly do
mestic with a very sma ll a mount exportedtothe
U.S.A.
MBM CERAMICS
M BM C era mics is a ma nufa cturer specia lizing in
ba throom a ccessories in colours desig ned toma tch
the colours of the ma jor sa nita rywa re producers.
The product line presently includes in-wa ll soa p
tra ys, va nity soa p dishes, towel ra ck s, etc.
Hi st or y
M BM C era mics wa s initia lly sta rted in the
mid-1 970s in Downsview, Onta rio, opera ting in a
pla nt of a bout 800 m2 , producing ba throom a cces
sories. In November of 1 983 M BM wa s purcha sed
by Olympia Tile of Toronto. Olympia ha d a bra nd
new pla nt of 2800 m2 commissioned a t the compa
ny's present loca tion which opened in M a rch 1 985.
The product line ha s since expa nded from twose
ries of styles produced a t the old pla nt tosix series
of styles complementing a ll three ma jor sa nita rywa re
producers. Products a re a va ila ble from a selection
of 49 colours. The ma rk eting of M BM 's products is
ha ndled by Olympia Tile.
Pl an t
M BM ca n be considered a "sta te-of-the-a rt" pla nt
with respect tothe type of processing tha t is em
ployed (see Photos 1 3.1 to 1 3.5). All cera mic
g reenwa re is produced by slip ca sting , a nd the fin
ished g la zed product produced by fa st-fire, sing le-
fire. The pla nt is brok en down into the va rious
processing a rea s of ca sting , unmoulding , drying , fet
tling , g la zing a nd firing with ea ch sta g e connected
by a conveyor line. The conveyor line is computer
link edtoea ch a rea with the speedcontrol g ea redto
the a utoma ted fettling a nd g la zing sta tions. The
pla nt is g ea redtowa rds a utoma ting a ny a spect of the
process tha t ca n be.
Pr ocessi n g
The processing sta rts off with the mixing of ba g g ed
ra w ma teria ls intothe ca sting slips. Two 900 litre
blung ers a re used for ba tch mixing . Slip from ea ch
blung er is pumped to a 4500 litre holding ta nk
where it is slowly mixed toremove tra pped a ir a nd
sta bilize. The ca sting slip formula tion is simila r to
body formula tions used by the sa nita rywa re indus
try.
Slip is pumped tothree ca sting sta tions. The
moulds a re ca st for 1 -1 /2 hours, dra ined a nd a l
lowed todry for 1 -1 /2 hours before unmoulding .
The g reenwa re is ha nd-loa ded ontotra ys a nd mi
crowa ve dried in a system developed with the a ssis
ta nce of Onta rioHydro. The driedwa re is conveyed
to the a utoma tic fettling sta tions where rota ting
a bra sive pa ds remove excess fla sh from the mould
sea ms. The fettled wa re then tra vels tothe g la zing
booths. At present, one robot spra ying sta tion is op
era ting , while three ma nua l spra ying sta tions a re set
up for more flexibility of colours. The g la zed g reen
wa re is ha nd-loa ded onto k iln ca rs a nd fired in
fibre lined electric k ilns.
The wa re is firedup to~1 2000C with a 6-hour
rise a nd 6-hour cool firing schedule. The therma l
profile a nd firing schedule for ea ch k iln is fully
monitored a nd controlled by computers. The pla nt
ha s three fibre lined computerized electric k ilns;
twoa re a bout 4 m deep a nd one a bout 6 m deep.
Pr oduct i on an d Raw Mat er i al Con sumpt i on
Annua l production is estima tedtorea ch 41 0 tonnes
per yea r or over 600,000 pieces. R a w ma teria l con
sumption includes:
o ba ll cla y from K entuck y a nd Tennessee,
o nepheline syenite from Onta rio,
o k a olin from U.S.A.,
o flint from U.S.A.
Mar ket
The compa ny ma rk ets 90 percent of its product in
C a na da . The rema ining 1 0 percent is exported.
Fut ur e Pl an s
A new tile decora ting line is currently under prepa
ra tion toproduce ma tching tile a nd ba throom a c
cessories.
The compa ny intends tospeed up production
by insta lling more microwa ve fa cilities. M icrowa ve
drying will be a pplied to:
o mould drying ,
o a ccelera ting ca sting time,
o g reenwa re drying .
SUNRISE FINE BONE CHINA CO.
The history of the development of bone china da tes
ba ck to1 749 when the Bow pottery fa ctory in Eng
la nd took out a pa tent for a body produced from
"a nima ls, veg eta bles or fossils". C hemica l a na lysis
of this wa re indica teda ca lcined bone content of 40
Clay Shale Industries of Ontario 1 43
Photos 13.1 to 13.5. Top left: conveyor feed
casting line; bottom left 81 top right: automatic
fettling machine and conveyor; centre right:
microwave drying oven; bottom right: ceramic-
fibre lined electic kilns. Photos courtesy of
MBM Ceramics.
percent. It is presumed tha t the bone wa s used to
g ive rig idity tothe porcela in body on firing a nd to
reduce previously hig h firing losses.
Josia h Spode IIwa s the first potter toa chieve
success in producing a "profita ble" bone china
body. His ra ng e of recipes cover a ll of the current
compositions used in Brita in's bone china industry.
Bone china is prized for its whiteness, reflec
tivity a nd tra nslucency.
The tra ditiona l recipe for bone china is:
o 50 percent bone a sh,
o 25 percent china cla y,
o 25 percent cornish stone.
1 44 Clay 8i Shale Industries of Ontario
RAW MATERIALS
K AOLIN
CORNISH STONE
BONE
BLUNGER
[SLIP CONTROL
SIFTERS
Figure 13.1 Process
flow chart for fine bone
china.
Attempts ha ve been ma de torepla ce bone a sh
in the recipe by minera l a lterna tives. These ha ve
been, for the most pa rt, unsuccessful, prima rily be
ca use of colour problems, i.e., loss of whiteness a nd
tra nslucency.
Sunrise Fine Bone C hina C o., loca ted in North
Y ork , Onta rio, is the only compa ny in C a na da
ma nufa cturing bone china . The compa ny wa s
founded by Dennis Sa lt in M a y, 1 983.
With the a ssista nce of the M etroTorontoAsso
cia tion for the M enta lly R eta rded, the compa ny em
ploys a nd tra ins a bout 20 menta lly ha ndica pped
persons. These employees ha ve proven tobe dedi
ca ted a nd ca pa ble, producing qua lity wa re for com
petition in the world ma rk et.
Sunrise exports a pproxima tely 1 5 percent of its
product to ma rk ets in the U.S.A. a nd New
Zea la nd. The compa ny ma nufa ctures tea wa re, g ift
wa re a nd hotel wa re. The a rtwork for the wa re is
professiona lly desig ned for them a ndoften reflects a
"C a na dia na " theme, such a s flowers, wildlife or C a
na dia n culture.
