California's American Trader oil spill: effective interagency

and public-private collaboration in environmental disaster

response.
Introduction
The American Trader tanker oil spill oil spill: see water pollution. off Huntington Beach,
California Huntington Beach is a seaside city in Orange County in southern California. As of the
2000 census, the city population was 189,594. It is bordered by the Pacific Ocean on the west, by
Seal Beach on the north, by Costa Mesa on the south, by Westminster on the northeast, and by , in
1990 triggered a large scale interagency interagency
adj.
Involving or representing two or more agencies, especially government agencies. and public-
private response to minimize the ecological and economic impact of approximately 400,000 gallons
of spilled crude oil. Federal, state, county, municipal, and private sector agencies were involved in
what was generally regarded as a rapid and effective management strategy that involved some 1,100
workers and an approximate cost of $10 million.
We examine the interagency collaboration of public and private organizations during a major local
crisis with special emphasis on the roles of the local public health agency (Orange County Health
Care Agency). Events that occur rarely but have high potential consequences represent special
challenges to public agencies and private organizations (1). These "low probability-high
consequence" events often lie outside the standard operating procedures standard operating
procedure Medtalk A technique, method or therapy performed 'by the book,' using a standard
protocol meeting internally or externally defined criteria; a formal, written procedure that describes
how specific lab operations are to be performed. and established expertise of many organizations,
including public health agencies (2). Organizational roles and responsibilities are frequently poorly
defined. This may be true of public health agencies which are often expected to take an active role
but are unsure of what that role should be.
The use of an innovative quantitative health-based risk assessment to justify reopening of beaches is
presented. Chemical and isotopic characterization to distinguish between the spilled oil and natural
tar seeps were performed. These procedures were crucial to an effective interagency response and
conclusion to the crisis. Features that contributed to effective interagency add public-private
collaboration were assessed using a survey of participating organizations.
Sequence of Events
On-February 7, 1990, the tanker American Trader passed over its anchor while attempting to berth
at the offshore marine terminal located 1.3 miles off Huntington Beach Huntington Beach, city
(1990 pop. 181,519), Orange co., S Calif., on the Pacific coast, across from Santa Catalina Island, in
an oil-producing area; inc. 1909. It manufactures aerospace vehicles, aircraft parts, optical
instruments, and heat transfer equipment. . Two holes were tom into one of the forward cargo tanks
and within minutes, 397,236 gallons of north slope North Slope, Alaska: see Alaska North Slope.
Alaskan crude owned by British Petroleum (BP) spilled into the water around the tanker. Sea and
weather conditions at the time were mild, with a very slight onshore breeze blowing out of the
southwest. The slick began to wash up onto 15 miles of beaches along the heavily populated
populate
tr.v. populated, populating, populates
1. To supply with inhabitants, as by colonization; people.
2. Southern California Southern California, also colloquially known as SoCal, is the southern
portion of the U.S. state of California. Centered on the cities of Los Angeles and San Diego, Southern
California is home to nearly 24 million people and is the nation's second most populated region,
coast.
The oil slick was estimated at approximately 15 miles by 5 miles. By February 14, about 150,000
gallons had been recovered while about 240,000 gallons had evaporated evaporated
reduced in volume by evaporation; concentrated to a denser form. , dispersed, or sunk. More than
1,100 workers were hired to clean up oil that washed ashore. By February 16, the cost of cleanup
was estimated to be $10 million. By February 18, there were 496 live and 403 dead, oil-soaked
waterfowl waterfowl, common term for members of the order Anseriformes, wild, aquatic, typically
freshwater birds including ducks, geese, and screamers. In Great Britain the term is also used to
designate species kept for ornamental purposes on private lakes or ponds, while in , and 1,000
grunion grunion: see silversides.
grunion
Edible Pacific fish (Leuresthes tenuis) found along the western coast of the U.S. In the warm
months, it lays its eggs in beach sand during a full or new moon when the tide cycle is at its peak.
fish were found dead on the beach.
The American Trader crude oil spill triggered a health response from the first hours of the spill until
after cleanup of the last affected beach. British Petroleum assumed responsibility for the cleanup,
under the supervision of the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG USCG
abbr.
United States Coast Guard
USCG n abbr (= United States Coast Guard) -> Kstenwache der USA ) and the California
Department of Fish and Game (CAFG). The Orange County Health Care Agency responded with
environmental health staff assigned to provide potentially affected beach communities with warning
signs and to monitor the progress of the oil slick offshore and the cleanup efforts, both offshore and
onshore, over the next several weeks. USCG was the "on-scene coordinator" for the emergency, and
all cleanup activities were to be approved by their staff. CAFG stated they would be the lead state
agency with primary concern for protection of wildlife and the beach environment. British Petroleum
accepted oversight and financial responsibility for the cleanup, since it was their oil on board the
tanker, and they had a trained spill response team assembled to respond to this accidental oil spill.
