Wmo 337 PDF

WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION
Operational Hydrology
Report No.2
AUTOMATIC COLLECTION
AND TRANSMISSION OF
HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
prepared hy
the Working Group on Instruments and Methods of
Observation of the Commission for Hydrology
IMO-WMO
CENTENARY
I WMO - No. 337 I
Secretariat of the World Meteorological Organization Geneva Switzerland
1973
1973, World Meteorological Organization
NOTE
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not
imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World
Meteorological Organization concerning the legal statns of RUy country or territory or of its
authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontier.s.
FOREWORD
SUMMARY
CONTENTS
..................................................................
(English, French, Russian, Spanish) ............................
V
VII
CHAPTER 1 AUTOMATION OF HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVING STATIONS 1
1.1
1.2
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.3
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.3.5
1. 3.6
1.3.7
1.4
1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.5
Introduction.................................... 0
Reasons for introducing automation ...........
Adequacy af present data collection programme
Manual versus automatic ..........................................
Factors affecting choice of instruments and type of installation
for automatic hydrological observing stations .........
Local conditions ..............................................
Sources of power ................................................
Accuracy requirements ..........................................
Proposed life of station.....................................
Maintenance .................................................
Transmission requirements ........................................
Treatment of data ................................................
Selection of instruments ........................................
Network design .
Aids for selection of instruments .
Questionnaire on instruments of proven reliability .
Special considerations .
1
2
2
2
4
5
7
7
8
8
9
10
10
10
10
11
11
CHAPTER 2 TRANSMISSION OF HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ............. 13
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.4.1
2.4.2
Introduction .
Systems of data transmission .
General considerations in selection of systems .
Transmission links ...............................................
Dedicated land lines .
Commercial telephone lines .
13
13
16
17
17
18
IV
2.4.3
2.4.4
2.4.5
2.5
AUTOMATIC HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
Commercial telegraph lines ................................. 10
Direct radio links - .
Satelli te links. IO" .
Recei ving system........................... 0
18
19
19
19
CHAPTER 3 EXAMPLES OF AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS FOR HYDROLOGICAL
PURPOSES. . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
Example I (Canada) ............................................
Example II (U.S.A.). The Hy-Tel remote rodio telemetry system
Example III (U.S.S.R.). Automatic hydrological recording station
(AHRS) .
Example IV (U.S.S.R.). Mudflow radio warner (MRW) .
Example V (France). Tele-snow-gauge with moving horizonto1 beam.
Example VI (Hungary). Hydra II automatic digital telemetering
21
26
30
32
36
system 41
BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
ANNEX
1 Questionnaire on hydrometeorological instruments of proven
reliabili ty. . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
ANNEX
2 List of instruments of proven reliability and instruments for
automation of hydrological observations ....... 49
FOR E W0 R D
At its third sessioIT the WMO Commission for Hydrology (CHy) established a
Working Group on Instruments ond Methods of Observation. One of the tasks of the
Group was to complete a report on automatic equipment for observing and transmitting
hydrological elements . The ~ o u p consisted of Messrs. E. Walser (Switzerland)
(Chairman), M ~ Hendler (Canada), M. F. E. Hinzpeter (Federal Republic of
Germany), E. L. Peck (U.S.A.), K. D. Zavjalov (U.S.S.R.) and H. Schtlfer (IAHS).
Dr. K. D. Zavjalov was later replaced by Mr. N. Ja Solov'ev (U.S.S.R.). The report
was accordingly prepared and is reproduced in this present publication entitled
IIAutomatic collection and transmission of hydrological observations".
It is believed that it will be of particular value to national services and
in particular to experts who have to install automatic stations and to select for this
purpose the most useful instrumental equipment.
The terms of reference of the CHy Rapporteur on Instruments, Dr. E. L. Peck,
required him to collect recommendations from Members on hydrometeorological instru-
ments which they have found reliable in specified environments, and to consolidate
these recommendations in a report for the use of Members and others in establishing
networks. The group therefore maintained close collaboration with him especially in
collecting information from Members. Analysis of the information he collected
revealed that most of it could with advantage be included in the present. report,
which is, therefore, the result of the common efforts of the Working Group and of the
Rapporteur on Instruments.
Taking into account the rapid developments in the field of equipment for
operational hydrology, the report corefully combines the new advanced data collection
and transmission systems with the present conventional approaches, thus increasing its
applicobility to different stages of development ond modernization in different
countries. The report is a timely contribution which provides 0 useful link between
simple, classical instrumentation and the complex modern installations for transmitt-
ing data by satellites.
I am pleased to have this opportunity of expressing to Mr. Walser and the
other members of the Working Group, and to Dr. Peck, the sincere appreciation of the
World Meteorological Organization for the time and effort they have devoted to the
preparation of this publication.
~
. .
D. A. Davies
Secretary-General
SUM MAR Y
Most hydrological observation networks and collection systems have developed
in response to particular, localized problems or scientific interests without taking
into account future requirements. For various reasons the quality, quantity and
timely availability of hydrological dato are inadequate for present development needs
in general, and in particular, for the timely preparation and issuing of hydrological
forecasts and warnings.
Taking into account the present needs, this report discusses the advantages
and disadvantages of updating, modernizing and automating the data collection systems
in the light of the recent technological progress in automatic instrumentation and
transmission systems for hydrological purposes. Detailed guidance is included con-
cerning the choice of automatic instruments and types of installation for various
climatic and geographical conditions.
A description of basic systems of transmission of hydrological abservations
ond guidance for their selection are followed by examples of operational automatic
transmission systems for hydrological purposes in various countries. Technical in-
formation on instruments of proven reliability is tabulated in a systematic and con-
venient form in an annex.
RES U M E
La plupart des reseaux d'observation hydrologiques et des systames de ras-
semblement des donnees obtenues grace a cas reseaux ant ete mis au point pour resou-
dre des problemes particuliers, d'interet local, au pour repondre a des besoins
scientifiques
t
sans qulil soit tenu compte des necessites futures. Pour diverses
raisons, les donnees hydrologiques one sant pas d'ossez bonne qualite, pas ossez nom-
breuses et pos disponibles assez tot pour l'ensemble des besoins de developpement
actuels at, en particulier, pour qulil soit possible de preparer at de diffuser a
temps des previsions et des avis hydralogiques.
En 56 fondant sur les necessites actuelles, Ie present rapport expose les
Qvantages at les inconvenients qulil y aurait a mattre a jour, moderniser at Qutoma-
tiser les systemes de rassemblement des donnees, compte tenu des perfectionnements
techniques apportes recemment aux instruments et aux systemes de transmission auto-
matiques utilises a des fins hydrologiques. Le rapport contient des indications
detaillees sur le choix d'instruments et de types d'installations automatiques adap-
tes a diverses conditions climatiques et geographiques.
Une description des systemes fondamentaux de transmission d'observations
hydrologiques et quelques directives concernant Ie choix de ces derniers sont suivies
d'exemples de systemes operationnels de transmission automatique utilises a des fins
hydrologiques dans divers pays. Le lecteur trouvera en annexe un tableau OU sont
presentes de ~ o n systematique et commode des renseignements techniques sur les
instruments dont la fiabilite est etablie.
PE3IDME
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RES UMEN
La mayoria de las redes hidro16gicas de observaci6n y la mayor parte de los
sistemas de concentraci6n de datos se han creado para so!ucionar problemas especificos
y localizados 0 para responder a intereses cientIficos, pera sin tener en cuento las
necesidades futures. Por diverses rezones, 10 calidad, cantidad y oportuna disponibi-
lidad de los datos hidro16gicos no son adecuadas para satisfacer las actuales necesi-
clades en general ni, en particular, para pader preparar y publicar a su debido tiempo
predicciones y avisos hidro16gicos.
Teniendo en cuenta las actuales exigencies, en este informe se examinen las
ventajos y desventajas que presenta 10 actualizaci6n, modernizaci6n y automatizacion
de los sistemas de concentracion de datos, fund6ndose en 10$ recientes progresos tec-
no16gicos en materia de instrumentos automaticos y sistemas de transmisi6n para fines
hidro16gicos. Igualmente, se facilitan directrices detalladas para la selecci6n de
los instrumentos automaticos y de los tipos de instalaci6n correspondientes a diver-
50S condiciones climaticos y geograficaso
A 10 descripci6n de los sistemas b6sicos de transmisi6n de observaciones
hidro16gicas y a las directrices para su selecci6n se ocompanan ejemplas de sistemas
de transmisi6n automaticos y operativos para fines hidro16gicos en diversos paIses.
En un onexo se facilita informacion tecnica sabre instrumentos de reconocida fiabili-
dad, presentada en forma tabular, sistem6tica y adecuada.
C HAP T E K 1
AUTOMATION OF HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVING STATIONS
1.1 Introduction
Hydrologicol observing statians measure the primary elements of the hydro-
logical cycle. There is an interrelationship between the primary elements and
other, predominantly meteorological, parameters. For this reason, hydrological
observing stations ore normally equipped with auxiliary facilities for measuring
these parameters.
Automatic observing systems are now in widespread use in different fields
of geophysics. New generations of these systems are capable of operatinq for more
and more extended periods of time unattended. Highly sophisticated automatic
stations have been developed, to correspond to modern demands for transmission includ-
ing satellite interrogation and data processing.
There is a need for classification of automatic hydrological observing
systems into a meaningful framework defined in the light of the overall functions of
systems or stations. Such a classification should be simple because of the complex
character of outomatic hydrological systems. When defining a classification,
descriptive terms such as "fully-" or II semi-automotic systems" should not be osed
because they are too qualitative.
FQr the purpose of this report, the following three categories of hydro-
logical observing stations are defined:
Automatic hydrological observing station
A hydrological station at which instruments make and record the
observations automatically.
Telemetering hydrological observing station
A hydrological station at which instruments make, but do not record,
the observations automatically, and transmit them automatically to
the receiving centre.
Telemetering automatic hydrological observing station
A hydrological station at which instruments make and record the
observations automatically and transmit them automatically to the
receiving centre.
2
1.2
1.2.1
Reasons for introducing automation
The primary reason for changing to, or increasing the degree of, Qutomation
in a data callection network is the need to improve the quality, quantity and/or
timely receipt of the data. Most present day hydrological networks were developed
in response to particular, localized problems or scientific interests and not with a
specific objective of satisfying the future requirements for all hydrological purposes.
Many networks depend on manual, in-situ observations by observers. This is
a slow and laborious way of collecting data. Consequently, there is often inadequate
spatial information for those areas where observers are not readily available. Data
from such networks are sufficient for simple general hydrological resource studies,
but are of only limited value for project planning and operation. In most cases the
data collection programme does not meet the requirements for timely preparation and
issuing ofhydrolagical forecasts and warnings or for synoptic monitoring.
As the demands for hydrological planning and forecasting services increase,
the agency or agencies responsible for providing such services will be faced with a
decision on the need for modernizing the data collection network.
1.2.2 Manual versus automatic
It is often frustrating to maintain a network of stations manned by observers
when there may be a serious need to change to an automoted system. Changing
observers to improve the quality and/or reliability of reporting is a continual
problem. Although the trend for people to be more mobile has resulted in more fre-
quent changes in observers than has been possible in the' past, it is becoming
increasingly difficult to obtain observers who are willing to make measurements on
weekends. Moreover, there is a steady rise in the cost of observers, their recruit-
ment and training and the processing of data collected from hydrological networks
manned by observers.
Although such factors may make a change to a more fully automated system
appear attractive
l
there are problems and costs associated with automated systems
that should be carefully evaluated before a final decision is taken. A cost/benefit
approach should be the primary basis for such a decision. It is, however, extremely
difficult to determine the actual value of either the old or new system or even the
comparative figures. This is especially true when the data are utilized for several
purposes and costs must be allocated accordingly. In addition to cost comparisons,
the following questions should be given careful consideration.
(a) Is there a real need to improve the quality of the data?
(b) Is there a real need to increase the quantity of data
(i.e. improve the areal coverage)?
(c) Is there a real need to reduce the time required for
receipt of data?
AUTOMATION OF OBSERVING STATIONS
In considering the above questions it should be recognized thot the problem is a
dynamic one. Rapid chonges in the field of hydrology, instrumentation and means of
transmission of data as well as in the demand for services make it imperative that
anticipated future conditions be given proper evaluation.
3
The automation of data collection systems may reduce or eliminate most human
observational errors. However, this advontage moy be offset by the introduction of
inaccuracies caused by instability in the sensing, recording or transmission system.
Errors resulting from such instability in electronic systems may be much more
difficult to identify and correct than the human ones and quolity control of o t ~
then becomes highly dependent upon the quolity of maintenance.
A distinct advantage in most automated systems is the continuous recording
compared to the point measurements obtained by manual observations. For example,
continuous flow hydrographs, required for mony hydrologicol analyses, permit the
determination of maximum and minimum values, which are essential for the development
and application of mathematical and physical hydrological models that are now in
common use.
The quality of the data may be improved by data collection techniques other
than the automation of the present system. Remote sensing technology moy provide
means to obtain acceptable areal averages for certain elements. Many such improved
techniques ore now being developed ond these should be evoluated for the present and
future requirements before automation of a point measurement network is undertaken.
One of the most obvious advantages of automation is the obility to obtoin
data for locations where observers are not available. However, this should not be a
basis for a decision to automate the entire network. From a cost consideration the
most valuable data collection programme may be one in which automation is used for
only a portion of the area or for only those areas for which data are required on a
"real time" basis.
The rapid advancement that is taking place in the fields of instrumentation
and data transmission may provide ways and means for improved collection of data in
the near future that would be of great use, at less overall cost than those at
present in use. Information on considerations that should be given to selection of
a transmission s y ~ t m is given in Chapter 2.
Careful consideration should be given to the possible advantages to be
goined by automating only that portion of the . system required for present and
foreseeable needs. However, the initial plans for any automatic system should
include provisions for expansion and for the incorporation of neW technology whenever
possible. Since the demands for improved data, quality and quantity, normally
increase with time, a constant effort must be devoted to improve instrumentation.
4
A description of the various possible procedures as well as different equip-
ment used in the handling and processing of' hydrological data is given in WHO
Technical Note No.115, Machine processing of hydrometeorological data. Any decision
regarding the eventual treatment of recorded observations will have a very important
effect an the type of instruments to be used to obtain the data.
The use of the computer is most, profitable when handling either_ large
quantities or very complicated series of observations. It is usually not justifiable
to consider this means of handling the data from a small number of stations. In
these cases, a relatively small staff can handle the treatment of data with 0 minimum
of expense. On the other hand, if expansion of the observation network is envisaged
in the near future, it wauld probably be reasonable to immediately start developing
a system for automatic processing based on the information collected from the initial
small number of stations.
It should be noted that any existing network, either for hydrological observa-
tions or for other parameters, will have an impact on any decision. If, in the opera-
tion of the hydrological network, much money has been invested in the past to install
analogue recorders, it could be more economical not to convert to digital recorders,
but to continue using the analogue apparatus and available equipment to convert the ana-
logue recording to machine input form such as cards and magnetic tapes. Some hydro-
logists prefer this latter procedure of having as a basic record an analogue recording
because they feel that this type of record permits the person handling the data to have
an overall visual check on the information. The existing network should olso be taken
into account to assure that existing interface apparatus be used as much as possible.
This would eliminate the purchase of special individual translating equipment to con-
vert paper tape to cards, magnetic tape to cards, paper tape to magnetic tape etc. If
a system does not already exist and the number of installed analogue recorders is mini-
mal, it would probably be preferable to initiate digital recorders which can eliminate
all human processing of the record.
The treatment of hydrological data in itself does not necessarily justify the
purchase or rental of expensive computers so that, before taking ~ decision, a
study should be made of the computer facilities availoble and their cost, and the
possibility of either adding to these facilities or instolling completely new mochine
processing equipment.
If the use of computers is contemplated it is
recording instruments should have an output compatible
facilities.
very
with
important
available
that new
computer
1.3 Factors affecting choice of instruments and type of installation
for automatic hydrological observing stations
In the previous sections the odvantages and disadvantages of
been discussed. Once the decision has been made to automate the
automation have
hydrological
AUTOMATION OF OBSERVING STATIONS 5
observations at an station or 0 network of stations, careful consideration
should be given to the vorious foctors which will offect decisions on the type of
equipment to be instolled. In the following porogrophs, some of the constroints are
described. It is understood thot, where different instruments meet the users'
requirements, the final decision will be based on the relative of the equipment
and its availability.
1.3.1 Local conditions
Among the more important and sometimes most difficult constraints which
usually have to be overcome are the local climate and physiographic characteristics at
the proposed observing sites. In many cases the final choice of equipment will, in
effect, be made solely on the capability of the instruments to operate under
particular local conditions.
Climate
The local climate, especially where extreme conditions are found, will have
a considerable effect on the choice of instruments and types of installations. For
example, in polar regions or cold mountainous areas, ice cover on rivers, frozen
ground, heavy precipitation
l
deep snow cover, high winds and low may
require the use of specially designed equipment and non-standard installations.
Instruments to be installed in such areas would have to be designed to assure
continuous operation and recording under conditions where temperatures will descend to
-40
0
C and often lower. Moving ports should not contract appreciably with the falling
temperature; special lubrication should be used (in some cases designs necessitating
no lubrication at all have proved satisfactory); inks should be of non-freezing type
(recording devices eliminating the use of liquids are usually preferable); and clock-
works or other methods of chart movement have to be of special design to assure
continuous operation. This latter problem is usually one of the most serious which
has to be overcome in the operation of automatic equipment in the polar regions. High
winds which are usually prevalent in these areas will necessitate extremely well con-
structed installations because blowing snow can completely fill the instrument shelter
if even the smallest of openings is left in the walls of a shelter. Where instru-
ments are partially in the water or on the river bed, the presence of ice cover will
obviously affect the choice of equipment. In addition, as repair work during winter
is practically impossible, this section of the equipment has to be extremely reliable
and very well installed thereby minimizing failures.
In order to overcome some of the difficulties caused by low temperatures,
various methods for heating shelters have been developed. Where electricity is
available, electric heating has proved quite successful. On the other hand, in
inaccessible areas, different systems using propane gas heaters have been used with
some degree of success either to heat the interior of the shelter or an insulated area
around the instrument. These heaters have not always proved completely reliable for
long periods of unattended operation. In addition, this type of heater usually
requires relatively large amounts of gas so that in remote areas they are fairly
expensive to operate because of transportation costs. Condensation forming in
shelters as a result of the gas combustion has also been a problem.
6 AUTOMATIC HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
These are same of the factors which must be considered in the colder parts
of the world. Similarly, extremely hot, arid or humid climates give rise to their
own peculiar sets of instrumentation problems. In all extreme climotes, on analysis
should be mode of the conditions which would affect the operation of proposed outo-
matic equipment. A valuable aid in this regard is the experience which has been
gained by users of various types of : automatic equipment in similar location
Discussion with these people or reference to the literature may eliminate costly
errors in the choice of instruments.
The characteristics of the terrain in the immediote vicinity of the observ-
ing station play an important role in the selection of equipment. For example, it
would be extremely costly to build wells to house water-level recorders near rivers
where waier-level fluctuations are quite large and the river banks are mostly bedrock.
Wells will also be impractical where the river transports great amounts of sediment
which will continually block intake pipes. In these cases, a float-type gauge would
not be practical and instruments using the hydrostatic principle for detecting water-
level chonges should be used.
On the other hand, for rivers having moving beds, it might
any instrument having the detecting section in the stream itself as
carried away. An installation using a well and a float-type gauge
practical.
be unwise to use
it might be
would be more
Factors such as the geology of the local terrain and the presence of excess
vegetation will affect the selection of the type of installation. Many instruments,
in order to operate properly, have to be level, in which case the foundation of the
shelter may have to be foirly elaborate in order to ensure that the structure is not
affected by changes in temperature, erosion or plant growth.
In mountainous areas the installation of radio relay stations may be necessary
to provide for the transmission of the data. The initial and mointenance costs may be
a significant factor in a decision on automation.
Other conditions
In urban and in certain remote areas, the problem of vandals can be
serious and often may necessitate the use of special housing and equipment.
addition, wherever possible, exterior portions of any installation should be
to avoid tampering.
very
In
buried
When considering sites in inaccessible areas, difficulties and cost of trans-
portation, in some cases, exclude the use of heavy equipment. In these both
the type of installation and the instruments themselves should b: chosen due
consideration to weight and possible difficulties in
Animals may prave to be a problem in certain areas and, if so, suitable
protection should be included in the installations.
7
1.3.2
Many of the installations which will be considered in connexion with the
automation of hydrological obser/otions will imply the use of electric power for
sensor purposes, chart movement, heating or data transmission. This is one of the
most important and sometimes most difficult considerotions in the choice of equipment.
If power is available locally, the choice will be relatively simple but, even so, a
standby system of batteries may be necessary. This will be the case when, for
example, the observations are being used for flood forecasting and where, during
extreme floods, power lines could often be broken. In order to assure uninterrupted
observation of data during these critical periods, a standby battery system is
essential.
If no commercial power is available other sources such as wind-generators,
fuel-driven generatars and batteries should be considered. As a first step, a care-
ful evaluation of the energy consumption of the observation system should be made.
ObviouslYt continuous transmission of data will appreciably increase the power con-
sumption. As the use of more sophisticated power supplies, such as generators,
involves the possibility of mechanical failure, it is generally preferable, wherever
possible, to employ low-consumption equipment which would permit the use of batteries.
The batteries should be carefully chosen to ensure reliable operation under different
climatic conditions, especially in extremely hot or cold temperatures. Rechargeable
batteries usually involve a large initial expenditure as well as relatively frequent
inspections. For most recording instruments, non-rechargeable batteries are avail-
able, if required, which guarantee approximately two years of operation before
replacement.
At present, it is very difficult to obtain recording and transmitting equip-
ment as well as power supplies which will completely answer 011 the problems
encountered at ony one site. It should be understood by the network planner that
local modifications will almost invariably be to meet the particular
combination of problems arising from both local conditions and power demands.
1.3.3
As hydrological observing stations are installed primarily to obtain data to
help ensure proper use of water resources, it is evident that the accuracy of the
measurements should meet the standards of those who use the information. Cost of
equipment usually varies directly with its accuracy. Therefore, excessive demands
over and above the accuracy needed by the data users would, in effect
l
be a waste of
financial resources. This is elso true when the demanded from one part of
an observation programme is out of proportion with the results obtained in the overall
programme.
During the design of an observing proglomme it is therefore obvious that a
study should be made regarding the accurocy needed by the users, both present and
8 AUTOMATIC HYDROLOGICAL 08SERVATIONS
future, as well as of the overall accuracy possible in the various components of the
programme. Two basic elements should be considered in this regard; firstly,
instrumental accuracy in the measurement of the parameter, and time
accuracy and resolution. The former would affect the choice of sensor and recording
system while the latter will govern the selection of the type of clockwork and chart
movement.
When considering for eventual conversion into
discharge data by means of a stage-discharge relationship to be determined by stream
gauging, thought should be given to the following points. As the effects of
inaccuracies in water level are relatively less significant at high stages than at
low stages, it is important to decide whether the station is to be operated to supply
low-flow or high-flow information. In addition, it would be useless to consider
high accuracy equipment for the water-level measurement if local conditions da nat
permit precise stream discharge measurement.
This does not preclude the possibility that data users, by justifying the
need for more precise data, would make it necessary to develop more stream
discharge measurement (even at a relatively high cost). In view of this, better
quality stage records should be part of the initial programme.
If, far certain reasons such as back water from ice and weeds in the control
section, precise calculation of discharges using water-levels is impractical,
excessive disbursements of money and effort to obtain very accurate levels are not
justified. In general, the highest accuracy (at least 0.003 metres) is usually
needed where the aim of the observation is to obtain short duration low-flow data on
relatively small streams. Data requirements such as monthly means or flood flows on
very large rivers do not need extremely precise water-level data (better than 0.03
metres), although for establishing peak flows for use in numerical analysis greater
precision for measuring flood flows may be necessary. If equipment is to cover the
complete range of stage, it must obviously satisfy the most demanding conditions.
1.3.4
If a station is to be operated for a relatively short period of time, say
one or two years, it would be desirable to select equipment and a type of installa-
tion which can be easily moved. In other words, if possible, permanent structures
such as wells and expensive shelters should only be used where long-term observations
are planned.
1.3.5 Maintenance
In order to derive maximum benefits from
complete maintenance of instruments is essential.
proper maintenance each have their own effects on
any observing programme, regular
Various problems associated with
the choice of equipment.
The interval between inspections will largely depend upon
the type of equipment and the seriousness of any loss of record.
local conditions,
The length of
AUTOMATION OF OBSERVING STATIONS 9
unattended aperation will in turn have its effect on the choice of clockwork and type
of recording (ink, pencil, special paper, etc.). Instruments where charts will be
changed once a week can have a relatively simple clockwork while stations visited on
a six-monthly basis would require instruments with relatively complicated and
expensive clockwork. As to the problem of loss of record, it is. sometimes more
economical in extremely inaccessible areas to have duplicate installation to permit
less frequent expensive inspections and at the same time ensure a minimum loss.
It is preferable that there be uniformity in the type of instruments used in
a network. This would simplify the work of the technicians who have to make repairs
and would make the stocking of spare parts less complicated. In this _egard, it
would be preferable to use relatively simple and standard equipment so that spare
parts are available on demand.
It is also desirable to select an instrument that may be repaired in the
field if necessary with makeshift tools and parts.
It is important that the availability of spare parts is assured for the
whole life of the stations. In certain cases, in the past, because a type of instru-
ment has become obsolete, it has become extremely difficult and expensive to obtain
replacement parts for those already installed.
Personnel
It is essential that competent technicians are available to perform the
regular maintenance needed. If such personnel are not available a training programme
should be started as soon as a decision is made to install the relatively complex '
equipment associated with automation. The competence of the actual or proposed
personnel will be a factor in deciding upon the complexity of the equipment to be
obtained. It would not be sensible to acquire instruments which, because of their
complicated workings, could not be repaired by the available personnel.
It must be stressed that the decisions made have to be long-term; that is,
maintenance must be part of the programme as long as it exists. As automatic instru-
ments will not operate indefinitively without proper care, no matter what. type of
equipment is chosen, a breakdown in maintenance will result in a high capital expendi-
ture with little useful return.
1.3.6
Any decision regarding the type of recorder to be used will have to take into
consideration the speed with which the data is wanted by the user. If there is no
need for immediate information, an instrument can be installed and the recorded data
collected at any interval, either by a local observer ar by a visiting technician.
On the other hand, if data are required immediately as the parameter varies or when it
reaches predetermined limits, this might necessitate automatic transmission of the
data. This aspect af autamation is discussed more fully in Chapter 2, especially as
ta the decisions affecting the choice of mode of transmission. These decisions will
naturally influence the choice of automatic detecting and, if necessary, recording
equipment. There are cases where no local recording is deemed necessary as the
information is fed continuously into a central computer.
It should b ~ noted that even.though immediate transmission of data may not
seem essential at the moment, future needs should be considered carefully to avoid
having to change equipment if and when the need does arise. On the other hand, the
use of automatic recording equipment compatible with automatic transmission generally
means using more complex instrumentation. As this equipment requires highly skilled
technicians for maintenance as described in the previous paragraph, this could prove
a serious constraint in any selection.
1.3.7 Treatment of data
Treatment of data as a factor affecting the choice of instruments and
installations for the automation of hydrological observing stations has been
described in paragraph 1.2.2 above.
1.4 Selection of instruments
1.4.1
~ : ~ ~ : ~ _ ~ : ~ ~ ~
The design of a hydrological network must provide for the collection of all
pertinent data to satisfy the purposes of the programme. Thus a key element in the
selection of instruments is the network design. Regrettably, design of hydro-
logical networks has received comparatively little attention and definitive approaches
to the problem are not generally available. To help overCome this deficiency, the
WMO Commission for Hydrology has prepared a "Casebook on hydrological network design
practice" (WMO - No.324) which includes theoretical and practical examples of net-
works together with explanatory notes on objectives and principles used. The WMO
has also sponsored and collaborated on several papers on network design, including:
Hydrologic networks and methods. Flood Control Series Report
No. 15, WMO/ECAFE, Bangkok, 1960.
Design of hydrological networks, WMO-No.82.TP.32, 1958.
Proceedings, WMO/IASH Symposium on the Design of Hydrological
Networks, Quebec. lASH Pub. No. 68, 1965.
Hydrological network design - Needs, problems and approaches.
WMO/IHD Report No. 12, 1969.
1.4.2 Aids for selection of instruments
General guidance pertaining to instruments and methods of observations is
contained in WMO "Guide to hydrometeorological practices" and WMO "Guide to
meteorological instruments and observing practices". Although the material in the
Guides is specific as to the type of instruments required, no information on
commercially available instruments is included. Another source of general informa-
tion is WMO/ECAFE Publication No. 22, "Field methods and equipment used in hydrology
and hydrometeorology".
are available in
Mast companies have
instruments to meet
The most complete reports on commercial : instruments
brochures published by the various instrument manufacturers.
representatives who, upon request, will submit proposals for
design specifications by a planning agency.
11
1.4.3 Questionnaire on instruments of proven reliability

