7 Ch18 Steel

1
CHAPTER 18
Material Steel and Steel Components
Introduction
Because of its extensive use in industry, construction,
and weaponry, iron is by far the most important of all
metals. That is why metals are generally divided into
two categories:
Ferrous metalsmetals that contain iron (the Latin term
for iron is ferrum )
Nonferrous metalsmetals that do not contain iron (e.g.,
aluminum and copper)
Introduction contd
Steel is the most important ferrous metal.
Its high strength in relation to its weight makes it the
material of choice for skyscrapers and long-span
structures, such as sports stadiums and bridges.
Its malleability and weldability allow it to be shaped,
bent, and made into different types of components.
These characteristics provide the versatility that
architects and engineers have exploited in creating a
wide range of highly expressive structures.
Introduction contd
Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum, Cleveland, Ohio. The sloping glass skin
framed with tubular steel trusses spans nearly 200 feet. The steel tower structure is
seen in the background.
Introduction contd
The interior of the steel dome of the German Bundestag, Berlin.
Introduction contd
Wrought iron the earliest form of iron
Cast iron discovery of the blast furnace
Wrought iron (with nearly 0.02% carbon) and cast
iron (with 2.5% to 4% carbon) represent two
extremes of an iron-carbon alloy.
The perfect amount of carbon in iron is 0.1% to 1.7%,
producing a metal called steel.
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Making of Modern Steel
(Integrated Mill)
This illustration shows the process of manufacturing steel in an integrated mill. The
blast furnace, and the basic oxygen furnace (BOF) are the two (of the three) major
components of an integrated mill. Raw materials (iron ore, limestone, and coke) are
fed into the blast furnace, which yields molten iron. Molten iron is used as a charge
for the BOF. In the BOF, oxygen is blown into molten iron, which converts the carbon in
iron to carbon dioxide, leaving behind molten steel. Molten steel is cast into billets,
blooms, and slabs for rolling into finished steel sections. A rolling mill is the third major
component of an integrated mill.
(Integrated Mill) contd (Hot Rolling)
Process of hot rolling to obtain finished steel sections. In this process, billets, blooms,
and slabs, obtained from the basic oxygen furnace, are reheated to virtual softening
and rolled to the required cross sections as shown.
Making of Modern Steel Sustainable
Steel Manufacturing (The Mini Mill)
An electric arc furnace (EAF) converts scrap steel into molten steel. This requires the
use of lime and other chemicals, which are fed into the furnace as and when needed
through a side door. The furnace has a retractable roof to allow the charging of
steel scrap. Molten steel from the EAF is sent to a vessel (called a ladle) to modify its
chemistry as needed. Molten steel from the ladle is cast into billets, blooms, and
slabs, and subsequently reheated and rolled into finished cross-sections.
Some mini mills produce near-net shape billets (also called beam blanks). These are
subsequently rolled into I-sections.
Rectangular billets used for rolling into channels, angles, bars and rods.
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The mini-mill method relies on scrap recycling.
A large scrap storage yard and a shredder are the two most
important parts of a recycling plant.
After shredding, the scrap is separated into ferrous and
nonferrous scrap using magnetic separation.
Nonferrous scrap is further separated into metals (copper,
aluminum, etc.) and nonmetals (plastics, rubber, fabric, etc.).
After the scrap goes through shredding and separation, it is
stored in the yard as feed for the EAF.
Most mini mills have a large scrap recycling facility within or
close to the mill.
Crushed cars in the scrap yard.
A scrap shredder. After the scrap is shredded, it is separated into ferrous and non-
ferrous parts through magnetic separation. The ferrous scrap is then sent by rail carts
to storage, ready for feed into the electric arc furnace.
A view of the yard, showing the shredded ferrous scrap in the background and
finished steel sections in the foreground.
Steel Manufacturing (Slag)
Slag is a waste product from the blast furnace and
the electric arc furnace.
It has many usesas a lightweight aggregate, as a
raw material in the manufacture of portland cement,
and in the manufacture of insulation, called slagwool.
Slagwool is noncombustible and is similar to
fiberglass in its thermal properties.
Steel Skeleton and Birth of Frame Structures
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Steel Skeleton and Birth of Frame
Structures
A steel building under construction has the appearance of a skeleton. Therefore, when
steel buildings first appeared in Chicago toward the end of the nineteenth century,
the terms skeleton cage, steel skeleton and skeleton frame were coined to describe their
appearance.