Shortly after the spill, the City of Huntington Beach, the City of Newport Beach Newport
Beach, residential and resort city (1990 pop. 66,643), Orange co., S Calif., on Newport Bay and the
Pacific Ocean; inc. 1906. It is a popular seaside resort and yachting center. Manufactures include
electrical and medical equipment, computers, boats, and adhesives. , and the County of Orange
activated their Emergency Operations Centers The Emergency Operations Center, or EOC, is a
central command and control facility responsible for carrying out the principles of emergency
preparedness and emergency management, or disaster management functions at a strategic level in
an emergency situation, and ensuring (EOC EOC Emergency Operations Center
EOC Equal Opportunities Commission (UK)
EOC Educational Opportunity Center
EOC End Of Course
EOC Epithelial Ovarian Cancer
EOC Environment of Care (JCAHO) ). The cities and the California Department of Parks and
Recreation The California Department of Parks and Recreation manages the California state parks
system, which contains 280 parks and 1.4 million acres (5,700 km), with over 280 miles of
coastline; 625 miles of lake and river frontage; nearly 15,000 campsites; and 3,000 miles of hiking,
closed the beaches. The mouths of bays, harbors, and rivers were boomed to protect the harbors
and adjacent environmentally sensitive wetlands. Vapor monitoring by the county at Newport At
Newport could refer to a number of live albums recorded at the Newport Folk Festival or the
Newport Jazz Festival:
Ellington at Newport (1956)
Count Basie at Newport (1957)
Newport Jazz Festival (1958) by Duke Ellington
Beach pier helped to determine that community exposure to volatile organic components was not
significant. British Petroleum was advised to hire a qualified consultant to assess the public health
impact from the oil contamination of air, soil, and water.
Once beaches were cleaned up by hand crews using absorbent absorbent /absorbent/ (-
sorbent)
1. able to take in, or suck up and incorporate.
2. a tissue structure involved in absorption.
3. a substance that absorbs or promotes absorption. pads and pompons, audit teams consisting of
representatives of the U.S. Coast Guard, the Department of Fish and Game, British Petroleum, and
the local fire department performed visual, tactile tactile /tactile/ (taktil) pertaining to touch.
tactile
adj.
1. Perceptible to the sense of touch; tangible.
2. Used for feeling.
3. , and odor assessments of the sand and water. Such audit team assessments were the traditional
method of determining the adequacy of cleanup. Sampling of the sand was undertaken to ensure
that any risks to public health had been adequately mitigated. A post cleanup and health risk
evaluation committee was created to determine appropriate cleanup levels for total petroleum
hydrocarbons Total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) is a term used to denote a large family of several
hundred chemical compounds that originally come from crude oil. Crude oil is used to make
petroleum products which can contaminate the environment. (TPH TPH Transplacental
hemorrhage ). A limit of 100 ppm TPH in the sand was established as acceptable, based on risk
assessment and past practice for cleanup of petroleum hydrocarbons on land. As the audit teams
approved each beach, it was subsequently sampled and reopened only after the average of samples
met the 100 ppm TPH criterion and no single sample exceeded 500 ppm TPH. Using this evaluation
system all beaches were adequately cleaned and reopened by March 14, 1990.
Environmental Health Response
USCG and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Noun 1. National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration - an agency in the Department of Commerce that maps the oceans and
conserves their living resources; predicts changes to the earth's environment; provides weather
reports and forecasts floods and hurricanes and (NOAA NOAA
abbr.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Noun 1. NOAA - an agency in the Department of Commerce that maps the oceans and conserves
their living resources; predicts changes to the earth's environment; ) began flyovers to chart the
movement of the oil offshore and, in conjunction with Newport Beach, distributed daily observation
maps to concerned agencies. BP began hiring contract cleanup personnel and developing a cleanup
plan for USCG approval. Meetings were held at the CAFG offices with all involved agencies to
discuss and consider options. The decision was made to skim offshore oil then deal with the oil
onshore when it washed onto the beaches. The first oil appeared on the beach on February 8 near
the Newport Beach pier.
BP decided, with agreement from USCG and CAFG, to hand clean the beaches instead of using
heavy equipment. The manual technique was intended to minimize pushing the oil into the sand and
therefore reduced the amount of sand that needed to be removed and later replaced.
Orange County notified BP on Day 2 regarding the need for BP to monitor air, soil, and water for
aromatic hydrocarbons to gauge the public health impact on exposed workers and residents. BP
hired toxicologists to conduct air and water sampling during the cleanup process.
