Solutions Manual - Dynamics

ADVANCEDENGINEERINGDESIGN
DesignforReliability
Book:AdvancedEngineeringDesign
Edition,2012
www.engineeringabc.com
SolutionsManual
LastupdatedFeb16,2014
Dr.ir.AntonvanBeek
DelftUniversityofTechnology
MechanicalEngineering
2 Designforlifetimeperformanceandreliability
Recentupdates:
Designforlifetimeperformanceandreliability 3
ProblemsChapter1
Problem1.1:L
10
servicelife
Consideraquantityof10componentsthatallfailwithinayearofservice.CalculatetheL
10
servicelife
with90%reliabilityand10%failureprobabilityassuminganormalfailuredistribution.
Months 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Failures 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 4 2 1 0 0
Problem1.2:Tolerancefield
Thediameterofabatchofshaftsisnormallydistributed
with99.7%oftheshaftswithinthetolerancefield
200.2mm.Then95%oftheshaftswillhaveadiameter
withinatolerancefieldof20mmAmm.
a)WhatisA?
b)WhatisthecoefficientofvariationCV?
CVisdefinedasthemaximumdeviationofthemean
dividedbythemean.
Problem1.3:Drivingtorqueinterferencefit
Aninterferencefitisrealizedwith20H7/r6hole/shafttolerances.The
dimensionsofthecomponentsareassumedtobenormallydistributed.
Thestandarddeviationiscalculatedfromtheassumptionthatthe
toleranceintervalisa3interval.Linearelasticdeformationistobe
consideredwhichimpliesthetorquethatcanbetransmittedis
proportionaltothediametricalinterference.
Thetorquethatcanbetransmitted,basedonthemeanvalueofthediametricalinterference,isT
50
[Nm].
Itisthetorquewith50%failureprobability.Thetorquethatcanbetransmittedwith1%failure
probabilityisdenotedasT
1
.
Thevariationofperformance,relativetothemean,isameasureofreliability.Thecoefficientofvariation
isdefinedasCV=deviation/mean.CalculateCV=(T
1
T
50
)/T
50
.
Problem1.4:Drivingtorquetaperedshafthubs
ThetorqueTthatcanbetransmittedbyataperedshafthubconnection
isproportionaltotheclampingforce,i.e.theboltpreloadF
i
.Thepreload
F
i
isproportionaltoM
A
/whereM
A
isthetighteningtorquethe
coefficientoffrictioninthescrewassembly.Thecoefficientoffriction
ismanagedbyusingaproperthreadlubricantandvariesbetween0.12
and0.16.CalculatethecoefficientofvariationCV=(T
50
T
min
)/T
50
where
T
min
istheleasttorquethatcanbetransmittedbytheshafthub
connection.
Problem1.5:Interferencefitwithhollowshaft
Agearistobepressfittedoverahollowshaftof20mmdiameter.
Considertheinterference=0.150.05mm.Thestrainisthatmuchthat
thehollowshaftwilldeformplastically.
Thetensilestressintheplasticregimevariesmuchlesswiththestrain
thanintheelasticregime.
Thetensilestressintheplasticregimeofthesteelshaftisapproximated
bylinearinterpolationbetween(g=0.005)=350MPaand(g=0.01)=
450MPa.CalculatethecoefficientofvariationCV=(T
50
T
min
)/T
50
where
T
min
istheleasttorquethatcanbetransmitted.
Problem1.6:Chaindimensioning
Theillustrationbelowshowsasimple
drawingofapartmadebymilling.
Calculatethesymmetricaltolerance
intervalofAwith99%probability,
assumingalltolerancesarenormally
distributedwithinthe3intervaland
independent.
Problem1.7:Numberofmeasurementsneededtoobtainareliableestimation
Whenthemeasurementofthecoefficientoffrictionisrepeatedonewillfindalargevariation.Consider
themeasuredvalues0.11,0.12,0.13,0.14and0.15.
a)Calculatethe95%intervaloverwhichcoefficientoffrictionmaylie.
b)Whatnumberofmeasurementsareneededtoestimatethemeanwith95%reliabilitywithin0.01
accuracy?
Problem1.8:Estimationofserviceinterval
Fromaseriesofexperimentsitis
foundthatacomponentlifeis=
15010
3
kmand=2010
3
km.A
componentreliabilityof90%is
specifiedwithL
10
,of99%withL
1
.
CalculatethevalueL
10
andL
1
andthe
ratioa
1
=L
1
/L
10
.
Problem1.9:ConversionofMTBFtoReliability
a) EstimatetheMTBFforN=10devicesthatare
testedforT
test
=500hoursandduringthetestr=2
failuresoccur.
b) Estimatetheprobabilitythatanyoneparticular
devicewillbeoperationalatthetimeequaltothe
MTBF?
c) Estimatetheprobabilitythatthecomponentwill
workfor50%oftheMTBF
d) EstimatethepercentageoftheMTBFwhere
R(t)=0.95.
Problem1.10:FaultTreeAnalysis
Considerthefaulttreewiththecomponentreliabilitygiveninthetablebelowandcalculatethefailure
probabilityF(t)ofthesystemforaservicelifet.
A B C D E F G
R(t) 0.9 0.85 0.9 0.7 0.95 0.8 0.99
Problem1.11:Bearingreliability,deepgrooveballbearing
CalculatetheoperatingreliabilityR(t=1000hr)ofadeepgrooveball
bearing.ThecalculatedL
10
lifeexpectancyoftheballbearingisL
10
=
500A10
6
rev.Therotationalspeedis4000rpm.
Hint:ThelifeexpectancyoftheballbearingsisrelatedtotheL
10
basic
ratinglifeaccording(eq.4.66,page129).
Problem1.12:ReliabilityfactorforFatiguestrength
Apowersupplyiscooledby3fans.Thecorrectfunctioningofatleast
oneofthethreefansisrequiredtomaintainsufficientcooling.The
operatingreliabilityofthesystemneedstobe99%foraservicelifeof
10.000hr,R
s
(10.000hr)=0.99.Therotationalspeedis4000rpm.
a)EstimatetherequiredoperatingreliabilityR
j
oftheindividualfans.
b)CalculatetherequiredL
10h
oftheindividualbearings.
c)CalculateC/P
Problem1.13:ReliabilityfactorforFatiguestrength
Datapublishedoftheendurancestrengtharealwaysmeanvalues.In
Norton(2000)isreportedthatthestandarddeviationoftheendurance
strengthofsteelsseldomexceeds8%oftheirmean.Estimateacorrection
factorfortheendurancestrengthifa99%probabilityisrequired.
Problem1.14:Componentreliability
Calculatethecomponentreliabilityofadriveshaft
(motorshaft)loadedintheHighCycleFatigue(HCF)
regimewithL
n
=2A10
5
loadcycles.
ConsiderthecalculatedfatiguelifeofL
50
=3A10
5
loadcyclesandastandarddeviationof=0.2.
Problem1.15:Stressconcentrationfactor
"Achainisonlyasstrongasitsweakestlink,regardlessofthestrengthofthestrongerlinks".Doyou
agreeandwhatdoyouthinkaboutthereliabilityifthefailuremodeisfatigue?
Problem1.16:Systemreliability
CalculatethefailureprobabilityF(100hr)oftwo
criticalcomponentsofasystemconnectedinseries.
Fromproductcataloguesitisfoundthatthereliability
ofonecomponentisspecifiedwith=150hrand=
30.5hr,theothercomponentisspecifiedwith=120
hrand=10.2hr.
Hint:firststepistocalculateR(t)ofbothcomponents.
Aheavydutymotorizedframefeaturesaquaddrive
systemusingtwohighpowerDCmotorsandfourdrive
belts.Allfourbeltsarerequiredtomaintainoptimal
control.Fromfieldtestingitisfoundthattheservicelife
ofthebeltsunderheavydutyoperatingconditionsis
normallydistributedwithamean=200hranda
standarddeviationof=0.2. Calculatetheoperating
reliabilityofthesetof4beltsforaservicelifeof150hr.
ThereisaruleofthumbthatsaysthatthebearingloadPrelated
tothedynamicloadratingofthebearingCis:
NormalloadedbearingsP=0.06
HeavilyloadedbearingsP=0.12C
Consideramotordriveequippedwithtwoballbearings.Oneof
thebearingsisloadedwithP=0.1C,whereCisthedynamicload
ratingofbearingtype16004,C=7.28kN.Themotorrotateswith
n=1400rpmduring8hoursaday,5daysaweekitis1920
hr/year.Calculatethelifeexpectancy[years]ofthisbearingwith
1%failureprobability.
Hint:FirstcalculatedL
10
andL
10h
.ThelifeexpectancyL
na
ofballbearingsisrelatedtotheL
10
basicrating
lifeaccordingL
na
=a
1
L
10
(Table4.6page129).
Consideramotordriveequippedwithtwoballbearings.Thelife
expectancyofthebearingsiscalculatedasL
10h
=12,000hrand
L
10h
=16,000hourrespectively.Calculatethesystem(motor)
reliabilityforaservicelifeof10,000hour.
a)ThelifeexpectancyL
na
oftheballbearingsisrelatedtotheL
10
basicratinglifeaccordingL
na
=a
1
L
10
(Table4.6page129)where
a
1
isthereliabilityfactorderivedfromastatisticalWeibull
distribution.
b)Itisassumedthatthefailuredistributionf(t)ofthebearingsis
bestfittedbyaWeibullFailureDistributionfunctionwithshapefactor=1.5(Eq.1.5page12).
Theoperatingreliabilityofaproductionlineneedstobe
estimated.Theproductionlineconsistsof6identicalpick
andplaceunitswithsimilaroperatingconditions.
Themostcriticalcomponentsoftheindividualpickandplace
unitsareidentifiedusinganFMEAprocedure.Theoperating
reliabilityofthesecomponentsareestablishedandfinally
presentedinafaulttree.
Calculatedvalueoftheoperating
reliabilityoftheproductionlineR(t).
Whichofthecomponentswouldyou
selecttoimproveitsoperating
reliabilityby5percentinorderto
improvethesystemreliability?
Amonitoringunitisappliedtoregisterasafunctionoftime
unexpectedmachinestandstillwhichiscausedbyaspecific
componentinthepickandplaceunits.Theservicelifet(hr)
ofthiscomponentisderivedfromthemonitoreddataand
listedinthetablebelow.
Servicelifet(hr)ofthecriticalcomponent
590 420 520 480 490 510 450 480
Calculatetherequiredmaintenanceintervalinorderto
replacethiscomponentinallpickandplaceunitsintime.
Thereliabilityoftheindividualpickandplaceunitsshouldbe
atleastR(t)=0.99.Whatist?
Problem1.22:Precisionandaccuracy
Repeatability(precision)istheerrorbetweenanumberof
successiveattemptstomovethemachinetothesame
position.Repeatabilitycanberepresentedbytheinterval
whichcontainsN%ofthemeasuredpositions.
Accuracyisthedifferencebetweentheintendedposition
andthemeanofthemeasuredpositions.The
rootmeansquaredeviation(RMSD)orrootmeansquare
error(RMSE)isafrequentlyusedmeasureforaccuracy.The
accuracycanbeimprovedbyadjustingtheoffset.The
precisionremainsthesame.
Resolutionisthesmallestpossiblemovementofasystemwhenactuated.Alsoknownasthestepsize.
Theresolutionofaninstrumentisthesmallestincrementthatthegagedisplays.
Consideranintendedpositionofx
target
=40mmandarangeofmeasuredxdata:
40.12,40.07,39.9839.9540.02mm.Calculatetheachievedaccuracyandtherepeatabilitywithinthe
95%confidenceinterval.Whatistheresolutionofthecalipershownabove?
Answers
1.1)
1.2)
Themeanvalueofthediameteroftheshafts=20mm.The99.7%intervalisa3intervalwhichresults
in=0.2mm/3.The95%symmetricalinterval,with2.5%oneitherside,correspondstoz=1.96andA=
1.96=0.13mm.TheCVvalueis1.96/=0.65%.
1.3)
20H7:D
max
=20mm+21m,D
min
=20mm+0m,D
mean
=20mm+10.5m,
D
=21/6m
20r6:d
max
=20mm+41m,d
min
=20mm+28m,d
mean
=20mm+34.5m,
d
=(4128)/6m
Interferencemean
50
=34.5m10.5m=24m,InterferenceSD
Theminimumvalueofwith1%failureprobability
Coefficientofvariation,probabilistic: thus,T
min
=0.6T
mean
Theworstcasescenarioisobtainedwiththemaximumborediameterandtheminimumshaftdiameter.
Theminimumvalueof(Deterministic): and
1.4)
Themeanvalueofthecoefficientoffriction
50
=0.14.TheobtainedpreloadF,withgiventightening
torqueM,isminimalwhenthefrictioninfastenerwillhavethehighestvalue.
Torqueratio(worstcase):
whereTisthetorquethecanbetransmittedbytheclampingactionbetweentheshafthubinterface.
Comparedtotheinterferencefitwhichisdiscussedinpreviousproblem,amuchsmallervariationinthe
torqueisobtained,andthusamorereliableconnectionisachieved.Bycontrollingthefriction,the
reliabilityofthetaperedshafthubconnectioncanbeimprovedfurther.Besidesspeciallubricantsinthe
threadedarea,washersareoccasionallyusedasameansofminimisingfrictionalscatterfromtheheat
facefrictionduringtightening.
1.5)
Asmallvariationinthetorquetransmissionisfound,despitethelargetolerancefieldonthediameterof
thecomponents.
Torqueratio(worstcase):
1.6)
Aruleofthumbsaysthatwithchaindimensioningtheprobabilisticvaluecanbeestimatedbythesquare
rootofthetolerances.Thiswouldresultin:A=o(0.2
2
+0.1
2
+0.2
2
)=0.3
1.7)
Themeanvalueisthesameasthemedianinthiscase,=0.13.
The95%intervaloftheCOFoffrictionbecomes
Thestandarddeviationofthesamplemeanis
The95%reliabilityintervalofthesamplemeanis
Thenumberofexperimentsneededtohavea95%reliabilityoftheestimationofthemeanwithin0.01
accuracyis:
1.8)
Considersinglesidetruncationoftheprobabilitydensityfunction
Notethatwitha20%longerservicethefailureprobabilitywillincreaseto10%.
1.9)
TheMeanTimeBetweenFailureMTBF=T/r=T
test
An/r=10A500/2=2500hr/failure
ThefailurerateistheinverseoftheMTBF,=1/MTBF=1/2500=0.04%/hr
ThereliabilityR(t)=exp(t)according(eq.1.4page12),R(MTBF)=exp(1)=0.37=37%
Theprobabilitythatthecomponentwillworkfor50%oftheMTBFisR(t)=exp(0.5)=0.61
R(t)=0.95isobtainedwithln(0.95)=0.0513MTBF,only5%oftheMTBF.
1.10) F(t)=1AABACA[1(1D)(1E)][1(1F)(1G)]=32%
1.11)
1.12)
1.13)
1.14)
1.15)
Achainwith100components(links)connectedinseriesandcomponentreliability0.99resultsina
systemreliabilityof0.99
100
=0.366.If,oneofthecomponentshascomponentreliability0.95(the
weakestlinkinthechain),thesystemreliabilitybecomes0.99
99
@0.95=0.351.TheconclusionisthatA
chainisonlyasstrongasitsweakestlinkisvalidinadeterministicapproach,anditisthecriteriumfor
failurebyoverload.Inthecaseofaprobabilisticapproachwhichisnecessaryforreliabilityanalysisifthe
failuremodeisfatigue,thereliabilityofallcomponentsmatter.
1.16)
1.17)
ReliabilityfactorsC
reliab
for=0.08
R(t) 50% 90% 99% 99.9%
C
reliab
1.000 0.897 0.814 0.753
Standarddeviation=0.08
L
n
=z,99%reliability,n=1,z=2.33
L
50
=,50%reliability
C
reliab
=L
n
/L
50
,L
1
/L
50
=(zA)/=0.814
1.18)
TheballbearingloadedwithP=0.1Cwillhavealifeexpectancywith1%failureprobabilityof1.3year.
1.19)
a)
b) Weibullsreliabilityfunctionis(eq.1.5page12)
Considerbearing1:Substitutionof=1.5,R=0.9andt=L
10h
=16000hrresultsin=71724hr
Thereliabilityofbearing1forthelifeoft=10000hrcannowbesolved
Repeatingthemethodabovefortheotherbearingresultinthesystemreliability:
1.20)
A=0.95,B=0.9,C=0.8,D=0.7
R
CD
=1(1C)(1D)=0.94
R
unit
=AB(1(1C)(1D))=0.804
R
system
=R
unit
6
=0.27
ThereliabilityofthecomponentsAandBdominatethesystemreliability.
1.21)
1.22)
N=5,=40.028mm,=0.068mm,RMSE=0.067mm
a)Accuracy:x
target
=0.028mm
b)Precisionwith95%confidenceinterval:1.96=0.134mm
c)Resolutionofthecaliperis0.01mm
95%confidenceintervalofaccuracy:
numberofexperimentsneededtodeterminetheaccuracywithina95%confidenceintervalof0.05
14 Chapter3FatiguefailurePredictionandprevention
ProblemsChapter3
Problem3.1:Fatigueofabicyclefrontfork
Amanufacturerofmountainbikecomponentsdevelopedalightweightmagnesiumalloyfrontfork.
Unfortunately,theforkcrackedduringfieldtestingundernormalloadingconditionsafteronlyafew
roughrides.
Thedesignengineerwasaskedtochecktheforkdesignfor
stressconcentrations.Hemadeasolidmodelofthefork,
performed3Dstressanalysisinwhichthecriticalloadingfrom
brakingandhorizontal/verticalloadingofthefrontwheelwas
setasinput,optimizedthemodel'ssurfacemeshbycreatinga
finermesharoundthesmallholeslocatedatthebrake
connectionsandmadethestressconcentrationsvisible.The
stressanalysisproofedthatthecrackingexperiencedinthe
initialprototypetestingwasduetothepartdesign,notthe
materialpropertiesofmagnesium.
Thefirstrunshowedareasofhighstressbeyondthecritical
failurepoint.Thestressraisersweresmoothenedinsomeextra
iterations,makingmodificationstotheshapeofthedesignand
wallthickness.Themodifieddesignwasmanufacturedand
testedsuccessfully.Toevaluatethepermissiblestressesin
designstageitisimportanttoknowinwhatfatigueregimethe
forkwilloperateduringitslife.WoulditbeintheLCForinHCF
regime?
