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CHAPTER 3
Loads in Buildings
Introduction
Loads in Buildings
Two Main Classifications of Loads Loads on Buildings
! Gravity loads caused by gravitational pull, act
vertically.
! Lateral loads caused by wind and earthquakes,
horizontally.
Units of Measurement
! Kilo-pounds (kips) = 1,000 pounds
! Distributed over a surface, pounds per square foot (psf)
! Distributed over a linear element (beam), pounds per foot
(lb/ft, kips/ft)
! Load on a column, pounds or kilo-pounds (lbs, kips)
Loads on Building Elements
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Gravity Loads
Dead Loads
Loads in Buildings
Dead Load
! Self-weight of the
building - does not vary
over time.
! Weights of materials
and components
! Estimated with greater
certainty than other
types of loads
! Calculated based on
material volume x
density
Roof Dead Load
! Calculated over
horizontal projected
area of roof.
Live Loads
Loads in Buildings
Live Load
! Load whose magnitude and placement changes with
time.
! Floor live load
" Varies with occupancy type
" Generally calculated as uniform loads in psf, except in special
cases (parking garage - loads concentrated on car tires)
! Roof live load (generally 20 psf)
" Includes weight of repair personnel and temporary storage.
" If the roof snow load is greater than the live load, it is used
instead.
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Rain Load
Loads in Buildings
Rain Load
! Occur as a result of accidental accumulation of
melted snow or rainwater
!Most significant in long-span, relatively low slope
roof. These roofs require:
" Adequately stiff roof assemblies
" Minimum slope: 1/4 inch per 1 ft
" Secondary drains (parapet roofs)
Lateral Loads
Wind Load Basics
Loads in Buildings
Wind Load Basics
! Primarily horizontal
! Also exert an upward force on flat and low-slope
roofs
! Loads are resisted by
! Anchorage to foundation
! Wind bracing elements (stiffening elements)
Racking and the Diagonal Brace
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Diagonal Bracing in Buildings
! John Hancock Center,
Chicago
Diagonal Bracing in Buildings
! New York Times
Building, New York City
Low probability, High potential for destruction
Tornados Tornado-Prone Regions in the U.S.
Hurricanes
! Rotational winds up to 150 mph
! Form at sea in warm areas (over warm water)
! In the US and its Territories, defined as coastal
regions where basic wind speed exceeds 90 mph
Design (Basic) Wind Speed
! Averaged over a 3 second interval
! Highest peak 3-second gust speed during past 700
years
! Measured at 33 ft (10 m) above ground
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Basic Wind Speed Map of the U.S. Induced Pressure and Suction
Wind always exerts pressure perpendicular to the building surface.
Wind Pressures on a Pitched Roof
Factors That Affect Wind Loads
Loads in Buildings
Factors That Affect Wind Loads
! Height above ground
! Exposure classification of the site
! Enclosure classification of the building
Site Exposure Categories
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Ballooning of Building
Ballooning of a building with a relatively large opening in one wall. Such a
building is referred to as a partially enclosed building. A building that is not
partially enclosed is called an enclosed building . Most buildings belong to the
enclosed building category.
Roof Snow Load
Loads in Buildings
Roof Snow Load
! Ground snow load
! Roof slope
! Wind exposure classification
! Warm roof or cold roof
! Building importance
Ground Snow Loads
Earthquake Load
Loads in Buildings
Earthquakes
! Ground shaking
! Landslides
! Surface fractures
! Soil liquefaction
! Tsunamis
! Fires
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Map of Major Tectonic Plates Fault, Focus, and Epicenter
Frequency of Earthquake Occurrence Seismic Activity in the U.S.
Map of the United States showing approximate variation of seismic activity. The
darker the area, the greater the seismic activity. White areas have little or no
seismic activity.
Richter Scale
! Generally used measure of the intensity of an
earthquake
! Total energy released b an earthquake (E) is proportional to
Richter magnitude (R)
E ! 10
1.5R

! A magnitude 6.5 and above is considered significant
Factors That Affect Earthquake Loads
Loads in Buildings
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Factors That Affect Earthquake Loads
! Ground motion
! Buildings mass and ductility of the structural frame
! Type of soil
! Building occupancys risk category
Ground Movement & Deformation
! Total earthquake load:
! Inertial force created
in a building as a
result of ground
acceleration
Wind vs. Earthquake Resistance of Buildings
Loads in Buildings
Earthquake Resistance (Ductility)
! A tent resists
earthquake forces
admirably due to its
light weight and its
ability to absorb
deformations.
Wind vs. Earthquake
Earthquake Wind
Acts on building and its
contents
Acts on building enclosure
Structure must remain
intact in the event of an
intense earthquake, even
though it may be
permanently deformed
Structure suffers no
permanent damage under
worst conditions
Design for whichever causes the worst effect (greater stresses)
Tornado Damage
! Bank One Building
Fort Worth, TX
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Earthquake Damage
! Unreinforced masonry
panels in buildings with
concrete structural
frames.
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE:
Dead Load and Live Load Estimation
Loads in Buildings
Live Load and Dead Load Estimation
! Tributary area of a building component:
! Area or areas of a building which contribute load to a
component
Live Load and Dead Load Estimation
Live Load and Dead Load Estimation Example 1:
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Example 1 contd Example 2:
Example 2 contd Example 3:
Example 4: