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BAB II

THEORITICAL

2.1. Copper alloys
Copper alloys constitute one of the major groups of commercial metals.
They are widely used because of their excellent electrical and thermal
conductivities, outstanding resistance to corrosion, ease of fabrication, and good
strength and fatigue resistance. They are generally nonmagnetic. They can be
readily soldered and brazed, and many coppers and copper alloys can be welded
by various gas, arc, and resistance methods.

Figure 2.1 Brass products
(http://ecorse.com/)1

For decorative parts, standard alloys having specific colors are readily
available. Copper alloys can be polished and buffed to almost any desired texture
and luster. They can be plated, coated with organic substances, or chemically
colored to further extend the variety of available finishes.

Pure copper is used extensively for cables and wires, electrical contacts,
and a wide variety of other parts that are required to pass electrical current.
Coppers and certain brasses, bronzes, and cupronickels are used extensively for
automobile radiators, heat exchangers, home heating systems, panels for
absorbing solar energy, and various other applications. requiring rapid conduction
of heat across or along a metal section. Because of their outstanding ability to
resist corrosion, coppers, brasses, some bronzes, and cupronickels are used for
pipes, valves, and fittings in systems carrying potable water, process water, or
other aqueous fluids.
(from ASM handbook Vol.2)

Table 2.1 Properties of copper alloys
(from ASM handbook Vol.2)2

In all classes of copper alloys, certain alloy compositions for wrought
products have counterparts among the cast alloys; this enables the designer to
make an initial alloy selection before deciding on the manufacturing process.
Most wrought alloys are available in various cold-worked conditions, and the
room-temperature strengths and fatigue resistances of these alloys depend on the
amount of cold work as well as the alloy content.

Figure 2.2 Cu-Zn phase diagram
ASM_Handbook,_Volume_3_Alloy_(BookFi.org)3

Typical applications of cold-worked wrought alloys (cold-worked
tempers) include springs, fasteners, hardware, small gears, cams, electrical
contacts, and components. Certain types of parts, most notably plumbing fittings
and valves, are produced by hot forging simply because no other fabrication
process can produce the required shapes and properties as economically. Copper
alloys containing 1 to 6% Pb are free-machining grades. These alloys are widely
used for machined parts, especially those produced in screw machines.

2.2 Definition powder metallurgy
In the manufacturing processes described thus far, the raw materials used
have been metals and alloys either in a molten state (casting) or in solid form
(metalworking). This chapter describes the powder metallurgy (PM) process, in
which metal powders are compacted into desired and often complex shapes and
sintered (heated without melting) to form a solid piece. This process first was used
by the Egyptians in about 3000 B.C. to make iron tools. One of its first modern
uses was in the early 1900s to make the tungsten filaments for incandescent light
bulbs.
The availability of a wide range of metal-powder compositions, the ability
to produce parts to net dimensions (net-shape forming), and the overall economics
of the operation give this unique process its numerous attractive and expanding
applications. A wide range of parts and components are made by powder-
metallurgy techniques (Fig. 2.3): (a) balls for ballpoint pens; (b) automotive
components (which now constitute about 70% of the PM market), such as piston rings,
connecting rods, brake pads, gears, cams, and bushings; (c) tool steels, tungsten
carbides, and cermets as tool and die materials.

Figure 2.3 components are made by powder-metallurgy techniques

Advances in this technology now permit structural parts of aircraft, such as
landing gear components, engine-mount supports, engine disks, impellers, and
engine nacelle frames, to be made by PM. Powder metallurgy has become
competitive with processes such as casting,forging, and machining, particularly
for relatively complex parts made of highstrength and hard alloys.
Although most parts weigh less than 2.5 kg, they can weigh as much as 50
kg. It has been shown that PM parts can be mass-produced economically in
quantities as small as 5000 per year and as much as 100 million per year for
vibrator weights for cell phones. The most commonly used metals in PM are iron,
copper, aluminum, tin, nickel, titanium, and the refractory metals. For parts made
of brass, bronze, steels, and stainless steels, prealloyed powders are used, where
each powder particle itself is an alloy. Metal sources are generally bulk metals and
alloys, ores, salts, and other compounds.


2.3 Production of metal powders
The powder-metallurgy process typically consists of the following
operations, in sequence (Fig. 2.4):
1. Powder production
2. Blending
3. Compaction
4. Sintering
5. Finishing operations.