Problem3.2:Infinitelifedesigncardanjointsplineshaftloadedintorsion
Considerthecylindricalpartofadriveshaftcyclically
loadedintorsion.Theultimatetensilestressofthe
shaftisR
m
=500MPa.Theshaftoperatesinthe
infiniteliferegimewhere
e
=0.5R
m
(Table3.1page
69)and
e
=0.7
e
(eq.3.3page68)and=0.58
e
.The
yieldstressoftheshaftisR
p0.2
=0.6R
m
,theshear
strength0.58R
p0.2
.
CalculateD
dyn
/D
stat
whereD
dyn
istheshaftdiameter
requiredwhendynamicallyloadedandD
stat
when
staticallyloaded.
a)Stressconcentrationsareleftoutofconsideration.
b)ThestressconcentrationintheshoulderfilletisK
t
=1.7
Chapter3 FatiguefailurePredictionandprevention 15
Problem3.3:Infinitelifedesigndriveshaftwithtransverseholeloadedintorsion
ConsideradriveshaftwithtransverseholecyclicallyloadedintorsionwithT=10Nm.Theultimate
tensilestressoftheshaftisR
m
=500MPa,theyieldstressoftheshaftisR
p0.2
=0.6R
m
.Thediameterofthe
transverseholeintheshaftisrelatedtothediameteroftheshaftaccordingd/D=0.2.Calculatethe
diameteroftheshaftwhen:
a)staticallyloaded.Hint:
b)cyclicallyloadedintheinfiniteliferegimewhere
e
=0.5R
m
(Table3.1page69),
e
=0.7
e
and
e
=0.58
e
.ThestressconcentrationfactorcanbecalculatedwiththecurvefitfunctionK
t
=1.58990.6355
log(d/D).
Problem3.4:Infinitelifedesigndriveshaftunderrotarybending
AsteppedshaftissubjectedtorotarybendingM=4Nm.TheultimatetensilestressoftheshaftisR
m
=
500MPa,theyieldstressoftheshaftisR
p0.2
=0.6R
m
.Calculatethe
diameteroftheshaftwhen:
a)staticallyloaded.
b)cyclicallyloadedintheinfiniteliferegimewhere
e
=0.5R
m
(Table3.1page69),
e
=0.7
e
andK
t
=2.5.
CalculateM
1
/M
2
where
M
1
istheendurancestrengthforrotarybendingofa12mmdiametershaftwithoutgrooveand
M
2
istheendurancestrengthforrotarybendingofagroovedshaftofd=20mm,d
k
=19mmandK
t
=5.
Consideragroovedshaftinrotarybending.Thediameteroftheshaftd=d
1
=20mm,thediameterof
thegrooved
k
=19mm.ThestressconcentrationfactorK
t
=5.Calculatehowmuchweightcanbesaved
whenthisshaftisreplacedbyanungroovedshaftofsmallerdiameterd
2
withthesameendurance
strength.
Calculatethepercentage[%]ofweightsaving(m
1
m
2
)/m
1
wherem
1
isthemassofthegroovedshaftandm
2
isthemassoftheungrooved
shaft.
Problem3.7:Cyclicallyloadedboltedstructure
ConsideracyclicallyloadedboltedstructureusingM108.8bolts.The
jointstiffnessk
m
=3k
b
(Figure3.18page80).Allboltsaretightenedbya
preloadbetween0.6F
0.2
<F
i
<0.8F
0.2
.Calculate:
a)themaximumexternalloadPthatislimitedbytheboltsyieldstrength.
b)themaximumexternalloadPthatislimitedbytheclampingforce
(F
m
$0).
c)thepreloadF
i
(F
0.2
)thatwillresultinthemaximumloadcapacity.Inthis
caseboththeyieldstrengthandclampingforceneedstobeconsidered.
d)themaximumexternalloadPthatislimitedbytheendurancestrengthofthebolts.
e)Givesomereasonsforwhythepreloadisdefinedwithinarange.Listsomemoreinfluencefactorsthat
mayaffectthereliabilityoftheloadcapability.
Problem3.8:Springmodelofascrewjoint
DeriveanequationforP
b
/Pexpressedink
b
andk
m
,
whereP
b
istheloadfluctuationinthethreaded
sectionbetweenthenuts,Pistheloadfluctuation
appliedtothescrewjointandk
m
,k
b
isthestiffness
oftheclampedmaterialandtheboltrespectively.
Problem3.9:Onthedesignofcyclicallyloadedscrewjoints
a)CalculatethefatiguestrengthPoftheboltedstructureas
shown,wherePisthemaximumloadfluctuationinthe
endurancestrengthregimeoftheboltstress.ConsiderM248.8
boltswithapretensionof0.6R
p0.2
andajointstiffnessfactor
C
m
=1/4.
b)Inwhatwaywouldyouredesignthestructureinorderto
obtainanimprovedfatiguestrength?
Problem3.10:Improvedfatiguestrengthofascrewjoint
Calculatethefactortowhichthe
fatiguestrengthPofthescrew
jointwillincreasebyplacinga
ringbelowthenut,wherePis
themaximumloadfluctuationin
theendurancestrengthregime
oftheboltstress.
Considerl
m1
=2dandl
m2
=3d.
Problem3.11:Improvedfatiguestrengthofascrewjoint
Calculatethefactortowhichthefatigue
strengthPofthescrewjointwillincrease
ordecreasebyreplacingametricM128.8
screwbyametricM1010.9screw.The
thicknessoftheclampedmembersL
m
=2d
whered=12mmarekeptthesame.
Problem3.12:Improvedfatiguestrengthmountingofabearinghousing
Considertwopossibleconfigurationsforthe
mountingofabearinghousing.Both
configurationsarerealisedwithM12bolts
sufficientlypreloaded.Theclampinglengthof
theconfiguration1and2areL
m.1
=0.8dand
L
m.2
=2d.
CalculateP
2
/P
1
,whereP
1
andP
2
arethe
maximumloadfluctuationsonthebearingsof
configuration1and2respectively
Problem3.13:Improvedfatiguestrengthpistonrodconnection
Considertwopossibleconfigurationsforahydraulicpistonrodconnection.
Configuration1)M248.8,clampedoverL
m
=d,preloadedwith0.8F
0.2
Configuration2)M128.8,clampedoverL
m
=3d,preloadedwith0.8F
0.2
Calculatetheratioofthe
fatiguestrengthP
2
/P
1
.P
1
and
P
2
arethepistonforcesof
configuration1and2
respectively,thatcanbe
sustainedforinfinitelife.The
smallletterpisthehydraulic
pressure.
Problem3.14:Fatiguefailureprobabilityofascrewjoint
Considerapneumaticcylinderthatconsistsofanaluminiumbushing
withtwoendcapsclampedby4steelboltstuds.
Boltstuds:d
b
=4mm,E
steel
=210GPa
Bushing:D
cyl
=80mm,wallthicknesss=6mm,E
alum
=70GPa
a)CalculatethejointstiffnessfactorC
m
.
b)Thebushingisreplacedbyonewitha3mmwallthickness.So,the
jointstiffnessfactorofascrewjointisnotC
m
=1/4.2butbecomes
C
m
=1/2.6.Whatconsequenceswillthisdeviationinjointstiffness
haveforthefatiguestrengthoftheboltedconnection.
Problem3.15:Improvedfatiguestrengthusingstretchbolts
Stretchboltsareusedbycarmanufacturersforseveralreasons;to
accommodateLCFthermalexpansion(thermomechanicalfatigue
TMF),towithstandHCFloadandfinallytheycanbeprestressed
accurately.
a)Calculatethestressconcentrationfactorinthethreadedsectionof
thebolt.ConsiderametricM128.8boltandanendurancestrengthof
thesteelwhenloadedinaxialtensionof
e
=0.4Rm.Thefatigue
strengthofthethreadedpart
a
=50MPaisderivedfromFigure3.16page79.
b)Calculatetheminimaldiameteroftheshank,ifthesamefatiguestrength[N]isaskedfortheshank
andthethreadedsection.ThestressconcentrationinthefilletonbothendsoftheshankisK
t
=1.8.The
strengthreductionfactorsintheshankareC
surf
C
reliab
=0.8.
Problem3.16:Infinitelifedesigncylinderheadstuds
Cylinderheadstudboltsclampthecylinderheadto
theblock.Tomaintainatightleakfreeseal,the
boltsmustbetightenedinthepropersequenceto
specifications.
Oneofthemethodstotorqueheadboldsiscalled
torquetoyield(TTY).Itmeansthattheequivalent
stressisincreaseduntilitreachestheyieldstrength
duringtightening.Aruleofthumbsaysthatthe
torsionalstressincreasestheequivalentstressby
approximately20%andisreleasedasaresultof
relaxationaftertightening.
CalculatethemaximumloadfluctuationP
b
andP
thatcanbetakenbyeachstud.ConsiderM10
threadedstuds,A
t
=58mm
2
,steelgrade12.9andC
m
=1/8,aninitialtensionalstressof0.8F
0.2
anda
minimumclampingforcethatisneededtoensureleakfreesealingof0.2F
0.2
.
Problem3.17:ThermoMechanicalFatigue(TMF)ofcylinderheadstuds
Theoverallclampforcegeneratedbythecylinderheadbolts/studs
anditsuniformdistributionacrosstheentiresealingsystemisamajor
issue.Variousareasaretobesealed(gas,waterandoilseal)and
compressionforcesandthermalexpansionmustbeaccommodated
whilekeepinganoptimumclampingforceoverthegasket.
Eachtimethemotortemperatureincreasesfromcoldstartto
operatingtemperaturethealuminiumcylinderheadexpands.Because
thecylinderheadstudsaremadeofsteelandthermallyexpandtoa
lesserdegree,theboltstressvarieseachtemperaturecycle.Calculate
towhatextendtheboltstresswillincreasebythermalexpansionof
thehead.Consider10mmdiameterboltstudsandaclampinglength
of150mm.
Problem3.18:ThermoMechanicalFatigue(TMF)ofsolderjoints
Forenvironmentalreasonstinleadsolders,for
exampleSn37Pb,arereplacedbyleadfreesolders.
Leadfreesolders,thatarenowbeingusedaretin
silvercopperalloys.InthesocalledBallGridArray
(BGA)packagesinSMTthesesolderjointsappear
tosufferfromThermoMechanicalFatigue.
Thedifferencesinthethermalexpansionratesof
thecomponentsandtheprintedcircuitboards
causesthesolderjointstoundergocyclic
elastic/plasticdeformations.Theplastic
deformationscanhardenthesolderandfinally
causesoldercracksandjointfailure(cohesive
bondingfailure).
Deriveanequationfortheshearforceactingonthesolderjoint,relatedtothethermomechanical
propertiesofthecomponents.
Problem3.19:Infinitelifedesigncompressionspring
Calculatethemaxamplitudeofacompressionspringforinfinite
life.Considerawirediameterd=10mm,numberofwindsn=8,
radiusofthewindsr=50mm,ashearmodulusofG=80GPa,R
m
=
2220820logdwhered[mm]andR
m
[MPa],afatiguestrengthfor
10
7
stresscyclesof
e
/R
m
=0.15.Approximateequationsforspring
stiffnessofcoilspringsarelistedinTableA4page526.
Problem3.20:Finitelifedesignofaweldedchassis
TwohotrolledsteelsectionsofS235
(R
p0.2
=235MPa)areconnectedby
welding.Thefatiguestrengthofthe
weldedzoneischaracterised
HCF
(N=10
7
)=30MPa(SNdiagramshown
below).
Calculatethenumberofstresscycles
thatcanbesustainedwithstressesas
highastheyieldstrengthofthe
structuralsteelitself.
Problem3.21:Finitelifedesignofbuttweldconnectionsinpipeflanges
Socketweldpipeflangesactuallyslipoverthepipe.Thesepipeflanges
aretypicallymachinedwithaninsidediameterslightlylargerthanthe
outsidediameterofthepipe.Socketpipeflanges,aresecuredtothe
pipewithafilletweldaroundthetopoftheflange.
Weldneckflangesattachtothepipe
byweldingthepipetotheneckof
thepipeflangewithubuttweld.
Theneckallowsforthetransferof
stressfromtheweldneckpipeflangestothepipeitself.Weldneck
pipeflangesareoftenusedforhighpressureapplications.Theinside
diameterofaweldneckpipeflangeismachinedtomatchtheinside
diameterofthepipe.
Calculatetheratioofthefatiguelifeoftheweldconnectioninasocketweldpipeflangewithrespect
totheweldneckpipeflange,N
s
/N
n
.TheSocketweldflangeistypicallyadetailcategorywith
HCF
(N=10
7
)=30MPa,theweldneckflangewith
HCF
(N=10
7
)=45MPa(SNdiagramshowninprevious
problem).Considerafatigueloadinducingastressoverthecrosssectionofthepipeof50MPa.
Problem3.22:FinitelifedesignofbuttweldconnectionsusingthePalmgrenMinerrule
SteelgradesknownasS235,S275andS355arenonalloystructuralsteels.ThesteelgradesoftheJR,JO,
J2andK2categoriesareingeneralsuitableforallweldingtechniques.TheyieldstrengthofS235for
exampleis235MPa.Thestrengthofbuttweldswhenstaticallyloadeddonotneedtobecalculated
separately,sincethestrengthoftheweldmaterialisatleastasstrongasthatofthestructuralsteel.
AreasonableestimationoftheendurancestrengthofstructuralsteelsmadeofS235subjectedtocyclic
bendingis
e
=0.4Rm.160MPa,whichis70%oftheyieldstrength.
Theendurancestrengthofweldedconnectionsismuchlessthantheendurancestrengthofthe
structuralsteelmembers.Forexample,theendurancestrengthofbuttweldsislimitedtoapproximately
e
=0.55A45.25MPa(Figure3.30page90andFigure3.27page87),whichislessthan20%ofthe
endurancestrengthofthestructuralsteelS235.
HCF
(N=10
7
)=45MPa
e
(N=2A10
8
)=25MPa
Therelativelylowvalueoftheendurancestrengthofweldedconnectionsandtherelativehighstress
peaksthatmustbesustainedduringlifemakesthatmostweldedstructuresaredesignedinthefinite
liferegime.Sincepartsareseldomstressedrepeatedlyatonlyonestresslevel,thecumulativedamage
effectofoperationsatvariouslevelsofstressneedtobeconsidered.
CalculatethefatiguelifeL(hr)ofaweldedconnectionlocatedbetweenthecylinderbushingandtheend
capofahydrauliccylinder.
Theactualstressesintheweldaremeasured
duringonehourofservice.Thestress
spectrumissimplifiedintothevalueswhich
arelistedinthetablebelow.
F
[MPa] 240 120 60 30 20
n
i
[] 10 20 40 400 1000
Problem3.23:Finitelifedesignoffilletweldconnections
Acranepicksandplacealoadfrom
positionAtopositionBandback.
a)CalculatethestaticloadF/(aL)thatthe
filletweldscansustain.Listhelengthof
theweldoverwhichtheloadisuniformly
distributedandaisthecrosssectionat
thethroat.Theyieldstrengthoftheweld
materialis235MPa.
b)Thestressspectrumintheweldedzone
oftheliftingplatesissimplifiedton
AB
=N/2
timesandn
BA
=N/2times/3whereNis
thefatiguelifeexpressedinloadcycles.
Considerastress=90MPaandtheSN
diagramofthefilletweldshownbelow.
CalculatethefatiguelifeN
HCF
(N=10
7
)=30MPa
e
(N=2A10
8
)=16MPa
Problem3.24:Finitelifedesignofafilletweldsubjectedtobending
Considertheliftplateloadedinbending.Derivean
equationforthemaximumbendingstressinthefillet
weld.Theleftplateisweldedwithadoublefilletweld
withacrosssectionofthethroata.
Problem3.25:TrueorUntrue?
1. ThestressconcentrationfactorK
f
canbedeterminedbyFEMcalculation.
2. Finiteelementanalysiswillunderestimatestressconcentrationswhenapplyingacoursegrid.
3. Smoothcylindricaldriveshaftswithoutanystressconcentrationswillnotfailbyfatigue.
4. ItisalwayssavetousethegeometricalstressconcentrationfactorK
t
ratherthanthefatigue
stressconcentrationfactorK
f
whileK
t
$K
f
.
5. Fatiguefailuremightresultformcyclicloadingonlyifthereissometensionineachstresscycle.
6. Theintroductionofresidualcompressivestressestoimprovethefatiguestrengthcanalsobe
usefulatshaftfilletsandgrooves,forexamplebyimpressingahardenedrolleragainstashaftas
itisturnedinalathe.
7. Forsteelstheratioofendurancestrength
e
to0.2%yieldstrengthR
p0.2
istaken1/3inafirst
approximationforsteelshaftsunderrotarybending.
8. ThelineintheSNdiagramreferstothemeanvalueofthefatiguestrength,itisthefatigue
strengthwith50%reliability/50%failureprobability.
9. TheSmithdiagramprovidesinformationaboutthefatiguestrengthinthelowcyclefatigue
regime.
10. Fatiguefailureoccurstypicallyatstressesbelowtheendurancestrength.
11. Theratioofendurancestrengthtoultimatetensilestrengthistaken1/3inafirstapproximation
forsteelshaftsunderrotarybending.
12. Whenacrackisformeditcreatesstresseslargerthanthosefromtheoriginalnotch.
13. Fatiguefractureddriveshaftsintorsiontypicallyshowafracturefaceunder45degreeswiththe
crosssection.
14. TheSmithdiagramprovidesinformationabouttheinfluenceofthemeanstressonthe
endurancestrength.
15. TheWhlerdiagramalsocalledSNdiagramprovidesinformationaboutthefatiguestrengthin
boththeLCFastheHCFregime.
16. Fatiguefailureonlyoccursatstressesbelowtheyieldstrengthofamaterial.
Answers
3.1)Mountainbikesexhibitaloadspectrumthatisquitvariableduetobraking,potholesandlandings
fromjumping.ThenumberoflowmagnitudestresscyclesmaybepotentiallylargeandintheHCF
regimeandthuslessharmful.Thenumberofhighstresscyclesinthemagnitudeuptolocalyieldingare
intheLCFregime(<10
3
loadcycles,Figure3.4page65)andwilllimitthelifespanofthefrontfork.The
contributionofthelowmagnitudestresscyclescouldbeestimatedusingPalmgrenMinersRule(eq.3.13
page88).