At present, Sunrise employs a slip ca sting proc
ess (Fig ure 1 3.1 ), but is developing fa cilities for jig -
g ering a nd jolleying . R a w ma teria ls a re imported
from the United K ing dom. Approxima tely 1 00
tonnes of k a olin a re used in one yea r.
BLUE MOUNTAIN POTTERY LTD.
Hi st or y
Blue M ounta in Pottery wa s sta rted in 1 949 by Joso
Weidner a nd flourished a s a fa mily business until
1 967, when it wa s purcha sedby Interna tiona l Silver
C ompa ny of C a na da Limited, a wholly owned C a
na dia n subsidia ry of Interna tiona l Silver C ompa ny
of the U.S.A. Under this ma na g ement the compa ny
g rew ra pidly a nd beca me interna tiona lly k nown.
Herita g e C ra ftsma n Ltd. of Toronto, a wholly
owned C a na dia n compa ny, purcha sed Blue M oun
ta in in 1 972. Within a few yea rs the new owners
increa sed sa les by a bout 80 percent. In 1 982 the
compa ny a g a in cha ng edha nds a s Tria rch purcha sed
over 60 percent of the sha res while opera ting a s a
holding compa ny. In 1 985 Benson Lilly took over
the opera tions. After 1 984 sa les ta iled off a nd ex-
1 45
PREMADE SLIP
, - CHINA CLAY
RAW MATERIAL l - BALL CLAY
PROPORTIONING l -TALC
l ' - FELDSPAR
SLIP PREPARATION
for giftware production by slip
casting method.
SLIP CASTING
UNMOULOING
TRIMMING AND SPONGING
FINAL DRYING
BISQUE FIRING
UNDERGLAZE DECALS -
GLAZE APPLICATION -
OVERGLAZE DECALS -
DECORATION
GLOST FIRING
INSPECTION
penses rose until ba nk ruptcy wa s decla red in la te
1 985.
Blue M ounta in tra ditiona lly opera ted a s both a
tourist a ttra ction a nd ma nufa cturing opera tion. A
fa ctory reta il outlet ha s a lwa ys a ttra cted a la rg e
number of visitors. Betwen 600,000 a nd 700,000
people visited the pla nt a nd outlet a nnua lly, la bell
ing Blue M ounta in a s the la rg est tourist a ttra ction in
Huronia .
At its pea k , Blue M ounta in employedup to1 75
people, often opera ting with twoshifts. The pla nt is
situa ted on 5500 m2 of ma nufa cturing a nd a dminis
tra tive floor spa ce.
Pr oduct s
Blue M ounta in Pottery is k nown worldwide for its
tra ditiona l g la zed wa re of blue-g reen on a g loss
bla ck . Giftwa re fig ures in this g la ze were the ma in
sta y of the compa ny for yea rs until a new line of
cook wa re wa s introduced in the ea rly 1 980s. The
cook wa re, C ountry C ha rm, wa s ma rk eteda s a com
plete line of in-oven cook wa re plus a host of ma tch
ing k itchen a ccessories. C ountry C ha rm a ccounted
for up to50 percent of production a nd sa les in the
la ter yea rs of opera tion.
A wide ra ng e of other g iftwa re a nd souvenir
items of a ssorted colours a ccounted for a bout 1 0
percent of sa les.
Pr ocessi n g
R a w ma teria ls consist of Onta riosha les, wolla stonite
a nd minor a dditions of nepheline syenite. The
sha les a re purcha sed by the truck loa d a nd stored
outside in la rg e mounds for wea thering . Three
sha les a re used which include:
o Queenston sha le from C heltenha m or Geor
g etown,
o M ea ford g reen sha le,
o M ea ford blue sha le.
The ra w ma teria ls for body processing a re a ll
wet mixed. Two4500 litre hig h-speed blung ers a re
cha rg ed with the sha les, wolla stonite a nd nepheline
syenite. Two types of bodies a re prepa red: a slip
ca sting body (Fig ure 1 3.2), a nd a ra m pressing body
(Fig ure 1 3.3). The blend of the sha les va ries for the
type of body but g enera lly they a ccount for a bout 85
percent dry weig ht for either body formula tion.
The ma teria ls a re mixed with sufficient wa ter to
produce a fluid mix. After the sha les a re brok en
down (a bout 4 to 6 hours per mix), the slurry is
pumped throug h 60 mesh screens tola rg e holding
ta nk s. In one ta nk the ca sting slip is ma de up with a
146
RAW MATERIAL
PROPORTIONING
HIGH SPEED
BLUNGER
-SHALE
-WOLLASTONITE
-NEPHELINE SYENITE
SCREENING
HOLDING TANKS
DEFLOCCULATE | FILTER PRESS
SLIP CASTING
DEAIRING
EXTRUSION
AND CUTTING
UNMOULDING RAM PRESSING
FETTLING,
SPONGING
FINAL DRYING
BISQUE FIRING
GLAZING
GLOST FIRING
INSPECTION
l -DIPPING
l -SPRAYING
Figure 13.3 Process flow chart for earthenware
pottery production by ram pressing method.
specific g ra vity of ~1 .83, while the pressing body is
prepa red for filter pressing with a specific g ra vity of
~1 .76.
The ca sting slip is pumpedtothe ca sting sta tion
where a n opera tor fills sta tiona ry ra ck s of moulds.
Excess slip is dra inedoff a ndthe ca sting s a llowedto
dry prior tounmoulding . After unmoulding (Photo
1 3.6), the g reenwa re is ha nd loa ded ontora ck trol
leys a nd dried in a ir overnig ht. The dried wa re is
fettled a nd spong edby ha nd a ndrea dy for g la zing .
The pressing body is filter pressed a ndthe filter
ca k es pug g ed a nd extruded under va cuum intobil
lets of a set size. Twoextruders run continuously
during pea k production. The billets a re tra nsported
tothe ra m pressing a rea where three presses func
tion toproduce fla twa re a nd tra ys a nd deep-sided
bowls a nd ca sserole dishes.
All g reenwa re is bisque fired toa round 8300C ,
with a 1 2-hour cold to cold schedule. The
bisque wa re is then g la zed, much of whichis done by
ha nd dipping , but recently spra y g la zing sta tions
were set up (Photo1 3.7). The g la zed wa re is g lost
firedto1 0500C with a 1 2 to1 3 hour schedule. For
the C ountry C ha rm line, a third firing is requiredto
fix a decora tive deca l ontothe g la ze surfa ce. All
fired wa re is ha ndinspected a nd then pa ssed on to
pa ck a g ing .
Photo 13.6 Dismantling plaster of paris mould
used in slip casting ware. Photo courtesy of
Blue Mountain Pottery.
Photo 13.7 Manual spraying of glaze onto ware.
Photo courtesy of Blue Mountain Pottery.
Clay A Shale Industries of Ontario 1 47
Photo 13.8 Ware
stacked on kiln
cars for firing in
electric intermit
tent kiln. Photo
courtesy of Blue
Mountain Pottery.
The pla nt ha s severa l 2.5 m deep electric wa ll
k ilns which a re not continuously usedbut a re a va il
a ble during pea k production. The ma jority of the
firing is ca rried out in five Unique 2.7 m deep elec
tric shuttle k ilns built on tra ck s (Photo1 3.8).
