Recycling Waste Water

A.
Source
1. Recycling water from effluent

Water recycled from a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) or sewage treatment plant (STP)
can be a significant resource. The recycled water is treated to standards required for its
various uses (i.e. made fit-for-purpose). Recycled water can be used for:
irrigation schemes (urban and rural),
industry,
residential non drinking purposes,
drinking,
the environment (through processes such as contributing to river flows and pumping into
aquifers - aquifer recharge).

This section details lists various schemes and developments across Australia and world that
recycle water from sewage effluent for various enduses.
(http://www.recycledwater.com.au/index.php?id=34)
2. Greywater for reuse

This section of the recycled water website provides information on greywater use both in
Australia and internationally.

Please note that:
In this website we refer to greywater as wastewater from the hand basin, shower, bath, spa
bath, washing machine, laundry tub, kitchen sink and dishwasher.
Water from the kitchen is generally too high in grease and oil to be reused successfully
without significant treatment.
Greywater can also be referred to as graywater, gray water or grey water.

Use of greywater for watering household gardens is seen as an increasingly important issue
in todays climate. Permanent water shortages mean that households have to consider
issues of water availability and the water demands of their gardens. Using greywater is
intended to be a sustainable solution to the water requirements of gardens.

We also recommend another website that we have developed with the Savewater!alliance
see www.greysmart.com.au.

The GreySmart website has detailed of information on greywater from around Australia and
includes:
Assessment of household cleaning and personal care product for use in your house if you
will be using the greywater on your garden. i.e. will your greywater be garden friendly or
GreySmart?
A calculator to assess what works best for your household when considering the use of
greywater and rainwater around the house.
3. Stormwater harvesting

This page is under construction. Please contact us if you have details of a resource that you
would like to see included here.
Australian Resources
Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling: Managing Health and Environmental Risks
(Phase 2): Stormwater Harvesting and Reuse
National Urban Water and Desalination Plan which includes an expanded stormwater water
harvesting program
Previous initiative - Urban Stormwater Initiative.
National Water Quality Management Strategy - Australian Guidelines for Urban Stormwater
Management
NSW Office of Environment and Heritage - Managing urban stormwater:harvesting and
reuse
Stormwater.org.au - a website and educational resource funded by the Australian
Government's Caring for our country
4. Seawater desalination

Increasingly Australian cities are using seawater desalination for their potable water
supplies.
Australian cities using desalinated seawater

Perth led the way with Perth Seawater Desalination Plant, located at Kwinana and now has
another plant being built, the Southern Seawater Desalination Plant (SSDP), in the Shire of
Harvey. The water supplied from these sites will be the next major water source for WA. For
further information on these sites, visit the Water Corporation website.

The Gold Coast desalination project has been built at Tugun, Queensland. For more
information visit the Water Secure website

Adelaide will soon have desalinated seawater integrated into its urban potable supply. The
SA Government website, Water for Good has information on the development of the
desalination plant in the state. SA Water also has comprehensive information on the project
development, media liaison and community consultation related to the implementation of the
plant.

Sydney had desalinated seawater integrated into its urban potable supply in 2010. Sydney
Water has further information on the development of a desalination plant at Kurnell, in the
city's south. The plant will be powered by 100% renewable energy.

Melbourne will also soon integrate desalinated seawater into its potable supply. The plant at
Wonthaggi in the south east Victoria region will supply up to 150 billion litres of water a year
to Melbourne, Geelong and, via other connections, South Gippsland and Western Port
towns. See the Victorian Government's Department of Sustainability and Environment
website for further information.
Techniques for desalinating seawater

In each of these cases, reverse osmosis is the selected process for the desalting of
seawater (Sea Water Reverse Osmosis, SWRO).

There are also a large number of smaller seawater desalination plants across Australia.

Seawater desalination offers many benefits over traditional water resources as it is not
dependent on rainfall. However it comes at a high capital and high operating cost, and
requires significant energy resources. There are also environmental management concerns
about the disposal of the waste (brine) stream and potential impacts of this on local
ecosystems.

