Professional Documents
Culture Documents
F7G
GIAÙO TRÌNH
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 4
CONTENT
CHAPTER I:
NON- FINITE & VERBLESS CLAUSES
I. NON-FINITE CLAUSES
None – finite clauses are clauses whose verb element is a non-finite verb phrase,
i.e. consists of non-finite elements such as an –ING participle (a), an –ED participle
(b), or an infinitive (c and d). Non- finite clauses can be constructed with or without
a subject.
(a) –ING participle clauses:
Without a subject: Feeling rather tired, I telephoned and said I couldn’t come.
With a subject: All the money having been spent, we started looking for work.
(b) –ED participle clauses:
Without a subject: Covered with confusion, she hurriedly left the room.
With a subject: The job finished, we went home straight away.
(c) TO- infinitive clauses:
Without a subject: The best thing would be to tell everybody.
With a subject: The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.
(The subject of an infinitive clause is often introduced by FOR.)
(d) Bare infinitive:
Without a subject: All I did was tell her the truth.
With a subject: Rather than John do it, I’d prefer to do the job myself.
************************************
EXERCISES
I/ Underline and classify the function of the non- finite and verbless clauses in the
following sentences:
1. My favourite thing to do is collecting actors’ photographs.
....................................................................................................................................
2. You must learn to work hard and to deal with difficulties.
....................................................................................................................................
3. She sang when allowed to do so.
....................................................................................................................................
4. The long journey over, we relaxed in the warm sunshine.
....................................................................................................................................
5. He was a delightful companion, always cheerful and considerate.
....................................................................................................................................
6. Having been invited to speak, and then being told to keep silent, I shall never
come here again as long as I live.
....................................................................................................................................
7. Since I have been especially invited to speak, for you now to tell me I can not do
so is quite unpardonable.
....................................................................................................................................
8. Standing here all day, I see many strange faces.
....................................................................................................................................
9. Standing here all day is extremely tiring.
....................................................................................................................................
10. My greatest pleasure is to listen to chamber music.
....................................................................................................................................
11. To listen to chamber music is my greatest pleasure.
....................................................................................................................................
12. To speak in public for the first time can be a terrifying experience.
....................................................................................................................................
13. His greatest pleasure, climbing mountains, had to be abandoned.
....................................................................................................................................
14. While in the army, he learnt a great deal about electricity.
....................................................................................................................................
15. I expect everyone to be punctual this evening.
....................................................................................................................................
16. Not feeling very well, I decided to stay at home.
....................................................................................................................................
17. They pump waste into the water, killing all the fish.
....................................................................................................................................
18. Taken daily, vitamin pills can improve your health.
....................................................................................................................................
19. To turn down the invitation seems rude.
....................................................................................................................................
20. The important thing is not to panic.
....................................................................................................................................
21. Not very happy with the result, he said nothing to his girlfriend.
....................................................................................................................................
22. His ambition, to be a straight actor, was never fulfilled.
....................................................................................................................................
23. Whether busy or not, you have to come to our party next Sunday.
....................................................................................................................................
24. Although a very pretty girl, she agreed to marry an ugly man.
....................................................................................................................................
25. Walking quickly is difficult for her now.
....................................................................................................................................
26. The child crying over there always helps me with my housework.
....................................................................................................................................
27. The concert given by the Philharmonic Orchestra was a great success.
....................................................................................................................................
28. I will never let you use my bicycle again.
....................................................................................................................................
29. In the next berth, she could hear her stepmother breathing heavily.
....................................................................................................................................
II/ The non- finite clauses in the sentences below are open to more than one
interpretation. Illustrate this by expanding each dependent clause in two different
ways:
1. I ran over a dog crossing the square.
....................................................................................................................................
2. To see her alone would be very indiscreet.
....................................................................................................................................
3. Though shouting as loudly as possible, the rescuers could not hear us.
....................................................................................................................................
4. Dressed in white robes, we thought the visitors looked like priests in some
strange ceremony.
....................................................................................................................................
5. I regret speaking to you so bluntly.
....................................................................................................................................
6. Walking fast after breakfast could be fatal.
....................................................................................................................................
7. He was so ill as to be obliged to give up work altogether.
....................................................................................................................................
8. It will take several hours to finish this.
....................................................................................................................................
9. Whether here or not, his application will have to be considered.
....................................................................................................................................
10. Always afraid of snakes, we shut every door and window at night.
....................................................................................................................................
CHAPTER II:
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES
To analyse a sentence is to break it up into its component parts and to show the
mutual relations of those parts. Each clause contains one finite verb, so if we know the
number of finite verbs we know the number of clauses in a complex sentence or a
passage.
There are three kinds of sentences:
+ Simple sentences: -The baby cried loudly.
-I wrote a letter to my cousin.
+ Compound sentences: The baby cried and shouted his mother’s name.
I wrote a letter to my cousin, but he didn’t reply it.
+ Complex sentences: Although the baby cried loudly, nobody heard him.
I wrote a letter to my cousin so that I could tell him about my
conclusion.
• A simple sentence is one that has only one finite verb. Every sentence can be
divided in two main parts: the subject and the predicate.
- SUBJECT: the part of the sentence which names what we speak about.
The chief part of the subject may be a noun or a noun equivalent.
- PREDICATE: the part of the sentence which makes a statement about
the subject. The chief part of the predicate is a finite verb including its
complementation or not.
Ex: These roses smell sweet.
- A complex sentence normally has one independent clause (principle clause) and
one or more dependent clauses (subordinate clauses).
E.g.: Although she was tired, she walked up to the third floor because she wanted the
exercise.
1 2 3
1,3: dependent clauses
2: independent clause.
- To analyse a complex sentence is:
1) To find out the number of clauses.
2) To identity the principal clause and all the subordinate clause(s), then indicate
their functions in the sentence.
3) To make remarks on the connecting words in order to determine the nature of
clauses.
E.g:
1- The boy, who was crying as if his heart would break, when I spoke to him, said
that he was hungry because he had had nothing to eat for two days.
infinitive
2- She knew, as she conversed in superstitious whispers with Mrs. Rose, who has
taught her all she knew that she had made the mistake of her life in coming to this
nightmare of a country with her unborn child.
EXERCISES
Analyse the following sentences:
1. An observant person who sees the carcass of a small animal lying on the ground
will probably find, if he returns to the spot the next day, that the object has
disappeared.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
2. Anxious to finish all the typing that had accumulated, the secretary told the
manager, when he was going to leave the office, that she decided to work
overtime until she completed the work without having lunch and he, a very kind
man, agreed and asked if she had anything to eat.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
3. She couldn’t remember how many times she had sat her window and said to
herself that although busy Bob would come to meet her.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
4. When she used the leather trap, she displayed a strength that even the biggest,
most loutish boy dreaded for not only did she fail his hands until they swelled to
red, aching paws, but she tongue-lashed him with a virtuosity that threw her
classes into an ecstasy of silent delight.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
5. Richard, though he had not previously answered any questions when the teacher
asked him, now said that he knew the answer to this one because it was in the
lesson that he had just read.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
6. When the teacher asked what part of speech a word was, John said, “I can tell
you the answer, if you will give me a sentence in which the word is used.”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
7. James controlled himself, for he did not want to betray his surprise, and his
whole future depended on success at this interview.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
8. As dawn approached, the sky grew red, the crowds became quieter, the cold was
making itself felt somewhat less acutely, and an atmosphere of steady calm
replaced the extremes of indifference on one hand and uncontrolled abandon on
the other.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
9. I explained to everyone when being asked for help that I was not a healer and
that I did not know if my roots might help but that if they wished me to try to heal
Bob I would do so.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
10. The general idea is that a home is at the right temperature if, while indoors, you
can wear clothes which are the exact opposite of those appropriate for the
season.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
CHAPTER III:
MULTI–WORD VERBS
We’ll have to put off the party / put the party off.
