Physics Unit One Revision Notes

1.1 Inside the Atom

The nucleus is positively charged composed of neutrons and protons

Electrons surround the nucleus

The electrons are held in the atom by the electrostatic force of attraction
between them and the nucleus.

Electron has a smaller mass than both the proton and the neutron. Therefore it
has the highest charge to mass ratio. Specific charge.

The proton and the neutron have almost equal mass

Electron has equal and opposite charge to the proton

Neutron is uncharged

Isotopes:
Atoms with the same number of electrons and protons but different number of
neutrons

A --- Mass/Nucleon Number
X --- Element
Z --- Proton/Atomic Number

This isotope notation shows the neutrons and protons inside the nucleus


Specific Charge:

Charge of the particle/Mass

Unit: Ckg^-1

Electron has the highest specific charge out of the three particles.












1.2 Stable and unstable nuclei

The force that holds an isotopes nuclei together so it doesnt disintegrate,
stable, is called the strong nuclear force.

Strong nuclear force overcomes the electrostatic force of repulsion between the
protons in a stable nucleus.

Range is no more than 4 fm, femtometers, about the same as the diameter of a
small nucleus.

Electrostatic force between two charged particles has an infinite range.
(Decreases as the range increases)

Attractive force from 4 fm down to 0.5 fm. (0.5 4 fm.)

At separations smaller than 0.5 fm, it is a repulsive force, preventing neutrons
and protons being pushed into each other.


Radioactive decay:
1) Alpha radiation:
Alpha particles: Two protons and two neutrons.
4 A A-4 4
X Y +
2 Z Z-2 2

This happens to a large nuclei because strong nucleus force does not have
enough range to hold it together therefore it is unstable.


2) Beta
-
radiation:
0
Fast moving electrons. (-)
-1
This happens when a neutron in the nucleus changes into a proton.

Beta particle is created when the change happens and is emitted instantly.

A particle with no charge, anti electron neutrino
e
is also emitted.

A A 0
X Y +
-
+
e

Z Z+1 -1









3) Beta
+
radiation:
This occurs when a Beta
+
particle (positron) is created when a proton in the
nucleus changes it to a neutron.

This happens in an unstable nucleus with too many protons.

This does not occur naturally, manufactured.

A particle with no charge, electron neutrino Ve is also emitted.

A A 0
X Y +
+
+ V
e

Z Z-1 1




4) Gamma radiation ():

Is an electromagnetic radiation.

It has no mass or charge

Emitted by a nucleus with too much energy.

























1.3 Photons

Electromagnetic waves

In a vacuum, all EM waves travel at a speed of light, c, which is 3.0x10
8
ms
-1
.

Speed of wave (c) = Wave length () x frequency of wave (f)

List of the EM s waves from longest wavelength to shortest wave length
Radio Longest wavelength
Microwave
Infrared
Visible
Ultraviolet
X-rays
Gamma rays Shortest wavelength

EM wave is an electric wave and magnetic wave.

They travel together

They vibrate at right angles to each other and to the direction they are travelling.

In phase with each other, i.e. reaches a peak together.

Photons
EM waves are emitted by a charge particle when it loses energy.
- A fast moving electron stopped, slows down, or changes direction
- An electron in a shell of an atom moves to a different shell of lower
energy. This is why photons are emitted when atoms de-excite.

EM waves are emitted in short bursts of waves in different directions.

Referred as photon.

Photon theory can be used to explain photoelectricity when the old wave theory
cant

This shows the wave particle duality of EM waves

Photon energy E = hf

Power of laser beam = nhf

N is the number of photons in the beam passing a fixed point each second.

1.4 Particles and antiparticles

Antiparticles have the same mass as the particle but opposite charge.

Annihilation:
When antimatter and matter particles meet, they destroy, annihilation each
other, and converts their total mass into two photons, radiation energy.

Pair production:
A photon with sufficient energy could suddenly change into a particle
antiparticle pair which would then separate from each other.

The minimum energy of photon needed is 2 x minimum energy of photon (rest
energy)

A photon with less energy could not therefore create a positron and an electron.

1 eV = 1.60 x 10
-19
J






























1.5 How particles interact

Particles interact through an exchange of an exchange particle

Momentum is transferred between the objects.

When two objects interact, they exert equal and opposite forces on each other.

The strong nuclear force holds the neutrons and protons in a nucleus together

Weak nuclear force causes the decay of unstable nuclei.

In both
+
and
-
a new particle and a new antiparticle are created, but they are
not corresponding particle antiparticle pair.

In
-
an electron and anti neutrino is created

In
+
a positron and neutrino is created.

