Contents

Introduction
Sedimentology concepts
Fluvial environments
Deltaic environments
Coastal environments
Offshore marine environments
Sea-level change
Sequence stratigraphy
concepts
Marine sequence stratigraphy
Nonmarine sequence
stratigraphy
Basin and reservoir modeling
Reflection
Sequence stratigraphy concepts
Sequence stratigraphy highlights the role of allogenic controls
on patterns of deposition, as opposed to autogenic controls that
operate within depositional environments
Eustasy (sea level)
Subsidence (basin tectonics)
Sediment supply (climate and hinterland tectonics)
Surface processes reflecting dynamic
interplay of sediment supply and wind
energy in eolian environments.
Sediment supply exceeding the
transport capacity (energy) of winds
results in the accumulation of sand as
sheets or dunes.
Winds stronger relative to their
sediment load lead to erosion and the
formation of deflation surfaces.
MARS ROVER
NAMIB DESERT
Arabian peninsula
Sequence stratigraphy concepts
Accommodation is the space available, at any given point in
time, for sediments to accumulate; accommodation is created or
destroyed by RSL changes
Water depth is controlled by changes in accommodation as well
as sedimentation
Base level is the horizontal surface to which subaerial erosion
proceeds; therefore it corresponds to sea level
Base level is a principal control of accommodation, and, hence,
whether erosion or deposition is likely to occur at any given
location; attempts to extend the concept landward are
controversial
Sequence stratigraphy concepts
Allostratigraphy is a relatively new approach to stratigraphic
subdivision, and is based on the separation of strata based on
unconformities or other discontinuities (e.g., paleosols)
Sequence stratigraphy is the analysis of genetically related
depositional units bounded by unconformities and their
correlative conformities
A depositional sequence is a stratigraphic unit bounded at its
top and base by unconformities or their correlative conformities
(=allostratigraphic unit), and typically embodies a continuum of
depositional environments, from updip (continental) to downdip
(deep marine)
The subtle balance between RSL and sediment supply controls
whether aggradation, regression (progradation), forced
regression, or transgression (retrogradation) will occur
Transition from marine to nonmarine environments. Large arrows:direction of shoreline
shift in the two river mouth environments (R regressive; T transgressive).
Between the river mouth environments, the coastline is an open shoreline. Note that the
character of the shoreline (transgressive vs. regressive) may change along strike due to
variations in subsidence rates and sediment supply.
Gilbert-type delta
front, prograding to
the left (Panther
Tongue, Utah). The
delta front
clinoforms downlap
the paleoseafloor
(arrows)
River-dominated delta showing prodelta fine-grained facies at the base, delta front
sands prograding to the left, and coal-bearing delta plain facies at the top (the Ferron
Sandstone, Utah). The prograding delta front clinoforms dip at an angle of 5-7,
and downlap the underlying prodelta deposits (arrows).
2D seismic transect showing progradation of a divergent continental margin. The shelf
edge position can easily be mapped for consecutive time slices
The prograding clinoforms downlap the seafloor (yellow arrows), but due to the rise of a
salt diapir (blue arrow) some downlap type of stratal terminations may be confused with
onlap (red arrows)
Log motifs of a low-energy fluvial system, showing both fining-upward
(channel fills CH) and coarsening-upward (crevasse splays CS)
trends.