3.2)Thetorqueandshearstressarerelatedaccording(eq.3.2page68)
3.3)
a)Staticallyloaded
b)Dynamicallyloaded
3.4)
a)Staticallyloaded
b)Dynamicallyloaded
3.5)
3.6) weightsaving69%
3.7) a)Thestressincreaseintheboltislimitedtotheyieldstrengthofthebolt.
b)ThestressincreaseintheboltislimitedbytheminimumvalueoftheclampingforceF
m
.Ifthe
boltstressisincreasedfurthertheclampedmembersbecomeseparated.
c)ThemaximumloadcapacityisobtainedwithP
b
+P
m
=F
0.2
.WithP
b
:P
m
=k
b
:kmthisresultsin
d)Whencyclicallyloaded,theamplitudeofboltstresscanfurtherbelimitedbytheendurance
strengthofthebolt.TheendurancestrengthoftheM108.8boltis
a
=52.5MPa(Figure3.16
page79).Thisresultsin
e)Variationonthepreloadismainlycausedbyvariationonthecoefficientoffrictionduring
tightening.Otherimportantinfluencefactorsaretheaccuracyofthetighteningmethodand
stressrelaxationaftertightening.
3.8) Thephysicalmodelofthescrewjointcanbeexpressedastwospringsconnectedinparallel.
3.9) Thecriticalsectionofthescrewjointisthepartbelowthe
lowernut,nottheprestressedsection.Thefatiguestrengthof
thecriticalsectionis:
AverysmalljointstiffnessfactorC
m
canbeobtainedwhen
usingboltstudsanchoredatarelativelargedepth(Figureb).
3.10) TheloadfluctuationP
b
thatcanbetakenbytheboltisthesameforbothconfigurations,since
thesteelgradeanddiameteroftheboltsarethesame.Theloadfluctuationthatcanbetakenby
thejointP=P
b
/C
m
whereC
m
isthejointstiffnessfactor,itisthepartitionoftheloadPthatis
takenbythebolt.ThefactortowhichthefatiguestrengthofthejointwillincreaseisP
2
/P
1
=
C
m1
/C
m2
.
Substitutionofl
m
/d=2in(3.11)page81givesC
m1
=0.232.Substitutionofl
m
/d=3givesC
m2
=0.178.
ThefatiguestrengthofthescrewjointwillincreasebyafactorP
2
/P
1
=C
m1
/C
m2
=0.232/0.178=1.3.
Inotherwords,theexternalloadthatcanbetakenbythescrewjointhasincreasedby30%.
3.11) Thestaticstrengthofthebolthasdecreasedbyafactor
Thefatiguestrengthofthebolthasdecreasedbyafactor
where
a
iscalculatedfrom(Figure3.16rightpage79).Thecorrectionforthehighersteelgrade
is70/60(Figure3.16leftpage79).ThetensilestressareaislistedinTableA8page529.
Thejointstiffnessfactorhasdecreasedbyafactor
Conclusion:
Thestaticstrengthofthescrewjointwillincreasebyafactor0.97/0.90=1.08.
Thefatiguestrengthofthescrewjointwilldecreasebyafactor0.84/0.90=0.95.
Thefatiguestrengthofthescrewjointhasreducedby10%.Thesituationisdifferentwhenthe
diameteroftheclampedmaterialaroundthescrewislimited(eq.3.10page81),whereasmaller
screwdiameterwillimprovethefatiguestrengthofthejointsignificantly.
3.12) Bothmountingsusesthesamescrews:
3.13) Thecriticalsectionofthescrewjointinconfiguration1isthethreadedpartoutsidetheclamped
area,nottheprestressedsection.ThefatiguestrengthofthecriticalareaoftheM24is:
ThejointstiffnessfactorandthemaximumloadoftheM12screwjointinconfiguration2is:
3.14)
ThesmallerthejointstiffnessfactorC
m
,thesmallerthepartofexternalloadingthatistakenby
thebolts,thebetterfatiguestrengthisachievedfortheboltjoint.
Incontrary,ifthejointstiffnessfactorislargerthanexpected,C
m
=1/2.6andnot1/4.2,the
fatiguestrengthoftheboltedconnectionwillbesmallerthanexpectedandtheboltsmayfailby
fatigueprematurely.
3.15) ThestressconcentrationfactorisK
f
=
e
/
a
=6.4.
ThefatiguestrengthofametricM128.8boltiscalculatedformFigure3.16page79,
a
=50.25
MPa.MultipliedbythetensilestressareaA
t
=84.26mm
2
givesF
a
=4.23kN.
Theendurancestrengthofthesteelinaxialtensionis0.4R
m
=320MPa.Therequireddiameterof
theshankbecomes:(/4)d
2
C
surf
C
reliab
e
/K
t
=F
a
,d=6.2mm.
3.16) Themaximumloadfluctuationthatcanbetakenbyeachstudcanbelimitedby:
1)yieldingoftheboltstudswhenexceedingtheelasticlimit
Theloadfluctuationthatcanbetakenbyeachboltstud
P
b
=0.2A
t
R
p0.2
=0.2F
0.2
=12.5kN(Figure3.18page80),P=P
b
/C
m
=100kN
2)aminimumclampingforcethatisneededtoensureleakfreesealingand
When20%oftheyieldstrengthoftheboltstudsisneededasminimumclampingforcethen60%
ofthepreloadremainsforP
m
,i.e.P
m
=0.6F
0.2
P
b
=C
m
P,P
m
=(1C
m
)P,thenP
b
=(C
m
/(1C
m
))P
m
=5.4kN,P=P
b
/C
m
=43kN
3)theendurancestrengthoftheboltstuds.
TheendurancestrengthoftheboltstudsisP
b
=2
a
A
t
=6.1kN,P=P
b
/C
m
=49kN.
Conclusion:Theclampingforceofthescrewjointismostcritical,P
b
=5.4kN,P=P
b
/C
m
=43kN.
Boltstudsarealwaysmountedusingasolidlubricant(page291)forseveralreasons.Firstofalltoensure
aconstantandlowfrictionwhichisprofitabletoaccuratelyapplythepreloadbytighteningandtolimit
torsionstressesduringtightening.Secondly,thesolidlubricantpreventsfrettingcorrosionwhichensures
thattheboltedjointcanbeunscrewed,and,notlessimportantthatthisavoidsfatiguecorrosion.
Especiallyhighstrengthsteelalloysareverysusceptibletostresscorrosion.
3.17)
Substitutionofd=10mm,L=150mm,E
st
=210GPa,
st
=1210
6
/K,
dT=150K,E
al
=70GPa,
al
=2310
6
/Kresultsink
b
=1.110
5
N/m,k
m
/k
b
=33,C
m
=0.029,dF=17.6N,d=0.224MPa.
Theboltisrelativelyelastic.Thethermalexpansionofthecylinderheadishardlylimitedbythe
bolts.TheasymptoticsolutionforC
m
=0wouldresultinfreeexpansionoftheheadbydL=L
al
dT
andanincreaseofstressintheboltsofd=E
st
dL/L=0.231MPa.
Withtheboltsrelativelyelasticcomparedtotheclampedmaterialaverysmallpartofthe
compressionforceistakenbytheboltskeepinganoptimumuniformandconstantclamping
forceoverthegasket.
3.18)
Thismodelcanbeusefultoanalysethepossibilityofcorrectiveactions.
3.19)
3.20) Substitutionof
HCF
=30MPa,
i
=235MPa,m=3in
3.21) ThefatiguelifeexpressedinthenumberofstresscyclesN
i
iscalculatedwitheq.3.12page87.
N
s
/N
n
=(30/45)
3
=0.296.Theexponentm=3forbothflangessince
i
>
HCF
.Notethatthefatigue
lifeofthesockedflangeisonly30%ofthefatiguelifeoftheneckflange.
3.22) FirststepistocalculatethedamagefractionDforonehourofservice.
ThedamagefractionD=n
i
/N
i
whereN
i
isthenumberofloadcyclesthatcouldbeaccumulated
whentheamplitudeofthestresscycleswouldremainconstantoverlife(eq3.12page87).
i
[MPa] 240 120 60 30 20
n
i
[] 10 20 40 400 1000
N
i
[]
Hypothetical:IfinonehourD=n
i
/N
i
=0.1,then10%oftheservicelifehaspassedandtheservice
lifewouldbeL=1/D=10hours.
ThefatiguelifeisachievedwhenthecumulativedamageD=1.So,theservicelifeLbecomes:
3.23)
a) TheloadisdistributedoverthelengthL:
b)
3.24) Themaximumbendingstressintheliftplateandthefilletweld:
Thefactor2inthedenominatorreferstothedoublefilletweld.Theo2isfrom
e
inthecross
sectionofthethroat.
3.25)
Untrue:1,3,7,9,10,16.
True:2,4,5,6,8,11,12,13,14,15.
30 Chapter4LoadratingRollingcontactfatigue
ProblemsChapter4
Problem4.1:Effectivecontactradiuscamrollersystem
CalculatetheeffectivecontactradiusRof
thecamrollersupportsshowninthe
figure.Consideraradiusofthesupportof
r
1
=5mmandacurvedcamwithr
2
=1.1r
1
.
b)CalculatethestaticloadratingC
0
ofthe
pointcontactillustratedbyconfigurationI
accordingISO76:1987(page102).The
camandsupportaremadeofballbearing
steel100Cr6,E=213GPa,=0.29,p
max
=4.2
GPa,radiusr
1
=10mm.
Problem4.2:Calculationofthestaticsafetyfactortoensuresmoothvibrationfreemotion.
AcontactloadaslargeasthebasicstaticloadratingC
0
producesapermanentdeformationoftherolling
elementandraceway,whichisapproximately1/10,000oftherollingelementdiameter.Forsmooth
vibrationfreemotiontherequiredbasicstaticloadratingC
0
,canbedeterminedfromC
0
$s
0
P
0
wheres
0
isthestaticsafetyfactor.Calculates
0
,whenP
0
isthemaximumloadatwhichthecontactdeformation
remainsfullyelastic.
a) CalculateC
0
withthemaximumcontactpressurep
max
=4.2GPaforpointcontactsandp
max
=4
GPaforlinecontacts(accordingISO76:1987page102).Considerbothcomponentsmadeofball
bearingsteel100Cr6;E=213GPa,=0.29,E=233GPa.
b) CalculateP
0
basedonp
m.c
(eq.4.9page100forpointcontacts,eq4.26page108forline
contacts).
c) Calculates
0
forinitialpointcontacts,ellipticalcontactsandlinecontacts.
Problem4.3:Maximumcontactpressure
Calculatetheratiobetweentheloadcapacityofasteelballandaceramic
ballrunningonasteelplanesurface.
Steelball:100Cr6,E=213GPa,=0.29
Ceramicball:Si
3
N
4
,E=300GPa,=0.28
Steelplanesurface:100Cr6,E=213GPa,=0.29
Hint:Themaximumcontactpressureintheceramicballsteelcontactis
limitedbythemaximumcontactpressureofsteel,i.e.p
m.c
.R
p0.2
Problem4.4:Contactstiffness
Manytoolingmachinesareequippedwithcastironslidesurfacesbecauseofthesuperiorbearing
stiffnessandshockresistance.Rollingguideshaveadvantageoverslidesurfaceswhenlowfrictionis
required.
Theaxialstiffnessofrollingguides(eq.4.5and4.6page99)canbeincreasedbypreload.Calculatethe
stiffnessratioSofasteelballwithdiameter5mmrunningonasteelflat(E=230GPa),whenloadedby
100Npreloadand10Npayloadandwhenloadedby10Npayloadonly.Payloadistheloadthatis
supported.
Chapter4 LoadratingRollingcontactfatigue 31
Problem4.5.:Fatiguelifeofcamrollersupports
Thedynamicloadratingofcommercialcamrollersystemsisbasedonasurfacehardnessofthe
racewaysbetween58to64HRC.Ifthehardnessislowerthanthisrange,thebasicdynamicloadratingC
needstobemultipliedbytherespectivehardnessfactor(f
H
).CalculatethefactorofwhichtheL
10
fatigue
lifewilldecreasewhenthehardnessofthesupportisHRC=50andf
H
=0.6.
Problem4.6.:Materialselectionofgears
Calculatetheratioofthemaximumdrivingtorquethatcanbetransmittedbyasetofspurgears(line
contact)madeof16MnCr5with
Hlim
=1400MPacomparedtoasetmadeof34CrMo4QTwith
Hlim
=700
MPa(Hint:considereq.4.26page108,eq4.82page144andTable4.7page141).
Problem4.7:Brinellhardnesstest
a) IntheBrinellHardnesstest,theindentationmadebya10mmballshouldliebetween0.24Dand
0.6D.Theloadcanbechosenintherangeof1,2.5,5,10,15and30kN.Examinetheminimum
andmaximumhardnessthatcanbemeasuredforeachload.
b) CalculatetheloadF
c
wherebydeformationcanstilljustbeconsideredto
bepurelyelastic.Dothecalculationforasteelballaswellasahard
metalltungstencarbideball.ForthesteelballtakeE=213GPa,=0.29
andforthetungstencarbideballE=640GPaand=0.26.Assumethat
thematerialintheexperimenthasahardnessof600HBWandthatp
c
=
H/3.Explaintheresultofthecalculation.
c) UsethedetailsinthepreviousquestiontocalculateF/F
c
for600HBW,F=
30kNforboththesteelballandthehardmetalball.Whatcanyouconcludeabouttheaccuracy
ofthemeasurements?
Problem4.8:Loadcarryingcapacityofarollerguide
Theloadcapacityofaguidingsystemneedstobecalculated.Theouterringsofthetrackrollersare
madeofballbearingsteel(R
p0.2
=1.85GPa,E=206GPa,=0.3).Therailsaremadeofcarbonsteel(R
p0.2
=
1080MPa,sameEand).Thediameteroftherollersandtherailsarethesame,D=16mm.
a) Calculatetheloadcapacityoftheguidingsystem
whenthedeformationintheHertziancontacts
needstoremainfullyelastic.
b) Duringarunninginphasesarunningtrackiscreated
ontherailsurfacebyplasticdeformation.Calculate
theloadPthatcreatesalmostfullyplastic
deformationduringrunningin(p
m
=H,H/R
p0.2
=3).
c) Calculatethetrackwidth(flatteningoftherail)thatremainsaftertherunninginphase.
Problem4.9:Highspeedhybridballbearing
Ceramicballsareappliedinballbearingstoenablehigherrotationalspeed.Thelowerdensityofthe
ceramicballs(siliconnitride)declinethecentrifugalforce.
a) FindoutbywhatpercentagethecentrifugalforceF=m
2
Rdeclines
whenusingceramicballs.Bywhatpercentagecantherotationspeed
beincreased?Thedensityofsteelis7800kg/m
3
,whilethedensityof
siliconnitrideis3200kg/m
3
.
b) BecausetheEmodulusofsiliconnitrideisapproximately1.5timethat
ofsteel,anequalloadwillleadtohighercontactpressure.The
advantageofasmallercentrifugalforceishencelimited.Howbigis
thiseffect?ForballbearingsteelE=213GPa,=0.29,forsilicon
nitrideE=315GPa,=0.26.
c) Bywhatpercentagecantherotationspeedbeincreasedwhenboth
effectsarecombined?
d) Whatothereffectswillbeadvantageouswithrespecttothehigherrotationspeedbyusing
ceramicballs?
Problem4.10:ConeonringCVT/Hertzianlinecontactsubjectedtorollingwithtraction
Considerthelinecontactofaconeonringcvtsubjectedtorollingwith
traction,bothcomponentsaremadeofcarburisedsteelinaccordancewith
DIN17210,withE=200GPa,=0.3,R
p0,2
=835MPa.Considerthecontraform
contactbetweentheringandcone:R
1
=R
2
=30mm,L=10mm.Whatisthe
maximumnormalload
a) forpurerollingunderwhichnoplasticdeformationoccurs?
b) forrollingwhenthetractionforceamountsto30%ofthenormalforce
andnoplasticdeformationisallowedtooccur?
Thenormalloadcalculatedaboveisbasedonthesocalledstaticloadrating,
itisthemaximumloadthatcanbetransmittedwithoutinitiatingplastic
deformation.Forsurfacedurabilityreasons,thesocalleddynamicload
rating,thefatiguestrengthandlubricationconditionsneedtobeconsidered(Case4.11page149).
Problem4.11.:Surfacedurabilityofagearset
ThecalculationofthesurfacedurabilityisbasedontheHertziancontactpressurep
max
whichmaynotexceedtheallowablestressnumber
H.lim
ofgearmaterials(Table4.7page
141).
a) Thecontactpressureofacarburisedandhardenedspurgearsetneedstobe
verified.ThepinionisdrivenbyatorqueofT
1
=750Nm.Fromtheinformationon
thedrawinginaccordancewithNEN2366followsthatz
1
=15,z
2
=71,m=7mm,
=20Eandb=44mm.Calculatep
max
.
b) Whatwouldbethefactorofsafetyforthedrivingtorquewhenselectingasteel
with
Hlim
is1.2timesthecalculatedvalueofp
max
.
Problem4.12:Contactfriction
ThefrictionforcebetweentwosurfacesinslidingmotioncanbewrittenasF
f
=Awhereisthe
interfacialshearstress.Theshearstressisassumedtobeaconstantandwillbediscussedinthenext
chapter.ThecontactareaAofaHertzianpointcontactisafunctionofF(eq.4.10page101).Derivean
equationforF
f
(F)=CF
B
.WhatisBandwhatisC?
Problem4.13:TrueorUntrue?
1. TheHertzianformulaearederivedonthebasisof1)linearelasticdeformation,2)thestresses
belowthesurfacearenotaffectedbyfinitedimensionsofthecontactingbodiesand3)the
contactingsurfacesareassumedtobefrictionless.
2. ThemaximumHertziancontactload(elasticdeformation)ofaceramicballrunningonasteelflat
ishigherthanthatofasteelballrunningonasteelflat,whentheballandflatareofthesame
steelgrade.
3. TheHertzianformulaecanbeappliedforstationaryconcentratedcontactsaswellforrolling
contacts.
4. Inconcentratedcontactsthecontactpressureresultsinnormalstresseswhicharethegreatestat
thesurface.
5. ThestaticloadratingofdeepgrooveballbearingsisdefinedbytheHertziancontactloadat
whichacontactpressureoccursof4.2GPa.Thiscontactpressureisthemaximumcontact
pressureatwhichthedeformationisstillelastic.
6. Thedynamicloadratingofdeepgrooveballbearingsisdefinedastheloadatwhichamaximum
contactpressurewilloccurof4.2GPa.