The WMO Commission for Hydrology also directed its Rapporteur on Instruments
to solicit information from Members on instruments of proven reliability that could
be consolidated into a report for use by Members and others as an aid in selecting
instruments for establishing hydrological networks.
The Members furnished information as specified by the questionnaire (see
Annex 1) for those instruments which have been tested and proven reliable under
actual operational conditions. Requested information included the name and address
of the reporting detailed information on the reported instrument,
operational experience, environmental conditions under which it has been operated and
cost data for the basic instrument and for equipment required for transmission of
reports. Details of new instrument development were also reported.
Some 220 responses were received from 31 Members. The replies were fairly
representative for all requested categories except (c) instruments for meteorological
elements at floating stations for energy balance or mass transfer estimates of
evaporation (see Annex 1).
The responses did not include some instruments that are known to be of proven
reliability. However, they did include many of the instruments in use in the basic
data networks of Members.
Tables prepared by the Rapporteur containing selected information on the
instruments of proven reliability are contained in Annex 2 for all categories except
(c) mentioned above. Included in the tables are data on some instruments which were
reported as under development or in limited use.
Additional information, if desired, on any of the reported instruments may
be obtained upon request to the WMO Secretariat.
1.5 Special considerations
The rapid development in the fields of instrumentation and transmission
systems makes it extremely difficult for even those most active in the fields to keep
abreast of recent improvements and innovations. Direct contact_ with the manu-
facturers and agencies conducting research and development is the most reliable
of keeping informed but potential users should be aware that many new instruments and
transmission systems are generally plagued by technical difficulties during the first
few years of field test and use. Unless a user is willing to accept the possibility
of economic loss and a delay in achieving operational status, he should rely on those
instruments and systems which have proven to be reliable in field use or in national
networks under environmental conditions similar to those anticipated for his area.
Those who consider the development of new instruments or transmission systems
of their own design should recognize the high cost generally ossociated with such
research, test and evoluation activities. Initial estimates of costs for such
development are often much less thon the finol cost to perfect an operationally
acceptable instrument or system.
C HAP T E R 2
TRANSMISSION OF HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
2.1 Introduction
During recent yeors, the demonds of users of hydrolgicol data have become
more and more sophisticated so that the system where an observer makes manual
measurements of rainfall, water-levels etc. and then mails the results to the analyst
is becoming more and more obsolete. The need for data has extended to inaccessible
areas where up to now no information has been available. In addition the insistence
on higher quality information as well as rapid receipt of this information has result-
ed in drastic changes both in the methods of measuring as well as the means of trons-
mitting data.
It is well to note that these recent innovations are relatively expensive
and, in cases where daily readings by a local resident meet the requirements, this may
still be the least expensive operation. On the other hand, as stated above, modern
data requirements eliminate this procedure as an alternative in many cases
t
and call
for more complicated and expensive measuring stations. It is therefore essential
that the network planner determine at the outset precisely the type of data he wishes
to collect as well as the delay he can tolerate in the use of the information. These
requirements should be examined attentively when comparing the cost and the output
of different possible systems before making any final decision as to the type of
installation to be used.
2.2 Systems of data transmission
The possible methods of transmitting hydrological data are given below in a
very ~ i c form, together with comments on their advantages and disadvantages.
SYSTEM 1
Form of telemetered data.
radio or telephone call to
and supplies instantaneous
Observer at station mails data or initiates
central office based on pre-arranged criteria
readings only
Advantages. Simple sensoring equipment may be used and malfunction
of sensor is known immediately. Inexpensive (communications paid
for only when used). If necessary can be interrogated from central
office
Disadvantages. No automatic recording so that continuous
not available. Quality of observer extremely important.
or radio link overloaded at certain critical periods
record of events
Central phone
Remarks. Phone calls can be received and recorded automatically on an
lI e l ectronic secretary" and transcribed at any time.
SYSTEM 2
Form of telemetered data. Central affice interrogates by phone, radio
or radio telephone, remote automatic station and receives single discrete
values as often as interrogated. It is possible to have an automatic dial-
ling device in the control office which could interrogate and record responses
at regular intervals
Advantages. Instantaneaus infarmation can be obtained as required even in
isolated areas
Disadvantages. No continuous record. Difficult to determine malfunction
of sensors. In addition to radio or telephone, equipment at station re-
quires a device to answer calls for information automatically
Remarks. Method of answering can be voice recording, short tones for
hundredths, tenths, units etc. or one continuous tone the length of which is
a function of the value (less accurate). In some instruments a memory can
be included so that upon interrogation continuous or extreme data can be
received for a pre-determined period prior to the call. Cost can vary from
$1 000 to $5 000 depending on complexity of system. When using FM radio the
cost of radio antennae is normally the main portion of total cost
larly at remote and distant sites.
SYSTEM 3
Form of telemetered data. Automatic equipment.at station programmed to
initiate phone or radio call to supply particular single instantaneous
observation
Advantages.
Immediate alert of extraordinary hydrologic conditions
Disadvantages. No continuous record.
sensors. device necessary to
criteria
Difficult to determine malfunction of
initiate calls based an predetermined
Remarks. As this system is normally an alert-oriented unit, it is usuolly
on a private line to a receiver who is always on call.
SYSTEM 4
Form of telemetered data. An impulse is transmitted automatically by phone
or radio for specified unit of change of porameter (each centimetre of change
of water-level for example)
Advantages.
Complete record of change of events as they occur
Disadvantages. Malfunction of sensors can be detected only after a certain
interval of time (for example; due to malfunction no change detected in
parameter and therefore no signal emitted). Reliable power supply very im-
portant
15
Remarks. Infarmation received usually recorded on a graphical or digital
recorder at central station. Cost of equipment (using rental telephone lines)
approximately $3 000 plus telephone line rental usually based on distance.
SYSTEM 5
Form of telemetered ,data. An impulse is transmitted automatically by phone
or radio'at predetermined 'intervals of time
Advantages. A total record is obtained
Disadvantages. Reliable supply power very important
Remarks.
teletype
SYSTEM 6
This form of in-formation transmission
or satellite re-tronsmission.
is especially suited for
Form of telemetered data. A combination of systems 4 and 5 is possible;
that is, unit changes in the measured parameter are stored and transmitted
at set intervals of time.
SYSTEM 7
Form of telemetered data. Data are transmitted and recorded on a continuaus
basis through electrical wires fram a device that' produces an electrical
signal in proportion to the value of the parameter being monitored (analogue
transmission)
Advantages. A total record is obtained immediately
Disadvantages. Distance from sensor to user is limited to a few thousand
feet maximum
Remarks.
SYSTEM 8
Normally each sensor is connected to a separate receiver.
Form of telemetered data. Data ore transmitted on a continuous basis over
radio or telephone by equipment that converts observations to a continuous
tone or frequency. This information is reconverted at the receiving site
(frequency modulation)
Advantages. A total record is abtained immediately
Remarks. Systems using telephone line can cover any distance through the
use of signal repeaters (amplifiers) along the way. FM radio usually
applies to line-of-sight distance only. AM radia can be used over greater
distances but is more subject to atmospheric interference.
16
SYSTEM 9
Form of telemetered data. Remote field sites equipped with data sensors,
encoder and radio transceiver transmit coded information to a central office
where information is decoded and fed to a computer which has initiated the
sequential calls
Advantage. System is completely automatic
Disadvantages. Very expensive and complex to service
Remarks. usually included programme where . predetermined
observations are brought to the attention of the system operator.
links or orbiting Earth satellites can be used for transmission or
mission.
extreme
. FM radio