Pr oduct i on *
Tota l sa les in 1 983 rea ched a bout S4 million a nd
dropped toS3 million in 1 984. The sa les were a l
most split evenly between the C ountry C ha rm a nd
the tra ditiona l g reen/bla ck g iftwa re. Annua l produc
tion of pieces for 1 983 wa s:
o 370,000 pieces ca st,
o 560,000 pieces pressed.
R a w ma teria l consumption a pproa ched:
o 1 ,000 tonnes/yea r sha le,
o 1 00 tonnes/yea r wolla stonite,
o 50 tonnes/yea r nepheline syenite,
o 30 tonnes/yea r EPK k a olin for g la zes, for both
the ca sting a nd pressing bodies combined.
M onthly production involved a pproxima tely:
o 30 mixes ~2000 k g dry weig ht for pressing ,
o 1 0 mixes ~3000 k g dry weig ht for ca sting .
DON ZVER POTTERY
Hi st or y
Don Zver beg a n his ca reer a s a potter in hig h
school. Since tha t time, he ha s work ed profession-
*At the time of writing , Blue M ounta in Pottery
wa s closed due toba nk ruptcy.
a lly in three pottery businesses. In 1 972 he work ed
for one yea r in a co-opera tive with a nother potter
a nd wea ver. From this, he moved to his fa ther's
fa rm in Troy, Onta rio, where he opened his own
pottery business. In this loca tion for nine yea rs, he
produced wa re simila r tohis present product line,
work ing with the a ssista nce of two hired a ppren
tices. In 1 980 M r. Zver purcha sed his present loca
tion a nd openedtothe public in 1 983. He currently
employs three full time sta ff which will be increa sed
to five in the summer months. Severa l pa rt time
work ers a re a lsoemployed.
Pr oduct i on an d Pr ocess
Don Zver Pottery is a ma nufa cturer of ha ndma de
functiona l pottery. The stonewa re body is purcha sed
a s a wet mix from Pottery Supply House. Approxi
ma tely 1 4-1 6 tonnes of cla y mix is usedin one yea r.
The ha ndma de wa re is produced by wheel
throwing a nd ha nd building . A very minor pa rt is
extruded.
After forming , the wa re is drieda ndthen bisque
fired. The compa ny ha s twok ilns, one la rg e 5.7 m3,
g a s fired ca r k iln a nd a nother sma ll (0.2 m3) elec
tric k iln. After bisquing , the wa re is g la zed, a ll
g la zes used being mixes formula ted by M r. Zver.
The wa re is then fired tocone 1 0 in a reducing a t
mosphere.
Don Zver Pottery sells a bout 60 percent of its
wa re from the studioa t the pla nt. The rest is sold
from shops serving the southern Onta rioma rk et.
148
Chapt er 1 4 Cl ay Roof i n g Ti l e
INTRODUCTION
The twoma in requirements for roofing tiles (Photo
1 4.1 ) a re tha t they be wea ther resista nt a nd a es
thetica lly a ttra ctive. In g enera l, cla ys a nd sha les of
fer plea sing a nd dura ble fired colours not ea sily
ma tchedby other ma teria ls. However, the common
cla ys a nd sha les of Onta riodonot fire toa suffi
ciently dense a nd impervious condition toresist de
teriora tion throug h freezing a nd tha wing . Hence,
the g rowing ma rk et for ma sonry roofs in Onta riois
the result of recent loca l production of concrete
roofing tiles.
RAW MATERIAL
C la y roofing tiles ca n be ma de from those ba ll cla ys,
firecla ys or stonewa re cla ys tha t ha ve g oodpla sticity
a nd low a bsorption a fter firing . Some specifica tions
a llow wa ter a bsorption a s hig h a s 3 percent, others
a s hig h a s 1 0.5 percent. But the issue is rea lly
whether the tile ca n tolera te repea ted cycles of
freezing a nd tha wing without brea k down. For the
sa me rea son, limestone fra g ments a re deleterious
unless finely g roundtoprevent pop-outs on sla k ing .
Pyrite inclusions a nd soluble sa lts a re undesira ble
beca use of rusty discoloura tions a nd efflorescence,
respectively. A fine, close-g ra ined, dense-textured,
Photo 14.1 Imported clay roofing tiles, London,
Ontario. Photo courtesy of B.H. Feenstra.
hig hly pla stic cla y is preferred, towhich sa ndca n be
a ddedtoa chieve optimum density a ndwork a bility.
TECHNOLOGY
GERMANY
A typica l Germa n pla nt ta k es a ir-dried cla y a nd
g rinds it toa bout 20 mesh. It is a llowed toa g e in
coveredstora g e for l to3 months, while further cla y
is a dded in la yers. Ultima tely, it is recla imed by
scooping throug h the la yers toensure uniform pla nt
feed.
Interlock ing tiles formed by pressing a re g ener
a lly preferred, but pla in or conca ve tiles produced
by a n extrusion process a re a lso common. The
pressing method produces tiles individua lly or in
multiples a t the ra te of 1 5 to30 per minute. Opti
mum pressing ra te must be determinedin ea ch ca se
since it ha s a sig nifica nt bea ring on the qua lity, den
sity a nd a bsorption cha ra cteristics of the firedprod
uct.
In the pressing method, mould desig n a lsopla ys
a sig nifica nt role in the qua lity of the fired tile.3
M oulds ma y be entirely of steel, but more g enera lly
ha ve a pla ster or rubber inla y. Pla ster moulds a re
best for soft pla stic cla ys, but the pla ster liner is
rela tively soft a nd must be repla ced ra ther fre
quently. M oulds with rubber membra ne or inla y a re
widely used a nd more dura ble.
Drying is norma lly ca rried out in continuous
tunnel dryers or periodic cha mber dryers. The ob
jective is toreduce moisture levels in the g reenwa re
toa bout 2 percent. Drying time is typica lly 20 to40
hours under conditions of close humidity control.
Firing is a ccomplished in tunnel k ilns unless
production levels a re less tha n 6 to8 million tiles
per yea r, when Hoffma n-type cha mber k ilns a re
more economica l. A U-sha ped fra me structure a l
lows the sta ck ing of tiles on k iln ca rs without the
tiles conta cting one a nother. It a lsopermits a uto
ma tic loa ding a ndunloa ding , a ndresults in a n over
a ll reject ra te of less tha n 2 percent.3
Pa ck a g ing is usua lly by shrink -film wra pping of
a sta ck of tiles on a pa llet ba se.
FRANCE
R ecent French technolog y includes a n unusua l k iln
desig n.4 An a ir-dried pla stic cla y is g round to 1 8
mesh, tempered with wa ter (wa ter of pla sticity
shouldbe 20-21 percent), a ndextrudedintosla bs 2
cm thick . Extruded sla bs a re sta mped intodesired
tile sha pes, dried, a nd fired in fibre-lined pool
k ilns. These k ilns a re unique in tha t the ca rs a re
sea ledby wa ter in the bottom of the k ilns, a ndonly
the tiles a re exposed tohea t. A fa st firing schedule
of 1 2 hours is possible, a nd circula ting wa ter tem
pera ture is not permitted toexceed 900C .