Why don’t you throw away that stupid hat / throw that stupid hat away ?
Could you put up my sister / put my sister up for three nights ?
However, when the object is a pronoun (e.g. her, us, this), the adverb particle can only
go after the object.
We’ll have to put it off (Not: ………… *put off it.)
Could you put her up ? (Not: ……………… *put up her.)
As we see from the examples here and in intransitive phrasal verb(Type 1), some
combinations (drink up, give in) can be either transitive or intransitive, with or without a
difference of meaning .
With most transitive phrasal verbs, the particle can either precede or follow the
direct object:
They turned on the light. ~ They turned the light on.
although it cannot precede personal pronouns: They turned it on and not *They turned on
it (expect, rarely, with contrastive stress.). The particle tends to precede the object if the
object is long or if the intention is that the object should receive end-focus.
Many transitive phrasal verbs have prepositional adverbs:
They dragged the case along (the road).
They moved the furniture out (of the house).
In these examples the particles have literal meanings. We can contrast
She took in the box (‘brought inside’).
She took in her parents (‘deceived’).
As with the intransitives, transitive phrasal verbs in the extent to which they form
idiomatic combinations. For example, the verb and particle in put out the cat preserve
their individual meanings in that combination and in a wide range of other
combinations (e.g.: put + down/outside/away/aside; take/turn/bring/push/send/drag +
out). There are fewer alternative combinations that the verb and particle in turn out the
light can enter (turn + on/off/down/up; switch + on). Finally, in put off (‘postpone’) the
verb and particle are fused into a new idiomatic combination, which does not allow for
contrasts in the individual elements.
Note.
With put N out we can compare put N straight and other complex transitive
constructions.
The preposition in a prepositional verb must precede its complement. Hence, we can
contrast the prepositional verb call on (‘visit’) with the phrasal verb call up (‘summon’):
They called on the man. They called up the man.
They called on him. *They called up him.
*They called the man on. They called the man up.
*They called him on. They called him up.
On the other hand, the prepositional verb allows an inserted adverb after the verb and a
relative pronoun after the preposition:
They called early on the man. *They called early up the man.
The man on whom they called. * The man up whom they called.
In general, prepositional verbs, such as call on or look at, plus their prepositional
complements differ from single-word verbs plus prepositional phrases, as in They called
at the hotel and They called after lunch, in that they allow pronominal questions with
who(m) for personal noun phrases and what for non-personal noun phrases but do not
allow adverbial questions for the whole prepositional phrase:
They called on the man. ~ Who(m) did they call on ?
~ *Where did they call ?
They looked at the picture. ~ What did they look at ?
~*Where did they look ?
They called at the hotel (or after lunch). ~ *What did they call at (or after)?
~ Where (or when) did they call ?
Many prepositional verbs allow the noun phrases to become the subject of a passive
transformation of the sentence:
They called on the man. ~ The man was called on.
They looked at the picture. ~ The picture was looked at.
Other prepositional verbs do not occur in the passive freely, but will do so under certain
conditions, such as the presence of a particular modal:
Visitors didn’t walk over the lawn.
~The lawn wasn’t walked over (by visitors).
Visitors can’t walk over the lawn.
~The lawn can’t be walked over (by visitors).
Other examples of prepositional verbs: ask for, believe in, care for, deal with, live on,
long for, object to, part with, refer to, write about.
Like phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs vary in their idiomaticity. Highly idiomatic
combinations include go into (a problem), ‘investigate’, come by (the book), ‘obtain’.
As with prepositional verbs, we can analyse these as transitive verbs with the
following noun phrase as direct object. They allow pronominal questions and under
certain conditions can occur in the passive:
He can’t put up with bad temper. ~ What can’t he put up with ?
~ Bad temper can’t be put up with for long.
In relative clauses and questions, the particles are positioned after the verb:
The party we were looking forward to so eagerly.
Who(m) does he put up with willingly ?
or (less commonly) the final particle can be brought into initial position:
The party to which we were looking forward so eagerly.
With whom does he put up willingly ?
Like phrasal and prepositional verbs, these multi-word verbs vary in their
idiomaticity. Some, like stay away from (‘avoid’), are easily understood from their
individual elements, though often with figurative meaning, e.g.: stand up for (‘support’).
Others are fused combinations, and it is difficult or impossible to assign meaning to any
of the parts: e.g.: put up with (‘tolerate’). There are still others where there is a fusion of
the verb with the first particle or where one or more of the elements may seem to retain
some individual meaning. For example, put up with can also mean ‘stay with’, and in
that sense put up constitutes a unit by itself (cf.: stay with, put up at, and the transitive
phrasal verb put up in I can put you up). Similarly, check up on (his record),
‘investigate’, is analysable as consisting of the prepositional verb check on plus the
intensifying up. We also have the single-word verb check, and therefore three transitive
verbs of similar meaning, together with the intransitive check and check up.
EXERCISES
CHAPTER 3: Phrasal verbs, prepositional verbs, phrasal–prepositional verbs.
Exercise 1.
The structure of the verb phrase can be analysed in a number of ways, including the
following:
a. Verb + particle eg sat down
b. V + prepositional phrase ,, ran across the road
c. V. + particle + prepositional phrase ,, set off on a journey
d. V. + prepositional adv. ,, ran across
e. V. + prep. adv. + prep. phrase ,, go across to the baker’s
f. Transitive phrasal v. + object ,, find out the truth
g. Prepositional v. + object ,, looked at me
h. Phrasal-prepositional v. + object ,, put up with him
Indicate, by a, b, c, etc., in which the of those eight ways the verb phrase in each of
sentences below can be analysed:
1. I went into the dining room. 18. You must face up to your
2. We went into the matter carefully.
3. We must call in the police. 19. You must come up to my office.
4. The police will call in a car. 20. We must make up for lost time.
5. I rushed out of the house. 21. Will you come up for a cup of tea ?
6. I rushed out. 22. The train has passed over the bridge.
7. I drove out to my friends. 23. It has passed over safely.
8. They all trooped off. 24. The selection committee has
9. They all set off down the road. passed you over.
10. He flew across the Atlantic. 25. My hat has fallen off.
11. We flew across in no time. 26. The plane has taken off.
12. How long can one do without 27. The actor took the President off
water ? beautifully.
13. Has anyone rung up ? 28. Go onto the platform.
14. Has anyone rung me up ? 29. Go on to the next town.
15. Don’t come down. 30. You must cut down on
16. Don’t give up. cigarettes
17. Don’t give me away.
responsibilities.
Exercise 2.
Replace the object in each of these sentences by the corresponding pronoun; then give the whole
new sentence:
Exercise 3.
Say whether the adverb, in brackets, could fit into position a, b, c or d. Note that more than one
position may be possible.
Exercise 4.
Change the position of the word underlined, if it is mobile:
Exercise 5.