Interaction: Exchange Particle
Gravity Graviton?
Strong Nuclear Force Gluon (between quarks)
Mesons (between hadrons)
Electromagnetic force Virtual photons
Weak nuclear force W
+
, W
-
,Z0

Everything but photons have:
A non zero rest mass
A very short range, while photon is infinite
Are charged


Neutrino neutron interaction.
It could be W
-
going to the other direction
Neutron (all hadrons) all decay to proton. UDD to UUD, down changed to
Up.
Neutrino changes to an electron, as lepton number must be conserved.


Proton antineutrino interaction
Proton changes to neutron. UUD to UDD, up quark changed to down.
Antineutrino changes to a positron, as lepton number must be
conserved.






Beta decays:




+
decay
Proton decays into a neutron
W
+
boson decays into a positron and a neutrino, as lepton number must be
conserved.






-
decay
Neutron decays into a proton
W
-
boson decays into an electron and antineutrino, as lepton number
must be conserved








Electron capture:
Proton decays into a neutron
Electron is decayed in to an electron neutrino, as lepton number has to be
conserved




















Chapter 2

Mesons are produced through the strong interaction and decay through the
weak interaction

Decay modes:
K mesons decay in to mesons, muons and antineutrinos/ antimuons and
neutrinos.

Charged pi mesons decay into muons and antineutrinos OR antimuons and
neutrinos.

Muons and antimuons decay into electrons and antineutrinos or positron and
neutrinos

Decays always obey conservation rules.
















Particle Charge Classification Antiparticle Charge Classification Interaction
Proton +1 Baryon (part of
hadrons)
Antiproton -1 Antibaryon Strong, Weak
decay, EM
Neutron 0 Baryon (part of
hadrons)
Antineutron 0 Antibaryon Strong, Weak
decay, EM
Electron -1 Lepton Positron +1 Antilepton Weak decay, EM
Neutrino 0 Lepton Antineutrino 0 Antilepton Weak decay, EM
Muon
(heavy
electron)
-1 Lepton Antimuon +1 Antilepton Weak decay, EM
Pi meson
(+,0,-)
+1,0,-1 Mesons (part
of hadrons)
+ for and
vice versa
0 for 0
+1,0,-1 Antimeson

Strong, EM
K meson
(+,0,-)
+1,0,-1 Meson + for
0 for anti 0
+1,0,-1 Antimeson Strong, EM
Hadrons:

Created through the strong interaction

They are split in to two groups, BARYONS AND MESONS

Hadrons are particles and antiparticles that can interact through the strong
interaction.

Baryons:
All hadrons also decay through the weak interaction apart from proton, the only
stable baryon

Baryons have 3 quarks

Typical examples of baryons: Protons and neutrons

Protons (UUD) Neutrons (UDD)

Anti particles of them are just all anti quarks.

Mesons:

Do not include protons in their decay products

Mesons have 2 quarks each consisting of a quark and an antiquark

K-mesons have strangeness, they decay only to pi mesons.

Strangeness is always conserved in strong interactions but not conserved in
weak interactions.

If the meson contains one strange quark, it has strangeness of -1.

There are up down and straight quarks, and their antiparticles. Only strange
quark and anti quark has strangeness.













Leptons:

They are the fundamental elements of matter, fundamental particles, meaning
that they cannot be broken down, are not composed of smaller particles.

Leptons do not interact through the strong interaction, only weak interaction
and EM if charged

Lepton number is conserved for any reaction. +1 to a lepton and -1 to an
antilepton, 0 for any non-lepton.

Sometimes we need to apply the rule separately to each branch of leptons, the
electron branch (electrons, electron neutrinos and their anti particles) and the
muon branch (muons, muon neutrinos and their anti particles)





2.5 Conservation rules
Particles and antiparticles obey certain conservation rules when they interact.

1) Energy and charge --- ALL REACTION
2) Conservation of lepton numbers --- All particle antiparticle interaction
3) Conservation of strangeness in STRONG INTERACTIONS
4) Baryon Number























3.1 Photoelectricity
In this model EM radiation is represented by stream of a particles called photons,
not wave, the energy of each photon E=hf

Metal contains conduction electrons that move about freely inside the metal

Electrons are emitted from the surface of a metal with EM RADIATION ABOVE a
certain frequency was directed at the metal. This is known as photoelectric
effect.

If below threshold frequency, no electrons are emitted no matter what the
intensity.

Photoelectrons are emitted INSTANTANEOUSLY no matter what the intensity of
radiation is at or above threshold frequency.

There is a definite minimum frequency of radiation which the photoelectric
effect cannot take place if it was below. Threshold frequency, this depends on the
substance.

Each photon is absorbed by a SINGLE conduction electron, one to one interaction

If this gives the electron enough energy to escape from the metal lattice it does
so immediately.

Emission of electrons also called photoelectrons

Above threshold frequency the rate of emission depends on the INTENSITY of
the light. Intensity of radiation determines the RATE at which photons fall per
unit surface area of the metal

Greater number of photons incident on metal the greater number of escaping
electrons

The kinetic energy of emitted electrons depends on the frequency of the incident
radiation.