2.3 General considerations in selection of systems
When considering the possibility of including automatic transmission of data
in any measuring system, consideration should be given to the following:
(i) Accessibility or inaccessibility of the measurement sites}
Obviously where a statian is located in an area where accessibility
is extremely difficult and expensive, it would probably be preferable
to have automatic recording as well as telemetering of the data.
(ii) Reliability of alternative recording device;
In certain cases, because of rigorous local climatic conditions, the opera-
tion of on-site mechanical equipment is difficult and it is more reliable simply
to transmit information electronically to be recorded in a central climate con_
trolled office. In addition, this type of system permits a continuous check of
the operation of the sensors. .
(iii)Speed with which data is required;
(a) Time between observations and receipt of the data by the analyst
(b) Time required to procees and analyse the data
(c) Speed with which changes in the parameter take place and what
effect these parameters have on the regime in question
(d) Accrued benefits of forecasts from telemetered data as well as
cost due to lack or delay of knowledge.
(iv) Staffing and logistic problems;
Localobservations or a surveillance of. on-site recording equipment
requires qualified personnel in the vicinity of the measuring station which
implies a relatively large number of qualified personnel. On the other hand,
a centrally controlled telemetering system would necessitate the use of a very
TRANSMISSION OF HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS 17
much smaller proportion of technicians versus number of measuring stations, even
though this latter personnel would have to be very highly qualified.
These are some of the more important criteria to be
planning process but each individual project will have its own
careful attention should be given to all the alternatives with
fits before any final decision is made.
considered in
particulari ties
their costs and
the
and
bene-
When designing a system for the automatic transmission of measured data, the
three main components to develop are:
(a) Measuring and encoding equipment;
(b) The transmission link;
(c) Receiving, decoding and analysing.
While developing each of these units separately, it is necessary to consider
the three together in the design stage. This is essential as the special character-
istics of anyone of these components can have serious Gonsequences on the decisions
regarding the others.
The type of installation for measuring and transmitting the data will depend
greatly on the parameter or parameters to be measured especially as regards their
variability with time and space, the climate in the area which would affect the choice
of sensor, power supply etc. and the type of transmission to be used witb
tion given to the distances to be covered.
2.4 Transmission links
The type of transmission link used is determined by the frequenQY bond
requirements and economics. Availability locally of anyone of the alternate choices
is a constraint. Possible choices for transmission links include: dedicated land
lines, commercial telephone or telegraph lines, direct radio links, satellite re-
transmission systems.
2.4.1 Dedicated land lines
These are perhaps the easiest to install when relatively short distances are
involved and no commercial lines already exist. Land lines are typically able to
transmit frequencies of up to 3 000 Hertz* without special techniques. Time division
and frequency multiplexing** can be used to provide more economic use of the trons-
mission line.
* Hertz is a unit of frequency.
** The process of using one transmission line to transmit several measurements is
called multiplexing.
18
2.4.2
When the distances invalved are lang and existing telephane systems exist,use
can be made af these. Equipment exists to enable the instrument to simulate the
behaviour of a relatively normal subscriber to the telephone service. Measurements
and commands can be transmitted to and from the remate site.
2.4.3
The use of commercial telegraph lines to transmit data on request from a re-
mote site is illustrated in Figure 2.1.
Commercial teletype network
Tope advance . 3
control lines
Paper tape loop
extended out
of recorder
2
".";-
3
Leaend
1 _ Punch paper tope water-level recorder, float operated
2 - Teletype tape reader head
3 _ Teleprinter
4 - Punch tope 'output
5 - Hard copy printout
Figure 2.1 - Teletype equipment system. The system works as
follows: the operator activates the recorder tape advance to
bring the last data punch within range of the reader; then the
tape reader is activated; data on tape are transmitted via
teletype lines to the receiving equipment; autput appears as a
duplicate of the punched paper tape record gathered unattended
on site as well as a print out of the data
2.4.4
Direct radia links
19
These must be used when the data frequency requirements exceed thase avail-
able over land lines.or when distances ar natural obstacles prevent the economic
installation of wires. Distonces of kilometres to hundreds of kilometres may be
spanned by radio transmitters, depending upon the frequency and power avoilable: At
the higher frequencies, the tronsmitter and receiver must have a cleon line-of-sight
tronsmission path. This limits the range without repeater stations.
In all cases, installation and operation of radio transmission links is
governed by national and international regulations.
2.4.5 Satellite links
Data transmission from satellites can take place in two ways;
of data as observed by sensors in the satellite (including photogrophs)
data observed at remote ground stations to central receiving locations.
transmission
or by relaying
At present, the science of observation and transmission or retransmission
from satellites is developing rapidly and during the next few years, enormous amounts
of data will be available either directly from the space craft or through central data
banks. The Geostationory Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) System scheduled
for launch in 1972 is an important addition to the World Weather Watch network. This
system is a good example of the two types of transmission mentioned above, and more
detailed information is available from the Director, National Environmental Satellite
Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington, D.C. 20031,U.S.A.
It should be noted that the METEOR meteorological space system has already
been established and is operating successfully in the Soviet Union. In the METEOR
system orientations are used in relation to the centre of the Earth and the course of
the satellites. The satellites contain apparatus for collect ian and tronsmission of
information; the system also comprises a surface network for the collection, process-
ing and dissemination of information obtained from the satellites including receiving
stations, recording apparatus and data-processing machines, including electronic
computers.
More detailed information about this system and the results of its utiliza-
tion are available in the report IIProgress in the use of data from satellites in the
Hydrometeorological Service of the U S S R ~ which can be obtained from the WMO Secre-
tariat.
2.5 Receiving system
The eventual use of the data will govern the type of equipment needed for the
receiving end of any automatic transmission system. In a relatively simple system,
regular calls- by the analyst to the measurement site coupled with simple analyses could
be sufficient. On the other hand, in complex situations where complicated analyses
precede rapid decisions, it might be necessary to couple continuous transmissions
through the necessary decoding system to a computer which would be programmed to make
the required decisians. Added to this could be a system for alerting certain desig-
nated peaple in such cases as flood or typhoon alerts for example. Figure 2.2 is
that af a system where anly extraardinary events are telemetered.
order to eliminate continuous transmission on telephone lines the
very expensive.
This is done in
rental of which is
-------1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
___ l
I
J\MnnJLJUlIlIL
-------
,
---.-'--
t

81-
Legend
1 _ Data transmitter. Analogue water-
level do to are converted into electric-
al digits
2 _ Memory unit which con store minimum or
maximum water-level information and ten
successive water levels
3 _ Dialing unit which automatically calls
a predetermined party in the event of an
unusual water_level condition
4 _ Announcing unit which when addressed,
announce5 the existing water-level,
the rising or falling tendency, the
lost high or low water or any of the
other stored doto
5 _ Tilller
6 _ Punch paper tope recorder
7 - Power supply unit
8 _ Telephone
Figure 2.2 - Tele-announcing system. The system works as follows:
the tele-announcer is installed in place of an ordinary telephone
set and addressed by dialling the number of the telephone line. In
the case of an unusual water-level change, the dialling unit pro-
duces a series of pulses corresponding to a codified call number
and switches on the tele-announcer. On receiving a call in the
case of an unusual event! a punch paper tape recorder is activated
to store over a pre-set time period the water level changes at one-
minute intervals. These data are available to the authorities con-
cerned, or shortly after the event
C HAP T E R 3
EXAMPLES OF AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS FOR HYDROLOGICAL PURPOSES
3.1 Example I (Canada)
The following is an excerpt from a report written in 1969 by H. C. Belhouse,
D. W. Colwell and J. S. Dickson, Meteorological Service of Canada, describing the
approach taken by this organization in the development of hydrometeorological auto-
matic telemetering stations in the Columbia River basin of Canada.
At the beginning of our study, very little work wos being done in outomatic
reporting of hydrometeorological parameters. The sensors available were principally
designed for local recording. Also, in the commercial equipment available, a gap
existed between heavy industrial and sophisticated space-oriented techniques, neither
of which was suited to our needs.
Without available equipment specifically designed for our requirements, there
was little choice but to undertake the task of filling this gap ourselves. This meant
that it would be necessary to set out from basic principles in assessing our mountain
environment and in discovering what equipment would be most reliable under these con-
ditions.
The approach taken was to begin with existing, simple equipment, with no il-
lusions of immediate success. At best what was hoped for was a fuller understanding
of the environment and related equipment problems, to yield more specific objectives
for later development phases.
In basic concept, the system would consist of a self-powered and unattended
remote station on a mountain observing site which would automatically measure and
transmit data by radio link to an attended base station where the report would be auto-
matically recorded.
Assumed requirements
Environmental Certain assumptions had to be made about the
mountain environment, as a basis for initial design: operating ranges were establish-
ed for temperature (-40
0
F to + 120
0
F), wind (120 miles per hour), snow loads (100
inches of water equivalent) and icing of radio antennae and towers (2 inches).
Reporting of parameters. The system was intended to report precipitation
and temperature data which could be used to estimate mountain runoff into the Columbia
River watershed. The requirement was for up to eight reports per day of accumulated
snowfall (water equivalent to 0.1 inches) and of ambient temperature ( 10F).
Siting implications. A primary objective was that the observing site be
representative of the' snowpack oreo in question. The measurements were to be made
in a mountain meadow below the tree line with good drainage, minimum drifting of snow
and low avalanche hazard. Since line-of-sight radio transmission to the base station
was almost surely a necessity, a remote location meeting all these conditions would
probably be hard to find, and .not easily accessible. Installations would therefore
be difficult if the equipment was not easily portable, at least by helicopter. As
frequent maintenance visits would be costly and impractical, the remote station would
be required to operate reliably and unattended for periods of four to six months.
Base station. It was assumed that a base station, suitably located for
line-of-sight radio reception, would be served by telegraph or other primary communica-
tions, for manual relay by the local operator of the automatically recorded data trans-
mitted from the mountain site.
In parallel with the undertaking of long-term design and development, a
recording precipitation gauge was installed on Mt. Fidelity in British Columbia
during the winter of 1963-64 for an initial assessment of environmental problems.
The gauge, with an Alter shield attached, was placed twelve feet above the ground
on a metal tower.
The outcome of this experiment was an unquestionable verification of our
fears that wet snow clings tenaciously to rough surfaced gauge housings and chained
Alter shields, causing IImus hroom" overcopping of the gauge orifice and rendering the
gauge completely inoperative.
Having a technique with which we hoped to overcome this problem, we then pro-
ceeded to assemble existing sensors, encoders, radio and power supply equipment into
a first prototype telemetering system.
The dial pointer position of a Taylor mercury-in-steel thermometer and the
recorder pen arm position of a Leupold and Stevens telemetering precipitation gauge
were detected by follower devices, servo-driven by Telemark drum encoders. Data from
these encoders were transmitted by IItaxi
ll
radio equipment to a strip-chart event
recorder.
The power consumption of the radio transmitter was such that
battery would not be sufficient. A thermo-electric generator consuming
propane per year was added to replenish the battery charge continuously.
a lead-acid
400 pounds of
This equipment was housed in a sectional fibreglass dome eight feet in height
and diameter, which was complete with ventilation pipes for the generator and a four-
foot stack protruding through the roof to allow precipitation to fall into the gauge.
EXAMPLES OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS 23
The stack was tapped by a three foot metal cone, blackened and silicone-treated to
avoid snow adhesion, and having a ten-inch orifice at the top.
The entire ossembly was to be installed above the maximum snow level on a
wooden platform, to allow access for servicing.
In a pre-assessment of this configuration, the complete system was evaluated
at our Toronto test site, while a second dome, with stack and catch cone and a pre-
cipitation gauge were installed on Mt. Fidelity to provide on
mental effects.
Results. This strategy proved worthwhile in the early identification of
serious shortcomings of the system, making possible major redesign of these critical
areas before engaging in an arduous mountain test programme.
The propane power supply was cumbersome and in fact unreliable, and all later
equipment was redesigned for minimum power consumption to allow the exclusive use of
batteries.
The precipitation gauge did not adequately represent the snow on the ground
and was inaccurate even when an Alter shield was employed. More promising snow-on-
ground sensors were later used to replace the gauge.
While the silicone-treated catch cone appeared to remain free of snow, the
accumulation on the dome itself and on the support tower threatened to overcap the
gauge orifice. The deletion of the power generator and the precipitation gauge later
allowed a great reduction in shelter and support size.
To aid the full system redesign which was progressing at the Toronto labora-
tory this first telemetering prototype with a few important changes, was installed
during the winter 1965-66 on a mountain meadow near Enderby, British Columbia.
A low power solid state radio transmitter allowed operation of the remote
station with a lead-acid battery, and further mountain environment and telemetry link
checks were possible.
The Enderby tests showed that radio telemetry and battery power were feasible.
The precipitation gauge however underweighed the snow as it had done at Toronto, and
high snowfall rates caused some pile-up in the gauge because of surface dilution of the
antifreeze.
March,
cone.
wooden
The silicone treatment of the catch cone again avoided snow adhesion, but by
build-up on the dome itself had reached to within six inches of the top of the
Complete overcapping of the orifice was only averted when the collapse of the
tower under the extreme snow load terminated the winter's test.
Following the investigation of experimental problems with available hardware,
the next two years were devoted to the identification of more suitable instrumentation
for a final prototype. Various sensor alternatives were explored, component models
24
were constructed and mountain tested. In this process there were several failures,
but each led to a better understanding and subsequent approach to the problems involv-
ed. More favourable sub-units slowly emerged, were refined and adapted into a
gradually improving prototype system. Some of the approaches used in this process,
and the results and experience gained thereby, are worthy of note.
Tubular steel anemometer towers, suitably guyed, were used for basic support-
ing structures, with functional equipment mounted in weatherproof boxes well above
ground to be clear of, or easily accessible through, the higher winter snow level.
It was found however that forces were exerted on the 3/8 inch stranded steel guys by
adherence, compaction and steeling of the snowpack itself, to the extent that some guys
broke, and others caused local bending of the tower as much as a foot off the vertical.
It was faund that linear thermal contraction af the guy wires accentuated this problem
greatly and that leaving sufficient slack at the time of installation removed the
fault.
Nickel-cadmium batteries and lead acid cells both proved unsuitable as power
supplies, because of current leakage to ground and high degree of susceptibility to
damage even with careful handling. It was nevertheless felt that batteries of suit-
able durability and performance still remained the only feasible answer to the power
problem.
With electronic equipment, three major problems arose. Ever-present humid-
ity caused extreme corrosion of normal contracts and connexions, calling for better
materials and protection, and electronic design less .. sensitive to this problem.
Several components considered and even specified as suitable for particular applica-
tions such as low temperatures were in fact found to be very critical for these
applications and had to be re-selected. Fail safe devices installed for system
reliability resulted in some cases in causing system shut-down themselves, and had to
be refined for proper performance and better indication of system malfunction.
On the more positive side, the introduction of solid state programming and
control and use of binary-coded-decimal transmission showed immediate benefits in
reliability, flexibility and lower power drain.

The pratotype equipment now under test at the Enderby site represents a
feasibility model of final system design, based on the concepts evolved during our
study. The prototype incorporates our best solutions thus far to the problems en-
countered, and is designed to provide not only a reliable but also a versatile system,
capable of wide application to remote sensing needs.
Components which survived the evolution stage have been retained, such as the
snow pillow, the tipping bucket raingauge, the radio equipment and the chronometric
clock which iriitiated transmission.
Sub-units which have been refined or completely modified include: support
structures, sensors, analogue-to-digital devices, telemetry control and programming,
power supplies and recording methods.
Support structures. The remote station equipment other thon sensors and
antennae is enclosed in weatherproof metal boxes, which are presently mounted at the
bases of the most resilient, unguyed, ground-rooted towers we were able to supply at
hand-toPPed-and unlimbed trees. The above snow sensors and the radio antenna are
mounted above the maximum expected snow level.
Two coi1CejJf:s here are 'worthy of note. _. 'Firstly, the- placing of equipment on
or even in the ground reduces tower loading and the snow cover provides good protec-
tion from the environment. Secondly, while our use of trees os towers is not
necessarily advocated for long-term application, we feel that permonent structures
should be designed with parollel characteristics and performance.
Sensors and encoders. While the raingauge and snow pillow have been r t o n ~
ed from earlier models, the thermistor and its onalogue-to-digital encoder, and the
pressure detector and encoder for the snow pillow are new designs and show great
promise.
The temperature encoder is a simple electronic device. for digitizing of
resistance and appears to be reliable. Accuracy and linearity of this unit will be
improved before inclusion in the final system.
The snow pillow pressure digitizing encoder in this model is very good. The
design is essentially based on that of an open mercury manometer, employing a servo-
driven micrometer lead screw to detect mercury level.
Programmer control. The readout of sensors, digitizing and scanning of data
and format of sequential transmission of information is directly controlled or accom-
plished by a solid state programmer, the design of which is based on digital computer
logic functions.
Power supply. Alkaline "dry" electrolyte primary cells make up the battery
used to supply the remote station. These batteries are efficient at low temperatures,
and are capable of operating the system for up to two years, depending on the fre-
quency of reports and the number of batteries used.
Recording. An automatic electric typewriter equipped for computer-type
data input is employed at the base station to record both telemetered data and date/
time information provided locally. The design of the telemetry link/recorder inter-
face equipment is based on the same logic functions as the remote station programmer,
and effectively reverses the role of that equipment by converting the sequential
binary-coded-decimal transmission of data into parallel output for the typewriter.
Results. Outside of one period when records were interrupted by failure of
the printer input power supply at the base station, operation of the system has been
very satisfactory. The remote station did fail to transmit data for one two-day
period, but it was found that the ambient temperature had dropped below the design
operating minimum of _30
0
Fahrenheit. As soon as the temperature rose above that
point, normal operation was resumed automatically.
From our point of view, however, the most encouraging feature of the
is the proving of the inherent reliability of the remote station equipment.
system
At the
time of writing, no basic failure has occurred after over four months of continuous
operation.
Conclusion
At this stage, the specific purpose is to report snowpack parameters, from
remote mountain areas in the Columbia River watershed, to a manned base station. The
system as it stands will report up to three parameters, and will produce a record on
electric typewriter or punched paper tape.
The telemetry system is simple and versatile, however, and is adaptable to
almost any dedicated communications link: direct radio transmission, landline, tele-
phone, or any combination of these. It will also be possible to provide the
facility for operation with existing land-line or radio teletype networks.
As the system is modular, it is possible to add other parameters to its
report: wind speed and direction and total precipitation are examples where existing
sensors can be incorporated, along with suitable encoders. Reporting of other paro-
meters will be feasible when reliable - low-power sensors become available. For
example, a simple humidity sensor not susceptible to contamination would be a very
welcome addition for many purposes.
The aim of such system versatility is to provide wide applicability to meet
other needs. Few, if any, of these will . m p o ~ such formidable constraints of
environment and long term reliability as those of the mountain stations for the
Columbia network, and in most cases the modular equipment will then constitute on easy
and direct solution to the problem. Design features and components of this equip-
ment have already been adopted in the development of a remote wind reporting station
on the Queen Charlotte Islands. Distinct opplications are foreseen for forestry
purposes as well.
Such equipment should now easily meet the needs expressed to Meteorological
Branch for hydrometeorological reporting from other major river basins. The equip-
ment could also accept hydrological inputs such as water-level sensors, and could in
fact be used to upgrade existing hydrological recording networks into telemetering
networks of both hydrological and hydrometeorological data.
3.2 Example II (U.S.A.). The Hy-Tel remote radio telemetry system
Since September 1968, the Notional Weather Service of the United States has
operated experimentally a hydrological telemetry network in the American River Basin
of California. This system, known as Hy-Tel (Hydrologic Telemetering), is manu-
factured by the Astro-Met Division of Thiokol Chemical Corporation of Ogden, Utah,
U.S.A.
The network provides precipitation, temperature and snow water equivalent
data for use in river, flood and water management forecasting. Sensors for other
parameters such as wind direction and speed, dew point, radiation, etc. are being
developed. The system is designed to read up to 22 separate sensors.
EXAMPLES OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
27
The basic philosophy in planning the Hy-Tel system was that the remote
stations kept as simple, inexpensive and as reliable as possible. The base
station at Sacramento, California consists of a console with digital readout, a radio
with antenna and a radio remote unit. The base station, which will normally be in a
convenient location and a controlled environment, will contain the bulk of the
sophisticated equipment.
The present readout is manually controlled. Code buttons are punched for
each remote data station and the data is presented visually by numbers which light up
on the control console, after the call button is pushed. A more sophisticated read-
out is available at added cost which will call up the data stations automatically
on a programmed time basis and print out the data on a teletype machine.
Hy-Tel is a complete system. It includes
but all the components of a data collecting system;
antennae and towers Figure 3.1).
not only the radio
including gauges,
telemetry link,
sensors,- trans-
To maintain the simplicity of the remote station, the data is kept in ana-
logue form until it is received at the base station. The data at the remote station
is represented by the frequency of an audio tone. As the measured parameter changes,
the frequency of the tone changes. The audio tone, in turn, frequency modulates the
radio frequency carrier. Thence, the system is a VHF FM-FM telemetry system (UHF is
available as an option). The data is conveyed to the base station on an r-f carrier
which is frequency-modulated by a subcarrier which is in turn frequency-modulated by
transducers at the remote data station. The r-f carrier is demodulated by the base
station receiver, and the frequency modulated subcarrier is presented to the sub-
carrier discriminator. The output of the subcarrier discriminator is a DC voltage
which is digitized by a Digital Voltmeter (DVM) and visually displayed as a number
between 000.0 and 100.0. The number is interpreted as a- percentage of the full
scale of the parameter being measured; i.eo, if temperature is the parameter being
measured (suppose the temperature range is _15
0
F to 1100F) then a base station display
of 000.0 would correspond to _15
0
F, and a display of 100.0 would correspond to 1100F;
readings in between would be determined from the transducer calibration curve.
Remote stations are called up by a two-tone sequential code (address) trans-
mitted from the base station. A remote station address is selected by depressing one
tone button in each of the two rows of ten buttons located on the front panel. The
station is then called by pressing the front panel CALL button. Up to 100 stations
can be called from the base station.
A microphone is included with the base station, permitting voice communica-
tion with the remote data stations.
Operational specifications include:
Environmental-operating temperature
Electrical-power
60
0
F to 1100F (Base station)
-20
0
F to 125
0
F (Remote station)
117 VAC/60 Hz (Base station)
15V Battery (Remote station)
""
0>
l>
=i
....
n
'"
o
....
o
OJ
Ul
1"'1
'"
;::j
Ul
Interface
mod,ule
I
I
I
Sensors
'-
I
I
I
I I
1 ,r- I 1
L ..,. __ , "End.-of-messog .1
I generator I
I 1
1 I
I , Voltage I I
I . Controlled I 1
I Oscillotor " I
I I
I ',. I
I I I Permeobili ty I
1 " tuned I
i 'oscillator I
i 1-
TransduceI:s
Power
module i
I I
'I Re"mbte electronics package I
. I I
I Receiver ' I I
r- I
I
Address I !control logia I lr-s-te-.p-p"'-i-ng-- I
. decoder '. . SWl tch 1
Figure 3.1 - Block diagram of remote instrumentation site equipment
This system has proved to be highly reliable through three seasons of opera- .
tion under very adverse conditions of rain, snow and sub-zero weather. Very little
maintenance has been required other than the usual preventive and annual maintenance
visi ts. .
Battery operation at remote stations has been more than satisfactory. The
stations have operated for periods of up to a year without battery replacement. This
is true in spite of hourly interrogation during periods. Normal
operation calls for daily call-up shifting to hourly during critical storm periods.
Double mass plots comparing the Hy-Tel catch with nearby:gauges has shown
very close correlation throughout the season.
Radio reliability has been outstanding. The only problems have been at
sit:s where the path is marginal, and these could be improved by the
,nstallat,on of a mounta,n-top relay assuring a clear path from sensor site to base
station.
. The Hy-Tel 9ystem has the advantages of low initial cost as well as low
cost. In where no AC power is available, its ability to operate
on battenes for long penods unattended is a definite advantage.
In the western United States, during the past several years, a large number
of telemetered hydrological networks have been established. This is due mainly to
the large number of agencies engaged in water management that require hydrological and
meteorological data from remote areas, In the State of California alone there are
thirty-six such data collection networks operated by use of either radio or telephone
call-up.
A major development currently in the planning and procurement stage is the
use of a synchronous orbiting satellite as a reloy for hydrological and meteorological
data.
A multi-year (1967-69) test using the ATS I satellite has proved the feasi-
bility of such a system to - telemeter streamgauge and precipitation data. Three..
stations in California, Oregon and Arkansas were used. Data were relayed through
faxed satellite to the readout at Mohave, California.
The new system using the GOES satellite will interrogate a network of stream
and precipitation gauges in the western U.S. The reports will then be relayed, from
the data collection platforms to the National Weather Service River Forecast Centers.
It is possible, using such a satellite relay system, that the lorge number
of independent data collection networks could be consolidated into one. Data call-
up could be programmed by computer and transmitted by land lines to the individual
user.
3.3 Example III (U.S.S.R.). Automatic hydrological recording station (AHRS)
The automatic hydrological recording station developed in the U.S.S.R. is in-
tended to perform routine observations at hydrological stationB when systematic stor-
age of observed data is required for a given period (not less thon a month) and when
the data has 'to be presented in a form suitable for further processing by electronic
computers for hydrologicaf;1:ud'ies.
AHRS consists of
a standard tape puncher.
The information from each
o digital impulse code.
Sensors
a sensor unit and an automation unit which has a memory and
There are ten sensors for measuring hydrological elements,
sensor is transmitted to the automation unit in the form of
The first two sensors measure woter-level and temperature. A hydrostotic
water-level gauge is used as a water-level sensor. Its operation is based on trans-
ducing hydrostatic water pressure into a mercury column movement in a manometer. The
change in the mercury column is, in its turn, transformed into a digital impulse code.
With some modifications, the instrument can measure from 0 to 3, 6, 9,
or 12 metres.
An automatic temperature gauge consisting of a thermometer with a platinum
resistor is used as a temperature sensor. Measured temperature is transformed into
a digital impulse code. The device allows water temperature measurements within the
range from 0 to +40
0
C.
The automation unit
The automation unit is designed for automatic'data
hydrological sensors according to the prearranged programme.
gramming device, an information coding and storage device, a
Figure 3.2). '
storage supplied by
It consists of 0 pro-
memory and a feeder (see
The programming device is a combination of circuits controlling successive
progrommed operotions of the whole system. In it signals of time are coded into a
binary decimal code to be punched on a paper tape. The device consists of a master
clock (1), timing generator (2), intermediate frequency divider (3) and time-keeper
(4).
The e device consists of input devices (50 9
depending on electronic counters (6
0
9)' storage -,
(7), digital formation check circuit (8), intermediate storage - (9), matching'
device (10), sensor of operational combinations (11), a sensor number dialling set
(12) and a control device (13).
The memory (14) stores the information during the unattended period. A
tape puncher serves os a memory and a standard paper tape, 17.5 mm wide, is used as
the information carrier.
31
I
The feeder (15) guarantees power supply by alternate current circuit and by
accumulators.
......-
50
oQ :
I
8
I
---
I
-
I
r .....
-
/0
1'1
r--, r--,
1-
--I 5, t ~ 6, t-
_.J
9 ~
L. __-' Ll._.1
-
--
-
'"-
7
..r:--
-
r--, r-'
'", -
--I 5
a
1---1 6
8
I-
L..__J L __J
l-
L .....
I I
I 6 I
I
/2 I
I 11 I
I 5u I I 9 I I
15
I
I
13 If
I I
3
I
l /,21
I I .-
Figure 3.2 - Block diagram of the AHRS automotion unit
AHRS specificatians
~ _.- - - - - -
(i) The AHRS system permits the automotic recording of 10 hydrologicol parameters
supplied by the sensors.
(ii) The information is supplied to the automation unit: by all sensors simul-
taneously in a digital impulse code.
(iii) The time and measurements are recorded on a punched tape in a binary decimal
code.
32
(vii)
(iv) The whole measurement cycle is 5 minutes.
(v) The measurement frequency may be varied by an aperatar and may be performed
on-an hourly, two-hourly, or once or twice a day basis.
(vi) The accuracy of measurements:
Water-level (1-2) cm.
Water temperature t 0.2C.
Hydrological sensors may be at a distance of up to 2 000 m from the auto-
mation unit.
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
The automation unit operates satisfactorily at temperatures from _35
0
C to
+35
0
C and an air humidity up to 98 per.cent; the puncher at temperatures
0 to 30
0
t and an air humidity up 70 per cent.
The dimensions and the weight of the automation unit are 850 x 500 x 400 mm
and 95 kg, respectively.
The AHRS automation unit is installed in a shelter for protection against
influences (rain, wind, etc.).
3.4 Example IV (U.S.S.R.). Mudflow radio warner (MRW)
Introduction
Sudden temporary torrents appear in mountainous regions as a result of
heavy rain storms
i
snow melt and flushins from glacial, moraine-dammed lakes, causing
mudflows which are a dangerous phenomenon inflicting heavy damage and casualties.
Protection against mudflows has been a matter of great concern. Various
precautions are taken for this purpose in the areas where mudflows are likely to
occur: mud dams and chutes are erected, special mud flow watch and warning services
are established, etc.
The mudflow radio warner is intended to warn, with on ample time margin, the
population and authorities of mountain and sub-mountain regions of the formation and
passage of a mudflow registered by special sensors installed .in. a mountain river
basin. Besides that, the MRW provides for remote supervision of river water-level,
and the sharp fluctuations which often indicate a mudflow formation. For this
purpose the mud flow warner contains two sensors, one for water-level and one for mud-
flow.
The MRW is based on the principle of . a signal frequency selection. A
specific audio frequency is assigned to each of the three elements under study (the
first water-level, the second water-level and the mudflow). The audio frequency
discriminated by appropriate devices turns on the warning system.
The MRW system includes transmitting and receiving stations.
A transmitting statian (the system usually
stations) is established in a mountain river basin,
incorporates several broadcasting
in tributDries and in major
channels in such a way as to ensure an ample time margin before the mud flow reaches
the site to be warned, and to provide for a reliable duplication of the system. The
mud flow warner transmitting station operates automatically and needs na attendance,
except for monthly preventive maintenance.
A receiving station (centre), to which the information is supplied from
several transmitting stations, is located at a town where the mudflow watch service is
located. The main criterion for the lacations of MRW receiving stotians is a reli-
able radio communication with all the broadcasting stations at selected frequencies.
Operotors should keep watch at the receiving station throughout the period when a mud-
flow may be expected. The distance between the transmitting and receiving stations
may be up to 50 km.
The function of the MRW transmitting station is to transduce a mountain river
water-level rise up to marks and mud flow appearance at the site into
radio signals, and to send them by the communication line to the receiving station.
A" block diagram of the MRW transmitting station is presented in Figure 3.3.
5 7 ....
-
g
"
1
n
2 10
l-
S
LJ
t t
6 8
II
Figure 3.3 - Block diagram of the mudflow radio warner transmitting
station
34
Signals from water-level sensors 1 and 2 and from that of mud flow 3 ore fed
into the automation" unit where they are transformed into audio __ (F
l
; F
2
; F
3
)
and are then fed into the radio transmitter'"which broodcasts" modulated ,frequency'
signals corresponding to a certain water-level or mudflow.
In the on-position, signals of water-level sensors 1 and 2' are broaacast
periodically (at 50 and 25 minute intervals respectively). A mud flow warning signal
is generated continuously for an extended time (over 6 hours) during which a mud flow
breaks the section line equipment.
A transmitting station of the mudflow radio warner consists of: section line
equipment, water-level and mud flow sensors, local wire communication line, automation
uni tt radio transmitter and antenna,. power unit.
The section line equipment serves ,for the installation of the
o mudflow river. The equipment secures the sensors ond protects
mechanical damage.
MRW sensors in
them against
Water-level sensors (1,2) send signals when the river water 'reaches two
predetermined levels at the site of the transmitting station. A water-level sensor
is a float suspended from a lever. When the water-level rises the lever turns and
closes (or opens) an electrical circuit, sending a signal to the automation unit
when a predetermined level is reached.
Mudflaw sensors (3) send a signal when a mudflow" passes the site. The
sensitive element is a steel rope stretched across the river channel and housed in a
protective tube. One end of the rape is fixed to one of the banks, and the other
is connected to the sensor contact system. The rape may be tightened or broken by
the mud flow. In both cases, the contact system comes into action and an electrical
signal is fed into the automation unit.
The local communication line connects the sensors of the MRW with the auto-'
mation unit housed in a shelter some distance from the gauging site.
The automation unit is intended to transform the signals of mudflow
water-level sensors into audio frequency signals, modulating the transmission
bringing the broadcasting system into operation at regular intervals.
The automation unit consists of:
(a) Control system unit (4) designed for commutation of
feeding networks of the automation unit and the broad-
casting system;
(b) Programming device (5) prescribing time intervals
between the generation of sound signals of water-level
and mud flow and duration of the signal transmission
while the sensors are switched on;
and
and
(c) A set of oudio oscillotors (6) generoting simple oudio
frequency oscillatians;
(d) Time delay unit (7) intended to switch on the radio
transmitter high valtage within a period of delay of
40 to 100 seconds beginning at the time af switching
on the mud flaw sensor;
(e) Electromechanical clack (8) which switches on the auto-
mation unit as programmed.
35
The automation unit operates satisfactarily at temperatures from -10 to +55
0
C
and with relative air humidity of up to 100 per cent.
Broadcasting equipment and radio communication lines secure reliable
communication between MRW transmitting and receiving stations during the whole danger-
ous mud flow period, at any time of the day. Part able ultra-short wave radio stations
(9) are used as broadcasting units in the MRW system. Ta make the communicotion line
longer, power amplifiers (10) may be used.
The pawer unit (11) af the MRW transmission station consists of alkaline
storage batteries.
The receiving station receives signals of water-level rise and mud flow
appearance at the sites of transmitting stations and switches on audio and light warn-
ings which allow the determination of the character and the origin of the signal.
The block-diagram of the MRW receiving station is given in Figure 3.4.
The diagram shows that low frequency signals from the radio receiver (12) output are
fed as an input to the receiving filter unit (13) where they pass through a special
band filter and are then amplified. The amplified signal controls the actuator of
the filter unit which in turn switches on light and audio warnings.
The mud flow radio warner receiving station comprises: a radio receiver (12),
a receiving filter unit (13), a receiving section with light and audio warning systems
(14), a sound generator unit (15), a power unit (16).
The radio station and the receiving filter unit are located at the
section which also serves as a circuit commutator between these units and that for the
warning system (14)8 The number of receiving sections at the receiving station cor-
responds to that of the broadcasting stations around the' receiving stati.on.
An vI tra-short wave radio receiver is used as a radio--receiving device (12) because it
is less influenced by atmosphere and man-made interference. The sound generator unit
(15) is intended to produce audio and light warnings of water-level and mud flow.
..
15
'IIi 7
F,
0
12
IJ
1'1
I
16
Figure 3.4 - Block diagram of the mud flow radio warner receiving
station
As the MRW must transmit water-level and mud flow signals from a selected site,
it is necessary to estimate horizontal water-level marks and mud flow sensor installa-
tions and to determine normal, dangerous, critical and mud flow river discharge using
long-term observational data.
3.5 Example V (France). Tele-snaw gauge with moving horizontal beam
The principle of the tele-snow-gauge with movinghorizontal beam is the
measurement of the density of various layers of the snow cover by the attenuation of a
horizontal beam of radioactive radiation which moves continuously in a vertical plane
during the measurement.
37
The arrangements for carrying out such measurements are shown in Figures 3.5
and 3.6.
Height 6m
'Watertigh
collars
0.50 m
,Cou tejOweight
Radio

counter and
500 V power
su 1
'r-ray beam Radioactil1e
its
Figure 3.5 - Diagram of tele-snaw-gauge with moving horizontal beam
The radioactive source and the Geiger-MUller counter are balanced by a CQunter-
we igh tan d are moved by a "step-by-step" motor which is magnetically stopped' with-
out contact. The speed is not constant, but proportional to the count speed of the
counter. The supply of current in pulses of the motor is controlled by an electronic
d i vide r in such a way that 3 840 pulses on the Geiger-MUller counter correspond
to a movement of 10 em. ' .For every 16 pulses on the Geiger-MUller counter, the motor
makes a step of 1/48th of a turn and moves the radioactive source .and the Geiger-
MUller counter through 1/24th of a em. Due to the inertia of these two latter and
the elasticity of the drive, the movement is practically continuous.
38
Plastic box
e.
Plastic box
Polyester tube
III I

2 Pb hemispheres
Source Cs 137
m ,
<11 ester tub
able for 'power suppl anp ulses
GM counter effective len th 120)
Screen PI;> 5mm
r beam
PolGester tube
'180 II( 100)
Interval of snow
Figure 3.6 _ Horizontal tele-snow-gauge, horizontal and vertical
cross-section of the measuring unit
Radio signals (71.2 MHz) for telemetering are transmitted every 10 cm. Thus,
the time interval between two successive signals gives the density of each 10 cm layer
of snow: the calibration curve is shown in Figure 3.7. A distance of 10 cm is
traversed in: 4.7 seconds in air, 6 seconds in powdery snow with a density of 0.10,
20 seconds in compact snow with a density of 0.5.
The number of signals gives the depth of snow cover in ,decimetres. Trans-
mission of these signals is possible over longer or shorter distances depending on the
relief, and the receiver can be situated at a place in the region concerned.
When the source-counter unit emerges from the snow the count time less
than the reference time of five seconds at the beginning of' the movement when the
vacuum is traversed. This causes the movement to be reversed and the unit returns to
its original position at a depth of ten cm.
The vertical columns, which are three to six metres in length, one containing
the source, and the other the counter and counterweight, are made of layered polyester
glass which is a bad conductor of heat. They are painted white to reduce absorption
of solar radiation and night cooling to a minimum.
-
-
j
:--
- -
-+
-+-
-
,-
-I
/'
,
,
y
, --
!
1/
V
I
-.
. .
/
/
.'
,
7
- ./ -
- .,
./
-/
f- -
,
.. 0,
i
,
I
i I
2
2.
S
S.
,.
C
o
u

c
.-
E
04
., .,
oS

Snow density 9 cm-
3
Figure 3.7 - Calibration of snow-gauge with horizontal beam.
Relationship between the time of measuring 3 840 pulses on the
Geiger-MUller counter and the density of the snow
The radioactive source, Caesium 137, has an activity of 30 millicuries. The
half-life of this element is 34 years, instead of 5.5 years for Cobalt 60; the radia-'
tion which is 0 little less penetroting than the radiation from Cobalt, results in
greater sensitivity.
Compared with other automatic devices for measuring snow cover which have been
tried for a number of years in various countries of the (viz. fixed vertical
radioactive snow-gauge, pressure pillow snow-gauge) the tele-snaw-gauge with moving
horizontal beam has the following advantages.
(i) It gives not only the water equivalent, but also the thickness of the snow
cover and the densities of the various layers;
(ii) A radioactive source of low activity only is required (of the order of 30
millcuries) which only emerges from the snow for a few seconds per day and
for about 10 em;
(iii) There is no upper limit to the depth of snow which can be measured, other
than that set by the height of the columns.
Figure 3.8 shows the various stages of the snow cover during the winter of
1967-68 from 1 November to 15 May on Lac Blanc, Alpe d'Huez, as observed by a tele-
metering device at Grenoble. More than 200 tele-soundings were made. Only a part
of them is shown in the figure.
De
,

>
,
1'\

;.... ,
'\
Depth
,

K
-
)
- - -
Water eq valent
/
,

,
......
;