Figure 2.4 Outline of processes and operations involved in producing powder
metallurgy parts.
(4)


Figure 2.5 Particle shapes in metal powders, and the processes by which they are
produced. Iron powders are produced by many of these processes.


2.3.2 Blending metal powders
Blending (mixing) powders is the next step in powder-metallurgy
processing. It is carried out for the following purposes:
1. Powders of different metals and other materials can be mixed in order to
impart special physical and mechanical properties and characteristics to
the PM product. Note that mixtures of metals can be produced by alloying
the metal before producing a powder, or else blends can be produced.
Proper mixing is essential to ensure the uniformity of mechanical
properties throughout the part.
2. Even when a single metal is used, the powders may vary significantly in
size and shape; hence, they must be blended to obtain uniformity from part
to part. The ideal mix is one in which all of the particles of each material
(and of each size and morphology) are distributed uniformly.
3. Lubricants can be mixed with the powders to improve their flow
characteristics. They reduce friction between the metal particles, improve
flow of the powder metals into the dies, and improve die life. Lubricants
typically are stearic acid or zinc stearate in a proportion of from 0.25 to
5% by weight.
4. Other additives, such as binders (as in sand molds), are used to develop
sufficient green strength (see section 2.3.3), and additives also can be used
to facilitate sintering.
Powder mixing must be carried out under controlled conditions in order
to avoid contamination or deterioration. Deterioration is caused by excessive
mixing, which may alter the shape of the particles and cause work hardening,
making subsequent compaction more difficult. Powders can be mixed in air, in
inert atmospheres (to avoid oxidation), or in liquids (which act as lubricants and
make the mix more uniform). Several types of blending equipment are available
(Fig. 2.7).

Figure 2.7 Several types of blending equipment are available

2.3.3 Compaction of metal powders
Compaction is the step in which the blended powders are pressed into
various shapes in dies, as shown in sequence in Fig. 2.8. The purposes of
compaction are to obtain the required shape, density, and particle-to-particle
contact and to make the part sufficiently strong for further processing. The powder
(feedstock) is fed into the die by a feed shoe, and the upper punch descends into
the die. The presses used are actuated either hydraulically or mechanically, and
the process generally is carried out at room temperature, although it can be done at
elevated temperatures.
The pressed powder is known as green compact, since it has a low
strength, just as is seen in green parts in slip casting. The green parts are very
fragile (similar to chalk) and can crumble or become damaged very easily, this
situation is exacerbated by poor pressing practices. To obtain higher green
strengths, the powder must be fed properly into the die cavity and proper
pressures must be developed throughout the part.

Figure 2.8 Various shapes in dies; (a) Compaction of metal powder to form a
bushing. The pressed-powder part is called green compact. (b) Typical tool and
die set for compacting a spur gear.

The density of the green compact depends on the pressure applied (Fig
2.9a). As the compacting pressure is increased, the compact density approaches
that of the metal in its bulk form. An important factor in density is the size
distribution of the particles. If all of the particles are of the same size, there always
will be some porosity when they are packed together, theoretically a porosity of at
least 24% by volume. (Observe, for example, a box filled with rice, and note that
there are always open spaces between the grains.)

Figure 2.9 Density and effect of density copper and iron powder: (a) Density of
copper- and iron-powder compacts as a function of Compacting pressure. Density
greatly influences the mechanical and physical properties of PM parts. (b) Effect
of density on tensile strength, elongation, and electrical conductivity of copper
powder.

Introducing smaller particles into the powder mix will fill the spaces
between the larger powder particles and thus result in a higher density of the
compact. The higher the density of the compacted part, the higher are its strength
and elastic modulus (Fig. 2.9b). The reason is that the higher the density, the
higher the amount of solid metal in the same volume, and hence the greater its
strength (resistance to external forces). Because of friction between (a) the metal
particles in the powder and (b) the punch surfaces and die walls, the density
within the part can vary considerably.

Figure 2.10 Density variation in compacting metal powders in various dies: (a)
and (c) single-action press; (b) and (d) double-action press. Note in (d) the greater
uniformity of density from pressing with two punches with separate movements
compared with (c). (e) Pressure contours in compacted copper powder in a single-
action press.