Overa ll pla nt desig n is hig hly a utoma ted, one
opera tor controlling the entire ma nufa cturing cycle.
The computerized process a djusts a ll subsequent
steps tothe speed of the tile press. Fired tiles ha ve
a bsorptions of 3 to5 percent.
UNITED KINGDOM
According to historica l records, cla y roofing tiles
ha ve been produced in Eng la nd since AD 54.5
While 1 00 yea rs a g othere were 50 producers, in
1 983 there were only seven representedby the C la y
R oofing Tile C ouncil. Low point in production wa s
1 970 when only 953,000 m2 of tiles were produced,
compa red with 3,500,000 m2 in 1 960. C urrent pro
duction is a bout 1 ,600,000 m2 , a bout 5 percent of
the tota l roofing tile ma rk et of 30,000,000 m2 per
yea r. C oncrete tiles a ccount for most of the rest
(Ta ble 1 4.1 ).
TABLE 1 4.1 MARKET SHARE OF VARIOUS ROOFINQ
MATERIALS, UNITED KINGDOM, 1 980.(5)
Roof i n g Mat er i al
Con cr et e t i l es
Cl ay t i l es
Asbest os-cemen t sl at es
Nat ur al sl at es
Bi t umen shi n gl es
Cedar shi n gl es
Per cen t
90.0
4.5
4.0
1.0
0.3
0.2
TABLE 1 4.2 BRITISH STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
FOR CLAY PLAIN ROOFINQ TILES.
Mi n i mum Tr an sver se St r en gt h
Maxi mum Wat er Absor pt i on
Maxi mum Man uf act ur i n g Si ze
Mi n i mum Man uf act ur i n g Si ze
Wor k Si ze
Len gt h
(mm)
268
262
265
778 N
IQ.5%
Wi dt h
(mm)
1 68
1 62
1 65
Thi ckn ess
Camber - cr oss
- l on gi t udi n al
1 0-1 5 mm
n o l i mi t
1 1 2 t hi ckn ess -1 /2 t hi ckn ess *3 mm
Sour ce: Br i t i sh St an dar d Speci f i cat i on 402, 1 979
The sta nda rd roofing tile in the United K ing
dom mea sures 27 cm by 1 6.5 cm (1 0-1 /2 x 6-1 /2
inches), uncha ng ed for 500 yea rs. Tiles a re formed
from close-g ra ined, dense-textured, pla stic cla y,
either by extrusion or by ha nd. British Specifica tion
402 (1 979) defines the limits for wa ter a bsorption,
a ppa rent porosity a ndtra nsverse streng th, a s well a s
dimensiona l a nd sha pe tolera nces (Ta ble 1 4.2).
CONCRETE ROOFING TILES
The only producer of concrete roofing tiles in On
ta riois M a rley R oof Tiles Limited. Althoug h only
recently esta blished in C a na da , M a rley ha s become
one of the world's la rg est ma nufa cturers of roofing
tiles, with 28 pla nts in seven countries. The com
pa ny wa s esta blished in 1 924.
M a rley produces a n interlock ing roofing tile 41 3
by 330 mm in overa ll size a t its M ilton pla nt. M a de
from a mixture of portla nd cement, g ra ded fine a g
g reg a te a nd colouring oxides, the tiles a re extruded
in six sha des of g rey, brown a nd red. The tiles a re
desig ned tobe interlock ing a nd overla pping topre
vent the ca pilla ry a ction of creeping moisture, a nd
their density is sufficient toresist da ma g e by freez
ing a nd tha wing .
Insta lla tion of a M a rley roof ta k es a bout three
times a s long a s a conventiona l shing le roof. The
compa ny ma inta ins its own insta lla tion crews a nd
stock s of the necessa ry thermoply underla y, wooden
ba ttens a nd other tile a ccessories.
SOME ECONOMIC ASPECTS
Improved drying a nd firing efficiency is a ma jor ele
ment in the competition with concrete roofing tiles,
which substa ntia lly undersell the cla y tile ma rk et in
the United K ing dom (Ta ble 1 4.3). An innova tive
drying technique developed in Ita ly a nd further re
fined in Switzerla nd, involves cyclic bursts of hot a ir
by mobile or rota ry blowers.3 Improved efficiency
results from a n interrupted a ir flow which better a l
lows moisture within the tiles tomig ra te tothe sur
fa ce.
TABLE 1 4.3 COMPARATIVE COSTS OF ROOFING
TILES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, 1 980.
Percent of Total
Tile Type Dwelling Cost
Concrete interlocking tile
Asbestos- cement corrugated sheet
Asbestos- cement slate
Concrete plain tile
Clay plain tile (machine made)
Natural slate
Clay plain tile (hand made)
Concrete tiles (stone finish)
2.3
2.7
3.1
3.4
3.6
3.8
4.6
7 .7
C onventiona l k iln efficiency is very low,
whether using continuous tunnel k ilns or va rious pe-
150
riodic k ilns. Theoretica l energ y requirements a re
only a bout 250 k J per k g of wa re, but a ctua l energ y
expenditure is 2000 to3000 k J per k g .3 K iln ca rs
a nd sta ck ing furniture, which una voida bly a bsorb
much energ y, a re a ma jor ba rrier tog rea ter k iln ef
ficiency. Hence, submersion of the k iln ca rs in a
circula ting wa ter ba th while the tiles on top a re be
ing fired, a s in the French pla nt previously de
scribed, minimizes hea t loss. Sotoothe Hepworth
roller k iln, describedin C ha pter 6, which ha s ma de
cla y sewer pipe competitive with concrete a ndpla s
tic pipes in the United K ing dom. Both k iln desig ns
a re hig hly efficient a nd opera te on short firing cy
cles, 1 2 hours a nd l hour, respectively.
The hig hly a utoma ted French roofing tile pla nt
previously describedis sa idtocost U.S. S4.5 million
for a productive ca pa city of 6 million tiles per yea r.4
Selling price for the tiles is U.S. S26 per 1 00.
The ma in a dva nta g e of concrete roofing tiles in
the UnitedK ing dom is compa ra tive chea pness; they
undersell cla y tiles by one-third.5 The cost of using
va rious types of tile on the roof of a typica l two-
storey three-bedroom house in the UnitedK ing dom
is shown in Ta ble 1 4.3. R e-roofing of other homes
a ccounts for three-qua rters of the United K ing dom
ma rk et for cla y tiles.