h) i'l "-
"- "- "- "- "J "J
,"-
.'\: .'\:
'\:
"cl ""d N :'"
lb "
Jan -t1ry"
.,
February
I
Match
. .,
-.
- ._ . Ilfem er
Figure 3.8 - Telemetering of the snow cover obtained by snow-gauge
with horizontal beam at Lac Blanc (winter 1967-1968)
The succession in time of profiles, enables the packing of the various layers
to be followed. In particular, contrasts of density are seen persist in some
cases for several months. This provides important information on the transformation
of the snow cover and the risk af avalanches.
Thus the device provides complete information which may be of interest to all
categories of users, not only hydrologists but also foresters, the winter sports in-
dustry and technicians connected with snow clearance and avalanches.
Further models of this device ore at present in use or are being constructed;
it is proposed to equip in turn about 20 typical sites, selected on the basis of con-
ventional methods used for 15 to 20 years for measuring snow cover with snow-gauges.
The device was patented in
firm a licence to manufacture it.
terested in the device and hopes to
December 1968, and talks are going on to grant a
The Ministry of Natural Resources in Quebec is in-
develop its use in Canada.
A day-to-day knowledge by means of telemetering equipment of variations in
reserves of snow as soon as they occur, would make it possible to reduce to a minimum
the delays in bringing up-to-date forecasts of the amounts of snow available for the
production of hydro-electric power, and so make use of vast amounts of energy before
the thaw in the last months of the winter.
3.6 Example VI (Hungary). Hydra II automatic digital telemetering system
The wireless telemetering system is capable of collecting information from up
t9.32 stations (with 9. sensors at each station) located within distances.up to 50 km.
The system can be operated either automatically, on thebosis of a cyclic time-
programme, or manually. The information is recorded in decimal units on paper tape.
Warning signals may be produced when selected critical levels or rates are attained or
exceeded.
Two systems are in operation and a comprehensive programme of their nation-
wide application has been prepared recently.
A detailed description of the system, its construction, principles of opera-
tion, design and installation is given in WMO Publication No. 304, "Scientific papers,
presented at the Technical Conference of Hydrological and Meteorological Services"
(1970). Only the technical data of the system are given here.
Object: routine collection, recording and evaluation of hydrometeorological data.
Principle or operation: serial (time multiplex), inquiry, radial arrangement.
Information:
2 ond 3 decimal digit measured data.
Cycle times: long cycle time can be selected arbitrarily for measurements to be
carried out with lower frequency T minutes, short cycle time for the measurements to
be carried out with higher frequency t = I minutes.
6
Recording:
recording equipment and on-line printer.
Alarm system: light and sound alarm signalling, if the incoming information exceeds
a limiting value which can be preset for the individual sensors, being either an in-
stantaneous value or the difference in value between two consecutive measurements.
Capacity: Total number of measuring stations, maximum 32. Number of per
measuring station; maximum 9. Total number of sensors depending on the selected
cycle time .
Collecting of information: by precipitation sensor,
by water-level sensor, with D.C. pulse-train output;
pulse-train or analogue signal output.
with D.C. pulse-train output;
by other sensors, with D.C.
Data-transmission: by carrier frequency, frequency-modulated with double-sound pro-
duced on the basis of a D.C. pulse-train containing the information (by VHF carrier
frequency); frequencies of the pulse-trains, maximum Hz; frequencies of the double-
sound between 300-3 400 Hz; carrier frequency 136-174 MHz; duplex distance between
transmitter and receiver frequencies, minimum 4.5 MHz.
Electrical construction: semi-conductor, germanium diode and transistor circuits on
printed wiring type EDS 5 200 plug-in boards.
Mechanical construction: at both the measuring centre and the individual measuring
stations, 2 or 3 frames depending on the capacity, and depending on the radio-wave
propagation conditions, omni-directional or high-gain aerial an a 6, 12 or 24 m high
mast.
Power supply: at both the measuring centre and the individual measuring stations -
from supply units connected to 220 V mains, with a power consumption of 900 Wat the
centre and 350 Wat the measuring station at maximum capacity.
Permissible ambient temperature: in the measuring centre between +5
0
C and +40
o
C, at
the measuring station between _25
0
C and +55
0
C.
Permissible vibration: transport with lorry by road.
!h:
Precipitation collector: a standard cylinder of 200 cm
2
surface area, 1 m above
ground level, and a measuring cylinder capable of storing 100 mm of precipitation.
Resolution: 1 in 100;
accuracy in a measuring
that is, it records the precipitation level to within 1 mm
cylinder of 100 mm.
Measurement starting signal (inquiry signal): voltage pulse from - 3 V to 0 V, ampli-
tude -3 V; pulse width: in automatic mode in manual mode 150 m s-l; load0-
bility: 1 positive unit load (p.u.l.).
Measuring pulse-train: from square-wave pulses, the number of which is proportional
to the precipitation level measured. Amplitude -3 V, frequency 50 pulses 5-
1
, wave
ratio 1 I 1, loadability +3 p.u.l. or -3.5 p.u.l.
Stop signal: square-wave signal with amplitude -3 V, pulse-width 510 m
bility 1 p.u.l. or -4 p.u.l.
-1
5 , loado-
Supply voltoge requirement: -15'V, -3 V, 0 V, +10 V.
43
Power consumption during measurement: 20 Wat -15 V
0.5 Wat -3 V
0.5 Wat +10 V
at measuring intervals: 9 Wat -15 V
0.2 Wat -3 V
0.4 Wat +10 V
Permissible temperature: between -25C and +55
0
C.
Permissible relative air humidity: between 30 per cent and 90 per cent.
Detailed technical data of the water-level sensor
Water gauge: electrode-series gauge covering the complete range of water-level fluctu-
ation, ploced on 0 vertical wall or laid obliquely.
Resolution: 1:256 or 1:512; that is, it records the woter-level to within 1 cm accu-
racy in 256 or 512 cm water-level fluctuation.
Measurement
tude - 3 V;
loadability
starting signal (inquiry signal): voltage pulse from -3 V to 0 V; ampli-
pulse width: in automatic mode 500 m s-l, in manual mode 150 m ,-I;
1 p.u.1.
Measuring pulse train:
water-level; amplitude
+3 p.u.1.
square-wave pulses, the number of which is proportional to the
-3 V, frequency 50 pulses ,-I, wave ratio 1 : 1, loadability
Stop signal: square-wave pulse with amplitude -3 V, pulse width 510 m s-l,
bility +1 p u ~ .
Supply voltage requirement: -15 V, -3 V, 0 V, +10 V
Power consumption: during measurement, 20 Wat -15 V
1.2 Wat -3 V
2.5 at +10 V
at measuring intervals, 6 Wat -15 V
1.2 Wat -3 V
2.5 Wat +10 V
Permissible temperature: between _25
0
C and +55
0
C
Permissible relative air humidity: between 30 per cent and 90 per cent.
loa d a-
1. WMO, 1970:
BIB L I G RAP H Y
Guide to hydrometeorological practices. WMO-No.168.TP.82.
2.
3.
4.
5.
WHO, 1958:
WMO, 1971:
WMO, 1969:
WMO, 1971:
Oesign of hydrological networks, by M. A. Kohler. Technical Note
No.25, WHO-No. 82.TP.32.
Machine processing of hydrometearological data. Technical Note
No.115, WMO-No.275.
Hydrological network design - Needs, problems and approaches, by
J. C. Rodda et 01. WMO/IHO Report No. 12.
Guide to meteorological instrument end observing practices.
WMO - Na.8.
6. WMO, 1966: Instruments and measurements in hydrometeorology.
No.76, WMO-No.191.TP.97.
Technical Note
7. WMO, 1966:
8. WMO, 1968:
9. WMO, 1968:
10. WMO, 1971:
11.
WMO, 1969:
Measurement and estimation of evaporation and evapotranspiration.
Technical Note No.83, WMO-No.201.TP.105.
Radar measurement of precipitation for hydrological purposes, by
E. Kessler and K. E. Wilko WMO/IHO Report No.5.
Satellite applications to snow hydrology, by R. W. Popham.
WHO/IHO Report No.7.
The precipitation measurement paradox - The instrument accuracy
problem, by J. C. Rodda. WMO/IHO Report No. 16.
Hydrological requirements for weather radar data, by A F. Flanders.
WMO/IHO Report No.9.
12. WMO, 1967: Automatic weather stations.
TP.104.
Technical Nate No.82, WMO-No.200.
13. IAEA, 1970: Isotope hydrology 1970. IAEA, Vienna.
14. lASH, 1965: WHO/lASH Symposium on the Oesign of Hydrological Networks, Quebec.
lASH Pub. No.68.
15. UN, 1960: Hydrologic networks and methods (WMO/ECAFE Sf<minar 1959).
Control Series Report No. 15, Bangkok.
Flood
46
16.
17.
18.
UN, 1962:
WMO, 1971:
WHO, 1972:
Field methods and equipment used in hydrology ond hydrometeorology
(WMOjECAFE Seminar 1961), Flood Control Series Report No. 22,
Bangkok.
Technical Conference of Hydrological and Meteorological Services,
Geneva, 28 September - 6 October 1970. Scientific Papers.
WHO-No.304.
Casebook on hydrological network design practices. WMO-Na.324.
ANN E X 1
QUESTIONNAIRE ON HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS OF PROVEN RELIABILITY
Purpose
Considerable information on some meteorological instruments (i.e., precipita-
tion, radiation, ambient temperature) is available in variousWMO reports. The pres-
~ t survey is being conducted to collect recommendations on instruments for hydro-
logical purposes for which there is little guidance available. The recommendations
will be consolidated in a report for use of Members and others in establishing net-
works.
Instruments to be reported
Responses to questionnaires should be submitted only for those instruments
which have been tested and proven reliable under actual operational conditions and
which measure the following hydrometeorological parameters:
(i) Rainfall intensity;
(ii) Snowpack water equivalent and density (not snowfall) ;
~ i i Meteorological elem&nts at floating stations for energy balance or mass
transfer estimates of evaporation;
(iv) Soil moisture including moisture in frozen soils but excluding lysimeters;
( v) River and lake stage;
(vi) Discharge measurements (all methods including current meters, pitot tube,
chemical, volumetric, etc.);
(vii)
(viii)
Water temperature in streams and lakes;
Suspended sediments.
Questionnaire
A. Reporting organization, country and address
48
B.
C.
D.
E.
Instrument
Type (descriptive name, parameter(s) measured, number of instruments of
this type in operation, brief description), recording, non-recording, tele-
metering, (power requirements, portability (weight and dimensions), accuracy
and/or sensivity evaluation, useful life expectancy.
Operational experience
Routine maintenance required, installation requirements, skills re-
quired (installation, maintenance, operation), data reduction requirements,
teletransmission of data, environmental conditions experienced (with reli-
able performance, with unsatisfactory performance).
Basic instrument, other required equipment, teletransmission and re-
ceiver installations.
Bibliography
ANN E X 2
LIST OF INSTRUMENTS OF PROVEN RELIABILITY AND INSTRUMENTS FOR
AUTOMATION OF HYDROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS
Explanatory informotion for the headings of the tables
Reported instruments
Reporting countries
Number in operation
Recording
Analogue
Digital
Telemetered
Cost
Basic
Telemetering
Useful life (years)
- descriptive name of instrument as reported;
in some instances no name or descriptive
title were furnished;
- country of origin of reply;
- actual number in field at time of completion
of questionnaire;
the form of the recorded data output is in-
dicated as chart or print;
form of recorded data output is indicated as
punched tape, magnetic tape, cards or op-
tional;
- indicates that the data were telemeteredj
- cost of the basic instrument and required
equipment for non-telemetering installation;
- cost of the transmission and receiving in-
stallations;
- useful life expectancy as reported for the
environmental conditions experienced;
Reported
instruments
w
4-
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...,
Recording Reported cost
- ~
V>
Reporting Number
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countries in
",,,,
Analoguel Digital
Basic Tele-
4-",
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operation
"''''
machine form metered
~
.... E
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o
1. PRECIPITATION
1.1 Instruments of Proven Reliability
1.1.1 Tilting Bucket
The principle of this type of recording gauge is very simple. The rain is led
from a conventional collector to a light metal container, or bucket, divided
into two compartments. This container is so balanced that when one compartment
holds a predetermined weight of water the container tilts allowing the compart-
ment to empty and the rain to fall into the other compartment. This tilting
process is repeated each time the predetermined sample has beerr collected. The
tilting of the bucket is counted electrically and recorded on a moving chart.
The record thus consists of discontinuous steps, the distance between each step
representing the time taken for a small amount of rain to fall.
*
Belfort United States 650 No Chart $350. n.a. 15
Jurg Joss and Evio
Tognini Switzerland 6 Yes Print 2 300SFr 2 OOOSFr 25
Pluviograph Plumatic Norway n.r. No Punched tape n.r. n.a. n..r.
Precis Me Coni que France 200 Yes Chart 2 500FFr 15 OOOFFr 20
Precis Me Coni que Morocco 10 No Chart i: 100 n.a. 10
R-208-A Tunisia n.r. No Chart 1 250 FFr n.a. n.r.
Recording Raingauge Italy 1 700 No Chart L7D 000 n.a. 10
Recording Raingauge Republic of Korea 2 No Chart $300. n.a. n.r.
Weather Measure
*
P511E (Heated) United States 200 Yes Chart $940. n.r. n.r.
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1.1.2 Float Type
In this type of instrument, the rain is led into a float chamber containing a
light, hollow float; the vertical movement of the float as the level of the
water rises is recorded on a chart. By adjusting the dimensions of the receiving
funnel, float an9 float chamber, any desired scale value on the chart
can be obtained. To provide a record over a useful period (at least 24 hours is
normally required) the float chamber has either to be very large (in which case a
* n.r. not reported
n.a. not applicable
Reported
instruments
~
....
.
-0 Recording Reported cost
~ ~
'"
Reporting Number
OJ
~ s
,s..
Analogue I
::> ..
countries in
",,,,
Digital Basic Tele-
.... '"

'" >,
operation
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machine form metered "'-
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::>
compressed scale on the chart is obtained), or some automatic means has to be
provided for emptying the float chamber quickly when it becomes full, the pen
then returning to the bottom of the chart.
Autographic Raingauge Ghana 47 No Chart $350. n.a. n.r.
DG-200 (TOG-200) Poland 280 Yes Chart 4 860 zl 15 000 zl 10
Fuess 221 Uruguay 7 No Chart n.r. o.a. n.r.
Hellmann Ecuador 33 No Chart $180. n.a. 15-20
Greece 15 No Chart $150. n.a. 15
Indonesia 17 No Chart $200. n.a. 10+
Morocco 5 No Chart n.r. n.a. 10
United States 2 No Chart $300. n.a. 10+
Kent Malaysia 135 No Chart M$495/- n.a. 10
Recording Raingauge Republic of Korea 24 No Chart $350. n.a. n.r.
~
Self Recording Rain z
Intensity Meter Republic of Korea 4 No Chart $700. n.a. n.r.
m
><
1.1 .3 Weighing Type
""
In these instruments the weight of a receiving can plus the rain which has fallen
since the record began is recorded continuously, either by means of a spring
mechanism or with a system of balance weights. All precipitation is ti,us recorded
as it falls. This type of gauge normally has no provision for emptying itself so
that, although by a system of levers it is possible to make the pen traverse the
chart as many as four times before reaching the limit of the record, the scale
value is limited by this fact (or else some records of very heavy rain are lost).
These gauges should be designed to prevent excessive evaporation losses, which
may be further reduced by maintaining a 1 mm thick oil film over the water surface.
Difficulties experienced owing to oscillation of the balance in strong winds can be
reduced by fitting an oil damping mechanism. The main usefulness of this instrument
is in recording immediately snow, hail and mixtures of snow and rain. It does not
require the solid precipitation to be melted before it can be recorded.
Fischer-Porter United States 1000 Yes Punched tape $1 108. $760-2 000 14
Universal United States 2 265 Yes Chart
$246. $402. 16
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....
Reported
instruments
I
w
4-
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~
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V>
Reporting Number
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os...
Analogue I
" '"
countries in
",OJ
Digital Basic Tele-
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~ . . .
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operation
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V > ~
I-E =>
0.
'"
1.1.4 Electrical (Photo)
Photo Electric Snow
Particle Counter United States 10 No Magnetic tape
Aphotoelectric snow particle counter counts individual snow particles and
measures their velocity. The essential components of the counter are a light
source which produces a narrow, high intensity beam and two light sensitive
diodes which have fast response times.
Printing Raingauge Federal Republic
of Germany 1 No Print
Precipitation is collected by means of a raingauge of Hellmann type and
split into calibrated drops by means of a specially adapted pipe at the
outlet. The falling drops are counted by means of a light barrier. In
addition the precipitation total is measured with a rocker the contacts
of which are also counted with a light barrier.
Snowfall Intensity United States 10 No Chart
An electric eye measures the attenuation of a light beam by snow crystals
falling through the path of the beam. Output from photomultiplier is
recorded on calibrated strip chart.
1.1.5 Rainfall Intensity Recorders
These usually utilize the relationship between the rate of flow of water
through a restricted orifice and the head of water producing the flow.
Rain is led from a collector to a float chamber with a small orifice in
its base; the water rises in the chamber until the head of water produces
a flow through the orifice equal to the rate of rainfall. Hence the
level of the float indicates the rate of rainfall, though the scale is
not linear. The Jardi rate of rainfall recorder uses the same principle
but obtains a linear scale by arranging for the effective size of the
orifice to increase as the float rises. The Belfort gauge directs the
flow from the funnel between the electrodes of a capaciter. Changes in
capacity are related to the rate of rainfall.
n.r. n.a.
DM 9 500 n.a.
$700. n.a.
n.r.
n.r.
10
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instruments
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...
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~
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Reporting Number
~ '-
oS-
=> '"
countries in
",,,,
Analogue I Digital Basic Tele-
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operation
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f-e: =>
Belfort No. 6069
Jardi
United States
Hong Kong
100
4
Yes Chart
No Charts
$410.
200
n.r.
n.a.
5
10
1.1.6 Totalizer
Totalizer or storage gauges are used to measure total precipitation for periods
from one month to one year in remote, sparsely inhabited areas. Acollector
area of 300 cm
2
is acceptable for a totalizer gauge but collectors of 500 cm2
area give better results. The capacity of the receiver is chosen according to
the amount of precipitation and the frequency of observations. The receiver
usually has a cross-section several times that of the orifice ..
Totalisator MI 67 Norway n.r. No n.r. n.a. n.r.
1. 1. 7 Ground Level
>
These gauges are installed with the orifice of the gauge at or near ground
:z
:z
1evel . The gauge is protected from splash-in by antisplash shields
'"
x
surrounding the gauge.
Ground Level Canada 16 No Chart $400. 5
'"
n.a.
Ground Level Netherlands 20 No Punched tape $550. n.a. 10
1.1.8 Non-Recordi ng
The ordinary daily raingauge usually takes the form of a collector above
a funnel leading into a receiver. The area of the receiver may with
advantage be made to equal 0.1 of the area of the collector.
8-inch United States 10 000 No $75. n.a. II
1.2 Others
1.2.1 Weighing Type
Sensitive Tele-
Recording Precirita-
tion Gauge Israel 1 Yes Chart $250.
Adistant recording precipitation gauge which indicates the onset of rain by
measuring the recording of the first tenth of a mm of rain, as well as extreme
$620. 5
'"
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Reported
instruments