This variation can be minimized by proper punch and die design and by
control of friction. Thus, it may be necessary to use multiple punches with
separate movements in order to ensure that the density is more uniform
throughout the part (Fig. 2.10). Recall a similar discussion regarding the
compaction of sand in mold making. However, density variation in components
such as gears, cams, bushings, and structural parts may be desirable. For example,
densities can be increased in critical locations where high strength and wear
resistance are important and reduced where they are not.
The pressure required for pressing metal powders ranges from 70 MPa
for aluminum to 800 MPa for high-density iron parts (see Table 2.2). The
Compacting pressure required depends on the characteristics and shape of the
particles, on the method of blending, and on the lubricant. Press capacities are
usually around 1.8 to 2.7 MN, although presses with much higher capacities are
used for special applications.
Table 2.2 Compacting Pressures for Various Powders

Most applications actually require less than 0.9 MN. For small tonnage,
crank- or eccentric-type mechanical presses are used; for higher capacities, toggle
or knuckle-joint presses are employed. Hydraulic presses (Fig. 2.11) with
capacities as high as 45 MN can be used for large parts. Press selection depends
on part size and the configuration, density requirements, and production rate.
However, the higher the pressing speed, the greater is the tendency for the press to
trap air in the die cavity and thus prevent proper compaction.
\
Figure 2.11 A 7.3-MN mechanical press for compacting metal powder.

2.3.3.1 Cold isotatic pressing
Green compacts may be subjected to hydrostatic pressure in order to
achieve more uniform compaction and, hence, density. In cold isostatic pressing
(CIP), the metal powder is placed in a flexible rubber mold typically made of
neoprene rubber, urethane, polyvinyl chloride, or another elastomer (Fig. 2.12).
The assembly then is pressurized hydrostatically in a chamber, usually using
water. The most common pressure is 400 MPa, although pressures of up to 1000
MPa may be used.

Figure 2.12 Schematic diagram of cold isostatic pressing. Pressure is applied
isostatically inside a high-pressure chamber (a) The wet bag process to form a
cup-shaped part. The powder is enclosed in a flexible container around a solid-
core rod. (b) The dry bag process used to form a PM cylinder

The ranges for CIP and other compacting methods in terms of the size and
complexity of a part are shown in Fig. 2.13. A typical application is automotive
cylinder liners

2.3.3.2 Hot isostatic pressing
In hot isostatic pressing (HIP), the container generally is made of a high-
melting-point sheet metal and the pressurizing medium is high-temperature inert
gas or a vitreous (glass-like) fluid (Fig. 2.14 ). Common conditions for HIP are
pressures as high as 100 MPa-although they can be three times as high--and
temperatures of 1200C.

Figure 2.13 Capabilities, with respect to nents for the aircraft and aerospace
industries and in military, medpart size and shape complexity, available from
various PM operations. PF = powder forging.

The main advantage of HIP is its ability to produce compacts having
almost 100% density, good metallurgical
bonding of the particles, and good mechanical properties. Consequently, it has
gained wide acceptance in making high-quality parts.
The HIP process is used mainly to produce superalloy components for
the aircraft and aerospace industries and in military, medical, and chemical
applications. It also is used (a) to close internal porosity, (b) to improve properties
in superalloy and titanium-alloy castings for the aerospace industry, and (c) as a
final densification step for tungsten-carbide cutting tools and PM tool steels. The
main advantages of hot isostatic pressing are the following:
1. Because of the uniformity of pressure from all directions and the absence
of die-wall friction, it produces fully dense compacts of practically
uniform grain structure and density (hence, isotropic properties),
irrespective of part shape.
2. Parts with high length-to-diameter ratios have been produced with very
uniform density, strength, toughness, and good surface detail.
3. HIP is capable of handling much larger parts than those in other
compacting processes.

Figure 2.14 Schematic illustration of hot isostatic pressing. The pressure and
temperature variation versus time are shown in the diagram.

The limitations of HIP are as follows:
1. Wider dimensional tolerances are needed than those obtained in other
compacting processes.
2. HIP requires higher equipment cost and production time than are required
by other processes.
3. HIP is applicable only to relatively small production quantities, typically
less than 10,000 parts per year.