In Onta rio, concrete tiles a re a luxury roofing
ma teria l. C la y tiles a re not g enera lly a va ila ble. Ac
cording toM a rley R oof Tiles Limited, the ma k ers of
the only ma sonry roof tiles in Onta rio, insta lla tion of
a concrete tile roof ta k es 2-1 /2 to3 times a s long a s
for a conventiona l shing le roof using M a rley's own
roofing crews. Andthe overa ll cost is compa ra ble to
tha t of a ceda r sha k e roof a t lea st four times the
price of a n a spha lt shing le roof. But wherea s a spha lt
shing les ha ve a useful life of 1 0 to1 5 yea rs, M a rley
roofs ca rry a 50-yea r wa rra nty.
La ck of suita ble cla y is the principa l rea son for
there being nodomestic cla y roofing tile industry.
C a na da 's clima te dema nds a cla y body free from
fa ilure by freezing a ndtha wing ; hence low limits on
wa ter a bsorption. Onta rio's common surfa ce cla ys
a nd sha les donot vitrify tosufficient density unless
they a re overtired, a t which time wa rpa g e typica lly
ta k es pla ce. In a recent study of the cla ys a ndsha les
of south-centra l Onta rio, K wong et a l.2 found only
five sa mples tha t could be fired toa bsorption levels
between 6 a nd 1 0 percent without noticea ble wa r
pa g e. While British specifica tions a llow a bsorptions
up to1 0.5 percent, Onta rioexperience indica tes the
da ng er of fa ilure by freezing a t this level.
Nevertheless, there continues tobe serious in
terest in the possibility of ma nufa cturing roofing tiles
from Onta rio sha les in a t lea st three opera ting
pla nts. However, M ea ford Tile Limited ha d its
Georg ia n Ba y Sha le eva lua ted by roofing tile spe
cia lists in Germa ny in 1 982 with unfa voura ble re
sults.
Loca l cla y wa s used by Hill Tile Limited of
Stevenson, K ent C ounty, in a short-lived a ttempt a t
commercia l production of cla y roofing tiles a few
yea rs a g o. The pla nt ha d been a ma jor producer of
cla y dra ina g e tiles for ma ny yea rs. 1 Dresden Tile
Limited a lso seriously considered cla y roofing tile
before closing in 1 985, but foundits fired cla y tobe
tooporous.
REFERENCES
1 . Guillet, G. R . "The C la y Products Industry of Onta rio",
2. K wong , J. P., M a rtini, I. P. a nd Na ra in, M . "C era mic
Properties of Selected Sha le a ndC la y R esources in South
C entra l Onta rio", Onta rioGeol. Survey, Open File R e
port 5571 , 60p., 1 985.
3. Ludowici, M . "The Production of C la y R oofing Tiles:
C urrent Technolog y, Developments a nd Future Pros
pects", Intercera m Vol.32, No.4, p.46, 1 983.
4. Pixley, F. "A New French R oofing Tile Pla nt",
C a na dia n C era mic Society, 84th Annua l
M eeting , Toronto1 986.
5. R obbins, J. "U.K . Structura l C la y Products - Building
1 96, Ja n. 1 984.
Chapt er 1 5 Cl ay Fl ower pot s an d Fi l t er Ti l e
INTRODUCTION
Ha lton C era mics Limited in Burling ton is the only
producer of cla y flowerpots a nd filter tiles in C a n
a da . Althoug h pla stic flowerpots domina te the ma r
k et, imports of cla y pots from the U.S.A., Germa ny
a nd Ita ly a re substa ntia l. Pla stic pots a re chea per,
lig hter, non-a bra sive, more ea sily stored a nd ha n
dled, a nd less ea sily brok en. But porosity in cla y
pots encoura g es better root development, a nda t the
reta il level pla nts sell better in cla y tha n in pla stic
pots for a esthetic rea sons.
The a nnua l C a na dia n ma rk et for cla y flower
pots is estima ted a t a bout 7 million, three-qua rters
of which a re of sta nda rd sha pe a nd in dia meters
from 5 to25 cm. However, a strong ma rk et exists
for la rg er sta nda rd a nd specia lty sha pes to 50 cm
dia meter where they a re preferred on the ba sis of
a ppea ra nce. Sa les a re a bout equa lly divided be
tween g reenhouse g rowers a nd reta il distributors.
Growers buy in volume a nd tend to prefer the
chea per pla stic pots, while reta il sa les a re ba sed
more on a ppea ra nce a nd fa vour cla y. The a nnua l
C a na dia n ma rk et for pla stic flowerpots is a bout four
times tha t for cla y pots.
RECENT ONTARI O PRODUCERS
The principa l producer of cla y flowerpots for ma ny
yea rs wa s the Foster Pottery C ompa ny in Ha milton.
The pla nt wa s destroyed by fire in the 1 970s a nd
did not re-open. M ore recently, flowerpots were
produced with dra ina g e tiles by Docha rt Brick a nd
Tile C ompa ny Limited a t Arnprior; the pla nt closed
in 1 984. Other producers in Quebec (M ontrea l
Terra C otta Limited) a nd British C olumbia (Ha ney
Pottery Limited) were closed in the mid-1 970s.
Dresden Tile Y a rd Limited, a t Dresden, Onta rio,
a lso considered cla y flowerpots before cea sing its
dra ina g e tile production in 1 985. Ha lton C era mics
Limited of Burling ton wa s the sole C a na dia n pro
ducer of cla y flowerpots in 1 985.
DOCHART BRICK AND TILE COMPANY LIMITED
C la y flowerpots were a rela tively recent product of
this compa ny. Prima rily a producer of cla y dra ina g e
tiles, production of tiles cea sed in 1 982 a nd flower
pots in 1 984. The orig ina l pla nt wa s built on this site
in 1 868. It wa s loca ted on the north side of
Arnprior in lots 7 a nd 8, concession XIII, Township
of M cNa b, R enfrew C ounty. Descriptions of ea rlier
opera tions a re g iven by Ba k er, 1 K eele,4
M ontg omery5 a nd Guillet.3
Stra tified C ha mpla in ma rine cla y a nd silt ex
posed in a n a djoining pit wa s work ed todepths of
3-6 m. Once a yea r sufficient cla y wa s exca va ted,
blended with sa nd a nd silt, a nd work ed over toen
sure uniformity. Dra ina g e tiles were produced dur
ing the summer months; flowerpots during the win
ter. Annua l flowerpot production wa s a lwa ys second
in importa nce totile sa les, except in the la st severa l
yea rs when the compa ny a ttempted tosurvive pri
ma rily on pots. C ommon sizes were 5 to25 cm in
dia meter, a nd most sa les were direct from the com
pa ny tog reenhouses, ha rdwa re stores a nd other re
ta il outlets in the Otta wa a rea .
FOSTER POTTERY COMPANY LIMITED
Foster Pottery wa s the principa l source of cla y flow
erpots in Onta riofor ma ny yea rs. Loca ted on Frid
Street in Ha milton, the first pla nt wa s built on this
site in 1 876, prima rily toproduce tea pots a ndurns.
Ownership of the pla nt sta yed withthe Foster fa mily
from the beg inning , until it wa s destroyed by fire in
the 1 970s. An ea rlier description is g iven by
M ontg omery.5
For most of its productive life, the pla nt pro
duced cla y flowerpots exclusively. Using first the
hig h-qua lity red surfa ce cla ys derived from eroding
Queenston Sha le, the compa ny subsequently ob
ta ined wea thered sha le from va rious loca tions.