The introduction of seawater desalination plants is changing the landscape for water
resources in Australia. The cost of water is increasing due to the investment in
infrastructure, and this opens the opportunity for previously unfinancial recycling options to
now compete in the water market.

A key challenge for the water industry is to determine how this emerging water resource
(desalination) will find its place along side more traditional water sources, and recycled
water. It is no magic bullet solution, but has some benefits.

B. Enduses of recycled waste water
1. Irritation
Some of the primary uses for recycled water in Australia are irrigated horticulture, pastures and
tree plantations as well as a variety of other agricultural uses. Without the use of recycled water
many of Australia's urban and rural irrigation schemes would not be sustainable. Refer to the
state links in this section for more information on specific irrigation schemes using recycled
water.
1.1 Recycled Water Irrigation Schemes in NSW
Sydney Metro
The amount of recycled water used in greater Sydney varies, depending on the weather and
other factors. Sydney Water supplies about 3.8 billion litres of recycled water a year for irrigating
farms, golf courses, sportsgrounds, parks and a racecourse. For more information on current
recycled water irrigation schemes and their 2008-2009 recycled water usage see Sydney
Water's Water4Life website which has details of various recycled water schemes including
information on irrigated agriculture and amentiy horticulture.
Sydney Olympic Park Water Reclamation and Management Scheme (WRAMS) has a locally-
integrated approach to water conservation based on stormwater harvesting, wastewater
reprocessing and reducing water demand.
1.2 Recycled Water Irrigation Schemes in Victoria
Melbourne Metropolitan
Eastern Irrigation Scheme is a joint project between Water Infrastructure Groups and Melbourne
Water this website provides information on the scope of this Class A recycled water scheme.
Werribee Irrigation District Class A recycled water for fresh vegetable crops
Regional Victoria
Wannon Water water reuse for irrigation schemes
Barwon Water has information on its recycled water schemes and related activities
Goulburn Murray Water Campaspe Basin recycled water irrigation scheme
State Forestry
Department of Primary Industries listing of irrigated forest plantations with water recycled from
wastewater
1.3 Recycled Water Irrigation Schemes in Queensland
Wide Bay Water Corporation Hervey Bay effluent reuse for irrigation and other agricultural uses
1.4 Recycled Water Irrigation Schemes in SA
Virginia Irrigation Scheme
Virginia Irrigation Scheme was the first and largest recycled water scheme of its type in
Australia and remains one of the largest in the Southern hemisphere. The Virginia scheme was
established in 1999 and distributes about 15 GL per year of highly treated reclaimed water to
irrigators in the Virginia area north of Adelaide. This water is produced by a dissolved air
flotation / filtration (DAFF) plant fed by treated effluent from the Bolivar Wastewater Treatment
Plant. An extension of this scheme has been constructed including a small booster pumping
station and more than 20 kilometres of pipelines of various sizes. The project has increased the
reuse from Bolivar wastewater treatment plant from about 29% to 35%.
Virgina Angle Vale Reuse extension of the Virginia Irrigation Scheme
Factsheet from SA Water (pdf)
Willunga Basin
Willunga Basin Water Company- recycled water irrigation scheme
McLaren Vale Water Plan planned extension of the Willunga Basin recycled water scheme
1.5 Recycled Water Irrigation Scheme in Tas
Southern Water in Tasmania report on the Clarence Recycled Water Scheme. Since the
scheme commenced operation in October 2006, over 3,600ML of recycled water has been
supplied to irrigators in the Coal Valley region.
1.6 Recycled Water Irrigation Schemes in ACT
The North Canberra Water Reuse Scheme (NCWRS) scheme began as a pilot in 1972 and
was commissioned on a large scale in 2004. It now delivers water for irrigation to seven sites
totalling 70 hectares across North Canberra.
In the Southwell Park Watermining Project a small treatment plant supplies treated effluent for
irrigation of 10 hectares of sporting fields. This process is known as Watermining
A proportion of the wastewater treated at Lower Molonglo Water Quaity Control Centre
(LMWQCC) is supplied to nearby vineyards (100 hectares) and a golf course (30 hectares) for
irrigation.