7. Ingrooveballbearingsthedynamicloadratingissmallerthanthestaticloadrating.
8. Inconcentratedcontactsthenormalstressesatthesurfaceresultinshearstressesbelowthe
surface.
9. Firstinelasticyieldinginconcentratedcontactstakesplacejustbelowthesurface.Thisiswhere
theshearstressesaremaximum.
10. Inconcentratedinitialpointcontactstheloadatwhichfirstinelasticyieldingwilltakeplaceis
proportionaltothecriticalcontactpressurep
m.c
3
.
11. TheloadcapacityofapointcontactisproportionaltoR
p0.2
3
.
12. Doublingtheloadonadeepgrooveballbearingwilldecreasethefatiguelifebyafactor2
3
=8.
13. Doublingtheloadonarollerbearing,whichtransmittheloadvialinecontacts,willdecreasethe
fatiguelifebyafactor2
10/3
.
14. Theslipbetweenthesidesurfacesofacylinderrollerwithitstrackistypicallyanexampleof
Heathcoteslip.
15. Reynoldssliptypicallyoccursinarollingcontactundertraction.
16. Intheballracewaycontactofangularcontactballbearingsacombinationofrollingandspinning
takesplace.
17. Inrollingbearingstheballsandracewaysbecomeseparatedduringservicebyelasto
hydrodynamiclubrication,dependentonload,speedandsurfaceroughness.
18. Elastohydrodynamiclubricationmustbeavoidedintractiondrivesinordertopreventmacro
slip.
19. Rollingbearingsinmotion,loadeduptothestaticloadratingshowinitialplasticdeformation
whichislimitedtotherunninginperiod.
20. Brinellhardnessismeasuredasthedepthofanindentationofahardmetalballunderprescribed
load.
21. Plasticdeformationinconcentratedcontactsofrollingmechanismsmayvanishduringrunningin
byworkhardeningofthesteelandanincreaseofcontactconformitybyinelasticyielding.
22. Thesurfacedurability(fatiguestrength)ingeartransmissionsisbasedontheHertziancontact
pressure.
23. Therollingresistanceinasteelballringcontactissolelydefinedbythetimedependentelastic
recovery,calledhysteresisloss.
Answers
4.1)
a) Theeffectivecontactradiusiscalculatedusingeq.4.3page99
I)
II)
aminussignisbecauseoftheconcavesurfaceasexplainedonpage99.
b) Ifthecamrollerdiameterisequaltothediameteroftherailguide,thentheradiusofthe
Hertziancontactr
x
=r
y
=r.Substitutionofp
m
=p
max
/1.5,p
max
=4.2GPa,R=2.5mmandE=233
GPaineq.4.10page101resultsinthestaticloadratingofthepointcontactofC
0
=708N.The
contactpressureof4.2GPacorrespondstoaplasticindentationof1/10,000oftheroller
diameter.
Iftherollingcontactshouldremainfullyelasticthentheloadcapacityislimitedbyp
m.c
=R
p0.2
=
1850MPaandresultsinF
c
=204N,afactor3.5less.ThiscanbewrittenasF
c
=s
0
C
0
wheres
0
=3.5.
4.2)
a) Pointcontact:Themaximumcontactloadisproportionaltop
m.c
3
(eq.4.10page101).
Whenrunninginthesametracktheplasticdeformationwillvanishinafewloadcycles.
b) Linecontact:Themaximumcontactloadisproportionaltop
m.c
2
(eq.4.26page108).
RollingelementswithlinecontactsandloadeduptoC
0
willfailbyratcheting(page114).
4.3) Theloadcapacityiscalculatedusingeq.4.10page101.Thecriticalvalueofthemaximumcontact
pressureislimitedbythesteelsurfaceforbothmaterialcombinations.Theonlyparameterthat
mattersinthisequationistheeffectiveEmodulus(eq.4.2page98):
4.4) Thecontactstiffnessisrelatedtoindentation(eq.4.6page99),withthecontactradius(eq.4.5
page99)andwiththeload(eq.4.1page98):
ThiscanbewrittenasS(F):
Thecontactstiffnesshasincreasedbyafactor2.224.Thefatiguelifehoweverwilldecrease
dramaticallywiththisheavypreload,startingandrunningfrictionwillalsobehigherandasa
consequencethebearingtemperaturewillbehigher.Toeliminaterunningnoiseinballbearings
anaxialpreloadisadvisedof0.01C(ameancontactpressureof1GPa).
4.5) WithasurfacehardnessofHRC50thedynamicloadratingwilldecreasefromCto0.5C.The
fatiguelifewilldecreasewith (eq.4.62page129).
4.6) Fromeq.4.82page144itfollowsthatthemaximumcontactloadisrelatedto
Hlim
2
.Thisresults
forthemaximumdrivingtorque:
NotethattheHertzequationforlinecontacts(eq.4.26page108)wouldgivethesameresult.
4.7)
a) Substitutionofthenumericaldataineq.4.14page103givesHBWin10
7
MPa(30HB.300MPa)
1 2.5 5 10 15 30kN
d=0.6D 3 8 16 32 48 95HBW
d=0.24D 22 54 109 218 327 653HBW
b) Substitutionofthenumericaldatain(eq.4.10page101)gives:
steelsteel E!=233GPa F
c
=258N F/F
c
=116
steeldiamond E!=347GPa F
c
=116N F/F
c
=260
Thehardmetalballflattenslessandconsequentlyhasasmallercontactsurfaceasafunctionof
theload.
c) WithasteelballitappearsthatF/F
c
<200,indicatingthatthedeformationisnotfullyplastic
(Figure4.4page102).Becauseoftheflatteningofthesteelballstheseareunsuitableto
determinethehardnessofhardobjects(>450HBW).
4.8)
a) TheHertzianloadislimitedbytheyieldstrengthoftherailguides.TheHertziancontactwillbea
circularpointcontactwithradiusrsincetherollerdiameterandthediameteroftherailguideare
thesame.Substitutionofp
m.c
=R
p0.2
=1080MPaandR=4mmin(eq.4.10page101)resultsinF
c
=32N.ThemaximumvalueofthepayloadbecomesP=2F
c
sin30=F
c
b) ItisshowninFigure4.4page102thattherelationp
m
~F
1/3
accordingHertzholdsreasonably
gooduptop
m
=H.Substitutionofp
m
=Hin(eq.4.10page101)resultsinF
H
=860N.
c) ThecontactareaA=F
H
/H=0.265mm
2
.Withbyapproximationacircularcontactthecontact
width2r=0.58mm.
4.9)
a) Theweightofasiliconnitrideballis60%lessthanthatofasteelball,resultinginacentrifugal
forcethatis60%lower.Therotationspeedcouldconsequentlybeincreasedbyafactorof
2
/
1
=(1/0.6)
1/2
=1.3or30%.
b) ForsteelsteelE!
1
=230GPa,forsteelsiliconnitrideitfollowsthatE!
2
=272GPa.Themaximum
contactpressureisconstrainedbythelesshardsteelring.Fortheloadratioofbothmaterial
combinations,itfollowsfrom(eq.4.19page106)that:F
c
/F
H
=(E!
2
/E!
1
)
2
=0.7.Thismeansthe
maximumloadforthesteelsiliconnitridecontactis30%less.
c) A60%lowercentrifugalforceanda30%lowerloadratingthereforemeanstheadvantageofthe
lowerdensitywillbehalved.Therotationalspeedcanconsequentlybeincreasednotby30%for
ceramicballsbutonlyby15%.
d) Ceramicballscreateasmallercontactsurfaceandhencealowerresistancetorollingwithless
heatdevelopmentasaresult.Thispositivelyaffectthemaximumrotationalspeedforhybridball
bearings,whichwouldintotalliebetween15%and30%higherthanforsteelballbearings.
4.10)
a) Themaximumcontactloadofalinecontactinpurerollingisgivenbyeq.4.24page108.
Substitutionofp
m
=p
m.c
=(0.5/0.387)R
p0.2
,R!=15mmandE!=220GPagivesF
c
=8.1kN.
b) ForrollingwithtractionandF
tan
/F=>1/9themaximumshearstressoccursatthesurface.From
Table4.1page111itfollowswithF
tan
/F=0.3that
max
/p
m
=0.51.Substitutionineq4.25page
108givesp
m.c
=0.5/0.51R
p0.2
andfromeq.4.10page101thatF
c
=4.7kN.Thismeansthe
maximumnormalforcehasdecreasedby42%.ThedrivetorquethatcanbeappliedisM=
0.3@F
c
@R=41.9Nm.
4.11)
a) Considereq.4.77page142.Firstly,factorsZ
H
,Z
E
andZ
aredetermined.From(eq.4.79page
143)itfollowsthatZ
E
=1.9@10
5
Pa
1/2
andZ
H
=2.495.ToestablishZ
(4.79),thenecessarygear
dimensionsmustbedeterminedfirst(eq.4.75page142).Forthecontactratio,itfollowsthat
=1.646andforthecontactratiofactorZ
=0.886.ThetangentialforcefollowsfromT=F
t
d
1
/2,
thisisF
t
=14.3kN.Substitutionofthenumericaldatain(eq.4.77page142)givesp
max
=0.8GPa.
FromTable4.7page141itfollowsforcarburisedandhardenedsteelthatp
max
=1.3...1.5GPa.It
meansthatthefatiguestrengthofthetoothflanksmaybesufficient.Theimpactofimperfect
alignment,peakloadsfromthedriveandotherpossibleeffectsstillhavetobeincorporatedinto
thecalculation.
b) Therelationbetweenthelimitingcontactstress
Hlim
andthemaximumtangentialforceis
presentedin(eq.4.82page144),i.e.
Hlim
~F
t
1/2
.BecauseT
max
~F
t
,itfollows
Hlim
~T
max
1/2
.With
Hlim
=1.2Ap
max
afactorofsafetyforthedrivingtorquewouldbe1.2
2
=1.44.
4.12)
Fromeq.4.10page101itfollows
ThecontactareaAandF
f
=AincreaseslessthanproportionalwithF.
ThecoefficientoffrictionisaconstantwhenF
f
increasesproportionalwithF.
ForthesphericalcontactthecoefficientoffrictiondecreaseswithF.
4.13)
Untrue:2,5,6,7,15,18,20,23.
True:1,3,4,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,16,17,19,21,2
38 Chapter5Frictionphenomenainmechanicalsystems
ProblemsChapter5
Problem5.1:Selflockingofmetricthreadandnut
Flangenutsaremoreresistanttovibrationloosening.Thewidereffective
bearingarearesultwiththesamefrictionforceinalargertorqueneededfor
selfloosening.Sometimesthebearingsurfaceisserratedtoprovidesomeextra
lockingaction.Variousalternativelockingmechanismsmaybeemployed;
adhesives,safetypins,nyloninserts.Lugnuts,taperedorsphericalnutsare
appliedtocentrethenutaccuratelyandtoreducethetendencyforthenutto
loosen.
Finethreadshavelesstendencytoloosenundervibrationbecauseoftheir
smallerhelixangle.CalculatetheminimumvalueofthecoefficientoffrictionneededforaM10x1.5
threadandthatofanM10x1metricfinethreadinordertoensureitisselflocking.
Problem5.2:Torquecontrolledtightening
Calculatethepercentageofthetighteningtorqueneeded
toovercomea)thefrictioninthethreadedcontactofan
M10x1.5bolt,b)theheadfacecontactandc)the
percentageneededtodeveloptheclampingforce.
Considerthecoefficientoffrictionof=0.15andthe
effectivebearingdiameterofthenutofd
k
=1.3d
Problem5.3:TorqueAnglecontrolledtightening
Torquecontrolledtighteningresultsinboltforce/clampingforcedeviationsof20%duetovariationon
thetorqueappliedandthescatteronthecoefficientoffriction,despitespecialMoS
2
basedlubricantsare
used.Thereforemoreadvancedcombinedtorque/anglecontrolledtighteningmethodsareapplied.
Anglecontroltighteningisaprocedureinwhich
afastenerispretightenedbyasocalledsnug
torquetoeliminateplay,andinanextstepitis
furthertightenedbygivingthenutanadditional
controlledrotation.
Boltsaretightenedbeyondtheiryieldpointby
thismethodinordertoensurethataprecise
preloadisachieved.
a)Calculatetheboltstrainwhentightenedto
i
=R
p0.2
.
b)Calculatetheboltstrainwhentightenedin
twosteps,firstsnugtightto25%oftheyield
strengthandthentightenedwitha90degrees
rotationangle.ConsiderM1010.9boltanda
clampedmaterialofL=5d.
Chapter5 Frictionphenomenainmechanicalsystems 39
Problem5.4:FrictionlossinBowdencables
Calculatethepercentageoflossofactuationforceoverthebended
partoftheBowdencableshowninthefigurebelow.Considera
coefficientoffrictioninalubricatedsteelsteelcontactof=0.15.
Problem5.5:Wedgeeffectinbeltpulleydrives
CalculatethedrivetorqueratioT
a
/T
b
,where
T
a
istheisthetorquethatcanbetransmitted
whenthebeltissupportedonthepulleywall
surfacesandT
b
isthetorquewhenthebeltis
supportedonthegroovebottomsurface.
Considerapulleygrooveangleof=40E.
Problem5.6:Jammingofapistonina
cylinder
Considerapistonmovinginacylinder,asrepresentedinFigure5.31page191.Thepistonhasa
diameterDandalengthL.IftheloadF
1
actsatthepistonwithamaximumeccentricityofe=D/2,how
longshouldthepistonbetopreventitfromjamming?
Problem5.7:Stickslipmotion
Amassofm=0.5kgispulledalongasurfaceusingaspringbalance.Thespringbalanceismovedwitha
constantvelocityofv=0.1m/s.Themotionexhibitsaclearstickslipbehaviour.Thereadingofthespring
balancevariesbetween8Nand14N.Thestiffnessofthespringk=1N/mm.
a)Calculatetheratiobetweenthestaticand
dynamiccoefficientoffriction.
b)Calculatetheamplitudeofmotion.
c)Calculatethefrequencyofmotion.
d)Calculatethenaturalfrequencyofthemassspringsystem.
Problem5.8:Stickslipmotion
Oneoftheoptionsinamorphologicalmatrixtofulfiltheactuatorfunctioninalinearmotiondrive
systemisapneumaticcylinder.Thefrictionbetweenthepistonsealsandthecylindertypicallyresultsin
africtionasmodelledinFigure5.24page183.
Thesealfrictionishighestinthestatic
positionofthepistonandfallsdowntoa
verylowlevelbyelastohydrodynamic
lubricationwhenthepistonmoves.
Considerapneumaticcylinderspringsystem.Thestaticfrictionbetweenthepistonandcylinderwall
canbeexpressedasapercentageofthepistonforceF
stat
=10%F
piston
.Thepistonisactuatedbyair
pressure.Theairpressureisincreaseduntilthepistonstartstomove.Whenthepistonstartstomove
thefrictionfallsdowntoapproximatezerolevel.Thepistonwillmakeastepforward.Thisprocessis
repeated.
Calculatethesmallestpossiblestepsizeinastepbystepmovementofthepiston.Startfromaposition
inwhichthereisequilibriumbetweentheairpressureandthespringforce(zerofriction).Inthisposition
F
0
=500N.Nexttheairpressureisincreaseduntilthepistonstartstomoveetc.Thespringstiffnessk=10
N/mm.
Problem5.9:PVvalue
ConsiderapolymerbearingwithaPVvalueofPV=0.2MPaAm/s.Theshaft
diameterd=20mm,thebearingwidthL=d,rotationalspeedn=477rpm.
a)Calculatetheloadthatthisbearingcansustain.
b)Calculatepowerlossinthisbearingatthemomentoffailure,assuminga
coefficientoffriction=0.2
Problem5.10:Operatingclearance
Ifabearingbushingispressfittedinametalhousingacumulationofmachiningtolerancesresultina
largevariationofthebearingbusinginsidediameter.Toensureapositiveclearanceunderthemost
unfavourableconditionstheminimumvalueoftheoperatingclearanceingenerallyistakentobe0.5%of
theshaftdiameter.Theoperatingclearanceisdefinedastheminimumclearanceduringoperation.
Effectsresultinginadecreaseofclearanceduringoperationarethermaldimensionalchangesandfor
somepolymersmoisturerelateddimensionalchanges.
Calculatethedecreaseofthebearingclearance[%]ofaPAplainbearingbushingwithashaftdiameterof
d=12mmandawallthicknessoft=3mm.ConsideratemperatureincreaseofthepolymerofdT=80
degreesandalinearexpansioncoefficientofPAof=8010
6
/K
Problem5.11:Hysteresiserrorfromfrictioninthedrivespindle
Inthefigurebelowalinearmotionaxisofamillingmachineisshownactuatedbyaservomotor.The
systemaccuracysuffersfromtheWindupoftheleadscrew.TheWindupofdriveshaftsisdefined
asthetorsionangle.Itisassumedthatthedisplacementofthecarriageissetbytherotationangleofa
steppermotor.Thedrivetorqueispresentinonedirectionofmotion.
ScrewlengthL=1m
TrapezoidalthreadTr12xP3
Pitchdiameterd
2
=10.5mm
ShearmodulusG=80GPa
DrivetorqueT
dyn
=26Nm
DrivetorqueT
stat
=1.2T
dyn
v=0.1m/s
a) Calculatethehysteresiserrorresultingfromthefrictioninthedrivespindle.
b) Calculatetheamplitudeandfrequencyofthestickslipmovementassumingthatthedriving
torqueis20%higherbystaticfriction,beforethemotionstarts.Thecarriageisdrivenwithv=0.1
m/s(Hint:Figure5.25page183).
c) Calculatethedisplacementofthecarriagebyfrictionalheatinginthenutspindleinterface.One
ofthebearingsinthemotordriveisthelocatingbearingofthedrivespindle.Consideramean
valueoftemperatureincreaseoverthespindleof10EC.Thethermalexpansioncoefficientis
=1210
6
/K.
Problem5.12:Hysteresiserrorfromfrictioninthedovetailslide
Inthefigurebelowalinearmotionaxisofamillingmachineisshownactuatedbyaservomotor.The
systemaccuracysuffersfromthefrictioninthedovetailslideofthecarriageandtheresulting
hysteresiserror.Itisassumedthatthedisplacementofthecarriageissetbytherotationangleofa
steppermotor.Thefrictionispresentinbothdirectionsofmotion.