2.3.4 Sintering
Sintering is the process whereby green compacts are heated in a
controlledatmosphere furnace to a temperature below the melting point, but
sufficiently high to allow bonding (fusion) of the individual particles. As we have
seen, the green compact is brittle, and its green strength is low. The nature and
strength of the bond between the particles and, hence, that of the sintered
compact, depend on the complex mechanisms of diffusion, plastic flow,
evaporation of volatile materials in the compact, recrystallization, grain growth,
and pore shrinkage.
Table 2.3 Sintering temperature and time for various metals


The principal variables in sintering are temperature, time, and the furnace
atmosphere. Sintering temperatures (Table 2.3) are generally within 70 to 90% of
the melting point of the metal or alloy. Sintering times (Table 2.3) range from a
minimum of about 10 minutes for iron and copper alloys to as much as 8 hours for
tungsten and tantalum. Continuous-sintering furnaces, which are used for most
production, have three chambers:
1. Burn-off chaniher, for volatilizing the lubricants in the green compact in
order to improve bond strength and prevent cracking.
2. High-temperature chaniher, for sintering.
3. Cooling charnher.
To obtain optimum properties, proper control of the furnace atmosphere
is important for successful sintering. An oxygen-free atmosphere is essential to
control the carburization and decarburization of iron and iron-based compacts and
to prevent oxidation of the powders. A vacuum generally is used for sintering
refractory-metal alloys and stainless steels.
The gases most commonly used for sintering are hydrogen, dissociated
or burned ammonia, partially combusted hydrocarbon gases, and nitrogen.
Sintering mechanisms are complex and depend on the composition of the metal
particles as well as on the processing parameters. The sintering mechanisms are
diffusion, vapor-phase transport, and liquid-phase sintering. As the temperature
increases, two adjacent powder particles begin to form a bond by a diffusion
mechanism (solid-state honding, Fig. 2.14a); as a result, the strength, density,
ductility, and thermal and electrical conductivities of the compact increase.
At the same time, however, the compact shrinks. Hence, allowances
should be made for shrinkage, as are done in casting. A second sintering
mechanism is vapor-phase transport (Fig. 2.14b). Because the material is heated to
very close to its melting temperature, metal atoms will be released to the vapor
phase from the particles. At convergent geometries (the interface of two particles),
the melting temperature is locally higher and the vapor phase resolidifies.

Figure 2.14 Schematic illustration of two mechanisms for sintering metal
powders: (a) solid-state material transport; and (b) vapor-phase material transport.
R = particle radius, 1' = neck radius, and p = neck-profile radius.

Thus, the interface grows and strengthens while each particle shrinks as a
whole. If two adjacent particles are of different metals, alloying can take place at
the interface of the two particles. If one of the particles has a lower melting point
than the other, the particle will melt and (because of surface tension) surround the
particle that has not melted. An example of this mechanism, known as liquid-
phase sintering, is cobalt in tungsten-carbide tools and dies.
Stronger and denser parts can be obtained in this way. In spark sintering
(an experimental process), loose metal powders are placed in a graphite mold,
heated by electric current, subjected to a high-energy discharge, and compacted-
all in one step. Another technique under development is microwave sintering,
which reduces sintering times and thereby prevents grain growth, which can
adversely affect strength.

2.4. Materials testing
Testing of materials intended to know. The mechanical properties of the
material or defects in the materials or products, so that the material selection can
be done appropriately for such a purpose. How to test materials are divided into
two groups, the destructive and non destructive test test. Testing with damage
done by destroying the test object by means of the imposition of the test objects to
emphasis is damage, from this test will be retrieved information on the strength
and mechanical properties of materials. Testing was carried out without damaging
the specific treatment given to test ingredients or finished products for the
presence of known defects such as cracks or cavities in the produk test objects.
Destructive testing with destructive test consists of:
1. Tensile Test
2. Compressed Test
3. Bending Test
4. Impact Test
5. Torsion Test
6. Fatique Test
7. Hardness Test
Non destruktive test:
1. Dye Penetrant Test
2. Electro Magnetic Test
3. Ultrasonic Test
4. Sinar Rongent

2.4.1 Hardness Test
Hardness testing process can be defined as the ability of a material to the
imposition in the changes anyway. In other words, when a particular style was
given a test object that gets the influence of loading, the test object will experience
deformation. With this testing can be analysing how big the hardness of the
material through the magnitude of the load is given to the vast fields that accept
the imposition.