Classification of Steel Components
Steel may be classified in a number of ways.
For design and construction professionals, three
classification systems are important:
classification based on steels application
classification based on steel strength
classification based on steel metallurgy
contd
Application-based classification In this
classification, steel may be classified as
Structural steel
Cold-formed steel
Reinforcing steel
Pre-stressing (post-tensioning) steel
contd
Structural steel members include steel cross sections, such
as I-sections, H-sections, T-sections, C-sections (channels), L-
sections (angles), plates, pipes, and rectangular tubes
(hollow sections).
Cold-formed (or light-gauge) steel members are made
from thin sheets of steel by bending sheets to various
corrugated profiles at room temperature, hence the term
cold-formed.
Reinforcing steel is in the form of deformed round bars
(also called rebars) that are used in concrete slabs,
beams, and columns.
contd
Pre-stressing steel is used in precast concrete or post-
tensioned concrete members as a replacement for (or
in conjunction with) reinforcing steel.
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contd
All components used in the structural frame of this building (columns, beams, and
joists) are made of hot-rolled steel sections, referred to as structural steel. The floor
deck is made of cold-formed steel.
contd
All components (floor deck, joists, wall studs, and bracing members) used in the
structural framing of this building are made of cold-formed steel. The framing of this
building is similar to that of a wood light frame building.
contd
Steel is alloyed during manufacturing with a small
percentage of other metals to obtain steels that vary
from each other with respect to a few important
properties, such as the yield strength, tensile strength,
and corrosion resistance.
The most commonly used steel for framing members
(W-shape columns and beams) in contemporary
buildings is A992, with a yield strength of 50 ksi.
contd
The yield strength of steel is also referred to as the
steels grade.
Thus, a steel with a yield strength of 50 ksi is called
grade 50 steel.
contd
A simple metallurgical distinction between the steels
used in building construction is a) carbon steel and (b)
alloy steel.
Increasing the amount of carbon increases steels
strength but reduces its ductility and formability, and
vice versa.
Sheet steel is made from low-carbon steel.
Most steel used in building construction is carbon steel.
contd
Alloy steel contains other metals to change steels
properties.
Weathering steel and stainless steel are alloy steels.
Chromium is the primary alloying metal in stainless
steel.
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Structural Steel Hot-Rolled Sections
Because of the large financial outlay required in
producing structural steel sections, design and
construction professionals must select them from the
standard shapes and sizes.
They are available in cross-sectional shapes of I, C, L,
and T, pipes, tubes, round and rectangular bars, and
plates.
contd
Commonly used structural steel sections.
contd (I-Sections)
Structural steel I-sections may be classified into four
shapes:
W-shapes
S-shapes
HP-shapes
M-shapes
contd (W- and S-Shapes)
Comparison between W-shape and S-shape sections.
contd (Wide-Flange)
Most wide-flange sections that share a common nominal depth designation have the
same interior flange-to-flange dimension. This illustration shows three sections, all with
a nominal depth of 14 in. Their overall depths are nearly 14 in., and several other
dimensions are different from each other. However, the interior flange-to-flange
dimensions are 12.60 in. for all sections. Several other sections with a nominal depth
of 14 in. are available (see Table 18.1 in the next slide).
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contd
contd (C-Shapes)
Steel channels (C-shapes) are similar in profile to S-
shapes, that is, their inner flange surfaces are inclined
at an angle of 2:12, Next slide (a).
They are designated by two numbers after the letter
C.
The first number gives the overall depth of the
section, and the second number gives the weight of a
1-ft length of the section.
Thus, C8 x 11.5 means that the channel is 8 in. deep
and weighs 11.5 lb/ft.
Miscellaneous channels do not have a standard slope
on the inner flange surfaces.
They are designated in the same way as C-shapes,
for example, MC12 x 50.
(C-Shapes) contd
contd (T-Shape Section)
A T-shape section is made by splitting a W-shape, M-
shape, or S-shape into two equal parts, Next slide
(b).
It is, therefore, called WT, MT, or ST, depending on its
origin.