The pla nt wa s opera ted on three levels, withthe
ra w cla y being received in a pug mill on the lowest
level. Nothing but wa ter wa s a ddedtothe cla y, a nd
tha t only toprovide sufficient pla sticity for extru
sion. The extruded cla y strea m wa s cut intoplug s
for stora g e a nd la ter processing . Plug s were re
cla imedfrom stora g e a s necessa ry a ndput throug h a
second pug mill a nd extruded toproduce plug s of
the correct size for the size of pots being ma de. Ele
va ted tothe top floor of the pla nt, these plug s were
sha ped on presses a nd pla ced on long wooden
boa rds for drying .
Drying ra ck s were loca ted a bove the four bee
hive periodic k ilns, using excess k iln hea t. Firing
time in the beehive k ilns a vera g ed 30 hours. A sin
g le shuttle k iln wa s insta lledin 1 961 2 toa ug ment the
firing ca pa city. It not only cost less toopera te tha n
the beehives, but improved production time by per
mitting a 24-hour turnover.
152
Following a fire in the 1 970s, the pla nt did not
re-open. The flowerpot presses were subsequently
a cquired by Ha lton C era mics Limited.
HALTON CERAMICS LIMITED
Ha lton C era mics Limited, loca teda t 1 200 Unsworth
Avenue in Burling ton, wa s previously opera ted un
der the na me of Na tcoC la y Products Limited, a nd
prior to1 954 a s the Na tiona l Fireproof ing C ompa ny
of C a na da . The pla nt wa s built in 1 91 0 tota k e a d
va nta g e of the excellent red "Aldershot" cla y tha t
wa s used by numerous pla nts in the Burling ton a nd
Ha milton a rea s for brick s, structura l tiles, sewer
pipes, flowerpots a nd other pottery products. De
scriptions of ea rlier opera tions a t the pla nt a re g iven
by K eele,4 M ontg omery5 a nd Guillet.3
The compa ny produces cla y flowerpots a nd a
wide va riety of hollow tiles for structura l, pa rtition
a nd filtra tion purposes. About 1 0,000 tonnes of fin
ished wa re a re ma nufa ctured a nnua lly by a work
force of fifteen. In 1 985, cla y flowerpots a nd filter
tiles were the principa l products, a ndthis pla nt wa s
the only one in C a na da producing them.
Queenston Sha le is now used exclusively, ob
ta ined from both the compa ny's own a dja cent
qua rry a nd the Na tiona l Sewer Pipe qua rries on
nea rby K ing R oa d. A yea r's supply is stock piled a t
the pla nt during the summer months a nd recla imed
a s needed by front-end loa der.
The pla nt process ha s cha ng ed very little over
the yea rs. Prima ry crushing of the sha le is still a c
complished in a Stevenson sing le-roll toothed
crusher. A 3 m C ha mbers pneuma tic drypa n is in
closed circuit with two1 6 mesh screens. Additiona l
g rinding ca pa city from a Berg drypa n is a va ila ble if
needed. Ground sha le is stored in twosteel bins of
25 a nd 50 tonne ca pa cities.
Sha le from stora g e feeds a n F-R -H double-
sha ft pug mill where sufficient wa ter toa chieve pla s
ticity is a dded, a s well a s minor a mounts of Lig -
nosol a nd ba rium ca rbona te.
Plug s for flowerpot production a re extruded by
a n F-R -H Hummer, a nd these a re individua lly
pressed intoplots from 4 to30 cm in dia meter. A
flowerpot press consists of a revolving chuck tha t is
pressed intoa mould conta ining a cla y plug of suit
a ble size. Six rota ting ra m presses a re a va ila ble for
different sizes a nd styles. They include twoFoster
presses, two Ba ird a nd two Polla rd, a ll a cquired
from the Foster Pottery C ompa ny a fter Foster
cea sed production in the ea rly 1 970s.
Filter, structura l a ndpa rtition tiles a re extruded
by a n F-R -H type WJ va cuum extruder. Severa l
a utoma tic cutters a re a va ila ble tocut the extruded
cla y strea m, a nd the g reen wa re a re ma nua lly
ha ck ed ontodrying ca rs.
Drying is a ccomplished in a tunnel dryer a nd a
room dryer, ea ch conta ining 1 6 tra ck s with a com
bined ca pa city for 385 ca rs. Drying ta k es a bout 48
hours a t 980C , wa ste hea t from the k ilns providing
a bout one-thirdof the drying a nddirect na tura l g a s
hea ting providing the rema ining two-thirds.
There a re 1 0 beehive k ilns of a bout 1 0 m in
dia meter. They a re g a s-fired topea k tempera tures
of a bout 1 0400C a nda re turnedover on cycles of 9
to1 0 da ys. Avera g e k iln ca pa city is 90 tonnes. Fuel
consumption for drying a nd firing a ccounted for
a bout 37 percent of opera ting costs in 1 985, a bout
the sa me a s the costs of la bour.
Flowerpot sa les a re mostly tog reenhouses in the
Toronto-Ha milton-Nia g a ra a rea . Filter tiles a re
sold throug hout North America , including M exico.
TECHNICAL ASPECTS AND COMPETING
MATERIALS
There a re notechnica l sta nda rds tha t a pply tothe
ma k ing of flowerpots. In Onta rio, cla y flowerpots
were orig ina lly ma de from a red pla stic cla y of a l
most stonewa re qua lity tha t wa s derived from erod
ing Queenston Sha le in the Burling ton a nd Ha mil
ton a rea s. With the fina l depletion of these sma ll
deposits, other surfa ce cla ys a nd sha les ha ve been
substituted with va rying success, but domestic pro
ducers ha ve ha dtrouble ma tching the qua lity of im
ports from the U.S.A., Germa ny a nd Ita ly. Both
cla y qua lity a nd old ma chinery a re a t fa ult.
Good pla sticity a nd a sufficiently long firing
ra ng e a re desira ble qua lities in the cla y ra w ma te
ria l, toensure smooth cla y pot surfa ces free from
cra ck s, check s a nd wa rpa g e. M odera tely hig h po
rosity a nd a bsorption cha ra cteristics a re necessa ry
for optimum development of pla nt root systems. Pot
ba ses must be fla t a nd the dra ina g e holes smooth.
La rg e sca le g reenhouse opera tions require these
physica l cha ra cteristics to be consta nt from ship
ment toshipment; pa rticula rly porosity a nd a bsorp
tion, where a utoma tic wa tering systems a nd humid
ity controls ha ve been pre-set ba sedon previous ex
perience.
C la y competes with pla stic, pea t a nd fibre
(pa pier ma che) flowerpots. All a re chea per, lig hter,
non-a bra sive, a nd more ea sily stored a nd ha ndled.