2.4.1.1 Basics Of Testing Hardness
Hardness testing of metallic materials aims at knowing the metal
hardness number. In other words, this violence is not testing to see if the material
was hard or not, it's to figure out how big the hardness of the metal. metal
hardness based on the standard. Therefore, any violence testing procedures are
regulated and recognised by the industry standard in the world as a standard unit.
It's raw unit agreed upon through three testing methods of violence, namely the
emphasis, scratches, and dynamic.
Testing the hardness by means of emphasis is widely used by industrial
machinery. This is because the process is very easy and quick to obtain the metal
hardness numbers when compared to other testing methods. Testing of hardness in
this way consists of three types, namely the testing of violence with the method
Brinell, Vickers, Rockwell, microhardness and ultrasonic. The fifth such testing
methods has its advantages and drawbacks of each, as well as the difference in
determining the figure of violence. The method Brinell and Vickers for example,
have the same basic principle in determining the figure of violence, that operates
in the calculation of the strength of the material against any power a broad cross-
section of fields that accept the imposition. While the Rockwell method focuses
on the measurement of depth results of emphasis or suppressor indentor file that
forms the indented on the test object.
Differences in how this testing resulted in the value of his unit are also
different. Therefore, each unit has a test each in accordance with the process of
penekannya, which got the recognition of international standards. The difference
that the unit shown in Figure form of writing when the test results. The following
is a detailed description about each of the testing methods.




Table 2.4 Comparison of indentation hardness test
mechanical testing and evaluation, Volu8)

5






2.4.1.2 Test Method Of Rockwell
Rockwell hardness testing methods are arranged according to the
standard DIN 50103. As for Rockwell hardness standard test method is shown in
the following table:
Table 2.5 Rockwell standard hardness
[ASM International committee, 2000, mechanical testing and
evaluation, Volume 8, 5]
.



Hardness level according to the Rockwell method can be classified
according to the type of the indentor is used on each scale. In this method there
are two kinds of Rockwell indentor whose size varies, as follows:
1. Diamond cone with angle of 120 degrees and is referred to as Rockwell
Cone.
2. The steel balls in various sizes and are known as Rockwell Ball.

Figure 2.15 Rockwell Hardness test machines.

2.4.1.3 Rockwell hardness testing
This Rockwell testing based on the emphasis of an identer with a style
press against the surface of a metal that was tested. The calculation result can
press on style from the depths of the former identer. This is the difference method
of Rockwell hardness testing methods compared to others.
Rockwell test commonly used there are three types: HRA, HRB, HRC,
and. HR itself is an abbreviation for Rockwell hardness or Rockwell Hardness
Number and sometimes abbreviated with the letter R.

2.4.2 Test Metalography
Metal Sciences is divided into two parts, namely special metallurgy and
metalografi. Metallurgy is the science that describes how the separation of metals
from the bonds of other elements. Metallurgy can be said also as the metal
processing way technically to get the type of metal or metal alloy that meets a
specific need. While metalografi is the study of how a metal examination to find
out the nature, structure, temperature, and the percentage of such metal mixture.
In the process of testing metalografi testing, the metal is divided into two
types, namely:
1. Macroscope Test
Testing the macro is the process of testing the materials using an eye open
with the aim of can check for cracks and holes in the surface of the
material. Number kevalidan YG macro tests ranged from 0.5 to 50 times.
2. Microscope Test
Micro-testing is the process of testing of metals that form metallic crystals
is very smooth. So the front-so when the test require a magnifying glass
lens microscopes have a quality magnification between 50 to 3000 times.


2.4.2.1 Metalografi Test Steps
Following is measures to testing metallographic :
1. Cutting
Specimen cutting enough in dimensions that are not too large (< 10 10
10) mm and must not be excessive heat in the process of cutting to avoid
damage to the structure of the specimen due to heat.
2. Mounting
The workpiece is held in a small, difficult process of polishing and
penggerindaan, it needs to be overlaid in advance. Mounting materials
used are thermoplastic such as resin, which melts at a temperature of
150C. Here are the materials that are used in the process of mounting are:
Table 2.6 Mounting materials

3. Polishing
The test objects that have already gone through the grinding process,
continue to the process of polishing. The machine used is metalografi
polishing machines. This machine consists of a rotating disk with a selvyt
fabric. How to test polishing, objects placed on top of the rotating disc, and
given a little polishing paste brush. Paste brush commonly used is alumina
(Al2O3). In terms of trade named autosol or gamma alumina. When
former pengampelasan lines are still visible, polishing continues. If it looks
good, then the specimen has been cleaned up and continued with the
etching.
4. Etching
The final polishing results will generate a layer that covers the surface of
the metal structure. Micro structure can be seen clearly under the
microscope by eliminating the layers by means of etching.