2. Industry
There is significant growth in the onsite reuse of industrial wastewaters, as well as in the use of
recycled water in industrial processes where potable (drinking) quality water is not necessary.
The following links are examples and case studies of effluent reuse for industry and onsite
reuse.
Major Industry Projects in Australia using Recycled Water

There are a number of projects by Hunter Water in NSW including:
Dora Creek WWTW were offsite reuse of all effluent at Eraring Power Station is used for boiler
make-up water, cooling systems, cleaning and hosing down (following further treatment at the
power station site by micro-filtration and reverse osmosis).
Edgeworth WWTW NSW - Offsite effluent reuse at Oceanic Coal (Teralba Colliery) for coal
washing and dust suppression, plus irrigation of nearby mine sites, fire fighting hosing down.
Onsite effluent reuse for hosing down, screenings washing, grit washing, gravity drainage decks
and polymer make-up is used at Kurri Kurri , Morpeth , Raymond Terrace and Shortland
WWTW, NSW. Onsite effluent reuse for gravity drainage decks and belt filter presses is used at
Boulder Bay and Toronto WWTW .

The Western Corridor Project in Queensland incorporates the Bundamba Advanced Water
Treatment Plant, to provide purified recycled water for industrial applications, power stations as
well as agriculture.
Other industrial enduses and applications

Information on recycling in concrete manufacturing plants can be found at Recycled Water in
concrete production

A power stations where recycled water is used is Linden Combined Cycle Plant in New Jersey
where recycled wastewater is used for cooling towers and other power station needs
Publications and further reading

VU, and CSIRO. 2008. Guidance for the use of recycled water by industry. Institute for
Sustainability and Innovation, Victoria University. CSIRO Land and Water - For the Smart Water
Fund. This document aims to provide information on the key issues confronting the industrial
water user in respect to the use of recycled water on a site. The information is both technical
(corrosion processes, health issues etc.) and nontechnical (public perceptions, product
acceptance etc.).

Asano, T., F. L. Burton, H.L. Laeverenz, R. Tsuchihashi, and G. Tchobanoglous. 2007. Water
Reuse. Issues, Technologies and Applications. Metcalf and Eddy. New York, USA: McGraw Hill.
Chapter 19 Industrial Uses of Reclaimed Water. p. 1103
3. Households
Recycled Water for Households - Residential, third or dual pipe recycled water schemes

There are numerous 'dual pipe' recycled water supplies to new residential areas, particularly in
Australia's major cities.

This water, aside from irrigation for gardens, can be used for numerous non-potable purposes,
including:
Toilet Flushing
Washing machine / laundry

This recycled water generally cannot be used for:
Drinking
Swimming pools
Shower / bath

Please check with your supplier of recycled water and the appropriate guidelines

More information on dual pipe schemes see our section on Residential Recycled Water
Schemes.

For information on greywater we recommend another website that was developed as a
collaboration between Atura and the Savewater!alliance. See www.greysmart.com.au.

The GreySmart website has a lot of information on greywater from around Australia and
includes:
Assessment of household cleaning and personal care products for use in the home when using
greywater on your garden. i.e. will your greywater be garden friendly (GreySmart)? A reference
document for the risk assessment methodology used to develop GreySmart can be found here
A calculator to assess what works best for your household when considering the use of
greywater and rainwater around the house. Reference document for H2OmeCalc can be found
here
4. Environmental allocation

Significant volumes of recycled water are used for environmental allocation. This means that
they are returned to the environment as a means of contributing back to the water cycle some of
what has been taken out elsewhere.

Environmental allocation of recycled water is usually in the form of:
Managed Aquifer Recharge;
Surface water flows, such as by returning to rivers downstream of potable supplies; and
Constructed Wetlands;

View these pages for further information on these topics and to see some case studies of where
and how this occurs.
5. Drinking recycled water
5.1 Definitions

The reclamation of water from wastewater for drinking (potable) can be referred to as either
direct or indirect potable reuse. While there may be some debate regarding the distinction
between direct and indirect reuse, possible definitions for each approach are given below.
These definitions have been summarised from the Australian Government Department of
Health and Aged Care
Indirect Potable Reuse (Planned)

Indirect Potable Reuse can be defined as the reclamation and treatment of water from
wastewater (usually sewage effluent) and the eventual returning of it into the current/natural
water cycle well upstream of the drinking water treatment plant. Planned reuse indicates that
there is an intent to reuse the water for potable use. The point of return could either be into a
major water supply reservoir, a stream feeding a reservoir, or into a water supply aquifer
(Managed Aquifer Recharge or MAR) where natural processes of filtration, and dilution of
the water with natural flows aim to reduce any real or perceived risks associated with
eventual potable reuse.