Pla stic flowerpots a re less ea sily brok en tha n cla y
pots a nd a bout ha lf the price of those ma de in On-
ta rio. However, their la ck of porosity inhibits opti
mum root development, a ndpla stic is g enera lly less
a ttra ctive tothe reta il consumer. A pla nt sold in a
cla y pot will a ttra ct a substa ntia lly better price tha n
one in a pla stic pot.
Nevertheless, g rowers dea ling in la rg e numbers
of pots ha ve tended tofa vour pla stic in a n a ttempt
toreduce costs. C onversely, reta il consumers tend
to show preference for cla y pots for displa y pur
poses, pa rticula rly in the la rg er pot sizes.
K ord Products Limited is a ma jor producer of
pla stic flowerpots a t its Bra mpton pla nt. Althoug h
fibre pots ha ve the a dva nta g e of being biodeg ra d
a ble (a s a re a lsopea t pots, which K ord does not
ma k e), the va lue of pla stic pot production is a bout
three times tha t for fibre pots. Biodeg ra da ble pots
ca n be used for sta rting seedling s in the g reenhouse,
then pla nting them in the g round with their pot to
a void the shock of tra nspla nting .
La rg e, hig hly a utoma ted pla nts in the U.S.A,
Germa ny a nd Ita ly a re the source of most Onta rio
imports of cla y flowerpots. Imports represent a bout
three-qua rters of the C a na dia n ma rk et for cla y pots
a nd a re g enera lly superior in qua lity. In spite of
costing 30 to 50 percent more tha n Onta riopots,
they a re preferred by the reta il ma rk et.
FILTER TILE
Filter tiles a re used in the bottom of porous bed
filters in wa ter trea tment a pplica tions. These a ppli
ca tions ma y include filtering wa ter for municipa l
consumption, filtering municipa l sewa g e before dis
cha rg e a nd filtering of industria l wa ste strea ms. Po
tentia l a pplica tions a lsoextend totheir use in bio
log ica l rea ctors or dig estors.
Filter tiles a re recta ng ula r units conta ining inte
rior cha nnels throug h which filtered wa ter, entering
via a pertures in the tiles' upper surfa ce, ca n be
dra ined a wa y. Depending on the cha nnel desig n,
ba ck wa sh wa ter, or both a ir a nd wa ter for ba ck -
wa shing , is pumped into these cha nnels a nd dis
cha rg ed throug h the surfa ce orifices for scouring of
the filter media .
Vitrified cla y sees competition from fibreg la ss
a nd pla stics for the filter tile ma rk et. C la y ha s a d
va nta g es over these products in its superior resis
ta nce tochemica l (a cid) a tta ck a nd a bra sive wea r.
Alsocla y is a rela tively inexpensive ma teria l which
when fired exhibits more structura l sta bility tha n the
other twoma teria ls. It, however, ha s the disa dva n
ta g e tha t the tile produced a re much hea vier tha n
those of fibreg la ss or pla stic, a s much a s 40 k g com
pa red to 7 k g for a pla stic underdra in. Shipping
costs a re therefore a ma jor contributor tothe tota l
insta lled cost of the system.
C la y filter tiles a re produced by extruding a nd
firing . The finished tile a re usua lly 28 by 25-35 cm
in cross section a nd 60 cm in leng th. The wa lls of
the tile a re ma de thick in order tomeet the physica l
requirements of the vitrified cla y filter block specifi
ca tions. As listed in the ASTM sta nda rd C 1 59 exte
rior wa lls must be a t lea st 9/1 6 inch (1 .4 cm) thick ,
interior wa lls a t lea st 1 /2 inch (1 .2 cm). The tile
must meet minimum compressive streng th require
ments of 450 psi (3 M Pa ) a nd ha ve a ma ximum
boiling a bsorption of 6 weig ht percent. C ustomers
typica lly request more string ent specifica tions in
cluding a minimum interna l rupture pressure of 25
psi (1 70 k Pa ).
PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND
IMPORTS
C a na dia n consumption of cla y flowerpots is a bout 7
million a nnua lly. About 20 percent of these a re pro
duced in Onta rioby Ha lton C era mics Limited. The
rest a re imported from the U.S.A., Germa ny, Ita ly
a nd M exico. Three-qua rters of the ma rk et is for
pots of sta nda rd type in sizes less tha n 25 cm in
dia meter. The C a na dia n ma rk et is concentra ted in
the ea st, pa rticula rly in the Toronto-Ha milton-Ni
a g a ra a rea s.
M ore tha n 90 percent of potted pla nts in On
ta rioa re sold in pla stic pots. The C a na dia n ma rk et
for pla stic flowerpots is va lued a t a bout four times
tha t of cla y pots. Pla stic flowerpots sell for a bout
ha lf the price of cla y pots domestica lly ma de, a nd
one-third toone-qua rter the price of U.S.A. a nd
Germa n cla y pot imports.
The most importa nt foreig n source of cla y flow
erpots for the Onta rioma rk et is F. W. R itter a nd
Sons Inc. of R ock wood, M ichig a n, the la rg est of
four U.S. producers of a ny size. Their a nnua l sa les
a re in excess of U.S. S5 million, a bout 5 percent of
which a re exported toOnta rio. Their modern a uto
ma ted pla nt produces pots of excellent qua lity
which sell for a bout 50 percent more tha n Onta rio
flowerpots. They a re imported by a few distributors
ma inly for the reta il ma rk et.
Germa ny a nd Ita ly a re the other principa l
sources of cla y flowerpot imports. Germa n pots a re
of especia lly hig h qua lity a nd a re distributed ma inly
to reta il ma rk ets. Ita lia n pots a re sold to both
g rower a nd reta il consumers.
Tra nsporta tion is a ma jor cost for cla y flower
pots a nd a source of sig nifica nt brea k a g e. Pots must
be shipped in corrug a ted conta iners with dividers
a nd inserts.
154
M a jor Onta rioimporters of cla y flowerpots a re
R oseda le Imports M a nufa cturing Limited of
Toronto, a nd R obinson C la y Products C ompa ny of
C a na da Limited, C oncord. R oseda le imports ma inly
Ita lia n flowerpots for distribution tog rowers a nd re
ta ilers in Onta rio. R obinson imports pots from Ita ly,
Germa ny a nd the U.S.A. prima rily for distribution
toreta ilers. La rg e g rowers a nd reta ilers a lsoimport
directly for their own consumption. R eta il sa les a re
ma inly throug h g a rden centres a nd depa rtment a nd
ha rdwa re stores.
There a re nosta tistics for cla y filtra tion tiles.
The ma rk et is sma ll a nd widely dispersed. Ha lton
C era mics Limitedis one of three producers in North
America a nd the only one in C a na da . Ha lton sells
its product mostly in the U.S.A. a nd M exico.
REFERENCES
Onta rioBurea uM ines, Vol. XV, pt. 2, 1 906.
2. "Flower Pots a re M oney toFoster", C a na dia n C la y a nd
C era mics M a g a zine, Aug . 1 965.
1 42, 1 924.