Sequence stratigraphy concepts
Allostratigraphy is a relatively new approach to stratigraphic
subdivision, and is based on the separation of strata based on
unconformities or other discontinuities (e.g., paleosols)
Sequence stratigraphy is the analysis of genetically related
depositional units bounded by unconformities and their
correlative conformities
A depositional sequence is a stratigraphic unit bounded at its
top and base by unconformities or their correlative conformities
(=allostratigraphic unit), and typically embodies a continuum of
depositional environments, from updip (continental) to downdip
(deep marine)
The subtle balance between RSL and sediment supply controls
whether aggradation, regression (progradation), forced
regression, or transgression (retrogradation) will occur
Sequence stratigraphy concepts
Allostratigraphy is a relatively new approach to stratigraphic
subdivision, and is based on the separation of strata based on
unconformities or other discontinuities (e.g., paleosols)
Sequence stratigraphy is the analysis of genetically related
depositional units bounded by unconformities and their
correlative conformities
A depositional sequence is a stratigraphic unit bounded at its
top and base by unconformities or their correlative conformities
(=allostratigraphic unit), and typically embodies a continuum of
depositional environments, from updip (continental) to downdip
(deep marine)
The subtle balance between RSL and sediment supply controls
whether aggradation, regression (progradation), forced
regression, or transgression (retrogradation) will occur
Sequence stratigraphy concepts
A RSL fall on the order of tens of meters or more will lead to a
basinward shift of the shoreline and an associated basinward
shift of depositional environments; commonly (but not always)
this will be accompanied by subaerial exposure, erosion, and the
formation of a widespread unconformity known as a sequence
boundary
Sequence boundaries are the key stratigraphic surfaces (high-
order bounding surfaces) that separate successive sequences
and are characterized by subaerial exposure/erosion, a
basinward shift in facies, a downward shift in coastal onlap, and
onlap of overlying strata
Parasequences are lower order stratal units separated by
(marine) flooding surfaces; they are commonly autogenic and
not necessarily the result of smaller-scale RSL fluctuations
Superimposed patterns of shoreline shifts at different orders of cyclicity. third-order
reflects the true shift of the shoreline.
The higher orders of cyclicity reflect overall trends, at increasingly larger scales of
observation.
Notethat the second-order maximum regressive surface at the end of cycle C is
superimposed on the first-order maximum flooding surface (end of overall transgression I).
Sequence stratigraphy concepts
Systems tracts are contemporaneous, linked depositional
environments (or depositional systems); they are the building
blocks of sequences and different types of systems tracts
represent different limbs of a RSL curve
Falling-stage (forced regressive) systems tract (FSST)
Lowstand systems tract (LST)
Transgressive systems tract (TST)
Highstand systems tract (HST)
The various systems tracts are characterized by their position
within a sequence, by shallowing or deepening upward facies
successions, or by parasequence stacking patterns
Components of lowstand systems tract (LST)
A significant amount of finer-grained sediment starts to accumulate in the deep-water
environment as mudflow deposits.
Two sequence stratigraphic surfaces form during base-level fall:
(i) The subaerial unconformity, which gradually expands basinward as the shoreline
regresses; and
(ii) The regressive surface of marine erosion (RSME) cut by waves in the lower
shoreface.
Depositional
processes and
products of the
early falling stage
systems tract
Most of the sand
that accumulates
during this stage
is captured within
detached and
offlapping
shoreline to upper
shoreface
systems.
Late falling stage
systems tract. The
sediment mass
balance changes in
the favor of the
deep-sea submarine
fans, which capture
most of the sand.
The subaerial
unconformity keeps
forming and
expanding
basinward until the
end of base level fall
.Once the shoreline falls below the shelf edge, the regressive surface of marine erosion
stops forming as the sea floor gradient of the continental slope is steeper than what is
required by the shoreface profile to be in equilibrium with the wave energy.
Fluvial systems are likely to incise into the highstand prism but may only bypass the rest
of the subaerially exposed shelf, unless the base level falls below the elevation of the
shelf edge.
The turbidity currents of the deep basin are dominantly of high density type, due to the
massive amount of sediment supply, and hence they tend to be overloaded and
aggradational (sediment load > energy of the flow) along their entire course.
Amplitude extraction map along a seismic horizon, showing detached and
downstepping forced regressive shoreface deposits on the continental shelf.
The color code uses blue for sand and orange for shale.
Lowstand
systems tract: In
contrast to the
falling stage
systems tract
the sediment of
this stage of
early-rise normal
regression is
more evenly
distributed
between the
fluvial, coastal,
and deep-water
systems
Sand is present in amalgamated fluvial channel fills, beach and delta front
systems, as well as in submarine fans. The lowstand prism gradually
expands landward via fluvial aggradation and onlap.
Aggradation on the continental shelf in fluvial to shallow marine environments
reduces the amount of sediment supply to the deep basin, and hence the
turbidity currents of this stage are dominantly of low-density type.
Depositional elements
of a low-density
turbidite leveed-
channel system on a
basin
floor
Levees are better
developed along the
outer channel bends,
and their inner
margins are
characterized by the
presence of scoop-
shaped slump scars.
Transverse sections through the leveed channel
The 2D seismic lines indicate channel aggradation, as well as lateral migration with time.