The practical distinction with potable reuse relates to temporal and spatial separation
between wastewater treatment, the environment and consumption. Existing planned indirect
reuse schemes (e.g. Water Factory 21 in Los Angeles, California) generally incorporate
extensive separation to minimise health concerns and public opposition
Indirect Potable Reuse (Unplanned)

Unplanned (or Incidental) indirect potable reuse can be defined as wastewater entering the
natural water system (creeks, rivers, lakes, aquifers), which is eventually extracted from the
natural system for drinking water; with generally no awareness that the natural system
contains treated wastewater.
Direct Potable Reuse

Direct Potable Reuse can be defined as either the injection of recycled water directly into the
potable water supply distribution system downstream of the water treatment plant, or into
the raw water supply immediately upstream of the water treatment plant. Injection could
either be into a service reservoir or directly into a water pipeline. Therefore, the water used
by consumers could be either undiluted, or slightly diluted recycled ater. In this definition,
the key distinction with indirect potable reuse is that there is no temporal or spatial
separation between the recycled water introduction and its distribution to consumers. Public
perception of what extent of separation is required for reuse to become indirect may dictate
the definition ultimately adopted
5.2 Frequently Asked Questions
Is there planned indirect or direct potable reuse in Australia?

It is now also possible for advanced treatment technology to produce safe drinking (potable)
water. In several countries wastewater is recycled for potable reuse via groundwater
injection (e.g. Factory 21, Orange County, California, USA which came online in June 2008
or where it is added directly to surface reservoirs (e.g. NeWater, Singapore). Such planned
indirect or direct potable reuse is not currently practiced in Australia, although it is being
considered by some councils with severe water shortages.
Why use recycled water as a potable source?

Potable reuse has the capacity to readily utilise all the wastewater generated; water demand
will always be greater than the wastewater supply because the wastewater flow to the
treatment facility is a subset of the total potable water used in the house and garden..
What are the key potential health risks?

If water is recycled from sewage treatment plant effluent, it could contain a large range of
gastrointestinal pathogens including viruses, bacteria, protozoa and helminths. If treated to
be fit for drinking none of these pathogens will compromise human health. However, the
treatment process must ensure adequate removal (see National Water Commission drinking
water standards) as a number of gastrointestinal pathogens are capable of causing severe
illness or death. It is worth also noting that, many people who are exposed will not develop
any symptoms, and the majority of persons who are affected are likely to suffer only short-
term, mild to moderate gastroenteritis without long-term health effects.
Common grouping for pathogens discussed are:

Viruses - over one hundred and forty types of human enteric viruses are known to exist, and
these are classified based on morphological, physico-chemical, genetic and antigenic
properties.

Bacteria - a wide range of pathogenic bacteria capable of causing human illness are found
in human sewage.

Protozoa - sewage contains a range of pathogenic protozoa. Cryptosporidium and Giardia
are likely to be the most prevalent species of pathogenic protozoa found in sewage in
Australia.

Helminths - these are parasitic worms which are endemic in many areas of the developing
world but are relatively rare in developed nations. There are two major divisions of
helminths, the roundworms and the flatworms (including tapeworms).
Further Information and resources
Australia

National Water Commission Waterlines Report No 2 on Using recycled water for drinking

CSIRO Report To drink or not to drink? Predicting community behaviour in relation to
wastewater reuse. This report outlines the results of a three-year investigation which aimed
to develop a measurement of prediction of community behaviour in relation to the reuse of
different wastewaters for different uses.

Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing - Review of Health Issues
Associated with Potable Reuse of Wastewater - Final Report

Hastings Council, NSW- brochure on Indirect Potable Reuse (pdf)
International

National Academies Press Online books - Issues in Potable Reuse The Viability of
Augmenting Drinking Water Supplies With Reclaimed Water - Committee to Evaluate the
Viability of Augmenting Potable Water Supplies With Reclaimed Water by the Water Science
and Technology Board and Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources,
National Research Council 1998

CIWEM Information Resources on Direct and Indirect potable reuse

EUREAU is the European federation of national associations of drinking water suppliers and
waste water services.

Dioxins, Furans and PCBs in Recycled Water for Indirect Potable Reuse Research article
in International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 2008
5.3 International Schemes for Drinking Recycled Water
United States

Groundwater Replenishment System - California - Orange County
Singapore

NeWater. PUB Singapore's national water agency

C. Benefits and risks

1. ECONOMIC BENEFITS AND RISKS
1.1 Economic Benefits
Treated wastewater can:
Serve as a more dependable water source. The quantity and quality of available water
may
be more consistent compared to surface water, as municipal treated wastewater volumes
are less affected by droughts than surface and groundwater bodies. This can lead to
reduced production costs, sustained agricultural and industrial production and associated
employment (e.g. Costa Brava, Gerringong and Kwinana).
Enhance urban, rural and coastal landscapes, thereby increasing employment and local
economy through tourism (e.g. Barcelona, Costa Brava, Sainte Maxime, Sperone,
Honouliuli, and Gerringong).
Be substituted for freshwater or potable water to meet specific needs and purposes (such
as irrigation, toilet flushing, cooling and process water etc.), thereby contributing to more
sustainable resource utilization and sound demand management.
Contain useful materials, such as organic carbon and nutrients like nitrogen and
phosphorous. The use of nutrient-rich treated wastewater for agriculture and landscaping
may lead to a reduction or elimination of fertilizer application or increased productivity
(e.g. Costa Brava, Gerringong and Berlin).
Reduce overall water consumption and treatment needs, with associated cost savings. In
many applications, treated wastewater reuse is less costly than using freshwater, pumping
deep groundwater, importing water, building dams or seawater desalination. (e.g. IWVA
Toreelle and Orange County).
Reduce the investment in new water headworks for water abstraction and treatment,
distribution networks and new sewerage investment by substituting treated wastewater for
non potable applications and thereby increasing the availability of potable water (e.g.
Eraring, Durban & Honouliuli). Meeting a growing demand for water resources
(especially in urban areas) may require the development of additional large-scale water
resources and associated infrastructure. By meeting some of this demand through treated
wastewater reuse and efficiency improvement, additional infrastructure requirements and
the resulting financial and environmental impacts can be reduced or, in some cases,
eliminated altogether.
1.2 Economic risk
The main economic risks are:
The economic impact of public health epidemics or environmental pollution resulting
from unsafe treated wastewater reuse practice due to lack of guidelines and guideline
application, or access to good practice know how.
Weak economic justification when water prices do not cover the true cost.
The local market demand for treated wastewater is not clearly defined and agreed
Good opportunities are lost through simplistic economic analysis that does not consider
whole life cost or economic externalities.
High distribution and storage costs due to the distance between supply and demand
locations.
Negative branding of treated wastewater reuse by the general public.
2. SOCIAL AND HEALTH BENEFITS AND RISKS
2.1 Social and Health benefits
The social benefits of treated wastewater reuse include the following:
The use of common treated wastewater reuse guidelines that include an appropriate risk
management approach and good practice know how helps to protect public health for all
applications and especially for fruit and vegetable production to ensure food safety in the
local, EU, Mediterranean and export markets.
Helping to achieve Millennium Development Goals (MDG) through increased water
availability and poverty reduction (e.g. Durban) through the use of appropriate technology
solutions.
Contributes to food security, better nutrition and sustains agricultural employment for
many households.
Be a cohesion tool that encourages the drinking water, wastewater and environment
agencies and other stakeholders to work closely together using an integrated approach,
thereby helping all to recognise the benefits and risks of treated wastewater reuse and
encourage good practice that benefit the community (e.g. Costa Brava).