1 55
Chapt er 1 6 Mi scel l an eous Cl ay Appl i cat i on s
INTRODUCTION
In a ddition tothe ma jor uses for cla y ra w ma teria ls,
cla y a nd sha le a re a lsoused in a wide va riety of
sma ller volume a pplica tions. Among these a re a b-
sorba nts (such a s ca t litter), fillers, oil well drilling
fluids, g rinding media a nd ca ta lyst bed supports.
Ea ch of these a pplica tions will be briefly discussed,
including a ba sic a na lysis of the potentia l for use of
Onta riocla y deposits in their a ssocia ted ma nufa c
turing processes.
ABSORBANTS
The potentia l of a pa rticula r cla y for use in a bsor-
ba nt a pplica tions, such a s ca t litter, depends on its
ca pa city to a bsorb g a ses a nd liquids. In g enera l,
hig h a bsorba ncy cla ys a re cla ssified in the smectite
g roup a nddonot ha ve well definedcrysta lline struc
tures, i.e., they a re mixed order cla ys. This g roup
includes montmorillonite, a tta pulg ite a nd Fullers
ea rth.
In principle, virtua lly a ny cla y could be used,
from a ma teria ls ha ndling , processing a nd forming
sta ndpoint, in ca t litter production. Furthermore,
even if the cla y is not suita ble, from a n a bsorption
sta ndpoint, a dditiona l process steps, such a s hea t
trea tment or foa ming , ma y be used toimprove the
a bsorba ncy properties of a pa rticula r cla y.
In g enera l, cla y deposits in Onta rioa re not suit
a ble for processing into a bsorba nts unless extra
processing is performed. In most ca ses, both the
technica l a ndeconomic fea sibility of performing this
extra processing a re not k nown. However, one ex
a mple now exists. A novel process for producing a
cla y a bsorba nt for use a s ca t litter from Onta riocla y
ha s recently been developed. C urrently, this infor
ma tion is proprieta ry a nd not a va ila ble for publica
tion.
In conclusion, the cla y ra w ma teria ls of Onta rio
ca n not rea dily be processed intoa bsorba nts, the
problem being the performa nce of the finished
product. Althoug h potentia l exists for this a pplica
tion, the technolog y development is a difficult ta sk
a nd would involve extra processing toa chieve a de
qua te a bsorba ncy.
FILLERS
In recent yea rs, use of cla ys a s fillers a nd extenders
ha s been increa sing . Such a pplica tions ma k e use of
va rious cla y properties such a s pla tey crysta l struc
ture, na tura l binding a ction, hig h reflectivity a nd
opa cifying properties. C la ys ma y be used in either
their na tura l "a s is" sta te or in a ha rder, more a bra
sive ca lcined sta te.
The most importa nt cla y property, when consid
ering filler a pplica tions, is colour. Any filler or ex
tender should be of a neutra l colour a nd rea dily
compa tible with sta nda rd pig menting procedures.
Thus, hig hly coloured cla ys a re una ccepta ble, a nd
only the white ra w ma teria ls (k a olin or china cla y)
find wide use. Occa siona lly, some of the g rey a nd
lig ht brown cla ys a lso find a pplica tion in products
where colour is not considered tobe critica l.
K a olin cla y ha s ma jor a pplica tions in ma ny
ma nufa cturing industries. The function of k a olin in
these products is g iven in Ta ble 1 6.1 .
C urrently, noOnta riocla ys a re useda s fillers in
commercia l a pplica tions. K a olin cla ys a re currently
imported (~300,000 tonnes a nnua lly) intoC a na da
from Europe a ndthe U.S.A. for the industries tha t
need them. The k a olin deposits of the Ja mes Ba y
Lowla nds ha ve potentia l for use in filler a pplica
tions, but beca use of their remoteness, they ha ve
not yet been exploited. Furthermore, some
beneficia tion of the cla y toupg ra de it tothe qua lity
of currently imported products would be required.
M ore deta ils a re g iven in C ha pter 3 of this report.
PETROCHEMICAL APPLICATIONS
The prima ry use of cla y minera ls in the petrochemi
ca l industry is in the formula tion of drilling muds or
fluids. The cla ys which finduse in these a pplica tions
a re sodium bentonite, a tta pulg ite a nd sepiolite. The
rheolog ica l properties of these cla ys (the la tter two
in sa line media ) a re the most importa nt in deter
mining suita bility for use in these a pplica tions. The
cla y functions by increa sing the viscosity of the mud
such tha t drill cutting s a re suspended a nd subse
quently removed.
No Onta rio cla ys a re currently being used in
drilling fluids. Althoug h some Western C a na dia n
deposits a re being employed domestica lly, the la rg e
ma jority is imported. The cla ys of Onta rioa re not
suita ble for use in this a pplica tion beca use they a re
not the rig ht type or qua lity.
Another petrochemica l a pplica tion for cla ys is
a rtificia l fra cture sa nds. In this a pplica tion, the fired
cera mic a g g reg a tes must ha ve suita ble size, sha pe,
solubility a nd streng th a s specifiedby the America n
156
In dust r y
Paper
Paint
Rubber
Plastics
Agriculture
Chemicals/
Pharmaceuticals
TABLE 1 6.1 USE OF KAOLIN CLAY IN FILLER APPLICATIONS.
Remar ks Fun ct i on
Increases opacity
Improved surface
Extender
Improved rheology
Increases opacity
Improved abrasion resistance
Improved strength
High electrical resistance
in cable insulation
Binders, extenders and
diluents In fertilizers,
feed and pesticides
Binder/carrier for
active ingredients
Minimum brightness
value -
Amino sllane
modified kaolin
Calcined clay
Other applications not
well developed
Prevents particle
agglomeration
Petroleum Institute (APIR P 56). C ompeting ma te
ria ls for this a pplica tion a re silica sa nd, resin coa ted
sa nd a nd sintered ba uxite a g g reg a tes. C urrently, no
Onta riocla ys a re usedin this a pplica tion. Their po
tentia l for use ha s not been investig a ted a nd is un
k nown.
CATALYST BED SUPPORTS/GRINDING
MEDIA
A potentia l use for cla y minera ls is in the forma tion
of a sinteredproduct tobe used a s cera mic ca ta lyst
bed supports or a s a g rinding medium. These ma te
ria ls a re used, in the sha pe of cylinders, sa ddles or
spheres, a s pa ck ing media tosupport finer g ra ined
ca ta lysts or in g rinding mills toa ccelera te comminu
tion. Tobe used in these a pplica tions, a fired cla y
must ha ve the following properties:
o hig h resista nce toa ttrition,
o hig h resista nce totherma l shock ,
o chemica l inertness,
o ca ta lytic ina ctivity,
o low porosity,
o hig h crushing streng th.
Althoug h the ca ta lyst bed support ma rk et is im
porta nt in the petrochemica l industry, sa les a re lim
ited due tothe extended lifetime of the product. A
limited ma rk et a lso exists in the ca se of g rinding
media . In g enera l, these products a re consideredto
be low volume, hig h performa nce a pplica tions a nd
Onta riocla ys a re not considered tobe suita ble.
1 57

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