Put into the passive, supplying the by-phrase only if it contains relevant and essential
information.
1. I will bring up this question at our next meeting.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. We shall then deal with it more fully.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Have you looked into this matter?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. The facts do not bear out your argument.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. No one has ever looked after this house properly.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. Is anybody attending to you?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. They have turned down my application.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. Thieves broke into the National Bank last night.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. The citizens set upon any foreigner, however innocent.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
10. You must get on with this job immediately.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Exercise 6.
Transform each of the sentences below in the following way:
I. Replace the words in italics by a suitable pronoun, making any necessary changes in
word order.
The applicant filled in the form.
The applicant filled it in. (Phrasal verb)
John takes after his father.
John takes after him. (Prepositional verb)
1. Companies do a great deal of research in order to find out exactly what their customers
want.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. The motorist ruled out one particular route because the road had a poor surface.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7. His publishers will soon be bringing out his latest collection of essays.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. You should put away the medicine where the children can’t get at the medicine.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
10. The Council has decided to try out new defensive barriers along the centre of the
motorway.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
11. Accountants seem to develop a remarkable facility for adding up a long column of
figures.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
12. If the dog isn’t kept chained up, he goes for everyone who enters the garden.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
II. Replace the pronoun in italics by the words at the end of the sentences, making any
necessary changes in word order. If you think there are two possibilities, state both.
2. The Minister brushed them aside. (objections made by members of the Opposition)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. The Embassy refused to hand him over. (the man who sought political asylum)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. It is not yet clear who will take it on. (the captaincy of the English touring team)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7. The State should not interfere in matters where it cannot bring it about. (an
improvement).
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
8. Insurance companies expect clients shortly to be putting them in after the recent floods.
(some very heavy claims).
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. To become competitive in world markets, British manufacturers must keep them down to
the absolute minimum. (their production costs).
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
10. The industrial spy handed them over. (the confidential papers he had obtained).
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
11. They are trying them out in America. (many new synthetic products).
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
13. No one brought them up. (the questions everyone most wanted to hear asked).
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Replace the words in italics, using the verbs indicated at the head of the exercises
together with an adverbial or prepositional particle, and making any necessary changes in word
order. (NB. In some cases, two particles are required.)
I. TURN:
1. The manager refused his request for a day off.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
8. This popular sport car is now being produced at the rate of a thousand a week.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
11. Although the dog appeared to be friendly, it would attack anyone who tried to fondle it.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
II. GET:
1. We wondered how he was progressing in his new job.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. She is so upset at her husband’s death that I don’t think she will ever recover from the
shock.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. She put the book in a place where the child couldn’t reach it.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. The business partnership flourished despite the fact that they didn’t agree well
personally.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
III. TAKE:
1. The teacher said I ought to start learning French.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. The son assumed control of the business on the retirement of his father.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. The man looked so respectable and honest that I was completely deceived.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. The secretary wrote the letter in shorthand as the manager dictated it to her.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
8. That teacher has a way with children: they seem to like her immediately.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
10. The shopkeeper agreed to deduct five per cent from the bill.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
IV. PUT:
1. I had to postpone my visit because of the weather.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. They were very annoyed when they learned that the train had been cancelled without
notice.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. He advanced the theory that those who had money always made money.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7. His aggressiveness was attributed to the fact that he had had an overbearing father.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. Don’t let the fact that I didn’t enjoy the play deter you from seeing it.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
11. When the teacher asked who had broken the window, all the boys assumed an air of
innocence.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
12. If I visit you at the week-end, will you be able to give me lodging for one night?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
V. STAND:
1. What does this abbreviation mean?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. The strikers are maintaining their demand for higher wages and shorter working hours.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. When he realized that his nomination would mean competing with his closest friend, he
decided to withdraw.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
8. The understudy had to take the part of the leading actor, who had fallen ill.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. The employers in this case were obliged to take no part in the dispute, which was purely
the result of inter-union rivalry.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
10. The machine soon went wrong: it was never intended to withstand the rough treatment it
was given.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
VI. COME:
1. While looking through the books he found an old and valuable map.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. When his father died he received a lot of money under his father’s will.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. No one thought that any good could result from discussing the question further.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
VII. GIVE:
1. He resigned from a secure job in order to devote himself to full-time writing.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Because of difficulties in getting a visa, we had to relinquish the idea of visiting Albania.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Although he agreed with me on most points, there were one on which he was unwilling
to yield.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. He returned the money to the man who had lost it.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. The bad cheese emitted a very unpleasant smell.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. The man crossing the Sahara found to their horror that their supplies would come to an
end before they reached to safety
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. The English like coal fires even though these don’t always produce much heat.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7. Every time cigarettes go up in price, many people try to stop smoking.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
8. The escaped prisoner had tried to disguise his appearance, but a scar on his
check betrayed him.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. The back entrance of the hotel led straight to a parking area.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
CHAPTER IV:
THE VERB AND ITS COMPLEMENTATION
I. INTRANSITIVE VERBS
There are some verbs that are always intransitive, i.e. can never take an object:
Your friends have arrived.
Other verbs can be either intransitive:
He smokes every day. The tomatoes are growing well.
or transitive, with or without a change in participant role:
He smokes cigars every day. He is growing tomatoes.
In this book we regard verbs that can be either intransitive or transitive as belonging to two
categories. We consider the relation between, for example, the intransitive verbs smoke and
grow and the transitive verbs smoke and grow to be that of conversion.
Note.
[a] The verb live takes an adjunct as an obligatory element. Live in the sense ‘reside’
requires a position adjunct (He lives in China) and in the sense ‘maintain life’ or ‘subsist’ a
process adjunct (He lives very comfortably, They live on rice). For live in the sense “be alive’ a
time adjunct is virtually obligatory (They lived in the nineteenth century). The verb get also has
an obligatory adjunct use; in this case the obligatory adjunct is a direction adjunct (I’ll get into
the car).
[b] Some of the intransitive phrasal verbs could not be used intransitively if the particle
were omitted. Besides get as in get up (‘arise’), the verbs include find (find out, ‘discover’),
keep (keep away, ‘stay away’), set (set off, ‘depart’).
[c] Intransitive verbs with a ‘passive’ sense (converted from transitive verbs) virtually
require an adjunct: The book is selling badly, The door unlocks easily.
[d] Verbs of measure require an adjunct, usually a noun phrase: weigh (five pounds), cost (a
dollar), contain (much).
1. Copulas
There is intensive complementation of the verb when a subject complement is present . The
verb in such a sentence is a ‘copula’ or ‘linking verb’. The most common copula is be. Other
copulas fall into two main classes, according to whether the role of the subject complement is
that of current attribute or attribute resulting from the event described in the verb. The most
common of these are listed below. Most of them are used only with a subject complement that
is an adjective phrase or a noun phrase with gradable noun head. Those that are commonly used
with a noun phrase as well are followed by ‘(N)’.
‘Current copulas: appear, feel (N), look (N), remain (N), seem (N), smell, sound,
taste.
‘Resuting’ copulas: become(N), get (chiefly informal), go, grow, turn (N), make
(N only)
Other adjectives that must be complemented by a prepositional phrase include the following,
which are listed together with the required preposition: intent on, reliant on, averse to, liable to,
subject to, inclined to,(un) familiar with.