ScrewlengthL=1m
TrapezoidalthreadTr12xP3
Pitchdiameterd
2
=10.5mm
EmodulusE=210GPa
Coefficientoffriction=0.15
NormalloadF=2000N
a) Calculatethehysteresiserrorresultingfromthefrictioninthedovetailslide.
b) Calculatetheamplitudeandfrequencyofthestickslipmovementthatoccursifthecoefficientof
frictionvariesbetween
s
=0.25and
d
=0.1andtheslidingvelocityv=0.1m/s(Hint:Figure5.25
page183).
Problem5.13:Hysteresiserrorfromfrictioninafrictionjoint
Manyworklampsusefrictionjoints,soyoucaneasily
directthelightwhereyouwantit.Consideralamparm
withtwolegsofunequallengthinthepositionas
illustrated.Thefrictionjointsshouldmaintainafixed
clampingforaloaduptoF=10Nandwillslipwhenthe
lamparmisloadedwithahigherload.Calculatethe
hysteresisofthismechanism(virtualplay,bidirectional).
Consider:ArmlengthsL
1
=0.3mandL
2
=0.3m.Thearms
aremadeofhollowsteelpipes,E=210GPa,D=10mm
andd=8mm.
Problem5.14:Frictionalheatingofadiskbrake
Inordertosaveweight,pearliticcastirondiskbrakescouldbereplacedbyaluminiumdisks.Aluminium
isalsoabetterheatconductorthancastiron.Withsurfacetreatment,thealuminiumcanbemadevery
resistanttowear.Apossibledisadvantageisthatthemaximumallowabletemperatureofaluminiumis
lowerthanthatofcastiron.Examinetheperformanceofanaluminiumbrakediskbyansweringthe
followingquestions.
a) IfthecarcomestoastopfromadrivingspeedofV
t
=100km/hwithaconstantdeceleration,the
brakingdistanceappearstobeS=100m(standardforcars).Whatisthedecelerationbeforethe
stopandhowlongwillittaketostop?
b) Themassofthecarism=1000kg.Whatistherequiredfrictioncoefficientbetweenthetires
andtheroadsurfacetopreventslip?
c) Approximately80%ofthebrakingenergyisabsorbedbythefrontwheels.Bothfrontwheelsare
equippedwithasinglebrakediskandabrakepadoneachsideofthedisk.Thewheeldiameter
is0.6m.Thedistancebetweenthecentreofthebrakepadandthewheelcentreis0.1m.The
frictioncoefficientbetweenthebrakediskandthebrakepadis=0.4.Howgreatisthe
pressureforceonthebrakepads?
d) Whattemperaturedoesthebrakediskreachwhenallfrictionenergyisabsorbedbythebrake
disk?Considerboththecastironandaluminiumbrakedisks.Thebrakediskhasadiameterof
300mmandathicknessof12mm.Forcastiron=7300kg/m
3
,c=0.50kJ/(kgK),k=60W/(m
K),T
melt
=1450K,whileforaluminium=2700kg/m
3
,c=0.88kJ/(kgK),k=237W/(mK),T
melt
=
932K.
Note:Sincebrakingonlyoccursforshortperiods,littleheatwillbedissipatedthroughconvection.The
brakediskabsorbsmuchmoreheatthanthepads,firstlybecausethecontactsurfaceofthebrakediskis
muchbigger(nonstationarycontact)andalsobecauseitisabetterconductorforheatthanthepads.
Forafirstapproximation,itisjustifiabletoassumethatallheatgoesintothedisk.
Problem5.15:TirewidthFormula1racingcar
Thefirstclassicallawoffrictionstates:Thesizeofthecontactsurfacedoesnotinfluencethefriction.
Why,then,aretiresfortheFormula1racingcarssowide?
AccordingtotheFIATechnicalCommission,theorganisationthatdecidesonthetechnicalrulesfor
Formula1,thefronttiresshouldnotbewiderthan355mm(i.e.14inches)andthereartiresnowider
than380mm(15inch).
Problem5.16:AccelerationofFormula1racingcar
1
AmodernFormula1racingcarmanagesapproximately1.5km/liter(or1:1.5).TocompletetheGrand
Prixdistance,itwouldneedapproximately180litersoffuel.Sincethetimegainfromalowermass
exceedsthedisadvantageofarefuellingstop,thetankcontentsaremuchsmaller.Theweightofacar,
includingafulltankandthedriver,isapproximately600kg.AFormula1caracceleratessixtotentimes
asquicklyasanormalcar.Accelerationof0100km/hin2seconds,0160km/hin3.5secondsand0
250km/hinlessthan6secondsistypical.ThetopspeedofanF1racerisaround370km/h.Accelerating
from0160km/handbrakingtoacompletehalttakesapproximately6.5seconds.Thismeansthecar
speedsupandslowsdownatthesamerate.Whatistherequiredfrictioncoefficientbetweenthetire
andtheroadsurfacetomakethisaccelerationpossible?
Problem5.17:Trueoruntrue?
1. Coulomb'sfrictionlawiftheloadisdoubledthefrictionisdoubledcanbeexplainedbythe
elasticdeformationinthemicrocontacts,i.e.intherealcontactarea.
2. Coulombsfrictionlaw,thatsaysthatthefrictioninadryslidingcontactisindependentofthe
visiblearea,donotapplytopolymers.
3. Coulombsfrictionlawcanbeexplainedonthebasisofplasticdeformationintheroughness
summits,thattransfertheloadbetweentwosurfacesindrysliding.
4. TheRasurfaceroughnesssometimescalledtheArithmeticalmeanorCentreLineAverageis
independentofthelengthscaleofthesurfaceprofile.Forexample,asurfaceprofiledescribedby
sin(x)andsin(2x)respectivelywouldresultinthesameRavalue.
5. Inpolymermetalcontactstherealcontactareaincreasesmorethanproportionalwiththeload
whichexplainsthelargerfrictioncoefficientathigherload.
6. Therealcontactareaisformedbythemicrocontactsbetweenroughnesspeaksofthesurfaces.
Frictionindryslidingorboundarylubricatedcontactsisaresultofploughingandadhesionforces
inthesemicrocontacts.
7. WithaBrinellhardnessofHB300isthemaximumcontactpressure300kgf/mm
2
=3000MPa
8. Metallurgicalcompatiblematerialsaresensitivetoadhesion.
9. Theploughingcomponentoffrictioninasteelsteelcontactcanbedecreasedbyselectingboth
materialsofthesamehighhardness.
10. Theadhesioncomponentoffrictioncanbedecreasedbyapplyingasoftcoating.
11. Thebacklashisdefinedasthevirtualplaythatamechanicalstructureexhibitwhenactuatedby
reversedloading.
12. Alloyedsteelisgenerallybeneficialinrespecttohavelowfriction,becauseitreducessurface
energyandatthesametimeincreaseshardness.
13. Thefrictionindryslidingpolymermetalcontactsisindependentontheslidingvelocity.
14. Thestaticcoefficientoffrictionisgenerallynormativeinclampingjointsandinterferencefits,
explainedbythestiffnessoftheclampedmaterialwhichisinmostcasessmallerthanthe
stiffnessofthestructure.
1
TestMethodforFrictionCoefficientMeasurementsbetweentireandpavementusingavariableslip
techniqueASTME185997andE184496
15. Theflashtemperatureisdefinedasthecontacttemperatureinthemicrocontactsformed
betweeninteractingasperities.
16. Inpolymermetalcontactsthefrictionremainsminimalwhenthepolymersurfacehasa
roughnessofaroundRa=0.2m.
17. Oneofthemeasurestoeliminatestickslipinpolymersteelcontactsisbymakingthesteel
surfacessmoother(superfinishing).
18. Thecoefficientoffrictionbetweenmetalsoperatinginvacuumenvironmentismuchhigherthan
intheregularatmospherewhichcanbeexplainedbytheadhesioncomponentoffriction.
19. Thecoefficientoffrictionisalwayssmallerthan#1.
20. Thecoefficientoffrictioninpolymermetalcontactsdecreaseswiththecontactpressure.
21. Thefrictionforceinpolymermetalcontactsdecreaseswiththecontactpressure.
22. Thefrictionforceinpolymermetalcontactsincreaseswiththecontactpressure.
23. Thefrictionforcebyploughingisdependentontheradiusoftheasperities(roughnesssummits).
24. Thefrictionforcebyploughingcanbedecreasedbysuperfinishingtechniquesinwhichthe
roundingoftheasperitiesareenlarged.
25. Thefrictionbyploughingisdominatedbytheroughnessofthelesshardersurfacewhentwo
bodysofdifferenthardnessareincontact.
26. Stainlesssteelfastenersaresensitiveforadhesivewearbytheverythinoxidelayeronstainless
steel.
27. Thefrictioninzincplatedfastenersislimitedbythelowshearstrengthofthezinc.
28. WithaBrinellhardnessofHB300isthemaximumcontactpressure300kgf/mm
2
=3000MPa
29. Frictioninahydrodynamiclubricatedcontactisaresultofviscousshearing.
30. Thebacklashisdefinedasthegeometricplaythatamechanicalstructureexhibitwhenactuated
byreversedloading.
Answers
5.1) Thethreadisselflockingif!>nwhere!=atan(/cos(/2)),=60Eand
n=tan(P/d
2
),d
2
=d0.649519P.
Substitutionofd=10mm,P=1.5mmgives>0.046,withP=1mmthen>0.029.
Itcanbeconcludedthatfinethreadsarelesssusceptibletovibrationloosening.
5.2) Totalfriction
CPercentageheadfacefriction:
CPercentagethreadfriction:
CPercentageclamping:
5.3)
5.4)
5.5)
5.6) Thesystemjamswhen>h/e.Substitutionofh=Lande=D/2gives>L/D.Thismeansthat
withL/D>thepistonwillnotjaminthecircumstancesgiven.
5.7)
a)
b)
c,d)
5.8) Figure5.25page183:
5.9)
a)
b)
5.10)
5.11)
a)
b)
AmplitudeofmotionisX/2=0.026mm
Thesameresultcanbefoundbyconsideringthevelocityinscrewnutinterface:
c)
5.12)
a)
b)
5.13)
5.14)
a)
b)
c)
d)
castiron:
aluminium:
Thealuminiumbrakediskprovestobewarmerafterbrakingoncethanthecastironbrakedisk.
Furthermorethemaximumallowabletemperatureofthealuminiumismuchlower.Itmeans
thattheheatconductionofthebrakediskmustbefullyexploitedforittomakealuminiuma
suitablematerialforthepurpose.
Fromfurtherresearchwiththermalnetworkanalysisandpracticalexperimentsitappearsthat
wheelbearingsgetsubstantiallywarmerduetothegoodheatconductivityofaluminium,which
makesthemcriticalcomponents.ThecarbonfibrebrakedisksusedinFormula1canbeloaded
upto1000degreesCelsius.
5.15) Theclassicalfrictionlawsapplytomaterialsthatundergomainlyplasticdeformationinthe
asperitysummits.Polymersdisplayalowerfrictioncoefficientatahighnominalcontact
pressure.Ahighfrictionforcecanconsequentlyonlybeachievedwithalargesurfacearea.
Otheradvantagesofawidesurfacearethatthewearisdistributedoveralargerarea,heat
developmentperunitofsurfaceislowerandtheresultisalargerheatradiatingsurface.
Inmachineconstruction,wherelowfrictionismostlyconsidereddesirable,highsurfacepressure
aredesirable.Forinstance,halvingthediameterofashaftcandoublethesurfacepressure.If
thefrictionforcewasinproportiontop
2/3,
thefrictioncoefficientwouldbereducedto63%ofthe
originalvalue.Thefrictiontorquewouldconsequentlybereducedto31.5%ofitsoriginalvalue!
5.16) ToarriveatV=100km/hint=2seconds,anaccelerationisneededofa=V/t=14m/s
2
.Tothisenda
tractionforceofF
f
=maisneeded.Thenecessarytractioncoefficientfollowsfrom
=F
f
/F=ma/mg.1.4.ThedistancerequiredtoreachthespeedisthenonlyS=at
2
=28m.
Whenacceleratingandbraking,thecoureurexperienceanaccelerationofapproximately1.4g.
Whenturningacorneratspeed,driverscanonlyundergoupto4gforafewsecondsbeforethey
becomeunconscious.Accelerationsarelimitedbyaprescribedmaximumtirewidthwithfour
circumferentialgrooves.Wetweathertiresalsohaveaxialgroovestodissipatewatersideways.
5.17)
Untrue:1,5,11,13,14,17,21,25
48 Chapter6Wearmechanismsofmachineelements
ProblemsChapter6
Problem6.1:Servicelifeofaleadscrew
Consideraleadscrewassemblythatoperateswithacontactpressureinthethreadedareaofp=5MPa.
Thepitchdiameterd
2
=10.5mm.Thestrokeoverwhichthenutisdisplacedis20timesthenutheight.
Thenumberofloadedturnsduringservicelifeisn=10010
3
rev.
Thespecificwearrateofthebronze
nutandthespindlearek
nut
=k
spindle
=
1010
15
m
2
/N.Calculatetheincreaseof
backlashh[mm]inthescrewnut
interfaceofatrapezoidalleadscrew
a)causedbywearofthebronzenut.
b)causedbywearofthespindle.
Problem6.2:Investigationtohardwearingmaterialsforkneereplacements
Inordertoassessthewearperformanceofdifferentmaterialsoftotalkneereplacements(TKR),ablock
onringtestrigwillbeused.Theringisactuatedinreciprocatingmotion.
a)Calculatetherequiredtestdurationinhours.
Theringismadeofsteel,theblockfromultrahighweightmolecularpolyethylene(UHMWPE).The
densityofUHMWPEis=945kg/m
3
.Aspecificwearratek=1010
15
m
2
/NofthePEblockisexpected.A
minimumwearofthepolymerblockof0.1gramistobeobtainedtoestablishthewearrate.Thecontact
surfaceA=100mm
2
,thesurfacepressureisp=2MPa,thetotalslidingdistanceinonecycleiss
i
=30mm
andn=2cyclespersecondaremade.
b)Whattemperaturewilltheringgetwhenthefrictionalheatingistobetransferredbyconvectiononly.
Thecoefficientoffriction=0.12,theheatconvectioncoefficientoftherotatingdiscinfreeairh
c
=80
W/m
2
KandtheeffectiveheatconvectionsurfaceareaoftheringA=710
3
m
2
.
Chapter6 Wearmechanismsofmachineelements 49
Problem6.3:Servicelifeofalinearaxisusingplainbearings
Alinearguidestravelsmoothnessandtolerancevariationsarekeyconcernsformachinedesigners.But,
themostimportantdesignfactorishowwelltheguideresistsdeflection.Linearsupportrailsin
combinationwithopendesignbearingsarebestsuitedtosustainheavyloadsandtoprovidehigh
stiffness.
Linearplainbearingsarethebetterchoice
comparedtolinearballbearingswhenthebearing
arrangementissubjectedtoheavyshockloads,
vibrationsorhighaccelerationsintheunloaded
statehowever,increasedfrictionmustbeexpected.
Calculateoverwhatslidingdistances[km]the
bearingwillweardownoverh=0.1mm.Considera
meanvalueofthecontactpressureofp=3MPa
andthespecificwearrateofk=10
15
m
2
/N.
Considergoodconformitybetweentheplain
bearingandthelinearsupport.
Problem6.4:Servicelifediskbrake
a) Calculatetheservicelifeofdiskbrakepads,expressed
innumbersofbraketimes.Thecontactareaofthe
brakepadisapproachedbyarounddiskwitha
diameterofd=60mmlocatedatcentredistance
r=100mm,thethicknessofthebrakeliningis
t=10mm,thespecificwearratek=5010
15
m
2
/N(class
5),thenormalforceF=6000N,thewheeldiameter
D=0.6mandthebrakedistanceS=100m.
b) Howmuchthinnerwillthebrakediskworndown
duringtheservicelifeofthebrakepadsifthespecific
wearrateofthebrakediskequalsthatofthebrake
lining?
c) Whatistheperfectratioofk
pad
/k
disk
thatmakesthat
thepadanddiskarewornafterthesamesliding
distanceifh
pad
/h
disk
=5?
1. Lappingisbasedonthreebodyabrasion.
2. Metalswithgoodmetallurgicalcompatibilityarelesssensitivetoadhesivewear.
3. Inapolymersteelcontactunderslidingthewearrateofthepolymerwillalwaysexceedthewear
rateofthemetalsurface.
4. Whenlappingahardenedsteelsurfaceusingapearliticcastirondiscanddiamondpowderina
mixtureofpetrolandoil,therelativesoftcastirondiscdoesn'tsufferfromwearwhilethehard
steelsurfacebecomesfinishedtoahighpolish.
5. Hardwearparticlesthatabradeaslidingsurfacemayoriginatefromtheslidesurfaceitself.
6. Threebodyabrasivewearreferstoerosion,whichisthepredominantwearmechanismin
sandslurrypumps.
7. Carburizingoflowcarbonsteelscreatesabeneficialnonmetallicsurfacecharacterthatmakes
thesteellesssensitivetoadhesivewear.
8. Scuffingisatypeofadhesivewearthattypicallyoccursindrysliding.
9. Accumulationofworkpiecematerialonthecuttingedgeofatoolcanbecharacterizedbygalling,
asevereformofadhesion.
10. FalseBrinellingisaresultofplasticdeformationinconcentratedcontactscreatingshallow
indents.
11. Thedimensionofthespecificwearratekism
3
/Nm=m
2
/N,thewearfactorKisdimensionless.
12. The"stationarycontact"isdefinedasthecontactsurfacethatisstationarywiththeloadvector.
13. Scuffing,coldweldingandgallingarespecificformsofadhesivewear.
14. Asteelpartcanbemadelesssensitivetothreebodyabrasionbymakingitfromalowergrade
steel.
15. PTFEbearingsarefavourableovermanyotherpolymersbecauseoftheverylowfrictionandhigh
wearresistance.
16. Frettingweartypicallyoccursbyreciprocatingmotionsuchasinapistonlinercontact.
17. Adhesive,abrasiveandcorrosiveweararethethreefundamentalwearmechanismsinsliding
contacts.Inrollingcontactssurfacefatigueisgenerallythepredominantwearmechanism.
18. Themaindifferencebetweensurfacegrindingandsuperfinishingtechniqueslikepolishing,
lappingandhoningisthatsuperfinishingislimitedtothesmootheningofroughnesssummits.
19. Thewearrateofmetalssubjectedtoabrasivewearisinalargerangeofoperatingconditionsby
approximationinverselyproportionaltotheirhardness.