Etch in dictionaries, defined as the process of making the image or the
size of the plates of brass, silver-plated candles with sharp objects and then let the
stripes obtained it's exposed to the corrosion liquid acid. The results of that
process is the etching, (i.e. in the form of pictures or carvings). Here is an
explanation of some of the etching solution for macro and micro test commonly
used in metalografi.


a) As for the solution of materials on macro-etching is as follows:
(1) Hydrochloric acid, which has a composition of 50% in water with a
temperature between 70 C-80 C and the time it takes 1 hour, as
well as materials used for steel and iron.
(2) Sulphuric, which has the composition of 20% sulphuric acid in water
with a temperature of 80 c and the time it takes between 10 to 20
seconds, and used for iron and steel materials.
(3) Nitric, which has the composition of 20% nitric acid in water and can
be cold in the circumstances if the suitable, as well as used for iron
and steel materials.
(4) Alcoholic ferric chloride, which has a composition of 96 cm
3
ethyl
alcohol, 50 grams of ferric chloride, hydrochloric acid and 2 cm
3
.
(5) Etching Material, which has a composition of copper ammonium
chloride 9 g and 91 ml water specimens for steel. Etching time is
longer than the micro-etching structure.
(6) A steel etch in order to get the results of the etching in bold and
lapisannya, a good etching material used, namely acil hydrochloric
(HCl) 140 ml, sulphuric acid (H2SO4) 3 ml of water and 50 ml with
etching time is between 15 to 30 minutes.
(7) Specimen or aluminium etching material is hydrofloride acid (HF) 10
ml, nitrid acid (HNO3) and 1 ml water 200 ml. Etching very short
Time and therefore, if there is a thick black layer can be removed by
soaking in nitric acid (HNO3). Pengetsaan time it more than l etching
for micro structure.
b) the materials on micro-etching solution is as follows:
(1) Nitric acid, which has a composition of 2 ml of nitric acid and alcohol
95% or 98 ml. of life for carbon, low alloy steel, and steel alloys are.
The time it takes a few seconds to 1 minute.
(2) Pikrat Acid, which has a composition of 4 grams of acid pikrat,
alcohol 95% or 98 ml. of life for carbon steel under normal
circumstances, the softened amber being, be hardened (hardening) and
ditemper (tempering). Time pengetsannya a few seconds up to 1
minute.
(3) NH4OH.H2O2, which has the composition of NH4OH as a basis and
a few drops of H2O2. Its use for copper and its alloys materials with a
time of etching to the test material is blue.
(4) Ingredients 2% nital is etching, i.e. 2 ml of nitric acid (HNO3) and
100 ml of methyl alcohol in 10 to 30 seconds.
(5) Materials using etching acid that consists of 10% ammonium sulfate
ferri, 2.5% acrocide ammonium NH4 (OH), and 65% chrome acid
solution within 10 to 30 seconds, which is used for copper and its
alloy.
c) Etching process
After the test materials through several stages, then the test object can be
directly etched. Etching done by placing the acid will be used in a cup then
dip the surface of the acid test on objects according to the appointed time.
After that, the objects are washed with warm water or alcohol to stop the
reaction and drying with air from the engine compressor.
d) Effect of etching
Etching chemical solution greatly influences the shape of the surface of the
test object. In other words, whether or not the results of etching can be
affected by chemical solution used to etch. After etched test materials,
over the entire surface of the test object will appear the lines which are not
regular. The lines appear to indicate the boundary between Crystal grain of
the metal.
To clarify the form and details of the different crystal types, it can be
observed in the microscope. With the microscope, we can show the
existence of a difference some of the elements contained in the test
material. Even so, not all the etching process to produce results
satisfactory etching. In other words, in a process of etching sometimes we
did not manage to etch the objects tested. The following are all factors the
causes of failure in the etch:
(1) The workpiece is too dirty because it is too soft or oily.
(2) The workpiece is not clean at the time.
(3) Etching to lack of time.
(4) Too much time is used in pengetsaan. Select and use the wrong fluid
etching (etching reagent).