Many adjectives can take such complementation but are not obliged to. Usually, the
prepositions are specific to a given adjective or to a given kind of complementation:
⎧of him (' They feared him' )
⎪
They were afraid ⎨for him (' They were anxious about him' )
⎪of leaving the house
⎩
⎧at Mary(' s) getting married
⎧angry ⎫ ⎪
He was ⎨ ⎬ ⎨with Mary for getting married
⎩pleased ⎭ ⎪
⎩about the wedding
As these examples show, the complement of the preposition can be an –ing participle clause ,
whose subject, if introduced, may or may not be a genitive . As well as the stylistic choice there
can be differences in semantic implication. Thus,
I am angry at Mary getting married
could imply anger at Mary because she has got married (cf.: I am angry at Mary for getting
married) rather than merely anger at the marriage (cf.: I am angry at the fact that Mary got
married), which would be the obvious interpretation of … angry at Mary’s …
When –ed participial adjectives are used, the constructions have active analogues:
John is interested in English grammar ~ English grammar interests John
We were worried about the situation ~ The situation worried us
He was surprised at her behaviour ~ Her behaviour surprised him
The verbs in the active have a causative feature, e.g.: The situation worried us ~ The situation
caused us to worry.
An indicative verb is used if the adjective is ‘factual’, i.e. concerned with the truth-value of
the complementation. An indicative verb or putative should ) is used I the adjective is
‘emotive’, i.e. concerned with attitude. A subjunctive verb or should (sometimes putative, but
often obligational) is used if the adjective is ‘volitional’, i.e. expressing indirectly some
command. The subjunctive is more usual in AmE in such cases, while BrE prefers should.
The finite clause is commonly a that-clause, but factual adjectives admid wh-clauses as
well: I’m not sure why he came, I’m not clear where she went. Clauses introduced by whether or
(less commonly) if are used with factual adjectives if the adjective is negative or has a negative
sense:
⎧I' m not sure ⎫ ⎧whether⎫
⎨ ⎬⎨ ⎬ he is here yet.
⎩I' m doubtful⎭ ⎩if ⎭
Personal subject + copula + adjective phrase + finite clause:
With emotive adjectives, the complementation expresses cause. This can be shown by a variant
construction in which the complementation is the subject of the sentence. It is particularly
evident when the emotive adjective is participial, in which case there is a corresponding active :
He is angry that they should be late ~ That they should be late has made him angry
I am amazed that he got the post ~ That he got the post amazes me
In Types 1-4, the subject of the sentence (Bob) is also the subject of the infinitive clause.
We can therefore always have a direct object in the infinitive clause in these four types if the
verb is transitive. For example, for Type 1 if we replace intransitive wait by transitive make we
can have
Bob is splendid to make that for you.
Type 1 (Bob is splendid to wait) has an analogue with a construction involving extraposition
: It is splendid of Bob to wait. As alternatives to the adjective phrase, we can use a noun phrase
that has as its head a degree noun or a generic noun modified by an adjective: David must be
(quite) a magician to make so much money, Bob is a splendid man to wait.
In Type 2 (Bob is slow to react), the sentence has an analogue in which the adjective is
transformed into an adverbial:
Bob is slow to react ~ Bob reacts slowly
In Type 3 (Bob is furious to hear it), the head of the adjective phrase is an emotive adjective
(commonly a participial adjective) and the infinitive clause expresses causation:
Bob is furious to hear it ~ To hear it has made Bob furious
~ It has made Bob furious to hear it
I was excited to be there ~ To be there excited me ~ It excited me to be there
In Type 4 (Bob is hesitant to agree with you), the head of the adjective phrase is a volitional
adjective. Common adjectives in this type are eager, keen, willing, reluctant. Along with Type
3, this type often admits feel as the copula.
In Type 5 (Bob is hard to convince), the subject of the sentence is the object of the infinitive
clause, which must therefore have a transitive verb (*Bob is hard to arrive). We distinguish two
subtypes:
(a) There is an analogue with a construction in which the adjective is complement to the
infinitive clause:
Bob is hard to convince ~ To convince Bob is hard ~ It is hard to convince Bob
The adjectives used in this subtype are chiefly hard, difficult, impossible, easy, convenient.
Unless there is ellipsis, we cannot omit the infinitive clause, and hence there is no semantic
relation between the sentences Bricks are hard to make and Bricks are hard.
(b) There are no analogues of the kind that we have exemplified: The food is ready to eat
(*To eat the food is ready), and we can generally omit the infinitive clause: The food is
ready.
As with Type 1, we can use a noun phrase as an alternative to the adjective phrase: Bob is a
hard man to convince; Bob is a pleasure to teach. In both (5a) and (5b), the subject of the
sentence can be the complement of a preposition in the infinitive clause: He is easy to talk to,
The paper is flimsy to write on.
prepositional verbs do not admit as direct object that-clauses (whether that is retained or
omitted) or infinitive clauses. We illustrate the possibilities and restrictions with the
prepositional verb approve of:
⎧the meeting
⎪
⎪⎪what had been decided
Tom approved of ⎨meeting her
⎪* (that) they should meet
⎪
⎩⎪* to meet her
However, the restriction involving that-clauses applies only if the that-clause is direct object,
and hence the preposition can be retained in the passive (That they should meet was approved
of), even in extraposition, where the preposition immediately follows the passive verb phrase
(It was agreed to eventually that they should meet again soon).
Note.
Certain transitive verbs expressing causation of movement have an adverbial following the
direct object, normally an adjunct of place:
The hostess showed me to the door
He saw Mary home
John put the car into the garage
Mary placed/set a vase on the table
We kept them out of trouble
With the above verbs (in the senses exemplified) where the adverbial is obligatory, there is a
similarity with complex transitive complementation.
1.Noun phrases as direct object S + Vtr + NP(Od)
Direct objects are typically noun phrases. It is usually possible for the direct object of an active
sentence to become the subject of a passive sentence, with the subject of the active sentence as
the prepositional complement in an optional by-phrase :
The boy caught the ball ~ The ball was caught (by the boy)
It is, however, usual to omit the by-phrase, often because it is irrelevant or unknown, as in
Order has been restored without bloodshed and without concessions
The Prime Minister was attacked last night during the debate
or because it is redundant in the context, as in
Jack fought Michael last night and Jack was beaten
The passive transformation is blocked when there is co-reference between subject and object,
i.e. when there are reflexive, reciprocal, or possessive pronouns in the noun phrase as object:
⎧Paul ⎫
John could see ⎨ ⎬ in the mirror
⎩himself ⎭
⎧Paul ⎫
~ ⎨ ⎬ could be seen in the mirror
⎩* Himself ⎭
We could hardly see each other in the fog
~ *Each other could hardly be seen in the fog
⎧the tables
The other waitress wiped ⎨
⎩her hands
⎧The tables ⎫
~ ⎨ ⎬ were wiped by the other waitress
⎩* Her hands ⎭
Note.
[a] A shift of meaning may accompany shift of voice in verb phrases containing auxiliaries
that have more than one meaning, e.g.: shall, will, and can:
John cannot do it ~ It cannot be done (by John)
In the active sentence can would normally be interpreted as expressing ability, whereas in
the passive sentence it is interpreted as expressing possibility.
[b] With dynamic verbs we can distinguish between ‘actional’ passives, illustrated above in
this section, and ‘statal’ passives. The latter express a state:
The house is already sold
Corresponding actives require an aspectual shift to the perfect:
Someone has already sold the house (*Someone already sells the house)
A sentence such as They were married is ambiguous between an actional interpretation
(They were married in church yesterday) and a statal interpretation (They were married when I
last heard about them).