Limited vapor monitoring for volatile organic chemicals (e.g., benzene benzene (b?n`z?n, b?nz?n`),
colorless, flammable, toxic liquid with a pleasant aromatic odor. It boils at 80.1&degC; and solidifies
at 5.5&degC;. Benzene is a hydrocarbon, with formula C6H6. , toluene toluene (t?l`y ?n') or
methylbenzene (m?th'?lb?n`z?n), C7H8 , xylene xylene (z?`l?n) or
dimethylbenzene (d?'m?th?lb?n`z?n), C6H4(CH3)2 , and ethylbenzene Ethylbenzene is an organic
chemical compound which is an aromatic hydrocarbon. Its major use is in the petrochemical industry
as an intermediate compound for the production of styrene, which in turn is used for making
polystyrene, a commonly used plastic material. ) was performed by environmental health personnel
from Orange County on February 9 at the Newport Beach pier, near the area where the offshore
slick was heaviest at the time. No significant (pathogenic pathogenic or pathogenetic
adj.
1. Having the capability to cause disease.
2. Producing disease.
3. Relating to pathogenesis. ) levels of volatile organics were detected, as virtually all volatile
organic chemicals evaporate evaporate
v.
1. To convert or change into a vapor; volatilize.
2. To produce vapor.
3. To draw or pass off in the form of vapor.
4. into the atmosphere within 48 hours after a crude oil spill. During most of the time following the
American Trader spill, offshore breezes prevailed. A public health threat did not exist from volatile
organic chemicals due to the earlier evaporative evaporative
pertaining to evaporation.
evaporative loss
loss of body water by evaporation of water from the body to the air; a heat control mechanism and a
factor in water balance studies. losses.
Cleanup activities continued offshore by skimming Skimming
An electronic method of capturing a victim's personal information used by identity thieves. The
skimmer is a small device that scans a credit card and stores the information contained in the
magnetic strip. as weather permitted and onshore using absorbent pads and pompons and by
removing contaminated contaminated,
v 1. made radioactive by the addition of small quantities of radioactive material.
2. made contaminated by adding infective or radiographic materials.
3. an infective surface or object. sand with hand shovels. An audit of Newport Beach included
visual, tactile, and odor assessment of sand and water. This traditional method was used to
determine when the cleanup of an area was completed. The agencies, in conjunction with BP,
declared the area clean when the above criteria were met, and the beach was then reopened to the
public.
Evaluation Criteria for Beach Reopening
Public health officials expressed concern about reopening heavily oiled beaches prematurely and the
possibility of chronic health effects. An assessment of sample data needed to be made to ensure that
potential exposures would not pose unnecessary risks to beach users. Sampling of sand and water
was conducted for TPH and polynuclear polynuclear /polynuclear/ (-noo?kle-er) having
several nuclei; said of cells.
polynuclear or polynucleate or polynucleated
adj.
Multinuclear. aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH PAH, PAHA aminohippuric acid.
PAH
abbr.
para-aminohippuric acidPAH 1 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, see there 2. Pulmonary artery
HTN ), the group of nonvolatile contaminants of greatest public health concern.
BP and NOAA indicated that there were no standards for "beach exposures" and that they were
concerned about setting a precedent for sampling after oil spills This is a list of oil spills throughout
the world. Large Oil Spills to Date
Oil Spills of over 100,000 tonnes or 30 million US gallons, ordered by Tonnes
Spill / Tanker Location Date *Tons of crude oil link . The visual, tactile, and odor assessment
procedure had always been acceptable for previous oil spill cleanups. Public health officials pointed
out that the American Trader oil spill was different from the earlier Alaskan oil spill, since millions of
people use local beaches and contact sand, whereas in Alaska few people use the beach.
A major concern was dermal dermal /dermal/ (dermal) pertaining to the dermis or to the skin.
dermal or dermic
adj.
Of or relating to the skin or dermis. contact with sand, although ingestion
ingestion /ingestion/ (-chun) the taking of food, drugs, etc., into the body by mouth.
ingestion
n.
1. The act of taking food and drink into the body by the mouth.
2. of sand was also considered. Sampling of air and water suggested little threat from inhalation or
contact with water. Samples were tested for TPH at approximately 500-foot intervals at the high tide
line and in the lower tidal zone Noun 1. tidal zone - an area subject to tidal action
zone - an area or region distinguished from adjacent parts by a distinctive feature or characteristic .
A tiered approach was used with the follow-up testing. Only samples with greater than 100 ppm of
TPH would require additional testing for PAH consistent with hazardous waste Hazardous waste
Any solid, liquid, or gaseous waste materials that, if improperly managed or disposed of, may pose
substantial hazards to human health and the environment. Every industrial country in the world has
had problems with managing hazardous wastes. guidelines for cleanup of petroleum products in
residential areas.
Based on an Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
independent agency of the U.S. government, with headquarters in Washington, D.C. It was
established in 1970 to reduce and control air and water pollution, noise pollution, and radiation and
to ensure the safe handling and risk assessment model and using worst case assumptions for
exposure and for PAH types and concentrations, the excess lifetime cancer risk would be less than
E-06 with a TPH concentration of 100 ppm in the sand.
The final cleanup assessment and testing plan was as follows: 1. The audit team approved the area;
2. Samples were taken on 500-foot centers; 3. A beach was reopened if tests showed an average TPH
concentration of less than 100 ppm. Individual samples over. 100 ppm TPH would be analyzed for
PAH; 4. The local health department approved openings; 5. Local officials, USCG, and CAFG
approved openings; 6. The public and press were notified of beach openings; and 7. Areas not
passing criteria would be recleaned, reaudited, and resampled until the average 100 ppm TPH
criteria was met.
Only a few sections of beach required recleaning. USCG staff and BP were initially resistant to
recleaning areas with TPH concentrations above 1 00 ppm (ranging from 743 to 5030), but the 100
ppm criterion was adhered to and subsequently all beaches were satisfactorily cleaned and reopened
by March 14, 1990.
Public Health Risk Assessment
A cleanup evaluation committee was formed consisting of representatives of BP, officials of the cities
of Huntington Beach and Newport Beach, NOAA, and the Environmental Health Division of the
Orange County Health Care Agency. Officials from USCG and CAFG were also included in initial
coordination meetings. The committee initiated and evaluated the results of a risk assessment
performed by a toxicological consulting firm Noun 1. consulting firm - a firm of experts providing
professional advice to an organization for a fee
consulting company
business firm, firm, house - the members of a business organization that owns or operates one or
more establishments; "he worked for a and set cleanup criteria for the beaches.
The Risk Assessment Process
Health risk assessment consists of four sequential phases: hazard identification, dose-response
assessment, exposure assessment, and risk characterization (3,4). Hazard identification determines
the chemical(s) of concern based on toxicologic features, environmental fate, and potential exposure
pathways. Populations at risk are also identified. Dose-response assessment quantifies the toxicity of
the chemicals of concern on humans and other forms of life. Exposure assessment quantifies the
amount of agent that will actually reach biological receptors. Risk characterization calculates the
risk based on data obtained in the dose-response and exposure assessments. High uncertainty is
inherent to risk assessment because of uncertainty associated with toxicologic and exposure
assessments. Risk estimates are scientifically-deduced estimates and may or may not be accurate
reflections of actual risk. For this reason, a conservative (worst case) approach is used which
overestimates actual risk (5). Actual risk usually varies between the calculated risk as a maximum
and zero as a minimum.
Hazard Identification and Population Exposed
Substances of concern in the American Trader oil spill were crude oil for non-carcinogenic health
effects and PAH for carcinogenesis carcinogenesis
n.
The production of cancer.
carcinogenesis
production of cancer.
biological carcinogenesis
viruses and some parasites are capable of initiating neoplasia. . The population exposed included all
potential beach users. A maximally exposed beach user was estimated to visit the beach two-24 hour
days per week for nine months per year over a 70-year lifespan. Dermal exposure was assumed to
involve 90% of body area and ingestion to be 100 mg/day of sand. These estimates were developed
specifically for this incident by the interagency response team.
Dose-Response Assessment
EPA EPA eicosapentaenoic acid.
EPA
abbr.
eicosapentaenoic acidEPA,
n.pr See acid, eicosapentaenoic.
EPA,
n. has not established a reference dose (RFD RFD
abbr.
rural free delivery
Noun 1. RFD - free government delivery of mail in outlying country areas
rural free delivery
) for crude oil or other petroleum mixtures to date. Environmental toxicological assessment
established an acceptable daily intake acceptable daily intake
the amount of a drug or chemical residue to which an animal can be exposed daily for a lifetime
without suffering a deleterious or injurious effect, on the basis of all of the facts known at the time.
level (ADI) for noncarcinogenic effects based on toxicity studies reported in the scientific
literature. The value derived was an intake of 0.0 1 66 mg/kg/day of TPH. For carcinogenic
carcinogenic
having a capacity for carcinogenesis.
effects, it was assumed that all PAH was benzo(a)pyrene (BAP BAP - 1. An early system used on
the IBM 701.
[Listed in CACM 2(5):16 (May 1959)].
), the most carcinogenic substance found in crude oil. The carcinogenic potency factor for BAP was
given as 6.1 [(mg/kg-day).sup.-1].
Exposure Assessment
Exposure could occur from direct contact with skin and oral ingestion of contaminated sand or ocean
products. Confining exposure to these two pathways was reasonable because volatile substances
were not found in sand samples and PAH carcinogens Carcinogens
Substances in the environment that cause cancer, presumably by inducing mutations, with
prolonged exposure.
Mentioned in: Colon Cancer, Rectal Cancer are not volatile. Potential exposed skin area was taken
to be 90% of body surface area, based on usual dermal exposure while wearing beach wear.
Noncarcinogenic exposure was calculated for the most sensitive, 0-6 year age group (6). Potential
uptake was calculated for both dermal and oral exposure routes for child (0-6 years), youth (7-13
years) and adult (14-70 years) age groups. The sum of uptakes for the three age groups is equal to
the lifetime average daily dose (LADD LADD Lifetime Average Daily Dose
LADD Lacrimoauriculodentodigital (syndrome)
LADD Light and Darkness Dragon (YuGiOh trading cards)
LADD Low-Angle Drogue Delivery
LADD Lowest Acceptable Daily Dose ). Total uptake is the sum of dermal and oral uptakes. Dermal
uptake far exceeded oral uptake. The LADD would be the uptake factor multiplied by the
concentration of the contaminant contaminant /contaminant/ (kon-tamin-int) something
that causes contamination.
contaminant
something that causes contamination. in sand.
Risk Characterization and Calculation of Cleanup Levels
Risk was calculated as:
risk = lifetime average daily dose
(LADD) x potency factor
where LADD = concentration of contaminant in sand x intake factor based
on exposure scenario. Risk may also be expressed as:
risk = [sand] x intake factor x potency factor.
Hence:
[sand] = risk/intake factor x potency factor.
The exposure assessment was directed toward determining an acceptable cleanup level by solving
the following equation for concentration of the contaminant in sand:
[sand] = risk/(uptake factor)
(carcinogenic potency factor).
The risk factor selected was 1 x E-06 or excess cancer case per million individuals. All PAH was
assumed to be benzo(a)pyrene. The carcinogenic potency factor (CPF (Control Program Facility) The
IBM System/38 operating system that included an integrated relational DBMS. ) was taken as 6. 1.
The equation then becomes:
[sand] = 1 x E-06/(2.96 x E-05)(6. 1)
= 5.5 x E-03 mg BAP/kg sand.
The figure of 2.96 x E-05 is the LADD dermal and the LADD oral summed.
A sample of South Louisiana crude oil was found to contain 5.41 x E-05 g total PAHG oil. The latter
was a surrogate available when the risk assessment process was developed. All PAH was considered
to be BAP. If the standard test for total recoverable petroleum hydrocarbons (TRPH TRPH Total
Recoverable Petroleum Hydrocarbons ) effectively estimates crude oil, the equation becomes:
[sand] = 5.5 x E-03 mg Bap/kg soil x
1 g oil/5.41 x E-05 g BAP =102 mg oil/kg sand, or about 100 mg
TRPH/KG sand.
A sample of crude oil from the American Trader was found to contain no carcinogenic PAH above the
detection limit of 2300 ug/ kg. For noncarcinogenic effects, a hazard index was calculated as the
ratio of uptake of a child divided by the ADI given above. The sum of exposures was calculated to be
5.2 x E-03 (not significant unless 1.0 or greater).
Use of Risk Assessment
Risk assessment was conducted in response to concerns about the possibility of real or imagined
illnesses related to the heavily oiled beaches. Although risk assessments have been conducted on
crude oil in surface soils (7,8), we adapted it for use with beach sand in managing this emergency
response. Potential exposure was of great concern due to the millions of people who use the affected
beaches. The risk assessment was used as the basis for risk management. Using aesthetic
assessments such as sight and smell is not adequate for detecting levels of contaminant below
human sensory perception that may still contribute to disease. At each beach area, samples were
collected on 500-foot centers. The beach was opened only when an average concentration was met.
A total of 705 samples were collected. The average TRPH concentration was 48.7 mg/kg (ppm),
representing an excess lifetime cancer risk of 8.1 x E-08. The application of the above methods
provided an objective analysis of public health and environmental impacts, and a data-driven
justification to recommendations made by the local health department.