20. Materialsthatshowrelativelylowfrictionhavehighwearresistance.
Chapter6 Wearmechanismsofmachineelements 51
Answers
6.1)
a) Slidingdistance
b) Slidingdistance
6.2)
a) SubstitutionofF=pAandV=m/inArchardsequation(eq.6.1page232)givess=53km,and
t=245hours=10.2days.
b) EquatingthefrictionalheatingtotheheattransferbyconvectiongivesQ=F
f
v=h
c
AdT,whereF
f
=Fandv=ns
i
.ThisresultsinQ=1.44WandatemperatureincreaseofdT=2.6EC.Themass
temperatureismuchlowerthanthatofthehumanbodyandconsequentlythetestfrequency
canbeincreased.
6.3)
6.4)
a) stops.
b)
alternativemethod:
c)
BrakingisoneofthebiggeststrengthsofaFormulaOnecar.ThebrakedisksofFormula1carsaremade
ofacompositematerialreinforcedwithcarbonfibre.Thecoefficientoffrictionbetweenthepadsand
thediscscanbeasmuchas0.6whenthebrakesareuptotemperature.Steelbrakedisksareheavier
andwouldexhibitahigherwearrateatthesehightemperatures.
ThetemperatureofanF1brakediskvariesbetween400and1000EC.Youcanoftenseethebrakediscs
glowingduringarace.Iftheracingdriverhitsthebrakesfullonbeforethebrakediskshavereacheda
temperatureofapproximately400degrees,thediskscouldexplodeunderthethermalstressescreated.
Thesestressesaretheresultoflargetemperaturegradientsleadingtoexpansionwhichcauseslarge
stressgradients.
AstheheatcreatedinthemodernFormulaOnebrakediskissohigh,thereisaconstantdemandtofind
moreandmorecooling.In2001,Ferrariconceivedanoriginalwayofdealingwiththeheatproblemin
brakes.Thebrakeduct,conductingtheslipstreamwindalongthebrakedisks,isequippedwithakindof
turbo.Thisisarotormountedonthewheelshaft,providingadditionalsuctiontogetevenmoreairinto
thebrakeduct.Thankstotherotor,thebrakeductcanbemadesmaller,benefitingtheaerodynamics.
TheotherF1teamshavenowcopiedtheidea.
InF1themaximumdimensionsofthebrakedisksarelaiddowninregulations.Duringqualification,
relativelythinandhencelightbrakedisksareusedbecausethecarsonlyneedtocomplete12laps.For
theraceitselfthethickestpossiblediscsarefittedonthecar.Itmeanstheincurredheatcanbebetter
distributedoverthebrakediskmaterial.Duringtheraceasensorcontinuouslymeasuresthethickness
ofthebrakedisks.Themeasurementswillhelpthedrivertoknowwhenhehastogoeasyonthebrakes
tomakeitacrossthefinishingline.Asetofdisksandpadscostsasmuchasacompactcar.Forevery
GrandPrixraceeachteamreckonsonusingtwentysetsofbrakedisksandpadspercar.
6.4)
True:1457911121314171819
Chapter7 Materialselection:asystematicapproach 53
ProblemsChapter7
Problem7.1:Designconsiderationsplasticplainbearings
a) Adesignerisfacedwithachoicebetweenaplainbearingwithsmallshaftdiameterin
combinationwithalongbushingoralargershaftdiameterincombinationwithashortbushing,
sothattheprojectedcontactareaLDisthesameforbothbearings.Whichconsiderationswill
determinethechoice?
b) InordertoreachahigherPVvalue,thedesignerselectedathinplasticbushing,increasingthe
heatdissipationtotheenvironmentviathebushing.Inexperiments,theLPVvalueturnedoutto
besmallerthananticipated.Explainthisresult.
c) ExplainwhyaplasticbearingloadedwithhighpandlowvexhibitalargerLPVvaluethanone
loadedwithlowpandhighv.
Problem7.2:Materialselectionmetalplainbearings
Oneguidelineformaterialselectionofboundarylubricatedmetallicbearingsisahighhardnessratio
betweenthetwomatingsurfaces.Explainthismeasure.
Problem7.3:Deepdrawing
Thetoollifeofadrawingdiestronglydependsonthelubricantused,theblankmaterialandthesurface
coatingontheformingdie.
Duringpressingoperations,thepunchandformingdie
arecontinuouslyincontactwithnewmaterial(open
system).Apinondisktribometercanthereforenot
beusedinitsstandardformforthisapplication,since
thisimpliesthatthepinalwaysrunsinthesametrack
onthediskratherthancomeintocontactwithnew
material.
ASTMG13296containsthedescriptionofastandard
testmethodforpinabrasiontesting.Inthisstandard
variousconfigurationsaregivenwherebythepin
makesaspecificmovementoverthecountersurface
soastocontinuouslymakeafreshtrack.Theconfigurationofchoiceisonewithasphericalpinmoving
overasteelplate,drawingparalleltracks1mmapart.Thepinhasaradiusof5mm.Theaverage
contactstressliesintheregionofthehardnessoftheplatematerial(steelplate:64HBWor640MPa,
aluminiumplate:36HBWor360MPa).
a) CalculatethetrackwidthinthesteelplatewithaloadofF=150N.
b) ThedrawingtoolssteelpinisprovidedwithaCVDTiCcoating.Howcanitbedeterminedduring
theexperimentwhetherthecoatingiswornaway?
c) ThepinisprovidedwithaCVDTiCcoatingof8mthickness.Whatistheexpectedlifeofthe
coatingwhenk=0.1@10
15
m
2
/N?Expresstheexpectedlifeinmeterstracklengthandinthe
experimentdurationwhentheslidingvelocityis0.01m/s.
d) Ifthefrictionsuddenlyincreases,withoutthecoatinghavingwornout,whatcouldhavecaused
it?
54 Chapter7Materialselection:asystematicapproach
Problem7.4:Preselectionofmaterialsinhightemperatureapplications
Whatcausesandarethemajortemperature
limitationsinslidingcontactsconsideringpolymer
metal,metalmetalandceramicmetalcombinations?
Problem7.5:TiretemperatureFormula1racingcar
Aracingtireperformsoptimallyatanoperationtemperatureof100EC110EC.Duringracing,thetire
temperatureismeasuredconstantlyandthedatapassedontothedriver.IftheF1carisgettingready
fortherace,thetirestemperatureisraisedwithtireheaters.Asortofelectricblanketisusedtopre
heatthetiresto80EC.Whyisthetiretemperaturesoimportantandwhatwouldhappenifthe
temperaturewouldbecometoohigh?
1. Typicalabrasioneffectsarecharacterisedbyirregularfrictionwithlargepeaksandmaterial
transferfromonesurfacetotheother.
2. Poisson'sratioistheratiooflateraltoaxialstiffnessofananisotropicmaterial,forrubbersv
=0.5,forpolymersv=0.3to0.45.
3. Indryslidingmetaltometalcombinationsthecoefficientoffrictionismaximalformaterialswith
highshearstrength.
4. Lubricationofmetaltometalcontactsinrelativemotionisgenerallyessentialtopreventsevere
adhesivewearthatruinsthesurfacequalityandtopreventveryhighfriction.
5. Steelshaftsrunningincombinationwithsinterbronzebearingsimpregnatedwithsolidlubricants
donotneedanyfurtherlubricationuntilthesolidlubricantiswornaway.
6. Inordertominimizethetendencytoadhesivewearmaterialsareselectedwhichare
metallurgicalincompatible.
7. AgoodmaterialselectionfactorfortheHertzianloadcapacityofaconcentratedcircularcontact
is(Rp0.2/E')2.
8. Inordertominimizethetendencytoadhesivewear,materialsareselectedwhichare
metallurgicalcompatible.
9. BearingswithleadBabbittlayeraretypicallyappliedinhydrodynamicallylubricatedbearings.
10. Leadedbronzebearingsarethemostpopularchoiceinmachineengineeringbecauseofthegood
slideabilitywhenboundarylubricated,highstiffnessandgoodmachineability.
11. Thermosetswithselectedfillerbecomemoreandmorepopularinoffshoreapplicationsbecause
ofthehighloadcapacityandgooddryslidingpropertieswithnoconcernofwaterthatmayenter
thebearingsystem.
12. Sinteredmetalsimpregnatedwithoilrunningagainststeelarewidelyappliedinconsumer
productsbecausetheyarelubricatedforlife.
13. Oneofthepossibilitiestoimprovethelifedurationofthesurfaceofarollingguideisbyapplying
athinhardcoating.
14. Thermoplasticsinshortplasticshaveadvantagesovermetalsintermsofvibrationdamping,low
weight,inexpensiveandtheabilitytorunwithoutlubrication.
15. Concernsaboutplasticbearingsarethelowstiffness,poorheatconductivity,largethermal
expansionandlargemachiningtolerances.
16. ExamplesofsemicrystallinethermoplasticsarePOM,PA,PEUHMW.
17. Semicrystallinematerialscanbeuseduptosometensofdegreesbelowtheglasstransition
temperature.
18. ExamplesofamorphouspolymersarePVC,ABS,PMMA,PC.
19. SimplemodelstocharacterizeviscoelasticityaretheKelvinmodelandtheMaxwellmodel.
20. ViscoelasticityismodelledbyacombinationofHookeanspringsandNewtoniandashpots,in
whichthespringrepresentselasticityandthedashpotthedamping.
21. Thermoplasticsinslidingmotionagainststeeldonotneedtobelubricatedhowever,lubrication
maysignificantlyreducefriction.
22. Highperformanceplasticsshowhighwearresistanceandlowfriction.
23. InmanyselflubricatingplasticsPTFEisusedasafillertoachievelowfrictionandgoodwear
resistance.ThesurfaceroughnessofthecountersurfaceisimportanttoformaneffectivePTFE
transferfilm.
24. Thefatiguestrengthofacomponentcyclicallyloadedinbendingcanbeimprovedsignificantlyby
carburizing.
25. Thermosetshavemuchhighermeltingtemperaturethanthermoplastics.
26. Ceramicballsappliedindeepgrooveballbearingsrunningathighspeedarefavourableover
steelballsbecauseofthemuchlowercentrifugalforces.
27. SiliconNitrideballsincontactwithsteelarefavourableoversteelballsbecauseofthehigher
Hertzianloadcapacity.
28. ThinmodernhardcoatingssuchasPVDandCVDcoatingsaresensitivetodelaminationwhen
appliedincyclicallyloadedconcentratedcontacts.
29. AgoodmaterialselectionfactorfortheHertzianloadcapacityofaconcentratedlinecontactis
(Rp0.2)2/E'.
30. Inmanyselflubricatingplastics,PTFEisusedasafillertoachievelowfrictionandgoodwear
resistance.Lubricationisnotneededbutifapplieditwillfurtherimprovethewearresistance.U
31. AgoodmaterialselectionfactorfortheHertzianloadfromahighspeedrotatingballinaball
bearingis(Rp0.2)3/(E')2/?where?isthedensity.
32. Agoodmaterialselectionfactorforaslidebearinginordertoachieveahighloadcapacitywhich
islimitedbythermalfailureisKdT/?whereKistheheatconductioncoefficient,dTthe
maximumcontacttemperatureand?thecoefficientoffriction.
33. SelflubricatingplasticsarethermoplasticsdispersedwithsolidlubricantssuchasPTFE,MoS2and
graphite.
34. Whenlubricatedwithfluids,unfilledplasticsshowhigherwearresistancethantherelatively
expensiveselflubricatingplastics.
35. Theloadcapacityofplasticplasticcombinationsislimitedbythepoorheatconduction.
36. ThesurfacedurabilityofspurgearsiscalculatedusingHertztheory.
37. Amorphousplasticsgenerallyexhibithigherstrength,rigidityandwearresistancethatsemi
crystallineplasticsandshowingeneralgoodchemicalresistancetooilsandgrease.
38. Highperformanceplastics,engineeringplasticsandgeneralpurposeplasticsareclassifiedonthe
basisoftheirstiffness.
Answers
7.1)
a) Theloadcapacityofplasticbearingsislimitedbythepvvalue.Iftherotationalspeed(rev/s)is
fixedtheslidingspeedincreasesproportionaltothebearingdiameterandthusthemaximum
loadcapacityisgainedwitharelativesmallbearingdiameter(P=Fv,v=dn).
b) Thecontactpatchcreatedbyplasticdeformationbecomessmallerwithathinwallthicknessof
thebearingbushing,resultinginahigherrealcontactpressureandamoreheatdevelopment
perunitofsurface.
c) Thebearingrunningatlowvelocityandhighcontactpressureexhibitsthehighestpvvalue
becauseplasticbearingsshowthelowestfrictioncoefficientatthemaximumcontactpressure.
Furthermore,withahighloadatlowvelocity,thecontactpatchcreatedbyelasticdeflectionof
thebushingbytheshaftloadislarger.
7.2) InTable7.2page250arethecommonbearingmaterialslistedrangedbythematerialhardness.
Thehardnessofthecountermaterial,ingeneraltheshaft,shouldbeapproximately3times
harderthanthehardnessofthebearingmaterial.
PAlargedifferenceinhardness,ingeneralimplicitlesssensitivitytoadhesion
PAbrasionofthehardcountermaterialislimitedtopolishingwearratherthanscratching.
PImprovedembedabilityofhardabrasiveparticlesintherelativesofterbearingmaterial.
PEdgepressuresfrommisalignmentorshaftdeflectionsareaveragedoutbyplasticdeformation
oftherelativesoftbearingmaterial.
7.3)
a) With(eq.4.10page101)itcanbeestablishedthattheloadF/F
1
>200andthedeformationis
consequentlyplastic.Withthisinformationitfollowsthatthetrackwidthisb=2rfromH=F/r
2
.
Thetrackwidthturnsouttobeapproximately0.55mm.
b) Thefrictioninthecontactbetweentheceramiccoatingandthesteelislowerthanwhenthe
steelofthetoolcomesintocontactwiththesteelplate.Throughadhesion,thefrictionandwear
willsuddenlyincreasesharply.Anothermethodsuitableforelectricalinsulatingcoatingsisthe
measurementofelectricalconduction.
c) InCase3.2page234,anexampleisgivenforthewearvolumeofaballasafunctionofthe
flatteningh.Withh=8mfollowsforthewearvolumeV=1@10
3
mm
3
.Substitutionin(eq.6.1
page232)givesatracklengthofs=67m.Withaslidingvelocityof0.01m/stheexpectedtool
lifewouldbeapproximately110minutes.
d) Throughtheadhesivetransferofmaterialthefrictionsuddenlyincreases.
7.4) Althoughmetalsingeneralcansustainhightemperaturesandhaveagoodheatconduction,itis
thelubricantthatisneededinmetalmetalcontactsinslidingmotionthatmayfail.Lubricating
oilscanbeappliedupto150EC,howevertheoxidationstabilityofthelubricatingoilmaylimit
theexposuretimetothistemperature.Dry/solidlubricants,forexampleMoS2based,canbe
usedwithcontacttemperaturesupto400EC,invacuummuchhigher.
Somehighperformancepolymersaresuitableforuseathightemperaturesupto150...300EC,
buthavearelativelylowcompressivestrengthathighertemperaturesandhavepoorheat
conductivity.
Ceramicsareveryhardandcanwithstandhightemperaturesupto400EC,butarebrittle,show
highfrictioncoefficientsincombinationwithsteel(=0.20.8)andarealsopoorheatconductors.
Carbonbasedceramiccoatings(DLC)haveagoodthermalconductivityandrelativelowsurface
energythatmakethemverysuitabletoperformathightemperaturesandinvacuum.
7.5) Figure7.4page254showsthatthefrictioncoefficientincreaseswithtemperatureuntila
maximalvalueisreached;abovethatvaluethefrictioncoefficientfallsback.Inordertoachieve
maximumtraction,anoperatingtemperatureisneededwhichensuresamaximumfriction
coefficient.Whenthemaximumfrictioncoefficientisexceeded,fadingoccurswherebythe
frictionstronglydecreasesandahighlevelofmeltingtakesplace.Fadingcanalsooccurinthe
brakes,i.e.brakefade.AFormula1carhasnoantilockbrakingsystem(ABS),whichmeansit
ispossiblethataracingdriverendsuplockingawheelwhenhebrakes.Itextendsthebraking
distanceandthetirewillundergoterriblelocalwear,resultinginaflatspot.
Duringtheformationlap,mostdriverszigzagalongthetracktowarmupthetires.Attheendof
thislap,thedriversparktheircarsatthestartpositionandstarttheraceafewsecondslater.
Tiresthathavereachedtherighttemperaturebecomeverysticky,resultinginaconsiderable
amountofrubberpickupfromothertireswhichinthecourseoftheraceendupimmediately
nexttotheideallineonthetrack.Whoevertakestheidealracinglineexperiencesfewproblems
withthis.Butadriverwhotacticallymakeswayforafastercolleagueregularly,encounters
problemsbecauseofthis.Ittakesafewlapsbeforethepiecesofpickeduprubberhavecleared
againfromthetires.
WetWeathertiresdonotcometotemperatureincoldwater.Tocompensate,theyaremade
fromasoftertirecompoundthandryweathertires.Furthermore,thetiresdifferbecauseofthe
grooveprofilewhichdissipateswatersideways.Qualifiertiresareveryspecialtiresofasuper
softcompoundwithalifedurationofoneortwolaps.Atonetime,thissortoftirewasusedto
achieveasuperqualifyinglaptime.
Duringtherace,pitstopscanbemadeforthefollowingreasons:
Ptochangetires(accordingtoplan,thishappensonceorseveraltimesperrace,ormore
frequentlyinchangeableweather)
Prefuelling(accordingtoplan,oneormoretimesperrace)
Prepairs(alwaysunexpected)oradjustmentstofrontand/orrearwings(alwaysunexpected)
Tochangethetires,asmallarmyofatleastfifteenfittersisneededtoreturnthecartotherace
within4seconds:twofittersforthejacksatfrontandback,oneforthelollipopplusthree
fitterspertire(numberoneundoesthecentralwheelnut,numbertworemovestheoldtireand
numberthreefitsthenewone.Thelollipopman(literally,fromlolly)ensureswithaboardona
stickthatthedriverknowswhathehastododuringthestop(e.g.BRAKEandFIRSTGEAR).
Mostly,refuellingtakesplaceatthesametimeastirechanges.Suchacombinedpitstoptakesa
fewsecondslongeranddependsontheamountoffueltobereplaced.ThepetrolforaFormula
1cardoesnotdiffermuchfromthatofastandardcar.Theoctanenumberisalittlehigher,i.e.