For example, two WT6 x 29 sections are obtained
from one W12 x 58.
contd (Angles)
Steel angles (L-shapes) may either be equal-leg angles or
unequal-leg angles, Next slide (c).
The thickness of both legs is the same in an angle.
Angles are designated by three numbers.
The first two numbers give the length of each leg, and the third
number gives the thickness of the legs.
L4 x 4 x 12 is an example of an equal-leg angle with legs equal to 4 in.
each; the thickness of each leg is 12 in.
In an unequal-leg angle, the longer leg is mentioned first, as in L4 x 3 x
14.
Angles have various uses, such as for masonry lintels and
members of steel trusses.
contd
(a) Channel section profile. (b) WT-sections obtained from a W-section. (c) Equal-leg
and unequal-leg angles.
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contd (Pipes)
Pipes are designated by their nominal diameter and
by whether the pipe is a standard weight, extra
strong, or double-extra strong.
These three designations refer to the pipes wall
thickness.
Pipes are generally used as columns or as members
of a truss.
contd (HSS)
A tube is referred to as a hollow structural section
(HSS) and is made by bending a steel plate and
welding it seamlessly.
That is why the edges of a tube are rounded (see
next slide).
contd
Bent-plate angle and built-up sections.
contd (HSS)
An HSS may be square, rectangular, or round.
Square or round HSSs are generally used as columns,
and rectangular HSSs are used as beams.
Like pipe trusses, HSS member trusses are fairly
common for long-span structures.
contd (Plate Girder)
(a) Anatomy of a typical plate girder. (b) One of the several uses of a plate girder.
Steel Joists and Joist Girders From Hot-Rolled
Sections
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Steel Joists and Joist Girders From
Hot-Rolled Sections
In addition to the standard steel shapes and built-up
sections, two types of prefabricated steel members are
commonly used for roof and floor structures in buildings.
These are truss-like, open-web members, called joists
and joist girders.
There is no fundamental difference between a joist and
a joist girder, except that a joist girder is a heavier
member and spans from column to column, whereas a
joist is a lighter member that spans between the
girders.
Hot-Rolled Sections contd
A steel frame structure showing the use of steel joists and steel joist girders. Observe
that a joist girder spans from column to column. A joist, on the other hand, spans from
joist girder to joist girder.
The Steel Joist Institute classifies joists into three
categories:
K-series joists (joist depth ranges from 8 in. to 30 in.)
LH-series joists (joist depth ranges from 18 in. to 48 in.)
DLH-series (joist depth ranges from 52 in. to 72 in.)
Hot-Rolled Sections contd (K-Series)
Hot-Rolled Sections (K-Series) contd
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Steel joists and joist girders are slender elements and
are, therefore, unstable and prone to overturning.
As per SJIs specifications, the joists must be stabilized
by rows of continuous horizontal members, referred to
as horizontal bridging members.
Horizontal bridging members are used in rows: One
row is welded to the top chord of the joist, and the
other row is welded to the bottom chord
Horizontal bridging of steel joists to provide stability against overturning.
Diagonal bridging of steel joists is an alternative to horizontal bridging. Regardless
of the bridging system used, the bridging members in the end spans must be securely
connected to the exterior wall (as shown here) or the spandrel beam.
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Steel Roof and Floor Decks Cold-Formed Steel
Steel Roof and Floor Decks Cold-
Formed Steel
Steel decks are made from sheet steel by pressing
the sheets into various cross-sectional profiles at room
temperature, hence the term cold-formed steel.
They are available in two categories:
roof decks
floor decks
The primary difference between them is that a roof
deck is generally topped with rigid insulation and a
roofing membrane (for waterproofing), and a floor
deck is topped with structural concrete fill.
Formed Steel contd (Deck)
Deck terminology.
Formed Steel contd (Roof Deck)
Commonly used roof deck types.
Formed Steel (Roof Deck) contd
Commonly used roof deck types.
Formed Steel (Roof Deck) contd
Anchorage of a roof deck to supporting elements.
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Formed Steel contd (Floor Deck)
A steel floor deck functions as a working platform as
well as permanent formwork for the concrete fill, so
that the deck and the fill form a concrete floor slab.
Two types of floor decks are used:
A form deck functions as permanent formwork only. Thus,
the concrete slab must be reinforced with conventional
reinforcement.