Other Issues
Mussel mussel, edible freshwater or marine bivalve mollusk. Mussels are able to move slowly by
means of the muscular foot. They feed and breathe by filtering water through extensible tubes called
siphons; a large mussel filters 10 gal (38 liters) of water per day. Contamination
A shellfish shellfish, popular name for certain edible mollusks (see Mollusca), e.g., oysters, clams,
and scallops, and for certain edible crustaceans, e.g., crabs, lobsters, and shrimps. All are aquatic
invertebrates with shells; they are not fish. advisory was issued and signs posted in English,
Spanish, and Vietnamese along oiled beaches. Results of five subsequent mussel analyses along the
entire Orange County coast showed no significant increase in TPH levels in oiled mussels compared
with controls.
Reoiling Occurrences
Reoiling occurred in some areas that were approved to be opened. This was due to movement of oil
from one area to another during storm conditions, oil being released back into the surf during rock
washing and/ or possible new spills from other ships, offshore rigs, or natural seeps. BP responded
to all reoiling events by sending crews back into the area for recleaning.
Plankton plankton: see marine biology.
plankton
Marine and freshwater organisms that, because they are unable to move or are too small or too
weak to swim against water currents, exist in a drifting, floating state. Bloom
Lifeguards received complaints of eye and skin irritation skin irritation,
n reaction to a particular irritant that results in inflammation of the skin and itchiness. from
surfers in reopened beach areas. Restaining of the beaches was observed with what appeared to be
oil. Samples of water, foam, and beach stains were collected and analyzed. No hydrocarbons were
found in the water samples, but numerous red tide red tide: see Dinoflagellata.
red tide
Discoloration of seawater caused by dinoflagellates during periodic blooms (population increases).
Toxic substances released by these organisms into the water may be lethal to fish and other marine
life, and organisms were found. There were reports of red discoloration discoloration
n.
1.
a. The act of discoloring.
b. The condition of being discolored.
2. A discolored spot, smudge, or area; a stain.
Noun 1. of waters, indicating a plankton bloom, which can produce skin, eye, and respiratory
irritation. Foam and sand stain analysis indicated that PAH components were either nondetectable
or at very low levels that did not constitute a health risk.
"Sunk" Oil
County sanitation districts collected sediment samples from the 30 meter depth contour A line
connecting points of equal depth below the hydrographic datum. Also called bathymetric contour or
depth curve. offshore along the Newport and Huntington coastline. This was a part of routine
sanitation district activity. BP analyzed all routinely collected samples for TPH and none were
detected. This confirmed a low probability that oil from the spill sunk offshore which could reoil
beaches at a later date.
Tarballs
On Day 32 there were reports of unusually heavy concentrations of tarballs along many Orange
County beaches. The USCG had received reports of many tarballs from Santa Barbara Santa
Barbara (s?n't? br`br?, -b?r?), city (1990 pop. 85,571), seat of Santa Barbara co., S Calif., on the
Pacific Ocean; inc. 1850. to San Diego San Diego (s?n d??`g?), city (1990 pop. 1,110,549), seat of
San Diego co., S Calif., on San Diego Bay; inc. 1850. San Diego includes the unincorporated
communities of La Jolla and Spring Valley. Coronado is across the bay. and speculated that they
may have been related to an increase in oil seep activity due to a recent earthquake. BP collected
samples of the tarballs in Los Angeles Los Angeles (ls ?n`j?l?s, l?s, ?n`j?l?z'), city (1990 pop.
3,485,398), seat of Los Angeles co., S Calif.; inc. 1850. County and Orange County and had them
tested by an independent consultant. The samples of tarballs were analyzed for various isotopes and
chemical constituents. These samples were compared with Alaskan and Southern Californian crude
oil. Only one onshore and one offshore sample matched the American Trader (Alaskan) crude,
confirming that the tarballs were Southern California crude associated with natural phenomena.
Summary of Cleanup Operation
The cleanup process and the involvement of public health practitioners following the American
Trader oil spill demonstrated that many agencies and companies can work together effectively to
ensure protection of the public's health and the environment. The cleanup criteria developed by the
post cleanup and health risk evaluation committee helped to validate the findings of the visual,
tactile, and odor assessment process. However, the discovery of high TPH levels at several stations
cleared by audit teams demonstrated that traditional assessment methods were not foolproof The 1
00 ppm TPH criterion for beach samples provided assurance that beach users would not be exposed
to hazardous conditions from the oil spill. This criterion may become a precedent for other oil spill
cleanups on heavily used beaches throughout the country.
The American Trader Oil Spill Survey of
Participating Response Organizations A questionnaire for participating emergency personnel was
developed to assess the management dimensions of the response to the American Trader oil spill.
The questionnaire was designed to determine the factors that contributed to effective interagency
collaboration and communication and was administered to 14 of 25 organizations responding to the
oil spill. Table 1 lists the primary role of each of the 14 organizations interviewed.
Table 1. Role of Organizations Surveyed.
Organization Role in the Response
U.S. Coast Guard Federal on-scene coordinator
Calif. Dept. of Fish and Game State on-scene coordinator
B.P. America Responsible for cleanup
City of H.B.(*) Fire Dept. Management of oil spill
City of N.B.(**) Fire Dept. Management of oil spill
Calif. Office of Emergency Services Coordinate information flow
Orange Co. Health Care Agency Beach closure and reopening
City of H.B. Emergency Services Operations center
Orange Co. Environ. Manage. Agency Harbor protection
City of H.B. Marine Safety Field command post
City of H.B. Mayor's Office Management of oil spill
Calif. Dept. of Parks and Recreation Protecting parks
Clean Coastal Waters, Inc. Cleanup of oil from water
Clean Seas Oil recovery assistance
(*) Huntington Beach
(**) Newport Beach
Emergency Management Background of Respondent Organizations
Prior to the American Trader oil spill, all organizations had been involved in interagency emergency
management. Most had been involved in preparation of a contingency plan A plan involving suitable
backups, immediate actions and longer term measures for responding to computer emergencies
such as attacks or accidental disasters. Contingency plans are part of business resumption planning.
, emergency preparedness exercises, an actual emergency, and in the recovery phase of an
emergency. Types of emergencies encountered included floods, hazardous material spills, fires, and
tomatoes. Over 60% of the organizations had been involved in the management of an oil spill.
Personnel in charge of operations for the organizations were also experienced in emergency
management; of 26 lead individuals interviewed, only three were new to emergency management.
Factors that Contributed to Successful Interagency Management
Several factors were reported as important in successful interagency management:
Familiarity Between Organizations
Previous contact with many of the other organizations involved in the American Trader emergency
was reported to have led to effective interagency communication and collaboration. It was suggested
that information about the various participating organizations, including roles and responsibilities,
contacts with telephone and facsimile numbers, etc., should be distributed to all participants early in
the emergency response. If prior contact and familiarity among organizations aid interagency
management of emergencies, organizations may want to ensure more frequent contact among
themselves during non-crisis periods. For example, organizations could engage in multi-agency
emergency preparedness exercises.
Regular Meetings
Daily or twice daily informational meetings were effective. Throughout the emergency, meetings
were held regularly and attended by representatives of each organization. At these meetings,
information was shared and the concerns and requests of participating organizations were
communicated to the leadership structure of the emergency response. Problems were discussed and
mutually acceptable solutions were developed. No media were present at these regular meetings.
Factors that Impeded Successful Interagency Management
Two issues were frequently reported as having impeded effective interagency management.
Multi-agency Contingency Plans
The most frequently reported factor Reported factor
The pool factor as reported by the bond buyer for a given amortization period. that hindered
effective communication and collaboration was poorly defined sense of roles and responsibilities,
especially where the federal versus the state agencies are concerned. Information about other
organizations was scarce, and this emergency response required many organizations to interact with
others with whom they had no prior experience and sometimes little knowledge. The respondents
stated that multi-agency contingency plans clearly defining organization responsibilities would have
improved emergency management. Over 70% of organizations surveyed had a contingency plan but
only 60% of plans included an oil spill scenario. Organizations having a contingency plan reported
following it during the American Trader oil spill, but 25% stated that their organization's role in the
contingency plan was not clearly defined. One third stated that they were forced to depart from the
contingency plan because the plan was not suited for the magnitude of the spill or for the number of
participants involved in the response. Respondents stated that contingency plans should be more
multi-agency in character, recognizing that numerous organizations will be involved in a large
emergency responses. Roles need to be more clearly identified for each organization.
Lack of Adequate Communications Equipment
Respondents commented on the lack of communications technologies and good operations facilities.
Communications technology such as cellular phones and facsimile machines were in short supply
during the emergency. Antiquated devices could not fulfill the need for rapid communications. The
speed of communication affected the ability of decision makers to act. Radio frequencies became
jammed quickly, and public telephones were often occupied. If cellular phones had been available,
participants may have had less difficulty communicating with each other. Facsimile machines and
computers were also in short supply. Respondents stated that improved communication equipment
would have increased the efficiency of the spill response and are needed to ensure effective
interagency disaster management.
The Process of Decision-making
The cities affected by the American Trader oil spill used the incident command system in emergency
management. The system makes one person/group responsible for the overall management of an
emergency (the incident commander) and makes another person/group responsible for tactical
command The authority delegated to a commander to assign tasks to forces under his command for
the accomplishment of the mission assigned by higher authority. (operations). Several other
organizational groups are responsible for information, resources, or finance. The affected cities
designated their city manager as the incident commander. The operations commanders were the
city's fire chiefs.