Increased quality of life , well being and health through attractive irrigated landscapes in
parks and sports facilities in rich and poor communities (e.g. Empuriabrava and Costa
Brava) and improvement of urban environment (e.g. urban parks and fountains).
2.2 Social and health risks
These include:
Threat to public health, especially if illegal and unhealthy wastewater reuse practice
expands rapidly due to water scarcity, over stringent regulation or the lack of appropriate
treated wastewater reuse guidelines and good practice know-how.
Social tensions in case of non-acceptance: a common percept
treatment is needed to dispose of waste rather than a communitys responsibility to protect
public health, the environment and increase water availability needed for economic
growth.
3. ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS AND RISKS
3.1 Environmental benefits
Treated wastewater reuse allows for the conservation and rational allocation of freshwater
resources, particularly in areas under water stress.
Reuse increases the total available water supply and reduces the need to develop new
water resources and therefore provides an adaptation solution to climate change or
population density induced water scarcity by increasing water availability (e.g. Osaka,
Durban).
The use of treated wastewater reduces the amount of discharges and therefore the level
of nutrients or other pollutants entering waterways and sensitive marine environments (e.g.
Pornic, Gerringong).
Provides a mitigation solution to climate change through the reduction in green house gas
by using less energy for wastewater management rather than importing water, pumping
deep groundwater, seawater desalination or exporting wastewater (e.g. Toreele, Orange
County).
The use of treated wastewater in the manufacturing industry reduces fresh water demand,
recovers heat and reduces industrial wastewater production with a drought proof water
source compared with surface water or groundwater (e.g. West Basin, Kwinana).
The beneficial reuse of water of an agreed quality forces the wastewater treatment to be
operated efficiently in order to satisfy the consumer. A decline in treated water quality
from the wastewater treatment plant will often stop the reuse application from operating,
whereas a poor quality discharge to surface water will probably not be noticed. This will
ultimately lead to additional environmental benefit by way of more stringent compliance
to Art 4 of the UWWTD 91/271/EEC.
Reduces the need for chemical fertilizers.
Reuse increases the quantity of solid waste from treatment plants, which with efficient
quality control, can be valuable products such as soil conditioners, biofuel or nutrients for
biogas heat and energy production. These can improve soil condition and agricultural
productivity; reduce green house gas production and energy demand.
Treated wastewater reuse can be used to enhance the environment through the
augmentation of natural/artificial streams, fountains, and ponds. The restoration of
streams, wetland, and ponds with treated wastewater has contributed to the revival of
aquatic life, and created urban spaces and scenery (e.g. Costa Brava, Empuriabrava and
Meguro River). The recovery of water channels has great significance for creating
ecological corridors in urban areas and green belts to control soil erosion by wind in arid
regions.
Treated wastewater can be used to recharge aquifers. Compared to conventional surface
water storage, aquifer recharge has many advantages, such as negligible evaporation, little
secondary contamination by animals, and no algal blooming. It is also less costly because
pipeline construction is not required and is a fraction of the cost of surface storage.
Furthermore, it can protect groundwater from saltwater intrusion by barrier formation in
coastal regions, and controls or prevents land subsidence.
3.2 Environmental risks
Hazardous or toxic waste and salts from industry and salt leaching processes in
agriculture
can reduce the quality of the wastewater and risk public health and creates negative effects
on the environment. They need to be prevented by wastewater source protection and
efficient regulation.
Treated wastewater is also essential to maintain the surface water potential and indirectly,
through percolation from surface water bodies, the capacity of groundwater bodies.
Recharge may well be a higher priority and therefore restrict the treated wastewater
available for irrigation or other applications.
The impact and risk of concentrated wastes produced by wastewater treatment, such as
brackish reverse osmosis concentrate and sludges, need to carefully managed.
Reused treated wastewater may constitute an additional pressure onto the aquatic
environment. Emerging pollutants such as pharmaceuticals and endocrine disruptors may
affect the ecological or human health (which needs to be considered in the assessments
foreseen by Water Framework Directive).
(MEDITERRANEAN WASTEWATER REUSE WORKING GROUP (MED WWR WG), 2007,
Mediterranean Wastewater Reuse Report)

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