5. The Microscope
Basically, the microscope is composed of two pieces of the positive lens,
lenses that receive direct rays of belongings or lens close to the object you want to
view, which is called the objective lens, and the lens of the eye called the lens
oculer.
Total magnification microscope is defined by the comparison between
the tangent angle open end baying with corner is open without the use of tools.
The magnification of a microscope is usually ranges 50, 100, 200, 500, and 1000
times larger than the test objects.

Figure 2.16 Metallurgical Microscope

2.4.3 Impact Testing
Charpy impact test is used to find kegetasan or uletan to the specimen to
be tested by means of a sudden imposition of objects that will be tested in static.
Test objects created notch in advance in accordance with standard ASTM E23-
56T and test results of these objects will result in the occurrence of changes in the
form of a bendable system or faulting in accordance with tenacious or brittle to
the test object.
In General, as the analysis of fracturing on impact test results objects are
classified into 3 types:
1. fibrous fracture mechanism which involves shifting fields of Crystal in
ductile metal materials. Characterised by a fibrous surface faulting shaped
dimples that absorbs light and look opaque.
2. crystalline or granular fault, generated by the mechanism of cleavage on a
grain of metal materials are fragile. Characterized by a flat surface faulting
which is capable of delivering high power light, reflective (shiny).
3. mixed fault (granular and fibrous). It is a combination of the above two
types of faults.

2.4.3.1 Impact test machine
Impact test machine is a machine test to find out the price of an impact
load caused by force Tasers on the test material. the type and form of construction
machinery variegated bentur test, i.e. ranging from conventional types up to a
more advanced digital systems.
In the static loading can also occur if a high rate of deformation of the
material are given a notch. The sharp notch, then it will be even greater
deformations that open their hearts on the notch, which allows an increase in the
rate of strain several times.
Break brittle into important problems on steel and iron. Charpy impact
testing many is used to determine the quality of the ingredients. The notch test
object which has a V-shaped State of the notch 2 mm is widely used. Charpy
impact test machine can be shown in the figure below.

Figure 2.17 Impact test equipment


Figure 2.18 Dimensional details of Charpy test specimens V-notch specimen
(ASTM E 23 and ISO 148).

2.4.3.2 Basic Principles Of Impact Test Machine
If the sledge hammer weighing G and at the seat of the h1 is released, it
will swing to position end position 4 at the height h2 which is also almost the
same as the original height (h1), where the sledge hammer swing freely. On the
test machine is good, the scale will show the effort more than 0.05 kilograms
metres (kg m) at a time when the sledge hammer reaches the position 4.
When the test rod is mounted on its position and the sledge hammer is
released, then the sledge hammer will strike the rod test and then the sledge
hammer will swing to position 3 in the height h2. Work done in time the sledge
hammer hitting the test objects or business objects is absorbed until the test is
broken can be found via the following formula:
W
1
= G x h
1
(kg m) .............................................. 2.1
Or it can also be solved by using the following formula:
W
1
= G x (1- cos ) (kg m) ................................ 2.2
where:
W
1
= Energy (kg m)
G = Pendulum mass (kg)
h
1
= Lifting angle of hammer ()
= Length from the axis to the center of percussion (m)
cos = Angle
While the rest of the effort after the break test objects can be found via the
following formula:
W
2
= G x h
2
(kg m) .............................................. 2.3
So the equation can be obtained as follows:
W
2
= G x (1- cos ) (kg m) ................................ 2.4
So the equation can be obtained as follows:
where :
W
2
= Energy (kg m)
G = sledge hammer mass (kg)
h
2
= Falling angle ()
= length from the axis to the center of percussion (m)
cos = Angle
The magnitude of the effort it takes to hit that broke the test object can be found
via the following formula:
W = W
1
- W
2
(kg m) ................................................ 2.5
So the equation obtained from the formula above is as follows:
W = G x (cos - cos ) (kg m).......................... 2.6
And the magnitude of the price impact can be known from the following formula:
K = W / A
o
(kg m/mm
2
) ....................................... 2.7
where :
K = fracture touhgness (kg m/mm
2
)
W = the energy value (kg m)
A
o
= crack size (mm
2
)

Figure 2.19 basic principles of Impact test machine
where :
G = sledge hammer mass
h
1
= Lifting angle of hammer
h
2
and h
3
= Falling angle
= length from the axis to the center of percussion
= Angle
= Angle

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