During the American Trader oil spill, the cities amended this to incorporate several key, non-local
organizations, including the USCG which has jurisdiction over all oil and hazardous materials spills
that occur in U.S. coastal waters. The private oil company, BP America, was an important decision
maker because it owned the oil on the tanker and because it had a responsibility and the resources
to conduct the cleanup. While USCG was the legally authorized lead agency in the clean-up effort, it
granted much of the operational coordination and responsibility to BP America, which had the
primary obligation to ensure that an adequate cleanup occurred. CAFG was the third crucial
decision maker because of its responsibility for oil spills off the coast of California. These three
organizations were the unified command A command with a broad continuing mission under a single
commander and composed of significant assigned components of two or more Military Departments
that is established and so designated by the President, through the Secretary of Defense with the
advice and assistance of the Chairman of .
In contrast, the role of local organizations in the spill response was described by respondents as
supportive, communicating local concerns and needed actions, and sharing in decision-making. Most
respondents felt that local concerns were addressed very effectively. Local organizations played an
important tactical role in the spill response, including coordination, information gathering, beach
closure and reopening, and security.
Role of the Media
Throughout the spill response, many organizations communicated with the media in the form of
press briefings, releases, and through designated personnel operating from media centers. Media
tours of the affected beaches and interpreters for Spanish-language news shows were provided.
Most organizations reported that the media helped their efforts primarily by communicating
important information to the public. Effective emergency response required the cooperation of the
general public, which had to be notified of the beach closures.
The media served to communicate information across the responding organizations themselves. The
Huntington Beach EOC was tuned into local television news. Some charts and maps that were
published in print media were also of use to the participants. Respondents credited the media for
conveying a largely accurate representation of events, and noted that media attention on the crisis
served to capture the attention of outside organizations whose assistance (such as financial aid) was
needed. The media promoted an interagency focus by reporting on the diverse aspects of the
emergency.
The media hindered emergency response insofar insofar
adv.
To such an extent.
Adv. 1. insofar - to the degree or extent that; "insofar as it can be ascertained, the horse lung is
comparable to that of man"; "so far as it is reasonably practical he should practice as dealing with
the media was time consuming; organizations were conscious of the fact that media diverted time
from the spill response. The presence of the media on the scene also proved to be a crowd-control
problem. Public phones were often occupied by media personnel when they were needed by
participants for operational tasks. Media exclusion from regular meetings may have been a factor
contributing to effective interagency coordination Within the context of Department of Defense
involvement, the coordination that occurs between elements of Department of Defense, and engaged
US Government agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and regional and international
organizations for the purpose of accomplishing an objective. and planning.
Confusion About the Roles of Various Organizations
A complaint voiced by respondents was that lead federal and state agencies (USCG and CAFG) were
not in full agreement about their respective roles. A competition for influence occurred, which while
not a major impediment A disability or obstruction that prevents an individual from entering into a
contract.
Infancy, for example, is an impediment in making certain contracts. Impediments to marriage
include such factors as consanguinity between the parties or an earlier marriage that is still valid.
to an effective response, was noted by other participants. Respondents stated that roles among all
tiers of emergency response organizations should be better defined and, in particular, the respective
roles of federal and state agencies.
Role of British Petroleum America
BP America's actions were cited as contributing to good communication and collaboration between
organizations during the emergency. A large majority of respondents indicated that USCG, CAFG,
and BP America's ability to provide leadership and direction in the emergency response was critical.
BP America's effective handling of the emergency was attributed to several factors. Prior to the
American Trader oil spill, the company had studied reports on the management of the Exxon oil spill
in Alaska. Four months before the American Trader oil spill, BP America had created a crisis
management department. BP America's external crisis manager/incident commander during the oil
spill was praised for good management. The company was also perceived as forthcoming in
resources to aid the cleanup.
Role of the U.S. Coast Guard
USCG was highly rated for its performance in the emergency. Most respondents indicated that
USCG was very effective in providing leadership and direction in the response. This was attributed
to a good command structure, availability of resources, and a skilled representative on the scene and
was a common perception among respondents despite their also indicating that there was some
competition for influence between USCG and CAFG.
Conclusion
The American Trader oil spill off of California's coast challenged public sector agencies to respond
effectively to an environmental and public health threat. A productive interagency collaboration
resulted from well-defined roles and responsibilities among agency actors and was facilitated by the
use of an innovative risk assessment procedure for beach reopening. Future analyses of interagency
effectiveness in disaster response should expand upon the data presented here. It is clear from this
review that technological capacity and innovation should complement, but cannot replace effective
management, decisionmaking, and communication processes during such complex, multi-agency
responses.
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