Note that the sandy channel fill is characterized by higher amplitude
seismic reflections relative to the surrounding finer-grained facies of the overbank
environment. Levees are also built by finer-grained material relative to the channel fill.
The 2D seismic line shows the complex nature of the canyon fill, which
recorded multiple stages of aggradation and erosion related to the activity of
gravity flows.
The arrow in the upper image shows the current direction of gravity flows.
Modern
seafloor
seismic
imaging (Top))
and cross-
sectional view
(Bottom)
of the
Mississippi
canyon (Gulf of
Mexico)
Outcrop expression of lowstand fluvial systems
Shoreface
Amalgamated channel fill
Components of Transgressive systems tract (TST)
Early
transgressive
systems tract
Most of the
riverborn
sediment is
now trapped in
fluvial,
coastal and
shallow marine
systems
Wave ravinement processes erode the underlying normal regressive shelf-edge deltas
and open shoreline systems, continuing to supply sand for the deepwater
turbidity flows. These turbidity flows tend to be of low-density type, similar to lowstand
systems tract
Estuaries are diagnostic for transgression, but retrograding or even prograding
deltas may also form in river mouth settings during the transgression of the open
shoreline, primarily as a function of degree of channel incision and sediment supply
Types of coastlines
that may develop
during base-level
rise
Dictated by the
balance between
sedimentation rates
and the rates of
base level
rise
Aerial
photograph
showing a river-
dominated,
prograding delta
in an overall
transgressive
setting
Canadian
archipelago
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Late transgressive
systems tract
Most of the
terrigenous
sediment trapped
in fluvial,
estuarine, deltaic,
open shoreline,
and lower
shoreface deposits
Additional sand is incorporated within shelf macroforms (sheets, ridges, ribbons)
generated by storm surges and tidal currents.
Such shelf-sand deposits are generally associated with the transgressive systems tract,
as the best conditions to accumulate and the highest preservation potential
The river mouth settings may become estuaries or deltas, depending on the balance
between accommodation and sediment supply
Components of highstand systems tract (HST)
Highstand (late rise normal regression) systems tract. The deposits of this
stage overlie and downlap the maximum flooding surface. The bulk of the
highstand prism includes fluvial, coastal and shoreface deposits. The shelf
and deep marine environments receive mainly fine-grained hemipelagic and
pelagic sediments.
Aerial photograph of a Pleistocene highstand coastal prism Utah
The arrow points to localized fluvial incision, which is limited to the highstand
prism.
Sequence stratigraphy concepts
Systems tracts are contemporaneous, linked depositional
environments (or depositional systems); they are the building
blocks of sequences and different types of systems tracts
represent different limbs of a RSL curve
Falling-stage (forced regressive) systems tract (FSST)
Lowstand systems tract (LST)
Transgressive systems tract (TST)
Highstand systems tract (HST)
The various systems tracts are characterized by their position
within a sequence, by shallowing or deepening upward facies
successions, or by parasequence stacking patterns
Outcrop examples of stacked parasequences.
Parasequences are prograding, coarsening-upward successions bounded by
flooding surfaces.
Parasequence boundaries (i.e., flooding surfaces) mark events leading to abrupt
increases in water depth (arrows).
Fall
Dominant types of gravity flows (1) cohesive debris flows (mudflows);
(2) high-density turbidity currents and grainflows, forming proximal frontal
splays (3) lower-density turbidity currents, forming leveed channels and
distal frontal splays.
Sequence stratigraphy concepts
Maximum flooding surfaces form during the culmination of
RSL rise, and maximum landward translation of the shoreline,
and constitute the stratigraphic surface that separates the TST
and HST
In the downdip realm (deep sea), where sedimentation rates
can be very low during maximum flooding, condensed
sections may develop
LSTs are separated from overlying TSTs by transgressive
surfaces; transgression is further characterized by coastal
onlap
An alternative approach to sequence analysis uses genetic
stratigraphic sequences that are bounded by maximum
flooding surfaces
Incised meander belts formed during stages of base-level fall
A subsurface
example depicting a
time slice through a
3D seismic volume
B interpretation of the
features observed in
image A.
C modern example of
an incised meander
belt
Summary of criteria that may be used to differentiate between incised-valley
fills and unincised or distributary channel fills.
Synthetic gamma ray logs illustrating the stratigraphic context of (I) incised-
valley fills and (II) unincised channel fills
Incised-valley fills occupy an
anomalous position in the
stratigraphic context, being
genetically unrelated to the
juxtaposed facies
Unincised valley fills are
genetically related to the
juxtaposed and underlying
facies
Sequence stratigraphy concepts
Maximum flooding surfaces form during the culmination of
RSL rise, and maximum landward translation of the shoreline,
and constitute the stratigraphic surface that separates the TST
and HST
In the downdip realm (deep sea), where sedimentation rates
can be very low during maximum flooding, condensed
sections may develop
LSTs are separated from overlying TSTs by transgressive
surfaces; transgression is further characterized by coastal
onlap
An alternative approach to sequence analysis uses genetic
stratigraphic sequences that are bounded by maximum
flooding surfaces
Sequence stratigraphy concepts
In a very general sense, RSL fall leads to reduced deposition
and formation of sequence boundaries in updip areas, and
increased deposition in downdip settings (e.g., submarine fans)
RSL rise leads to trapping of sediment in the updip areas (e.g.,
coastal plains with a littoral energy fence) and reduced transfer
of sediment to the deep sea (hemipelagic deposition; condensed
sections)
Sequence stratigraphy concepts
Seismic stratigraphy is based on the principle that seismic
reflectors follow stratal patterns and approximate isochrons
(time lines)
Reflection terminations provide the data used to identify
sequence-stratigraphic surfaces, systems tracts, and their
internal stacking patterns
Technological developments have been prolific:
Vertical resolution improved to a few tens of meters
Widespread use of 3D seismic
Seismic data should preferably always be interpreted in
conjunction with well log or core data
Sequence stratigraphy concepts
A better understanding of stratigraphic sequences can be
obtained by the construction of chronostratigraphic charts
(Wheeler diagrams); these can subsequently be used to infer
coastal-onlap curves
Variations in sediment supply can produce stratal patterns that
are very similar to those formed by RSL change (except for
forced regression); in addition, variations in sediment supply
can cause stratigraphic surfaces at different locations to be out
of phase
In principle, sequence-stratigraphic concepts could be applied
with some modifications to sedimentary successions that are
entirely controlled by climate change and/or tectonics (outside
the realm of RSL control)
Dip-oriented cross-section through a hypothetical extensional basin. Locations A, B,
and C are characterized by different subsidence rates,
A Sequence stratigraphic surface is not always synchronous
Diachroneity of surfaces
Changes in sea level, subsidence, and relative sea level during a period of time of 1.5 My;
Incremental changes in time steps of 100,000 years.
The curve of sea-level changes is the same for the three reference locations
Subsidence rates increase towards the basin: 0 m/10
5
yrs, 5 m/10
5
yrs and 10 m/10
5
yrs for
location A, B, C.
Eustasy combined with subsidence allows for the calculation of the relative sea level
change ( RSL) for each time step.
The cumulative relative sea level ( RSL) is calculated in the last column of the table. Key: *
(x 10
5
yrs), # m/10
5
yrs, + m.
Subsidence, eustatic, and relative sea-level curves for the 1.5 My time interval .
Note that for location A where subsidence is zero, the sea-level curve coincides
with the relative sea-level curve.
For locations B and C the relative sea-level curves account for the combined
effects of eustasy and subsidence.
Sequence stratigraphy concepts
A better understanding of stratigraphic sequences can be
obtained by the construction of chronostratigraphic charts
(Wheeler diagrams); these can subsequently be used to infer
coastal-onlap curves
Variations in sediment supply can produce stratal patterns that
are very similar to those formed by RSL change (except for
forced regression); in addition, variations in sediment supply
can cause stratigraphic surfaces at different locations to be out
of phase
In principle, sequence-stratigraphic concepts could be applied
with some modifications to sedimentary successions that are
entirely controlled by climate change and/or tectonics (outside
the realm of RSL control)
Sequence stratigraphy concepts
The global sea-level curve for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic
(inferred from coastal-onlap curves) contains first, second, and
third-order eustatic cycles that are supposed to be globally
synchronous, but it is a highly questionable generalization
Conceptual problems: spatially variable RSL change due to
differential isostatic and tectonic movements undermines the
notion of a globally uniform control
Dating problems: correlation is primarily based on biostratigraphy
that typically has a resolving power comparable to the period of
third-order cycles