.,.,

'"
Reporting Number
'"

,,-
=> '"
countries in
(i)<lJ
Digital Basic Tele-
4-<lJ
<lJ>,
operation
<lJ<lJ

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=>
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intensities. It consists of a highly sensitive weighing precipitation gauge,
which empties automatically when lD mm of rain-2DOcc have accumulated. The
recording is made by means of a "Rustrak" galvanometer recorder which stamps
at 2 second intervals on a waxed paper chart. .
2 SNOW COVER
2.1.1 Snow Tube (Water Equivalent)
Snow tubes are used to obtain vertical samples of the snow cover in the form
of cores. They consist of metallic or plastic tubes with a sharpened lower
end or with a toothed cutting head. The diameters of different types of tubes
vary from 3.5 cm to 9 cm, the internal diameter of the cutter being slightly
smaller than that of the corresponding tube. Tubes may be calibrated for
measuring the depth of the snow and slots are sometimes provided so that the
core can be examined. The water equivalent of the snow core is usually
obtained by weighing.
Adirondack Type United States 50 No
GW-l (10 cm2) Poland 200 No
Italian Italy 50 No
Mt. Rose Snow Sampler United States 700 No
Swedish Type Sweden 40 No
Swiss Type Switzerland 50 No
Voluminal Densimeter
(200 cm
2
) Poland 200 No
2.1.2 Snow Pillow
Snow pillows are designed to measure the snow water equivalent indirectly by
weighin9 the snow that is deposited on them. The pillows may be made from
a number of materials including butyl rubber, rubber fabric, neoprene,
fibreglass and sheet metal. The pillow is essentially a flat fluid container
filled with antifreeze. Pressure transducers, electronic converters, and
mechanical float devices are used to translate snow load into usable form
for on-site recording and radio transmission.
dots
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4.600 zl n.a. 5
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m
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260 SKR n.a. 20
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150 zl n.a. 5
------------
RepDrted
instruments
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RecDrding RepDrted cost

""2

RepDrting Number
'-'
,,-,
:::s '"
cDuntries in
",,,,
Ana 1Dgue I
Digital Basic Tele-
'1-",

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DperatiDn
<lJ<lJ
machine fDrm metered

t-E: :::>
CalifDrnia
(3.66 mdiameter)
Canada Type
(1.42 mdiameter)
Catchment Pressure
Pi 11 DW
U. S. CDrps Df
Engineers
U. S. Department Df
Agriculture
United States
Canada
United States
United States
United States
7
2
3
many
Yes Chart
Yes
i'D Chart
Yes
Yes Chart
OptiDnal
Punched tape
$600. $5 500.
$1 000. $12 000.
$300. n.a.
$2 200. $11 500.
n. r. n.r.
. 5
10-15
5
15
10+
2.1.3 RadiDisDtDpe SnDI'I-gauges
HDrizDntal RadiD-
i sDtDpe France 12 Yes Chart 25 OOOFFr 5 OOOFFr
!.ieasures dens i ty in 10 cm verti ca1 increments. The prDbe uni t CDns i sts Df 3
tubes.
RadiDactive Federal Republic
Df Germany 1 Yes Print DM17.0CO DM6 COO
DM10 COO
n.r.
n.r.
i
'"
x
'"
The radiDactive SDurce (10 mCi Cs 137) is installed in the grDund. The gamma
rays are counted electronically above the snow CDver by a Geiger-Muller counter.
Radioactive Isotope United States 3 Yes Chart $4 500. $11 500. 15
The detector is buried in the ground and a 250-mCi source (Cobalt 60) is
hDused in a 47.7 cm cube, 4.57 metres above the detector.
Radio-Electronic
Snow '1eter 11-100 US.S.R. many No n. r. n. a. n. r.
T,dn Probe Gamma
Transmission United States 3 Yes n.r. n.r. n.r.
The gamma-transmission prDfiling system measures the tDtal water cDntent Df
the snDW cover, density in 2.54 cm vertical increments and in situ changes
with time. The system is portable. The prDbe unit is a scintillation detector
,lith a phDtomultiplier tube.
'"
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"'"
'"
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Reported
instruments
Reporting
countries
Number
in
operation
Tl
'"
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",,,,
~ +
~ ~
Analogue Digital
machine form
Basic Tele-
metered
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n.a.
n.r.
n.r.
n.r.
10
10
8+
10-20
5+
n.a. $300.
n.r. n.a ..
$650. US n.r.
n.r. n.a.
N120. n.a.
L.120 000 n.a.
26 500 OKR n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
$3 500.
t: 1 000
. Punched tape
Chart
Chart
Chart
Chart
No
Yes
No
No
No
2
10
many
14
500
saturated soil above the water table.
14 No
Uruguay
Hong Kong
USSR.
Ghana
Italy
4 WATER STAGE
4.1.1 Float Type
The float type stage recorder is an instrument for producing a record of the
rise and fall of a water surface. It generally consists of a float in a
stilling well connected to a wheel on a recorder by a beaded wire or
perforated tape.
A. Lege
Fischer-Porter A.D.R.
GR-38
HWK Model P-4
Italy Hydrometrograph
3.1.2 Bouwer Double Tube
Measures the hydraulic conductivity of
Bouwer Double Tube United States
3 SOIL MOISTURE
3.1.1 Neutron Probe
This method is based on the principle of measuring the slowing of neutrons emitted
into the soil from a fast-neutron source. The energy loss is much greater in
neutron collisions with atoms of low atomic weight and is proportional to the
number of such atoms present in the soil. Hydrogen, which is the principal
element of low atomic weight found in the soil, is largely contained in the molecules
of the water in the soil. The number of slow neutrons detected by a counter tube
after emission of fast neutrons from a radioactive source tube is electronically
indicated on a scaler and indicates the amount of water per unit volume of soil.
Oanbridge/NEA Sweden 6 No
NIC-5 United States --- No
United States United States 2 No
Wallingford United Kingdom 20 No
Reported
instruments
Italy Telehydrometro-
. graph
KB-2
Kent
Lea Telytone
Lea Rotary
Lea Zerolight
LPU-10
RPU-10
Metra No. 511
Munro lH 125
Negnetti
Ott
Drum
Autographic Type X
Horizontal Type X
Lomuf
Type X
Type X
R 16
R 16
R 16
R20.6l
X43
Richard Type
Similar to Ott
Steven A-35
Steven A-35 or similar
Stevens Type F
Switzerland
Telemark
'"
""
,
Reporting Number
'"
,
, "-
countri es in
OJ'"
.Analogue I Digital Basic Tele-
,
~ ....
operation
"''''
.... '"
:...
Italy 40 Yes Chart L,2 50()(l)0 L, 5 500 II 00 n.r.
Poland 30 No Chart 4 200 zl n.a. 10
Malaysia 80 No Chart M$700/- n.a. 15
United Kingdom 100 Yes Chart 750 n.r. 5+
United Kingdom 50 No Chart 150 n.a. 10+
United Kingdom 25 No 100 n.a. n.r.
Czechoslovakia 10 No Print 16 OOOKcs n.a. n.r.
United Kingdom 100 No Chart 150 n.a. 10+
Uruguay 2 No Chart n.r. n.a. n.r.
l>
Ecuador 6 No $360. n.a. 8 mo
.Z
z
United Kingdom 20 No Chart 150 n.a. 10
fTI
x
Ghana 13 No Chart N209. n.a. 10
'"
Tunisia 35 No Chart 1 000 ~ n.a. n.r.
'Sweden 150 No Chart 1 600 SKR n.a. 10+
Sweden 150 No Chart 2 150 SKR n.a. 10+
Morocco 15 No Chart 5000 DH n.a. 10
Tunisia 5 No Chart 1 500 OM n.a. n.r.
Sweden 12 No Punched tape. 4 000 SKR n.a. 10+
Sweden 150 No Chart 2 300 SKR n.a. 10+
Republic of Korea 12 No Chart n.r. n.a. n.r.
Uruguay 3 No Chart n.r. n.a. n.r.
Australia many No Chart n.r. n.a. 15
Canada 1 250 No Chart $650. n.a. 15+
Ecuador 83 No Chart $400. n.a. 20
Iraq 10 No Chart 10 250/- n.a. 25
Republic of Korea 23 No Chart $200. n.a. n.r.
United States 6 000 No Chart $350. n.a. 10
United States 4 No Chart $250. n.a. 10+
Switzerland 30 No Chart 700 SFr n.a. 50
United States 133 Yes $747. $100. 17
01
"
""
<Xl
Reported

I
w
4-


Tl V>
Reporting Number
'"
'-
,,-
Analogue I
=> '"
countries in
",0)
Digital Basic Te1e-
4-0)
CI.>>,
operation
CI.>CI.>
V> _
..... "
=>
4.1.3 Wire Weight Type
The wire weight gauge is installed on a structure above the stream. The wire is
wound on a small drum and the distance from a reference point to the water surface
is measured by counting the revolutions of the drum with a counter.
United States United States 300+ No $110. n.a.
I
....
n
r
8
....
r
o
OJ
VI
'"
'"
....
....
VI
20
10+
10
n.r.
n.r.
10
50
10
10
10
10
n.r.
10
50
5 000 FFr n.a.
$1 n.a.
n.r. n.a.
12 OOOFor n.a.
1 800SFr n.a.
$150. n.a.
.$1 000. n.r.
n.r. n.a.
n.r. n.a.
2 000 FFr n.r.
20 OOOSFr n.a.
$570. n.a.
4 000 FFr 5 000 FFr
Chart
Chart
Chart
Chart
Chart
Chart
Chart
No
No
Yes
No
No
No
No
50
1
35
many
50
100
60
France
Canada
France
USSR
Hungary
Switzerland
Colombia
Hydrostatic Type
The bubble gauge transfers the pressure due to river stage to a u-tube manometer
and then by various means to a recorder or te1emetering device.
Canada 50 No Chart
Australia 12 Yes Chart
Republic of Korea 10 No Chart
Uruguay 1 No Chart
France 4 Yes
Switzerland 25 No
United States 1 500 No
Va1daj
VRD-1
Zub1ig
Seba Type Delta
4.1.2
Canada
DP 30
Korea
c (Grenoble)
Ribbon Pressure Gauge
Rittmeyer
United States
Water Level Gauge
with Servo
Water Level Recorder
with printer
With Stevens A-35
4.1.4 Flood Crest
The gauge consists of a staff and rising water marks or deposit material
to indicate the maximum height of the water-level.
Griffins Norway 100 No
$20. US n.a. n.r.
Reported
instruments
w
4-
~
T.I Recording Reported cost
~ ~
V>
Reporting Number
OJ ~ s-
,s-
=> '"
countries in
wOJ
Analogue Digital Basic Te1e-
4-w
~
w >,
operation
~ ~ machine form metered
V > ~
:::>
4.1.5 Staff
Agraduated
Local Manufactured
4.2 Others
staff gauge installed in the stream.
Iraq 200 No
10 1/- n.a. 5
4.2.1 Float Type
Ott Water Stage
Recorder United Kingdom 100 No
Analogue to digital conversion by punches operating against
Output is on computer compatib1e'5 channel paper tape.
4.2.2 Hydrostatic
Water Stage Meter
llS.S.R,
many Yes
Paper tape
coded discs.
368
n.r.
n.a.
n.r.
n.r.
n.r.
:to-
z
z
,."
x
'"
5 DISCHARGE
5.1.1 Rotating Element Current Meter
The velocity of flow at a point is usually measured by counting the number of
revolutions of a current meter rotor during a short time period measured with
a stop-watch. The current meter is suspended in the flow on a rod or on a
wire. Two types of current meter rotors are in general use: the cup type with
a vertical shaft, and the propeller type with a horizontal shaft. Most types
use a make-and-break wire contact to generate an electric pu1se'for indicating
the revolutions of the rotor.
Acoustic Model Mark VI Malaysia
Amsler 505.036 Ghana
Current Meter with
Selector France
45
3
50
No
No
No
M$600/- n.a.
345 n.a.
1 790 FFr n.a.
10
5
5 000h
'"
'0
'"
o
OJ
I
""
Reporting Number
OJ
,
,s-
Analogue I countries in
",OJ
Digital Basic Tele-

operation
OJ OJ
I-E
Reported
instrur.,cnts
Us'SR n.r. No
n.r.
n.a.
n.r.
(like GR-64 but manual)
No n.r. n.r.
Gr.-64 U.S.S.R.
n.r. n.a.
Remote distance hydrometric installation, electric power
>
GR-55 USSR --- No n.r. n.a. n.r.
e
GR-42 (Velocity and
-i
0
Direction) USSR. --- No n.r. n.a. n.r. 0<
>
GR-2l M USSR. --- No n.r. n.a. n.r. -i
H
Gurley
n
Current Meter Iraq 80 No .ID 200/- n.a. 50 ::I:
Mayor Mexico 2 No $4 500Mex n.a. n.r.
i:l
Uruguay 1 No n.r. n.a. n.r.
'"
622 0
622-H Ecuador 5 No $800. n.a. 5
8
655 United States 120 No $365. n.a. n.r.
H
Hydraulic Current Meter Switzerland 40 No 1 000 SFr n.a. 3