A small group of transitive verbs, the most common of which is have, normally do not allow a
passive transformation of the sentence:
They have a nice house Will this suit you ?
He lacks confidence John resembles his father
The coat does not fit you
These verbs are sometimes considered to form a separate category of non-transitive verbs
taking noun phrases as their complementation (cf. also verbs of measure). They include
‘reciprocal’ verbs such as resemble, look like, equal (Two times three equals six), agree with,
mean (‘Oculist’ means ‘eye-doctor’); verbs of ‘containing’ or their opposite, such as contain (The
library contains a million books), hold (The auditorium holds over a thousand people), comprise,
lack; and verbs of ‘suiting’, such as suit, fit, become (This dress becomes her). Contain and hold
occur in a similar sense in the passive but without a by-phrase: A million books are contained in
that library.
2. Finite clauses as direct object
Like finite clauses as complementation of adjective phrases , finite clauses as direct object may
have an indicative verb, putative should, or a subjunctive verb, depending on the class of the
superordinate verb:
(a) factual superordinate verb, with indicative subordinate verb:
They agree that she is pretty
I know how he did it
He forgot why they complained
(b) emotive verb, with indicative verb or putative should:
⎧she should worry about it
I regret that ⎨
⎩she worries about it
(c) volitional verb, with subjunctive verbs orhould (not clearly differentiated between its
putative and obligational uses):
⎧admit all applicants
I proposed that he ⎨
⎩should admit all applicants
Factual verbs that are used to convey an indirect question are followed by clauses with whether
or (less common) if:
He asked ⎫
⎪ ⎧whether⎫
He doubted ⎬⎨ ⎬ they had arrived
⎩ if ⎭
He didn' t know⎪⎭
A verb may belong to more than one class: For example, He suggested that she went is
ambiguous: if suggested is a factual verb, she went is a factual report, whereas if it is a volitional
verb, she went is a suggested action. Similarly, within the class of factual verbs, say may be
used with both a that-clause and (more commonly in the negative or in a question) a whether/if
clause: I didn’t say that/whether they had arrived.
Examples of the three classes of verbs are listed.
(a) factual verbs: admit, agree, answer, believe, declare, deny, expect, hope,
insist, know, report, say, see, suggest, suppose, think, understand
factual verbs commonly followed by whether/if: ask, discuss, doubt, find
out, forget, (not) know, (not) notice, (not) say, wonder
(b) emotive verbs: deplore, prefer, regret
Finite
(c) clauses as direct
volitional verbs:object can become
command, the insist,
demand, subjectorder,
of a corresponding passive sentence:
Everybody admitted that she sang well
~ That she sang well was admitted (by everybody)
However, it is far more usual for the passive to have extraposition with anticipatory it
~ It was admitted (by everybody) that she sang well
Non-finite
clause object
⎡ ⎡to - infinitive He likes to talk
⎢ without subject ⎢
⎢ ⎣- ing participle He likes talking
⎢
⎢
⎡ ⎡to - infinitive He wants her to come
⎢infinitive ⎢
⎢ ⎢ ⎣bare infinitive He saw her come
⎢ with subject ⎢
⎢ ⎡- ing participle He saw her coming
⎢ participle ⎢
⎢
⎣ ⎢⎣ ⎣ ed participle He found the seats taken
In non-finite clauses without an overt subject the verb is either an infinitive preceded by to
or an -ing participle (but cf. Note c). The implied subject is normally the subject of the
superordinate clause. There are verbs which take
(1) only an infinitive clause:
⎧to do ⎫
John longed ⎨ ⎬ homework
⎩* doing ⎭
(2) only a participle clause:
⎧having stolen ⎫
John denied ⎨ ⎬ the money
⎩* to have stolen ⎭
(3) either an infinitive or a participle clause:
⎧to write⎫
John began ⎨ ⎬ a letter
⎩writing ⎭
Where both constructions are admitted, there is usually felt to be an aspectual difference
that influences the choice. The participle construction generally implies ‘fulfillment’ and the
infinitive construction ‘potentiality’:
⎧speaking and kept on for more than an hour
He started ⎨
⎩to speak but stopped because she objected
Another factor influencing the choice is that the participle tends to express the progressive
aspect:
⎧slamming all night long
I heard the door ⎨
⎩slam just after midnight
The progressive aspect may also influence a preference for the participle after verbs of
beginning, continuing, and ending, when multiple activities are involved:
⎧opening all the cupboards
He began ⎨
⎩to open the cupboards
While some verbs in this semantic group allow both constructions (begin, continue, cease, start),
others allow only the participle construction (finish, go on, keep (on), stop).
For the three verbs forget, remember and regret, there is a temporal (and perhaps also
modal) difference between the two constructions. The infinitive construction indicates that the
action or event takes place after the mental process denoted by the verb has begun, while the
reverse is true for the participle construction:
⎧I remembered to fill out the form (' I remembered that I was to fill out the form
⎪
⎨ and then did so' )
⎪I remembered filling out the form (' I remembered that I had filled out the form' )
⎩
⎧I forgot to go to the bank (' I forgot that I was to go to the bank and therefore did not
⎪
⎪ do so' )
⎨
⎪I forgot (about) going to the bank (rare without about : ' I forgot that I went to
⎪⎩ the bank' )
⎧I regret to tell you that John stole it (' I regret that I am about to tell you
⎪
⎨ that John stole it' )
⎪I regret telling you that John stole it (' I regret that I told you that John stole it' )
⎩
For one small group of verbs (deserve, need, require, and, less commonly, want), the choice
involves a difference in voice, the participle construction corresponding to a passive infinitive
construction:
⎧cleaning
Your shoes need ⎨
⎩to be cleaned
We list some common verbs according to the non-finite clauses that they allow, omitting the
three small groups that we discussed above:
verbs with infinitive only: agree, arrange, ask (see Note d), choose, decide, demand,
deserve, expect, hope, learn, long, manage, mean, offer, pretend, promise, refuse,
threaten, want, wish
verbs with participle only: deny, dislike, enjoy, fancy, finish, (cannot) help, keep
(on), don’t mind, miss, put off, risk, cannot stand, stop, suggest
verbs with infinitive or participle (mainly emotive verbs or verbs expressing
striving or lack of striving): cannot bear, delay, hate, intend, like, love, neglect,
omit, plan, prefer, try
There is in general no passive for sentences whose object is a non-finite clause without a
subject. The exceptions are with a few verbs (notably agree, arrange, decide) and then only if
there is extraposition:
They decided to meet in London ~ It was decided to meet in London
Note.
[a] With verbs like need, the subject of the superordinate clause is not the implied subject of
the participle clause, but rather its implied direct object: Your shoes need cleaning implies that
you or someone needs to clean the shoes.
[b] We might consider here also several verbs with infinitive clauses, which are not direct
objects. With appear, happen, and seem, the infinitive clause is more plausibly seen as part of
the subject: He appears to like the show ~ That he likes the show appears (true). The quasi-
adverbial function of the main verb can be shown by the paraphrase He apparently likes the
show. There are analogies with such adjectives as sure, certain, bound in relation to infinitive
clauses: He is certain to like the show ~ That he will like the show is certain ~ He will certainly
like the show.