Kinetic energy of the emitted electron when it leaves the metal is the energy
GIVEN to it by the absorbed photon MINUS the work it has to do to leave the
surface

Minimum amount of work done is work function.

Kinetic energy varies from zero up to a maximum energy due to some
photoelectrons coming from slightly below the metal surface, they make
collisions and have to do more work than the work function to escape.

Work function is the minimum energy that a surface electron can lose.
Therefore KEmax= hf work function. (baisically hfmin)
How did the wave model of EM radiation fail to account for the photoelectric
effect?
1) Kinetic energy of photoelectron does not depend on the intensity of the
EM radiation.
According to wave model, em radiation energy should be distributed
uniformly over the wave front. Increase intensity of radiation would
increase the energy stored and energy of photoelectrons will be
increasing. So an increase of intensity would increase KE, this is not what
was observed.
2) For a given metal there is a threshold frequency where below no
electrons are emitted despite the intensity. The wave model would
suggest that any frequency of em radiation would emit electrons if shone
on long enough.
3) Photoelectrons emitted INSTANTANEOUSLY no matter the intensity.
Wave model would have suggested that electrons would take time to
collect necessary energy for their emissions.

































3.3 Collisions of electrons with atoms
Atoms are normally at the ground state, the lowest energy level.

Ions are created from removing or adding electrons to an uncharged
atom.

Removing makes it positive while adding makes it negative.

Any process of creating ions is called ionization

Electron volt: unit of energy equal to work done when an electron is
moved through a pd of 1V.
Work done when an electron moves through a PD of 1 volt is 1.6 x10
-19
J
1eV= 1.6 x10-19 J (the charge of one electron)

Excitation by collision:
When atoms gain additional energy but the energy is not enough to ionize
it, excitation occurs instead.

Atoms can be excited by giving them additional energy e.g. electron,
photon.

When excitation occurs colliding c=electron makes an electron INSIDE the
atom, atomic electron, move from an inner shell to an outer shell.

Energy needed as the atomic electron moves away from the nucleus.

The incident electron does not have to have exactly energy equal to the
energy difference between two energy levels in order to produce
excitation. An incident photon, however, if it is going to be absorbed
entirely by the atom, it has to have energy exactly equal to the energy
difference between two energy levels.

Each atom has a UNIQUE set of energy levels

After being excited it goes back to the ground state by loosing energy by
emitting photons with exact amount of energy for them to land on an
energy level, the energy difference between two energy levels. It can de-
excite via different routes

They de-excite as they do not retain the absorbed energy permanently. An
excited atom is UNSTABLE because an electron that moves to an outer
shell leaves a vacancy in the shell it moved from. It has to be filled by an
electron from an outer shell transferring to it. The energy of the photon is
equal to the energy lost by the electron and therefore by the atom



Absorption spectrum: Photon energy is related to frequency therefore
wavelength and color. As the atom will only absorb photons of certain energies,
it will only absorb certain colors in the continuous spectrum, ignoring the others.
Therefore the absorbed wavelengths are missing. Black lines.

Emission spectrum: Atoms will only emit photons corresponding to their energy
levels, therefore they will only a few colors.

Every element produces a different pattern of
light wavelength, as the energy levels of each
type of atom are UNIQUE to that atom.

Energy of emitted photon
hf= E1-E2

Fluorescence:
The process of excitation and de exciting directly or
indirectly explains why certain substances fluoresce,
glow with visible light when they absorb UV radiation.
Atoms in the substance absorb UV photons and become excited when they de-
excite they emit visible photons. IF the source of UV radiation is removed the
substance stops glowing.
Fluorescent tube is a glass tube with fluorescent coating (phosphor) on its
inner surface.
1) Inside the tube it contains mercury vapor at low pressure and with the
electrons in the tube due to the current.
2) Mercury atom emit UV photons as well as visible photons and other
photons as they de excite.
3) UV photons are absorbed by the fluorescent coating, they also de excite
and emit visible photons

Fluorescence lamp is a lot more efficient than filament lamp as it waste less as
heat energy

Why coating: Mercury atoms emit UV radiation that is not visible and can be
harmful. Coating absorbs UV radiation and emits lower frequencies photons in
the visible region

Why low pressure: The fluorescence lamp must have a large distance between
collisions to allow electrons to gain enough energy, or the vapor will not
completely absorb the electrons. Also the current need to pass, if too many gas
atoms it wont.







Wave Particle Duality
Electrons Electromagnetic radiation
Wave: Diffraction Wave: Interference/diffraction
Particle: Deflection in magnetic field Particle: Photoelectric effect

Matter particles have a dual wave particle nature

Wave like behavior is characterized by a wavelength, de Broglie wavelength.

Wavelength = planks constant (h) / momentum (p)
Momentum = Mass x Velocity