Hydrometrical Current
r
0
Sweden 25 No 1 50DSKR n.a. 10+ OJ
Hydrometrical Current
V>
'" Meter Switzerland 40 No gOO S Fr n;a. 30
'"
Ice Current Meter United States 200 No $136. n.a. 10
-i
M-l Hungary 100 No 10 OOOHun n.a. 10
H
0
Neyrflux Current Meter France 50 No 660 FFr n.a. 1 OOOhr
z
OTT
V>
Arkansas Uruguay 1 No n.r. n.a. n.r.
Arkansas Ecuador 12 No n.r. n.a. 8
Arkansas Morocco 100 No 3.000DH n.a. 2+
Arkansas Syria 15 No n.r. n.a. n.r.
Arkansas United Kingdom many No
Assorted Australia 4 No n.r. n.a. n.r.
C 1 Tunisia 20 No 1 OOODM n.a. 3
C1 United Kingdom 40 No 130 n.a. 10+
C 31 Tunisia 20 No 2 800DM n.a. 5
C 31 Ghana 6 No 1!I1 055. n.a. 5
C 31 Germany none No 1 800 OM n.a. 10
Reported
instruments
I
'"
....
~
Recording
Reported cost
~ ~ ."
'"
Reporting Number
(lJ
~ s . . ,s..
=> '" countries
in
OJ'"
Analogue I Digital Basic
Te1e- .... '"
. . . . ,
"'
operation
"'''' machine form
metered
~
I-E
::>
n.r. n.a. 6
5 000 OM n.a. n.r.
135 n.a. 15+
800 S Fr n.a. 20
$77. n.a. 10
$91. n.a. 10
n.r. n.a. 5
n.r. n.a. n.r.
$120. n.a. n.r.
M$1300/- n.a. 15
>
z
$60 000. $600-4000. 10
z
1TI
X
I\)
Ecuador
12 No
Tunisia 5 No
United Kingdom
10 No
Switzerland 25 No
Ghana 3 No
Republic of Korea 20 No
Canada 200 No
Malaysia 26 No
F6U
Te1eferic SK 3
10,002
Ott-Minor
Price
Pygmy
Sma11 Pri ce
Small Price
Small Price
Slush-N-All
Universal Amster
5.1.2 Other Than Rotatin9 Element Current Meter
Acoustic United States 40 Yes
The acoustic flowmeter is an instrument system that utilizes the difference in
velocity of propagation of sound in the upstream and downstream direction to
measure the velocity of streamflow. The difference in travel time of the
acoustic pulse in the upstream and downstream direction is related to the
velocity of streamflow and this relation can be derived mathematically.
Contraf1ux France 15 No 1500-4.000FFr n.a. 10
Venturi type neck fitted inside a non-loaded circular pipe. The discharge is in
relationship with the level. The Contraf1ux is a sensor. Any recording device
may be added to it.
Critical - Depth United States 10 No Chart n.r. n.a. 50
The critical-depth flumes, built in place, of reinforced concrete, have a broad
entrance section approximately the size of the original channel section, a 4.6
metre long contraction reach with warped sidewalls to force the flow throQgh
critical depth, and a 6.1 metre straight reach. Abottom slope of 3 percent
keeps the flow accelerating throughout the length of the flume and eliminates
deposition of the heavy sediment load in the flume. The head measurement is
made in the section where the flow is supercritical.
C>o
.....
Reported
instruments
"
4-
. ~
T.I Recording Reported cost
~ ~
'"
Reporting Number
'"
~ s..
,s..
=> '"
countries in
""
Ana 1ogue Digital Basic Tele-
4-"
~ +
" :>,
operation
""
~
..... E :::>
R;
$1 500. Dye-Dilution United States --- No
Afluorescent dye is injected into the stream flow and discharge is determined
by the dilution of the concentration of the dye.
Deep Water Isotopic United States 1 No Print $15 000.
Twelve scintillation detectors are arranged in a circle of 25 cm radius around
the tracer discharge opening. Asmall quantity of the 1131 is discharged into
current. The detector receiving the maximum count rate prints out count rate
density curve from which travel time is determined. .
Fluorometer United States 50 No $1 595.
Afilter fluorometer is an instrument which gives a relative measure of the
intensity of light emitted by a sample containing a fluorescent substance;
the intensity is proportional to the amount of fluorescent substance present.
Maritza Ecuador 1 No n.r.
Consists of a double-acting windlass for weights up to 50 kg and a maximum
reach of 80 m. The windlass carries a traction and an electrical conducting
suspension cable. Aclutch mechanism gives independent horizontal and
vertical movement. The windlass is set up on the bank with a pillar and pulley
on the opposite bank; tackle and counters for controlling horizontal and
vertical distances. Also carries electrical contacts for connecting to a
revolution counter.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
10
n.r.
10
10
I
H
n
:l:
<
'" o
8
H
;l
.-
@
VI
,."
~
~
VI
Modified Parshall United States 1 No
Parshall flume with expanded section cut off behind throat section. Made of
welded aluminum. Measures discharge from 0.0002 to 0.14 m
3
with up to 60%
submergences. Not for permanent installation.
Moving-Boat Equipment United States 20 No
Specialized instrumentation consisting of a portable sonic sounder, a vane with
indicator, a propeller-type current meter with its associated electronic
equipment, and an easily manoeuvrable small boat with some modifications,
$130.
$3 305.
n.a.
n.a.
n.r.
5
'"
I
,
"0 Recording Reported cost
.
Reporting Number
'"
.
,s-
countries in
"''''
,

operation
"''''
'- I-E
Reported
instruments
provide the capability needed for making discharge measurements by the moving-
boat method. During a traverse of the boat across the stream, a sonic sounder
records the geometry of the cross-section, and a continuously operating current
meter senses the combined stream and boat velocities.
n.a.
Neyptic Crest Gauge France 100's No 300-1000FFr n.a.
Expansion contraction the b?ttom of a stream flow, thus creating
such COndltl0nS that one obtalns a slngle relationship between the crest
and the dlscharge. Made of steel or plastic that will not lose its shape.
Portable Weir Norway 2 No $70. n.a.
Aluminum plate with goo weir notch to which a canvas sheet is fastened with screws.
The weir is equipped with glass fibre scales on each side of the notch for levelling
purposes and for observation of the stage in the pond behind the weir.
Powered Traveller Australia 5 No $6 000.
This equipment is used to conduct current meter gaugings on wide and fast running
streams. All controls are located on the bank. Gauging can be conducted over
spans of up to 610 m and depths of 30 m.
15+
n.r.
10
x
...,
Watercourse Flowmeter Finland 10 No Film
The watercourse flowmeter VM-ll helps to chart effectively the directions and
speed of slow lake flows in the vast watercourse areas. The meter is used in
groups of several instruments in order to get simultaneous measuring results at
various points and depths in the whole area to be charted. The meter measures
the horizontal direction and speed of the flow. The results are registered by
B-radiation on filmstrips.
$300. n.a. n.r.
5.2 Others
5.2.1 Rotating Element Current Meter
Braystone United Kingdom 1 No
Propeller type current meter with plastic propeller of nearly neutral buoyancy
carried on jewelled and plain low friction bearings. Signals generated by reed
switch in easily removable capsule. Suitable for use with wading rods or any
other form of suspension.
120 n.a. n.r.
0-
w
Reported
instrurr;ents
5.2.2 Dye Dilution
I
w
4-


Reporting Number

's-
Analogue I
" '"
countries in
OJ OJ
Digital Basic Tele-
4:-w
OJ>,
operation
OJ",

I-E
:::>
2::
Mobile Lab for Oil uti on
.to 5 976
Streamgauging United Kingdom 1 No n.a. 5-10
Mobile laboratory equipped for flow-gauging by dilution techniques. Main
analytical equipment consists of: an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer :I>-
Uni cam SP 90, a Techni con auto-analyses, a G. K. Turn Fl uorometer Mk I II, and
c::
two portable conductivity bridges. Parameters measured include most of the
tracers commonly used in dilution gauging. --i

H
n
6 WATER TEMPERATURE
:I:
t1l
;;;0
6.1.1 Water Temperature
a
r-
Water thermometers are either mechanical or electrical. They are designed 8
for "point-to-point" measurements or continuous measurements.
H
;:
r-
Aanderaa Trl Sweden 16 No Magnetic tape $2 060. n.a. 5
a
A. Ott Thermometer Iraq 10 No ID 1/500 n.a. 20
OJ
'" Bath YThermograph Canada 4 No Chart $5 000. n.a. n.r.
m
"" Direct Reading
Thermograph Italy 20 No Chart L120 000 n.a. 10
Electrical Thermometer Sweden 20 No 1 250 SKR 5
H
n.a. a
Temperature Detector United States 1 No Chart $1 554. n.a. n.r-.
z
'" Thermometer &Vessell Switzerland 50 No 55 S Fr n.a. n.r.
Water Thermometer Pol and 274 No 540 zl n.a. n.r.
Thermistor Temperature
Indicator United States 1 No $500. n.a. n.r.
...., ---. -,."- ... _.__.-
Q)
I
,
.,.,
Reporting Number
Q)
,
,5-
,
countries in
<i.lQ)
Analogue Di gi ta1 Basic Te1e-
operation
Q)Q)
>-E:
Reported
instruments
~
Z
en
x
'"
50
n.r.
n.r.
5
5
10
5
5
10
5
10
n.r.
n. r.
n.r.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
1075/ -
$750.
$100-$500.
$100.
N.356.
$210.
$50.
N'55.
$33.
$80.
$100.
n.r .
n.r.
n.r.
7 SUSPENDED SEDIMENTS
7.1.1 Sampler Type
The samplers used to take suspended-sediment samples are designed so that the
velocity within the cutting circle of the intake of the sampler is equal to
the stream velocity. This feature is essential so that the samples obtained
are truly representative of the sediment discharge in the stream at that point.
The samplers are also designed so that the intake faces the approaching flow and
protrudes upstream from the zone of disturbance caused by the presence of the
sampler. The samplers are suspended in the flow on a rod or on a wire.
One type of suspended-sediment sampler is a metallic streamlined body equipped
with tail fins to orient it in the flow. The sampler head is hinged to provide
access to a sample container which is located in the sampler body. Anozzle for
collecting the sample projects into the current from the sampler head. An
~ exhaust port pointing downstream on the side of the sampler head permits the
escape of air from the container as it is displaced by the sample being collected.
Valve mechanisms enclosed in the head of the sampler are electrically operated by
the observer to start and stop the sampling process.
Iraq 20 No
United States 25 No
United States 100 No
Canada 100 No
Ghana 2 No
Canada 100 No
Ghana 2 No
Canada 100 No
USSR,--- No
. USSR --- No
U S ~ R . --- No
DH 59
DH 48
Cable
Chickasha Type
Coshocton Type
049
GR-15
GR-16
GR-61
8;
w
"-
~
II
~
"'
Reported Reporting' Number
~ s..
,s..
=> '"
instruments countries in
"''''
"-w
~ .... w>,
operation
"'''' machine form metered
"' ~
1-", :::>
'"
'"
P-61 Canada 50 No $600. n.a. 5
United States 39 No $625. n.a. 10
P-63 canada 10 No $800. n.a. 5
P-67 Canada 6 No $600. n.a. 5
PIHM L Batimeter Poland 100 No 1 200 zl n.a. 5
Point Integrating Ghana 4 No n.r. n.a. 10 >
Proportional Sampler United States 5 - 10 No Analysis $1 000. n.a. n.r.
e
....
Silt Sampler France 200 No 5 250 FFr n.a. 20 ~
Turbidisonde M226 0/10 Swi tzer1and 20 No 350 S Fr n.a. 10
>
....
H
7.1.2 Photo
n
::J:
This photo type measures the light absorption over a f i ~ e d path or .easures Cl
the amount.
'"
0
r
Optical System United States 3 No $4 500. n.a. n.r.
g
H
Sigrist Photometer UP2 Sweden 21 No
900 SKR n.a. 5-10
n
>
Sigrist Photometer UP51 Sweden 21 No 11 000 SKR n.a. 5-10
r
Type FP/PH Canada 2 No Chart $1 000. n.a. n.r. 0
OJ
U>
'"
'"
8 MULTIPLE PARAMETERS SYSTEMS
j;;
....
H
0
:z
8.1. 1 Meteorological
U>
Package Canada 10 No Magnetic tape $10 DOD. n.a. n.r.
The Met. Pack is a buoy mounting system of up to eight modular sensors
(cammon types adapted for buoy operation) and a self-contained digital
magnetic tape recorder, which has been developed for studies of air-
lake interaction on the Great Lakes. Averaged or filtered readings are
automatically recorded at 10 minute intervals for periods of up to 40
days.
8.1.2 Rimco/Sumner MRII Australia 80 No Chart $800.Aus n.a. 15
An electro-mechanical chart recorder, self contained. battery powered.
suitable for use with an assortment of transducers.
.. ~ .... - .... ....,.
Reported
instruments
I
w
4-
. ~
~ ~
IJ
'"
Reporting Number
~ '-
,,-
'" '"
countries in
GJGJ
Analogue I Digital Basic I Tele-
4-OJ
~ OJ>,
operation
OJ OJ
machine form metered "'- f-E =>
$4 500. $600-$4 DOD. 5
8.1.3 Sareg Automatic
Answering Device France 300 Yes Magnetic tape 15 OOOFFr n.a. 15+
Contains a magnetic tape on which are pre-recorded the numerical values of the
measured parameter. Aset of magnetic heads permits the replay and transmission of
a spoken recording which gives the measured values of the parameters. The
instrument is connected to a telephone network and may be called from anywhere
like any ordinary subscriber.
8.1.4 Schneider Monitor United States 6 Yes Punch tape $6 ODD. $1 650. 15
Automatic dialling to monitor-receive on magnetic tape-electronically reduce to
digitalized to punch tape with Flexiwriter for printout - punch tape to computer
for analysis.
8.1.5 Servo-Programmer United States 180 Yes Punch tape $500. $600-$4.000. 5
The servo-programmer, when used in conjunction with the analogue-to-digital
recorder, has the capability to sequentially record on paper tape the
values of electrical resistance from as many as seven individual probes.
Power requirements are low and the instrument is designed to operate in
remote locations on dry batteries.
8.1.6 Water Quality
Monitor United States 120 Yes . Punch tape
This a modular system consisting of a digital recorder, timer, flow-through
sensor module, potentiometric-type sensors, submersible pump, and a
programmed servo-drive unit. The programmed serVO-drive unit is designed
to accept a maximum of 10 separate channels of input from the sensors and to
automatically program these inputs into the digital recorder. It consists of
a measuring circuit for each channel, a programmer, a solid-state amplifier,
and a drive unit. Avariety of sensors are commercially available for use
with the modular-type of water quality monitor.
:-
z
z
",
x
'"
8.1.7 Hy-Tel United States 25 Yes Print Magnetic tape $5 220. $8 000.-
$45 570.
Hy-Tel is a complete system. Each remote system can telemeter up to 22 different
sensors. Data information is transmitted by a FM-FM telemetry system to a base
'"
"
00-
co
Reported
instrur.;ents
I
W
4-
~
~ ~
"0
~
Reporting Number
OJ
~ s-
,s-
Analogue1
'" '"
countries in
""
Digital Basic Tele-
4-w
-+'
W>,
operation
Ww
~
..... 2
::>
station. Each base station can accommodate up to 90 remote stations. Developed
sensors include total precipitation gauge, wind speed and direction, water stage
and temperature.
~
H
n
:I:
~
~
55
V>
,."
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;;
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H
~
V>
10-15
n.r.
10-15
5-10
n.a.
n.r. n.r.
$6 OOO.Aus n.a.
n.r. n.r.
8.2.3 Epsylon Weather
Watcher EDL 12 Australia 0 No Magnetic tape
Climatological recording station including the following sensors: solar
radiation, net radiation (optional), air temperature, wet-bulb depression,
cumulative rainfall, wind run 2 m and wind direction (optional).
8.2.4 Long Period
Digital Recorders
Epsylon EDL 10/2,
EDL 10/4 Australia 1 No Magnetic tape $800.Aus
Hermetically sealed, magnetic tape cassette loaded, battery operated recorder.
Records events from external sensors against internally generated time events.
Arange of sensors is available.
8.2.2 Automatic Hydro-
metric Station Romania 2 Yes
Levels of free water. surfaces, with the prospect of adding other elements
such as: liquid precipitation, water and air temperature, thickness of
ice, wind direction and speed. The measured values are converted by
electro-mechanical means to impulses, coded in accordance with a pre-
determined code.
8.2 OTHERS
8.2.1 Automatic Digital Telemetering
System HYDRA II Hungary 2 Yes
The wireless telemetering system is designed for automatic hydrological data
collection in a region with radius of 50 km (31 miles). The system consists
of a measuring centre and measuring stations. It is capable of collecting
precipitation height and water-level information from max. 32 stations, each
one is able to receive information from 9 sensors of the wished
hydrometeorological elements.
Reported
instruments
w
4-
. ~
"""
~ ~
-
'"
Reporting Number
'"
~ . '-
I '-
'" '"
countries in
GJGJ
Analogue I Digital 8asic Tele-
4-a>
~ +-' GJ>,
operation
a> a>
~
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:::>
n.r. n.a. n.r.
>
z
Z
m
x
'"
1 500 n.a. 7-10
8.2.5 Long Period
Recgrder (RIMCO/CSIRO) Australia 40 No Punch tape
Electro-mechanical battery operated recorder with solar cell recharge,
hermetically sealed case. Records events from external sensors against
internally generated time events (6 minute intervals). Arange of sensors
is available.
8.2.6 Normalair--Garrett
Automatic Weather
Statiop Oata 10-23 Australia 0 No Magnetic tape
The NGL Automatic Weather Station is supplied as a self-contained package and
comprises all equipment necessary for automatically measuring and recording
rainfall, run-of-wind, solar radiation, wet and dry temperatures and hence
humidity (other climatological and water quality transducers may be added as
required, up to a total of 12 input channels). The recording facilities are
battery powered and recordings are made on magnetic tape which allows for a
maximum of 40 days uninterrupted operation.
8.2.7 Plessey Climate
Recording Station MM2 United Kingdom 18 No Magnetic tape
Climatological record;ng station including the following six sensors: wind
speed, wind direction, air temperature, humidity, rainfall, and solar radiation.
$2 OOO.Aus n.a. 10-15
8.2.8 Plessey Hydrometeorological
Stations Event Recorder Australia
o Yes
Magnetic tape $6 OOO.Aus n.r. n.r.
$

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WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION

Recording Reported cost

two portable conductivity bridges. Parameters measured include most of the

tracers commonly used in dilution gauging. --i

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