[c] The verb help can be followed by a construction with the bare infinitive: I helped her (to)
do it. Otherwise, the bare infinitive is found only in a few set phrases: e.g.: make do, make
believe, (live and) let live, let go.
[d] Some factual verbs will permit as direct object a non-finite indirect question, but not of
the yes-no type: He asked/inquired how to get there. Cf.: He arranged/forgot when to do it.
The non-factual verbs with this non-finite construction express a causative, volitional or
attitudinal relationship with the subordinate clause. There is no restriction on the class of verbs
in the non-finite clause and no stylistic restriction on its use:
John intended that Mary should sing an aria
John intended Mary to sing an aria
Mary was intended to sing an aria
With some of the superordinate verbs no finite- clause construction of this type is possible:
notably, get, want, like:
John wanted Mary to play the piano
(but that Mary (should) play the piano occurs in AmE)
Other common non-factual verbs: cause, expect, hate, mean.
When the subject of the subordinate clause is identical with that of the superordinate one,
the non-finite construction is possible with factual and causative verbs only if the reflexive is
expressed (as it commonly is with get):
I believed that I had won
I believed myself to have won (rare)
*I believed to have won
With volitional and attitudinal verbs, however, co-referential subjects are readily allowed but
the subordinate subject cannot be expressed in the non-finite clause :
I intended that I should go
I intended to go
Note.
A few verbs, get, hate, like, want, do not have a corresponding passive, while a few others, in
particular say, occur only in the passive form of the construction:
He was said to come from Ireland ~ *They said him to come from Ireland
Note.
Prepositional verbs that are ditransitive allow another object (perhaps also introduced by a
preposition) to precede the infinitive clause:
⎧telephoned ⎫
He ⎨ ⎬ John for Mary to come at once
⎩arranged with ⎭
Cf. He telephoned John/He arranged with John for another meeting.
Some verbs of perception take the bare infinitive in the active: feel, hear, notice, observe, see,
smell, watch. The verbs of perception also occur with the –ing participle clause:
I watched Bob teach(ing) Mary
In the passive, the bare infinitive is replaced by the to-infinitive: Bob was made to clean his
room, They were heard to shout something. This does not apply to have and let, which have no
passive, except for perhaps as in He was let go. Only let has a passive of the infinitive clause:
They let Mary be taught (by Bob). With the verbs of perception, there is a passive with being: I
watched Mary being taught (by Bob). For the passive corresponding to the infinitive clause after
have and see as in I had Bob teach Mary ~ I had Mary taught (by Bob).
We list common verbs according to whether they permit or disallow the genitive, and within
each class, we note the verbs which, in addition to the –ing construction, permit the infinitive
construction, with or without to:
• Genitive optional: (1) –ing participle only: (cannot) afford, enjoy, forget, (not)
mind, regret, remember, resent, risk, (cannot) stand;
• (2) –ing participle or to-infinitive: dislike, hate, like, love,
prefer
• Genitive disallowed: (1) –ing participle only: catch, find, keep, leave, start,
stop; (2)-ing participle or bare infinitive: have(“cause”); verbs of perception-
feel, hear,
(2) –ing participle or bare infinitive: have (‘cause’); verbs of perception – feel,
hear, notice, observe, see, smell, watch; -ing participle or to-infinitive: get,
informal (I got Bob cleaning/to clean his room)
feel, hear, notice, observe, see, smell, watch
- ing participle or to-infinitive: get, informal( I got Bob cleaning / to clean his
room)
Some of the causative/volitional verbs have analogous finite clauses with a subjunctive verb or
should : He ordered that the watch (should) be repaired. Similarly, the factual verbs have
analogous finite clauses with an indicative verb: He saw the watch stolen ~ He saw that the
watch was being stolen, He found the watch stolen ~ He found that the watch was stolen. Have
can be either causative or factual: thus He had a watch stolen is ambiguous between ‘He caused
the watch to be stolen’ and ‘He suffered the loss of a watch’.
In the passive,the verb is generally actional rather than statal: My friend had his watch stolen
implies”Someone stole my friend’s watch” rather than”My friend was without a watch because
it was stolen”.
Make is commonly the verb in such combinations: make clear (the reason), make possible
(the meeting), make plain (the difference). Among adjectives, open, loose, free, and clear are
particularly common: push open, keep loose, shake free, leave clear. In many cases, there is a
close meaning relationship between verb and adjective: cut short, wash clean, drain dry, pack
tight.
The adjective retains its potentialities for modification:
He pushed the door wide open
She didn’t wash the shirts as clean as Mary did
Many of the verbs mentioned in (6) as taking adjectives phrases as object complement will also
admit noun phrases (exceptions include get, have and put). When the object complement is a
noun phrase it can, as with the adjective phrase, be ‘current’ or ‘resulting’. In general, however,
the noun phrase as current attribute is uncommon and somewhat formal (unless it is indefinite
with a gradable noun head and hence with an adjectival quality):
They thought John the leader (rather uncommon)
They thought John a fool
As resulting attribute, on the other hand, the noun phrase is freely used:
⎧elected ⎫
⎪made ⎪
⎪ ⎪ ⎧(the) chairman
They ⎨ ⎬ John ⎨
⎪appo int ed ⎪ ⎩(the) ambassador to Peru
⎪⎩named ⎪⎭
They made John a useful mechanic
The verbs appoint, crown, elect, and consider are commonly used with an alternative as
construction:
They elected him (as) their leader
The following verbs are among those that can have complex complementation only with as or
(less commonly) for: accept as, class as, describe as, intend as, interpret as, know as, mistake
for, recognize as, regard as, take as/for, treat as, use as, for example: They recognized John as
intelligent/their spokesman.
Most verbs taking a noun phrase as object complement will also admit an adjective phrase;
outstanding exceptions include verbs of appointing such as appoint, choose, elect, name.
Note.
The object complement may precede the ‘direct object’ when the latter is lengthy or requires
special emphasis:
They will elect chairman anyone willing to serve
He thought desirable most of women in the room
Limitedly, an analogous inversion can occur with the –ing and –ed clauses of (4). cf. also (.3).
V- DITRANSITIVE COMPLEMENTATION
1. Noun phrase as both indirect object and direct object
Ditransitive complementation involves two objects that are not intensive relationship: an
indirect object (normally animate), which is positioned first, and a direct object (normally
concrete):
He gave the girl a12 doll
3
1424 3
S V Oi Od
Indirect objects can be omitted without affecting the meaning or function of the rest of the
sentence:
⎧~ He gave a doll
He gave the girl a doll ⎨
⎩≠ He gave the girl
⎧~ He bought a white hat
He bought the girl a white hat ⎨
⎩≠ He bought the girl
They can usually be replaced by a corresponding prepositional phrase, which normally follows
the direct object:
He gave a doll to the girl
He bought a white hat for the girl
We list some common verbs, which allow the indirect object to be replaced by a prepositional
phrase, the preposition concerned being indicated:
Ask (a question) of (John), bring to, do (a favour) for, do (a disservice) to, find for, give
to, leave for/to, lend to, make for, offer to, owe to, pay for, pray for, promise to, read
to, save for, show to, teach to, tell to, throw to
A few verbs disallow the variant with a prepositional phrase: allow, refuse, wish. With allow
and wish, it would be exceptional to have either of the noun phrases omitted.