In a composite deck , the deck also functions as steel
reinforcement for the concrete slab, reducing the need for
conventional concrete reinforcing bars.
Formed Steel (Floor Deck) contd
This illustration shows the placement of concrete on a floor deck (a form deck in this
case). Observe the steel reinforcing bars placed over the deck.
Two commonly used composite deck types.
Comparison between the general profiles, depths, and gauges of composite decks
and form decks.
Formed Steel contd (Composite Deck)
Both a composite deck and a form deck can be made
to act compositely with the supporting beams by using
shear studs.
Shear studs prevent slippage of the deck under
bending of the underlying beam. They are similar to
nails that connect a plywood deck with supporting
wood joists.
Formed Steel (Composite Deck) contd
Use of shear studs for composite action between floor slab and beam.
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Formed Steel contd (Pour Stop)
Use of shear studs for composite action between floor slab and beam.
Corrosion Protection of Steel
Corrosion Protection of Steel
Because steel (unlike aluminum) does not automatically
form a protective oxide coating, it must be protected
against corrosion.
However, structural steel members enclosed by the
building envelope do not require any protective
coating unless they are in a corrosive environment.
In other words, interior structural steel members can be
left bare (mill-finished state) in most situations.
Corrosion Protection of Steel contd
Although bare steel is acceptable, almost all structural
steel members generally receive a prime coat in the
fabricators shop before being delivered to the
construction site.
The prime coat provides temporary protection until the
steel is wrapped by the building envelope.
Corrosion Protection of Steel contd
Several protective coatings are available for steel to
suit different environmental conditions, aesthetic
requirements and budgets.
These include acrylics, epoxies, polyurethanes, and
zinc coating.
For exposed structural steel members, polyurethane
coatings are the hardest, toughest, and most versatile.
For cold-formed and light structural steel members,
zinc coating (referred to as galvanizing) is a cost-
effective solution.
Fire Protection of Steel
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Fire Protection of Steel
The fire endurance of steel is poor, and its inherent
incombustibility gives a false sense of security.
Exposed (unprotected) steel, unless it is very thick,
cannot withstand long exposure to fire.
Fire Protection of Steel contd
There are basically two ways to protect steel against fire:
Insulate the steel component with a noncombustible
thermal insulation.
Spray-applied fire protection and intumescent paints fall in
this category.
Encase the steel component with a noncombustible
material with high thermal capacity, such as concrete,
gypsum board, or water.
These materials retard the buildup of temperature
providing the same end result as thermal insulation.
(Concrete Encasement)
Encasing steel members in concrete (or masonry) is one of the oldest methods of
protecting steel against fire. The use of this method is relatively uncommon in
contemporary construction because of the availability of more efficient and
economical alternatives.
(Gypsum Board Encasement)
Details of a steel column covered with gypsum board layers. Details (a) and (b) are
identical except that the column in detail (b) is heavier than that of the column in
detail (a). Because the thickness of steel also affects the members fire resistance, in
addition to the thickness and type of gypsum board, the fire resistance rating of
column (b) is higher than that of column (a).
(Spray-On Fire Protection)
Spray-on fire protection of a steel roof assembly. Observe that both joists as well
as the roof deck are protected.
Fire Protection of Steel (Spray-On Fire
Protection) contd
Spray-on fire protection of a steel floor assembly. Observe that only the floor
beams are protected. Fire protection is generally not necessary for the floor deck
because of the concrete topping.
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(Intumescent Paints)
An alternative to gypsum board encasement is
intumescent paint on steel members.
Intumescent paint is typically 20 to 50 mil (0.5 to 1.3
mm) thick.
When exposed to the heat of fire, the paint
intumesces, or swells, yielding an insulating char cover
on steel that is 2 in. to 4 in. thick.
It is this char layer that protects steel from fire.
Fire Protection of Steel (Intumescent
Paints) contd
A steel truss painted with intumescent paint providing a 1-h fire rating,
(Suspended Ceilings)
Suspended ceilings consisting of gypsum lath and
plaster, gypsum boards, or acoustical tiles are also
used to provide fire protection to otherwise
unprotected steel beams or trusses in roof-ceiling or
floor-ceiling assemblies.
The ceiling grid may be directly attached to, or hung
from, the bottom flanges of beams or the bottom
chords of trusses.

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