102insteadof98forasimplesuperpetrol.Currentregulationsforbidtheadditionofoutput
enhancingadditives.However,additivescanbeaddedtooptimisethefuel.Theparticipating
oilcompaniesmustsubmitsamplesofallfueltobeusedduringtheyeartotheFIA.Spotchecks
maybecarriedoutduringaracingweekend.
7.6) True:345691011121415161819202123242628293132
33343536
Chapter8 Lubricantselectionandlubricationmanagement 59
ProblemsChapter8
Problem8.1:Lubricationregimes
Theslidesurfaceofacamfollowermechanismispartiallysubmergedinanoilbath.Afteroneyears
operation,nowearcanbeobserved.Thefinishinggroovesontheslidesurfacearestillvisible.
a) Explainthisphenomenon.
b) Ifthelubricationregimeisnotchanged,couldfailureeventuallyoccur?
Problem8.2:EPadditives
a) Describetheway/whenEPadditiveswork.
b) WhattypeofwearcanbepreventedwithEPadditives?
c) WhatdoesEPstandforandwhyisthisnomenclaturedisputable?
Problem8.3:Coneonplateviscometer
Theconeonplateviscometeristhemostpopularmethodforgainingviscosityinformationatspecific
shearrates.Factorssuchassmallsamplesizeandeaseofcleaninghavehelpedmaketheconeandplate
approachsopopular.Theoilforwhichtheviscosityneedstobedeterminedis
placedbetweentheconeandtheplate.
Beforethemeasurementcantakeplace,sometimeisrequiredtobringthecone,whichisatthesame
temperatureastheplane,totherequiredtemperature.Todeterminethedrivingtorqueasafunctionof
theviscosity,thefollowingquestionsneedtobeanswered.
a) DeriveanequationfortheshearrateMu/Mzatdistancerfromthecentre.
b) DeriveanequationfortheviscousshearforceF
f
(r)ofelementdr.
c) DeriveanequationfortheviscousfrictiontorqueM.
Problem8.4:Speciallubricants
Listafewspecificfunctionalrequirementsoflubricantsfor
a) Gearlubrication
b) Hydraulicoils
c) Cuttingoils.
60 Chapter8Lubricantselectionandlubricationmanagement
Answers
8.1)
a) Asaresultofelastohydrodynamiclubricationthesurfacesdonotmakecontact.
b) Throughtheelasticdeformationthatislikelytooccurinaconcentratedcontact,surfacefatigue
mayeventuallysetin.
8.2)
a) Thefrictionbetweentheasperitysummitscreatesahigh(flash)temperature.Undertheinfluence
ofthehightemperature,theEPadditivesformachemicalprotectiveoxidelayerwithhighshearing
strengthwhichcanpreventpuremetalcontact.
b) Withoutthisprotectivelayer,theasperitysummitsmaybeweldedtogetherandthenbreakapart
againwithcontinuousmovement(scuffing).
c) EPstandsforExtremePressure,whereasthechemicalreactionestablishesitselfthroughthe
ExtremeTemperature(flashtemperature)betweenintermeshingasperitysummits.
8.3)
a)
Itisfoundthatauniformshearrateisgeneratedacrosstheentiresampleforanygivenrotational
speed.
b)
c)
AdoublingoftheconeradiusRresultsinaspindletorqueincreaseofafactoreight.Thisisofgreat
benefitwhenmeasuringlowviscosityproductswhereaninstrument'sminimummeasurabletorque
islimited.
8.4)
a) Gearlubricants:extremepressureadditivestopreventscuffing,highpressurecoefficienttoenable
elastohydrodynamiclubrication,antifoaming.
b) Hydraulicoil,corrosionresistance,biodegradable.
c) Cuttingoil:greatlubricity,extremepressure(EP),cooling,corrosion,compatibility.
Chapter9 Designofhydrodynamicbearingsandsliders 61
Chapter9
Problem9.1:Reynoldsequation
WhichassumptionshavebeenmadeinderivingtheReynoldsequation?
Problem9.2:Aquaplaning
Athinwaterfilmdevelopsbetweenacartireandtheroadsurface.Becauseofthewaterfilm,the
tractionforcesbetweenthetireandtheroadsurfacearealmostlost.
a) Whatistheeffectivesurfacevelocitythatcausesaquaplaning?Assumethatthereisnoslipyet
(V=R).
b) Severalmeasuresareconsideredtomakecontactwiththeroadsurface.Indicatetowhichextent
theseactionsmakesensebyconsideringtheeffectivesurfacevelocityinthefollowinginstances:
pushingthegaspedal(R=10V),
activebraking(R=0),
puttingthecarintoreversegear(R=10V),
pushingintheclutch(0#R#V).
Problem9.3:Camfollowermechanism
Foranoptimallifetimeperformanceandreliabilityofacamfollowermechanism,EHLisrequired
betweenthecamandtherotatingfollower.Theminimumfilmthicknessinalinecontactcanbe
calculatedusing(eq.4.51page122).
a) Demonstrateinwhichpositionofthe
camIorIItheEHLwillfailfirstifno
slipoccursandwhentheangular
velocityofthecamisconstant.
b) seea)butintheeventof100%slip.
c) Thefilmthicknessh
c
tobecalculated
givesanindicationifEHLmayoccur.
Wheredoestheminimumfilmthickness
forEHLdependson?
62 Chapter9Designofhydrodynamicbearingsandsliders
Problem9.4:Grindingofrollers
Alargerotatinggrindingstoneisusedwithplainhydrodynamicjournalbearings.(Rollingbearings
generallydisplayhighfrequencyvibrationswhichcompromisetheaccuracyofmovementandhencethe
surfacequalityofthegrinding).Toimprovethesurfacequality,therotationalvelocityagrindingstoneis
increased.Atthishighrotationalvelocitythegrindingstonestartstovibrateatafrequencyequalling
halftherotationalvelocity.
a) Whatwillbetheoriginofthisvibration?
b) Whatmeasurescanbetakentopreventthevibrationwithoutsacrificinganyoftherotational
speed?
c) Someonesuggestsreplacingthehydrodynamicbearingofthegrindingstonebyahydrostatic
bearing.Isthisagoodadvice?
Problem9.5:Circumferentiallygroovedhydrodynamicbearing
Sometimesbearingsareusedthatcontainacentralcircumferentiallubricantfeedgroove.Examineby
howmuchtheloadcapacityofthistypeofbearingdecreasesasaresultofthegroove.Usethe
dimensionsofthebearinggiveninCase9.3a.Considerthecircumferentiallygroovedbearingastwo
bearingswithL/D=0.5.
Problem9.6:SqueezingDiskbrake
Beforethebrakeshoesofadiskbrakemakecontactwith
thebrakediskssomerainwaterwillhavetobedispersed.
Thetimerequiredtodothisandthefactorsinfluencingthe
timewillbeexaminedhere.
Thegeometryofabrakeshoeisapproximatedbyaround
diskwitharadiusofR=40mm.Theviscosityofwateris
=0.001Pas.Thesqueezeforceamountstoapproximately
6kN.Becauseofinaccuraciesinshapeandroughnessof
theslidesurfaces,mechanicalcontactalreadyexistsath
2
=3
m.
a) Explainwhythisproblemcanbeconsideredapure
squeezingfilm.
b) Calculatethetimedelayasaresultofthesqueezeeffectandtherelativeincreaseinbrakedistance
resultingfromthesqueezeeffect,ifthedrivingspeedis100km/h.
c) Howcanthistimedelaybereduced?
d) Tolimitthewearonthebrakeshoesandbrakedisks,manufacturingthebrakediskswithahard
wearingmaterialandfinishthemverysmoothlyissuggested.Whatdoyouthinkofthisproposal?
Problem9.7:Tubeexpansion
Toexpandthediameterofatubeataperedconeisforcedthroughthebore.Theobjectiveistomaintain
athinlubricationfilmbetweenthepipeandthetaperedcone.Consideronlythewedgeeffectand
determinetheparametersthatwillinfluencefilmthicknessh
c
.
a)Explainwhyaparallelfilmwillbe
created.
b)Deriveanequationfordp/dxand
p(x)
c)Convertfromtheequationforp(x)
anequationforthefilmthicknessh
c
.
d)Willthecalculatedfilmthickness
actuallyoccur?
Problem9.8:Railwheelcontact
a) Inthewedgeshapedinlet
regionofarailwheelcontact,
byapproximationh(x)=nx(n
inradians)applies.Deriveon
thebasisofgeometric
considerationsthevalueofn
(considerntobesmall).
b) Heavyrainfallhascreateda
thinwaterfilm.Thewheel
andtherailremainincontact(blockedfilm).Deriveanequationforthepressuregradientinthe
inletregion,consideringaonedimensionalflowandh(x)=nx.Thereisnoslip.
c) Whywillthepressureinrealitynotinfinitelyincreasewhenx=0?
d) Assumethatathinparallelfilmisgenerated.Drawapossibleactualhydrodynamicfilmpressure
distribution(inletandconjunctionarea).
e) Nowderiveanequationforthepressuregradientintheinletareabyequatingtheflowintheinlet
areawiththeflowintheconjunctionarea.
f) Calculatethepressurep(x=0).Thefilmthicknessintheinletregionisnowh(x)=h
0
+nx.
g) Considerthattheloadcapacityofthefilmisalmostentirelydeterminedbythepressureinthe
conjunctionarea.What,then,istheloadcapacity?
64 Chapter9Designofhydrodynamicbearingsandsliders
Answers
9.1) Laminarflow,Newtonianfluid,predominatedviscousshearforces,isoviscousandconstant
pressureacrossthefilm,noslipcondition,Eulerscoordinatesystem.
9.2)
a) AquaplaningU
e
=V+R=2V.
b) pushingthethrottlewideopen*U
e
*=11V,activebraking*U
e
*=V,switchingtoreversegear
*U
e
*=9V,holdingdownclutchV<*U
e
*<2V.Conclusion:brakingorpushingdowntheclutch,
preferenceforpushingintheclutchtogainspeedagainwhencontactisreestablished.
9.3)Camfollowermechanism
a) PositionI:Bothcontactsurfacesmovealongwiththefilmprofileatequalvelocity(U
1
=U
2
=U
F
=3R),
sothatnolubricantcanbedraggedintotheconvergingwedge: .
PositionII:Thefilmprofileisstationary:U
F
=0.Withoutslip,bothcontactsurfacesdragthelubricant
alongasU
1
=U
2
=2Rintotheconvergingwedge:
Conclusion:Witharotatingfollower,EHLwillfailfirstinposition1.
b) PositionI:ThefilmprofileandthecamsurfacemovetotherightwithU
1
=U
F
=3R.Letthe
coordinatesystemmovealongagainwiththefilmprofile:
PositionII:Thefilmprofileandthefollowerstandstill
InpositionI,theeffectiveslidingvelocityisgreatest.However,thecontactgeometryinthis
positionislessfavourable.Thefilmthicknesswillnowbeestablishedmoreaccuratelyforboth
positions.
Conclusion:Withthestationaryfollower,EHLwillfailfirstinpositionII, .
c) Therequiredvalueofh
c
canbederivedfromtheroughnessofbothsurfaces.
9.4)
a) Theeffectofcavitationislimitedbecauseofthesmalleccentricity,resultingintheloadvectorand
thedeflectionvectorbeingalmostperpendiculartoeachother.Thisresultsinunstablebehaviour,
inthiscaseathalftherotationspeed,calledhalfomegawhirl.
b) Bychoosingalargerbearingclearancetheeccentricitywillincrease,whichmeanstheoperational
speedcanbemaintainedatthehigherlevel.
c) Withahydrostaticpressureinthebearingcavitationissuppressed.Ifanyadditionalhydrodynamic
pressurecanbuildup,thesystembecomesunstable.Alargeplainbearingareathatenablesthe
buildupofhydrodynamicpressuremustthereforebeavoided.
9.5)
TheSommerfeldnumberofabearingwith=0.15andL/D=1amountstoS=9.12,withL/D=0.5itwillbe
=5.08(Program8.2).Theloadcapacityofthebearingisproportionalwiththeproductofthe
Sommerfeldnumberandthebearinglength.Thisresultsinthequotient:
F(L/D=0.5)/F(L/D=1)=(5.08/9.12)(0.5/1.0)=0.28,i.e.theloadcapacityofabearingwithL/D=0.5is28%of
abearingwithL/D=1.0.Forthecircumferentialgroovedbearing,itfollowsthattheloadcapacitywill
amountto2@28%=56%ofthebearinghavinganaxialgroove.
9.6) Diskbrake
a) Withaparallelfilmandinthecaseoftheabsenceofawedgeshapedinletregion,nowedgeeffect
willoccur.
b) SubstitutionofI=F@tin()andassuming(h
2
/h
1
)
2
<1givest=0.12sec,s=v@t=3.3m.
c) Thetimedelayduetothesqueezeeffectcanbereducedbyprovidinggroovesintothebrakeshoes.
d) Asmoothfinishreducesthefilmthicknessh
2
withtheresultthatthesqueezetimet-1/h
2
2
will
stronglyincrease.Halvingthefilmthicknessatwhichcontacttakeplacewillproduceasqueeze
timethatisfourtimesaslarge.
9.7)Tubeexpansion
a) Throughplasticdeformationthepressureinthefilmequalstheextrusionpressureofthetube.
Withtheuniformpressurep=p
e
,dp/dx=0thenq
x
=Uh
c
/2whereh
c
istheuniformCouettefilm
thickness.
b) Theisoviscoussolutionmethodforawedgeshapedinletanduniforminterfaceispresentedin(?).
c) Inreality,theviscositywillincreaseduetothepressureviscositycoefficient,resultinginathicker
film.
9.8)Railwheelcontact
a) Rn=b,n=b/R.
b) Inawedgeshapedfilmwithh(x=0)=0thepressuregradientdp/dxbecomesinfinite.
c) Thecalculationdoesnottakeintoaccountsurfaceroughness,sidewayflowandEHL.
d) Thissolutionmethodisshownin(?).
e) SubstitutionofU
e
=2Randn=b/Rin(?)resultsinp
c
f)
66 Chapter10Dynamicsealingsystems
Chapter10
Problem10.1:Windscreenwiper
Hydrodynamiclubricationtakesplacebetweenawindscreenwiperandthewindscreenofacar.Without
hydrodynamiclubrication,whenthewindscreenisdry,thewiperwillmoveinjoltsoverthewindscreen
duetostickslip.Withhydrodynamiclubrication,theverythinlayerofwaterbetweenthewiperandthe
windowwillevaporateshortlyafterthewiperhaspassedoverit.
Theelasticdeformationoftherubberleadstoafilmprofilethatcanbedescribedbyanexponential
function,h(x)=h
0
e
x
with=20.000m
1
.Thefilmcavitatesinx=0.Thepressonforceofthe40cmlong
wiperbladeamountsto6N,thevelocityofthewiperV=1m/s,theviscosityofwateris=0.001Pa.s.
a) Giveanequationforthepressuregradientwiththeintegrationconstanth
c
.
(h
c
isthefilmthicknessinthelocationofdp/dx=0).
b) Derivefromtheequationofthepressuregradientdp/dxthepressuredistributionp(x).
c) Solvetherelationshipbetweentheconstantofintegrationh
c
andh
0
.
d) Deriveanequationfortheloadcapacityperunitoflength.
e) Calculatetheminimalfilmthicknessbetweenthewindscreenwiperandthewindow?
f) Calculatethethicknessofthewaterlayerthatwillevaporateimmediatelyafterthewiperhas
passed?
g) Calculatethemaximumvalueofthehydrodynamicpressurep
max
thatwilloccur.
Chapter10 Dynamicsealingsystems 67
Answers
10.1)Windscreenwiper
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
68 Chapter11Designofhydrostaticbearings
ProblemsChapter11
Problem11.1:E.P.4pocketjournalbearingwithcapillaryrestrictors
Fromafourpocketjournalbearingisgiven:p
s
=6MPa(60bar),
0
=0.5,D=40mm,L/D=1,L
T
/L=L
A
/L=0.25,
R/R=1/1000,
max
=0.5,=0.2Pa@s,l/d=40.
a) CalculateA
e
/A.
b) Calculatethebearingstiffness
andloadcapacity.
c) Calculatetheflowandrequired
pumpingpower.
d) Calculatethedimensionsofthe
capillaryrestrictors.
Problem11.2:E.P.4pocketthrustbearingwithcapillaryrestrictors
Alockgatecanalsobecarriedbyathinwaterfilminsteadofwheelsrunningonrails.ThePrinsWillem
AlexanderlockgateintheriverIJinAmsterdamarethefirstintheworld(1995)designedinthatway.
Thelockgatesiscarriedonbothendsbyaselfaligningcircularthrustbearingwithfourpockets.
Dependentonthetilt,apressuredistributionisgeneratedasillustratedinthefigurebelow.
Thelockgateissevenmetreshigh,25metreslongandthreemetreswidth.Thedrymassofthelockgate
amountstoapproximately180tonnes.Inthewater,theweightisreducedbytheairpocketsinthedoor
to50tonnes.Underthenominalbearingloadof250kNoneachbearing,awaterfilmiscreatedwitha
thicknessof130m(
water
=0.001Pas).Thepocketsareafewmillimetresdeep.Thedoorcanmove
withavelocityofv=0.24m/s.Becausethebearingshavetocarryadoubleoverload,restrictorsare
includedwhichwillreducethefeedpressurep
s
withanominalloadtothepocketpressurep
r
=0.4p
s
(p
a
=0).Bothbearingsarefedbythesamepump.
a) Giveanapproximation(10%)fortherequiredpumpingpower.(Assumealinearpressure
distributionandcalculatetherequiredpocketpressure,supplypressure,theflowandfinallythe
pumpingpower).
Chapter11 Designofhydrostaticbearings 69
b) Calculatethefrictioncoefficientbyviscousshearinginthethinwaterfilm?
c) Duringtestswithaprototypehydrostaticthrustbearing,thefrictioncoefficientprovedtobe
=0.001.Thishighervalueisaresultoftheinpracticeincompleteseparationofthebearing
surfaces.Ifthefrictioncoefficientincontactequals
BL.
=0.1andthefrictioncoefficientwithafull
filmisnegligiblecomparedtothisvalue,whatpartoftheloadisthentransferredbycontact?
d) Themaximalpumppressure(withminimalflow)isequaltop
s
=2.4MPa(24bar).Ifwithapump
pressureof2MPaaloadof250kNiscarried,howgreatwouldbetheadmissibleloadwheni)the
bearingsurfacesarenarrowlystillseparated(h60),ii)thebearingsurfacesareincompletecontact
(h=0)?
e) Someoneproposestheincorporationofonerestrictorinthecentralfeedratherthantheseparate
restrictorsconnectedtotheindividualpockets.Theadvantagewouldbethatonlyonerestrictoris
requiredforeachbearing,withlessriskblockagesthankstothelargerflowinlet.Whatwouldthe
consequencebe?
Problem11.3:E.P.bearingswithshallowpocket
Achoicemustbemadebetweenoneoftwotypesoflongrectangularhydrostaticthrustbearings.
i) ahydrostaticbearingwithexternalrestrictor.Thepocketdepthinthisbearingismorethen10
timeslargerthanthefilmthicknessh
0
.
ii) ahydrostaticbearingwithshallowpocket.Thepocketdepthinthisbearingisapproximatelythe
sameasthefilmthicknessh
0
.
Thelengthofthebearingissogreatthataonedimensionalflowcanbeassumed.Withnominalload,
thepressurefactor
0
(h
0
)=0.5.Answerthequestionsbelowforbothbearingconfigurations.
a) Drawthepressuredistributioninbothbearings.
b) WhatisthenominalloadF,expressedinL
1
,L
2
andp
s
?
c) WhatistheflowrateQ,expressedinh
0
,p
s
,B,L
1
andL
2
?
d) WhatistherequiredpumppowerN,expressedinh
0
,F,,B,L
1
andL
21
=L
2
/L
1
?
e) WhatshouldL
21
bewhenaminimalpumppowerisrequiredforF,h
0
,,BandL
1
asgiven?
f) Whatish
1
/h
0
ifL
21
=1/2?
g) Takeforbearingtypei)L
21
=1/3andforbearingtypeii)L
21
.=5/6.TakeforbothbearingsequalB,
L
1
,F,andh
0.
Thencalculatethepressureratiop
s,i
/p
s,ii
,flowratioQ
i
/Q
ii
andthepowerratioN
i
/N
ii
.
h) WhatistheloadincreaseF
max
/Fwhenh
min
60?
Chapter11 Designofhydrostaticbearings 71
Answers
11.1)E.P.journalbearing
a)
b)
c)
d)
11.2) E.P.thrustbearings
a)
b)
c)
d)
e) Withthismethod,thetiltingstiffnessofthebearingwouldbelostbecausethepressureinallfour
pocketswouldbecomeindependentofthebearingtilt.
11.3)E.P.bearingwithshallowpocket
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f) , withzerostiffness!Thismeansthat isrequired.
g)
h)
i)
Chapter12 Designofaerostaticbearings 73
ProblemsChapter12
Problem12.1:Designofapartiallygroovedaerostaticjournalbearing
Thebearingconfigurationshownbelowhasgoodselfaligningcapabilityasaresultoftherelativelylarge
distancebetweenthebearings.Bothbearingsmaybedesignedwithdifferentdiametersorlengths,
whichmaybeprofitablewitheccentricloading.Byapplyingdifferentdiametersthefeedingpressure
generatesanaxialforcesothatonethrustringsufficesforaxialpositioning.Theringwillbeseparated
fromthehousingbyaconstantflowsupplywhichcomesfromtheleakageofthepartlygrooved
journalbearingconnectedinserieswiththethrustring.
Thedesignshownaboveissuccessfullyappliedinawaterlubricatedcleaningdevicewithsupply
pressuresover10MPa(100bar)butisalsoapplicableforgaslubrication.
a)Calculatethepressurefactor
0
thatwilloccurwhenthebearingsarefedbywaterandairrespectively.
b)Sketchthepressuredistributionwhichmayoccurifthebearingisfedbywaterandairrespectively,in
thefigurebelow.
74 Chapter12Designofaerostaticbearings
Answers
12.1)Partiallygroovedaerostaticjournalbearing
a) Theformulatocalculatethevaluefortheincompressiblefluidisgivenby(eq.11.57page429).
SubstitutionofL!=0.9,B!=0.1andn=4gives=0.448.Withaparallelfilmandincompressiblefluid
thepressurelinearlydropsfromp
s
top
r
andfromp
r
top
a
.
Theformulatocalculatethevalueforthecompressiblefluidisderivedinthesamewayas
describedfortheincompressiblefluid(eq.12.10page448).Workingoutthisequationfinallyresults
in(L!,B!,n,p
s
/p
a
).SubstitutionofL!=0.9,B!=0.1,n=4andp
s
/p
a
=6gives=0.681.Forhighersupply
pressures,approachestheasymptoticvalue0.669.Withaparallelfilmandcompressiblefluidthe
pressuredistributionisconvexassketchedforthesteppedbearinginFigure?.
b)
Withhelicallyshapedgroovesthebearingfunctionremainsandthepistonbecomesdrivento
rotate.Intheotherwayaround,helicalgroovesandanexternallydrivenrotorwillprovideaviscous
pump.Itisevidentthatdesigninge.p.airbearingsandhydrostaticbearingsisacreativejob.
Chapter13 Designofflexuremechanismsforhighprecisionmotion 75
ProblemsChapter13
Problem13.1:Shaftbendingbylateralmisalignment
Therearetwotypesofmisalignment:parallelandangularmisalignment.Withparallelmisalignment,the
centerlinesofbothshaftsareparallelbuttheyareoffset.Withangularmisalignment,theshaftsareat
anangletoeachother.
Whenadriverlikeanelectricmotoriscoupledtoascreworanyotherpieceofequipment,itisessential
thattheshaftsarealigned.Anymisalignmentbetweenthetworesultsincyclicbendingoftheshaftsand
increasedbearingload.Thismayresultinprematurebreakdownoftheequipmentbyfatiguefractureof
theshaftorbearingfailure.
Calculatethebearingloadandshaftbendingstressasafunctionofthelateralmisalignment.
Considerthelateralmisalignmentthatneedstobecompensatedbyelasticdeformationoftheshafts
=0.2mm.ThemoreflexiblepartoftheshaftoftheelectricmotorandthatofthespindleoflengthL
1
=L
2
=60mmanddiameterd=12mm.ThedistancebetweenthemotorbearingsisL
3
=80mm.
Problem13.2:Resonancefrequencyofaleafspringguiding
TheleafspringsofthelinearguidedescribedinCase13.1page473areaccidentallymadeofamaterial
thicknessof0.3mm.Whatconsequencesdoesthishaveforthemaximumamplitudeofmotion?
76 Chapter13Designofflexuremechanismsforhighprecisionmotion
Answers
13.1)
TheformulaforlateralstiffnesscanbederivedfromthedeflectionmodeshowninFigure?b.
Substitutionofv(L)=/2in(?)resultsinF=300N.Themomentofbendingintheshoulderoftheshaft
becomesM=FL=17.8Nm.Thisresultsinabendingstressof=105MPa.Thestressconcentrationlocally
willresultinamuchhigherlocalstress.
ThebearingloadbecomesF
b1
=FL
1
/(L
1
+L
3
)=127N,F
b2
=Fb
1
F=27N
13.2)
Thestiffnesswillincreasebyafactor(0.3/0.25)
3
,themaximumbendingmomentwillincreasebyafactor
(0.3/0.25)
2
,theamplitudeofmotionwillincreasebyafactor(0.3/0.25)
2
/(0.3/0.25)
3
=(0.25/0.3)=5/6.This
isareductionof17%.Theresonantfrequencywillincreasebyafactor(0.3/0.25)
3/2
.
Chapter14 Bearingsinhightechsystems 77
ProblemsChapter14
Problem14.1:Knifeedgejewelbearing
Theknifeedgebearingofamicrobalancecanbedesignedasarollingcontactoraslidingcontact(Figure
14.3page487).Whichofthedesignshasthehighestloadcapacity?
Problem14.2:Pivotjewelbearing
Calculatetheloadcapacityandfrictiontorqueofthepivotbearingdescribedincase13.1,howeverwith
verticalpivotaxis.
Answers
14.1)Knifeedgejewelbearing
Theloadcapacityislinearlyproportionaltotheeffectivecontactradius(?),F=C
1
@R!
Rollingcontact:Thepivotradiusisusuallytakenthreetimesthebearingradius.Theeffectivecontact
radiusofthelinecontactbecomes1/R!=1/Rp+1/3Rp;R!=3/4Rp.G=F=3/4C
1
Rp
Slidingcontact:Theeffectivecontactradiusofthelinecontactbecomes:1/R!=1/Rp,R!=Rp.Thenormal
loadbecomesF=C
1
Rp.TheloadcapacitybecomesG=2Fsin(n).SubstitutionofF=C
1
R
p
resultsinG=
2C
1
R
p
sin(n).
Theloadcapacityoftheslidingcontactandrollingcontactarethesamewhen2sin(n)=3/4,n=22deg.
Sincetheconeangle2nistypicallyintherangebetween80and90deg,theloadcapacityofthesliding
contactislarger.For2n=90degtheloadcapacityoftheslidingcontactislargerbyafactorof(2sin(n))
/(3/4)=1.9.Noticethatthetractionforceisnottakenintoaccount.
14.2)Pivotjewelbearing
Theradiiofcontactarer
1x
=r
1y
=R
p
,r
2x
=r
2y
=R
b.
Substitutionofthecontactradiiandthematerial
propertiesintheHertzcalculatorforinitialpointcontactsandsettingtheconstraintforthemaximum
contactpressureforsteelp
max
=4.2GParesultsintheeffectivecontactradiusR!=0.075mmanda
maximumHertziancontactloadofF=0.35N.Substitutionofthebearingpropertiesandservice
conditionsinthecalculatorfortheSphericalthrustbearingresultinthefrictiontorqueforthepivot
bearingT=0.19@10
3
Nmm.ThecalculatedloadcapacityandfrictiontorquewithhorizontalpivotaxisisF
=0.46NandT=4.8@10
3
Nmm(twobearings).Thefrictiontorquewithhorizontalaxisisfoundtobe
muchlargerthanwithverticalpivotaxis.
78 Design for lifetime performance and reliability
TableA1:ConversionfactorstoSIUnits
Length:
1foot(ft) = 1200/3937 m
1inch(in) = 25.4E03 m
1mile = (5280feet)
Mass:
1slug = 14.59 kg
1pound(lb) = 0.454 kg
Force:
1pound(lb) = 4.448 N
1dyne = 1E05 N
1kgf = 9.81 N
Pressure:
1lb/in
2
= 6895 Pa
1bar = 1E+05 Pa
1psi = (1lb/in
2
)
PV:
1psi@fps = 2.1E03 Pa@m/s
1psi@fpm = 35.0E+05 Pa@m/s
Power:
1ftlb/s = 1.356 W
1hp = 746 W
Volume:
1gal (US) = 3.785E03 m
3
1gal(UK) = 4.546E03 m
3
1barrel = (42gallon)
Temperature:
Celsius(EC) = (EF32)5/9
Kelvin(K) = EC+273
Dynamicviscosity:
1cP = 1E03 Pa@s
1poise(P) = (100cP)
Kinematicviscosity:
1cSt = 1E06 m
2
/s
1stokes(St) = (100cSt)
Design for lifetime performance and reliability 79
TableA2Deflectionsandslopesofuniformcantileverbeams
Loading deflection slope
TableA3MomentsofinertiaI
x
,I
y
andPolarmomentsofinertiaI
p
Crosssection Bending Torsion
Elementaryequationsfor
uniformbeamssubjectedto
bendingandtorsion
respectively:
vonMisesequivalentstress
0
=1 whenandarebothstaticorfullyreversed,
0
=0.7 whenisfullyreversedandremainsstatic
0
=1.5 whenremainsstaticandisfullyreversed
TableA4Approximateformulaeforspringstiffness
Spring Stiffness
TableA5Bucklinglimitofcompressionloadedbeams[Gero&Timoshenko,1985]
TableA6ApproximatedesignfunctionsSshapedbeams[Koster,1996]
leafspring wirespring leavespring wirespring
longitudinal
stiffness
c
xx
lateral
stiffness
c
zz
bending
stress
z
bucklingload
F
k
1)
Theconfigurationwithreinforcedmidsectionconsideredinthistableshowsanincreaseofthe
bucklingloadbyafactorofninewhilethelateralstiffnesshasincreasedwithonly20%.
2
1
2
I mr
TableA7MomentsofInertia
Momentofinertia: Radiusofgyration:
2
I dm
i I m
Parallelaxistheorem: Torque:
2
z
I I a m
T I
Linearmotion Rotationalmotion
Positionx Angularpositionn
Velocityv Angularvelocity
Accelerationa Angularacceleration
LoadF[N] momentM[Nm]
massm[kg] momentofinertiaI[kgm
2
]
Impulsep=mv[kgm/s] AngularMomentumH=I[kgm
2
/s]
F=ma[N=kgm/s
2
] M=I[Nm=kgm
2
rad/s
2
]
W=Fs[Nm=J] W=Mn[Nmrad=J]
E
k
=mv
2
[J] E
k
=I
2
[J]
P=W/t=Fs/t[J/s=W] P=W/t=M[J/s=W]
2
2
5
I mr
TableA8ISOTolerancesforholesandshafts
MetricscrewthreadsISO724(DIN13T1)
Nominal
size
d=D
Pitch
P
root
radius
r
pitch
diameter
d
2
=D
2
minor
diameter
d
3
D
1
thread
height
h
3
H
1
stress
area
A
s
drill
diam.
mm
M1 0.25 0.036 0.838 0.693 0.729 0.153 0.135 0.460 0.75
M1.2 0.25 0.036 1.038 0.893 0.929 0.153 0.135 0.732 0.95
M1.6 0.35 0.051 1.373 1.171 1.221 0.215 0.189 1.27 1.25
M2 0.40 0.058 1.740 1.509 1.567 0.245 0.217 2.07 1.60
M2.5 0.45 0.065 2.208 1.948 2.013 0.276 0.244 3.39 2.05
M3 0.50 0.072 2.675 2.387 2.459 0.307 0.271 5.03 2.50
M4 0.70 0.101 3.545 3.141 3.242 0.429 0.379 8.78 3.30
M4.5 0.75 0.108 4.013 3.580 3.688 0.460 0.406 11.3 3.80
M5 0.80 0.115 4.480 4.019 4.134 0.491 0.433 14.2 4.20
M6 0.100 0.144 5.350 4.773 4.917 0.613 0.541 20.1 5.00
M8 0.125 0.180 7.188 6.466 6.647 0.767 0.677 36.6 6.80
M9 1.25 0.180 8.188 7.466 7.647 0.767 0.677 48.1 7.80
M10 1.50 0.217 9.026 8.160 8.376 0.920 0.812 58.0 8.50
M11 1.50 0.217 10.026 9.160 9.376 0.920 0.812 72.3 9.50
M12 1.75 0.253 10.863 9.853 10.106 1.074 0.947 84.3 10.20
M14 2.00 0.289 12.701 11.546 11.835 1.227 1.083 115 12.00
M16 2.00 0.289 14.701 13.546 13.835 1.227 1.083 157 14.00
M18 2.50 0.361 16.376 14.933 15.394 1.534 1.353 193 15.50
M20 2.50 0.361 18.376 16.933 17.294 1.534 1.353 245 17.50
M22 2.50 0.361 20.376 18..933 19.294 1.534 1.353 303 19.50
M24 3.00 0.433 22.051 20.319 20.752 1.840 1.624 353 21.00
M27 3.00 0.433 25.051 23.319 23.752 1.840 1.624 459 24.00
M30 3.50 0.505 27.727 25.706 26.211 2.147 1.894 561 26.50
M33 3.50 0.505 30.727 28.706 29.211 2.147 1.894 694 29.50
M36 4.00 0.577 33.402 31.093 31.670 2.454 2.165 817 32.00
M42 4.50 0.650 39.077 36.479 37.129 2.760 2.436 1121 37.50
M48 5.00 0.722 44.752 41.866 42.857 3.067 2.706 1473 43.00
M56 5.50 0.794 52.428 49.252 50.046 3.374 2.977 2030 50.50
TableA9ISOTolerancesforholesandshafts
ExamplefitsusingISOholebasis
clearancefit transitionfit interferencefit
H6 h5 j6,k6 n5,r5
H7 f7,g6,h6 k6,m6,n6 r6,s6
H8 d9,e8,f8,h9 s8,u8,x8
ISOTolerancesforholes(ISO2862)
Nominalholesizes(mm)
> 3 6 10 18 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160
# 6 10 18 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180
micrometer
H6
+8
0
+9
0
+11
0
+13
0
+16
0
+19
0
+22
0
+25
0
H7
+12
0
+15
0
+18
0
+21
0
+25
0
+30
0
+35
0
+40
0
H8
+18
0
+22
0
+27
0
+33
0
+39
0
+46
0
+54
0
+63
0
ISOTolerancesforshafts(ISO2862)
Nominalshaftsizes(mm)
> 3 6 10 18 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160
# 6 10 18 30 40 50 65 80 100 120 140 160 180
micrometer
f6 10
18
13
22
16
27
20
33
25
41
30
49
36
58
43
68
f7 10
22
13
28
16
34
20
41
25
50
30
60
36
71
43
83
g6 4
12
5
14
6
17
7
20
9
25
10
29
12
34
14
39
g7 4
16
5
20
6
24
7
28
9
34
10
40
12
47
14
54
h5 0
5
0
6
0
8
0
9
0
11
0
13
0
15
0
18
h6 0
8
0
9
0
11
0
13
0
16
0
19
0
22
0
25
h7 0
12
0
15
0
18
0
21
0
25
0
30
0
35
0
40
h9 0
30
0
36
0
43
0
52
0
62
0
74
0
87
0
100
j6 +6
2
+7
2
+8
3
+9
4
+11
5
+12
7
+13
9
+14
11
k6 +9
+1
+10
+1
+12
+1
+15
+2
+18
+2
+21
+2
+25
+3
+28
+3
m6 +12
+4
+15
+6
+18
+7
+21
+8
+25
+9
+30
+11
+35
+13
+40
+15
n5 +13
+8
+16
+10
+20
+12
+24
+15
+28
+17
+33
+20
+38
+23
+45
+27
n6 +16
+8
+19
+10
+23
+12
+28
+15
+33
+17
+39
+20
+45
+23
+52
+27
p6 +20
+12
+24
+15
+29
+18
+35
+22
+42
+26
+51
+32
+59
+37
+68
+43
r6 +23
+15
+28
+19
+34
+23
+41
+28
+50
+34
+60
+41
+62
+43
+73
+51
+76
+54
+88
+63
+90
+65
+93
+68

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