One group of verbs (chiefly ask, owe, pay, teach, tell, show) taking ditransitive
complementation allow either object to be omitted:
⎧I paid John
⎪
I paid John the money ~ ⎨I paid the money
⎪I paid the money to John
⎩
Note.
[a] The verb give allows considerable flexibility: the direct object can be abstract and the
indirect object inanimate, though in such cases the latter has no variant with a prepositional
phrase:
He gave the car a wash (‘He washed the car’)
~ *He gave a wash to the car
Sentences with some ditransitive verbs have two passives:
⎧~ The girl was given a doll
He gave the girl a doll ⎨
⎩~ A doll was given the girl
Of these two passives, the first is the more common. The second is usually replaced by
the corresponding prepositional phrase:
A doll was given to the girl
[b] The verb make admits several different constructions:
monotrans: She made a cake
ditrans: She made him a cake (~ a cake for him)
complex trans: She made him a good husband (~ him into a good husband)
charge with, compare to, congratulate on, convince of, deprive of, inform of, introduce
to, punish for, refer to, remind of, rob of, sentence to, treat to
But there are notable exceptions, such as explain X to Y, where X would normally be a thing
and Y a person.
With several verbs (e.g. blame, provide, supply), either of the noun phrases in the
complementation can follow the verb immediately, the other requiring a preposition:
She blamed John for the damage ~ She blamed the damage on John
They provided the homeless with blankets ~ They provided blankets for the homeless
They supplied the terrorists with guns ~ They supplied guns for/to the terrorists
indirect object obligatory: advise, assure, convince, inform, persuade, remind, tell
indirect object optional: ask (+ indirect question), promise, show, teach, warn
non-finite clause as direct object. The subject of the non-finite clause can become the subject of
the passive superordinate clause:
John was persuaded to see me
Not all verbs taking a finite clause allow the non-finite clause as direct object but among the
common verbs that permit both constructions we should mention ask (with wh-indirect
questions), persuade, remind, teach, tell and warn. There are several verbs which permit the
non-finite clause but which do not (or do not freely) admit the finite clause; for example, ask (=
‘request’), encourage, force, help, and order.
Mary helped John to carry the bag
(*Mary helped John that he might carry the bag)
There is a superficial similarity between certain complex transitive and ditransitive
examples:
complex trans: He wanted Mary to teach Bob [1]
ditrans: He persuaded Mary to teach Bob [2]
The difference can be seen when the subordinate clause is made passive:
He wanted Bob to be taught by Mary [3, =1] He
persuaded Bob to be taught by Mary [4, ≠2]
This difference depends on the fact that, with complex transitive verbs, the infinitive clause
(Mary to teach Bob) is direct object and Mary is not itself a constituent of the superordinate
clause. With the ditransitive verb persuade, however, Mary as indirect object is indeed a
separate constituent (the subject of the infinitive clause in this instance being only implied). In
[4], this indirect object function is taken over by Bob, and hence the radically changed meaning.
Note.
When a wh-clause is object to a verb of stating, the subject is identical with the indirect object;
with verbs of asking, however, it is identical with the superordinate subject:
He told them where to go (= where they should go)
He asked them where to go (= where he should go)
Bibliographical note.
On types and problems of complementation, see Aijmer (1972); Allen (1966); Bald (1972);
Halliday (1967-68); Huddleston (1971), Ch.3, 4; Machaùček (1965); Poldauf (1972); Rosenbaum
(1967); van Ek (1966); Stockwell et al (1973), Ch. 8.
EXERCISES
Indicate, by a, b, c, etc., which of the following copulas could fill the gap in each of the
sentences below:
a. appear f. go k. seem
b. be g. grow l. smell
c. become h. look m. sound
d. feel i. make n. taste
e. get j. remain o. turn
26. He’s not expert …………. anything. 39. Be independent ………… others.
27. Have you been faithful ……… me? 40. Don’t feel inferior ………… anyone.
28. I’m not familiar ………… this town. 41. John is intent …………… his work.
29. Fred is not fit ………… this job. 42. Are you jealous …………… her?
30. Joint is fond ……… Mary. 43. I’m not keen ………… swimming.
31. I’m glad ………… your prize. 44. Be loyal ………… your friends.
32. I’d be glad …………… a rest. 45. That story is new …………… me.
33. John is good …………… chemistry. 46. We’re very proud ……………. you.
34. We’re grateful………… your help. 47. Are you ready ………… a meal?
35. We’re grateful ………… you. 48. You’re safe ………… danger now.
36. Don’t be too hard ………… me. 49. John is not strong …… languages.
37. He’s hungry ………….. knowledge. 50. We’re tired …………… this exercise.
38. I’m ignorant …………. those facts.
2. You have made a serious error. We are afraid that (that is so).
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
16. My husband will not be able to attend your meeting. He is very sorry.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
17. I may not be able to come with you. I’m not sure yet.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
18. Did you really say that? Is it true?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
19. Don’t you know your programme? I’m surprised.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
20. Everyone should vote on Thursday. It is vital.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
• Adjective + to-infinitive clause
Exercise 5.
Indicate, by a, b, c, etc., to which of the following types of construction each of the sentences
below could be assigned:
a He is splendid to wait. d He is hesitant to agree.
b He is sloe to react. e He is hard to convince.
c He is furious to hear it.
Exercise 6.
Rephrase each of the fifteen sentences in Ecercise 5 so as to illustrate the underlying difference
between the five types of construction.
• Transitive complementation
Exercise 7.
A direct object may be
a a noun phrase d a finite wh-clause
b a noun phrase + obligatory adverbial e an infinitive clause
Exercise 11.
Indicate by a, b, c, etc., which of the finite verbs in the six sentences in Exercise 10 could be
replaced by
1 Ask 6 Finish 11 keep 16 suggest
2 Avoid 7 Have 12 prefer 17 tell
3 Begin 8 Help 13 promise 18 threaten
4 Dare 9 Hope 14 refuse 19 watch
5 discover 10 Imagine 15 stop 20 wish
Exercise 12.
Expand the following sentences so as to clarify the difference in meaning between the two
members of each pair:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
• Object complements
Exercise 16.
Indicate, by a, b, c, etc., which of the following verbs could fill the gaps in the sentences below:
a accept g elect m push
b appoint h find n put
c call i hold o recognize
d consider j intend p regard
e declare k make q take
f describe l mistake r treat
Exercise 17.
Indicate, by a, b, c, etc., which of the 18 verbs in Exercise 16 could fill the gaps in the following:
Exercise 18.
a Move the object complement, if it is mobile.
b Replace the object by the corresponding pronoun, then write out the new sentence:
• Ditransitive complementation
Exercise 19.
Rephrase each of the following sentences using the pattern
(Subject) + verb + direct object + prepositional phrase,
but only when such rephrasing is admissible:
Exercise 20.
a Read the 20 sentences in Exercise 19, omitting the indirect object whenever such omission
can be made without detriment to the sense.
b In which of those 20 sentences could the direct object be ellipted?
Exercise 21.
Give two different passive transformations for the following sentences in Exercise 19: 2, 3, 8, 11,
12, 14, 16, 17, 18.
Exercise 22.
a Supply the missing prepositions.
b Read the sentence, ellipting the prepositional phrase where possible.
c Give the passive transformation of the whole original sentence.
d Form a question for each sentence, on the following model:
What example can this one be compared with?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7. We can compare this writer _________ a well-known novelist.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. I am confining you _________ certain limits.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. They congratulated Henry _________ his medal.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
10. They will consult us _________ the plan.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
11. We have credited you _________ a fixed amount.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
12. The guards deprived the visitors _________ certain weapons.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
13. This card entitled us _________ certain privileges.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
14. I shall exempt them _________ certain duties.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
15. We have freed you _________ a great anxiety.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
16. We have already informed them _________ the decision.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
17. The treasurer has invested our money _________ stocks.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
18. I have only mentioned this matter _________ one of the professors.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
19. They have provided blankets _________ some of the refugees.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
20. They have provided some of the refugees _________ blankets.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
21. We have supplied food _________ certain families.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
22. We have supplied those families _________ food.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
23. I am thanking you _________ your kindness.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Exercise 23.
a Supply the missing verbs. Then,
b put each sentence into the passive, as follows:
We took care of it ~ It was taken care of.
Exercise 25.
Indicate, by a, b, c, etc., into which of the following three sentences the verbs below could fit:
a John said that there would be trouble.
b John told me that there would be trouble.
c John explained to me that he had been ill.
Exercise 26.
Rephrase the sentences below, where possible, by using the pattern:
I persuaded John to see a doctor.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. I assured him that he would get pneumonia.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7. I reminded him that he should take his medicine.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
8. I reminded him that he had been overworking.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. I requested him that he should keep me informed of his condition.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
10. I assured him that he would have proper care.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Exercise 27.
Note the following two-fold analysis:
a He wanted Mary to teach Bob.
He wanted Mary to.
b He persuaded Mary to teach Bob.
He persuaded Mary (to)
In which of those two ways could the following sentences be analysed?
CHAPTER V
TEXT ANALYSIS
I. WATCHING CHILDREN
Watching children, particularly when they don’t know you are doing so, is a particular pleasure.
Those quick changes of mood, for instance. Small boys who dribble an imaginary football down
the street and then get more interested in trying to balance on the edge of the kerb. And then
stand quite still to think for a few seconds before jumping up and down with their feet together
for no special reason, except that they feel like jumping up and down. Maybe the fact that I no
longer feel in the least like jumping up and down adds to the interest.
I once watched a child of about two-and-a-half trying to stamp on little waves breaking
across a wide Cornish beach. She stretched her hands out in pleasure with every little stamp and
her bathing pants fell lower and lower, till she jumped them off altogether but didn’t notice it, so
intent was she on the important job of stamping on those waves. She sang to herself a sort of
monotone running commentary on what she was doing and the sound of it, mingled with soft sea
noises, made a most pleasing music.
Some time ago my housekeeper had to go away for a while, and her place was taken by an
Austrian friend with a five-year-old daughter. Liesl couldn’t be left at home, so she came to
work too. She was very fair, nicely rounded, with fierce blue eyes and more curiosity than any
human being I have ever met. In her it was an energy that if harnessed could have run an entire
electrical plant. There was nothing idle about it, she wanted to know, and nothing short of
picking her up bodily and removing her from the room could stop her knowing.
Small Fry by Joyce Grenfell (Br
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
company. Soon, Nina was doggedly pumping me for information about the new department I
was running, where she hoped to get a permanent job. Not a chance, I thought. Not if I have
anything to say about it.
However, I didn’t. Within a few days she was ‘trying out’ for me. I gave her a moderately
difficult, uninteresting, and unimportant project that I didn’t need for months. It took that long
for her successor to untangle the mess she had made out it. Although I couldn’t have predicted
exactly what Nina would do, in three minutes flat I had assessed her as someone who could not
be relied upon to get a job done.
We all make snap judgments about strangers. Within seconds after we meet someone, we
take in a host of details and draw rather large conclusions from them. We may decide in an
instant whether it is someone’s nature to be warm or cold, friendly or hostile, anxious or calm,
happy or troubled. Unconsciously, we often ask and quickly answer certain questions: Will I
enjoy talking to him at this party? Will she make an interesting friend? Will he / she make a good
boss/sales manager/secretary/ spouse/ lover – for me? If we get to know the person better, we
may change our minds. But we may not have the chance.
From Nina’s inappropriate dress and aggressive behavior toward me, I’d decided she was
pushy, insensitive, and had poor judgment. I also had a lot of vague impressions I couldn’t
explain. It was as if a warning bell went off in my head. Its message: this person was not to be
trusted; her behavior would be unpredictable; she was motivated by an idiosyncratic agenda of
her own that I would never understand.
I was using a combination of observation, inference and intuition.
New Woman
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
Whenever Henry Wilt took the dog for a walk, or, to be more accurate, when the dog took him,
or, to be exact, when Mrs Wilt told them both to go and take themselves out of the house so that
she could do her yoga exercises, he always took the same route. In fact the dog followed the
route and Wilt followed the dog. They went down past the Post Office, across the playground,
under the railway bridge and out on to the footpath by the river. A mile along the river and then
under the railway line again and back through streets where the houses were bigger than Wilt’s
semi and where there were large trees and gardens and the cars were all Rovers and Mercedes.
It was here that Clem, a pedigree Labrador, evidently feeling more at home, did his business
while Wilt stood looking around rather uneasily, conscious that this was not his sort of
neighbourhood and wishing it was. It was about the only time during their walk that he was at all
aware of his surroundings. For the rest of the way Wilt’s walk was an interior one and followed
an itinerary completely at variance with his own appearance and that of his route. It was in fact a
journey of wishful thinking, a pilgrimage along trails of remote possibility involving the
irrevocable disappearance of Mrs Wilt, the sudden acquisition of wealth, power, what he would
do if he has appointed Minister of Education or, better still, Prime Minister. It was partly
concocted of a series of desperate expedients and partly in an unspoken dialogue so that anyone
noticing Wilt (and most people didn’t) might have seen his lips move occasionally and his mouth
curl into what he fondly imagined was a sardonic smile as he dealt with questions or parried
arguments with devastating repartee. It was on one of these walks taken in the rain after a
particularly trying day at the Tech that Wilt first conceived the notion that he would only be able
to fulfil his latent promise and call his life his own if some not entirely fortuitous disaster
overtook his wife.
Wilt by Tom Sharpe (BrE)
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
through a question, his voice was drowned by shouts of ‘Teacher! Teacher! Teacher!’ and I lost
sight of him behind the thicket of urgently raised hands. If a student began to stumble over an
answer, the other fought to grab the question for themselves, bellowing for Teacher’s attention. I
once taught for a term at a comprehensive school in England: had the children in my class ever
shown a small fraction of the enthusiasm displayed by these Yemeni students, I might have
stayed in the job a great deal longer. They were ravenous for the good marks and certificates
which would take them out of their villages and tenements, and they behaved as if every minute
spent in the classroom could make or break them.
Arabie Through the Looking Glass by Jonathan Raban (BrE)
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
REVISION TEST
I. Read the following passage, then label the types and explain the meanings of the
underlined phrasal verbs :
Iris is like my former wife in that when she sleeps she sometimes has violent dreams. She
thrashes around in bed during the night and wakes in the morning drenched with sweat, the
nihgtgown sticking to her body. And like my former wife , she wants to tell me her dreams in
great detail and speculate as to what this stands for or that portends. My former wife used to
kick the covers off in the night and cry out in her sleep, as if someone were laying hands on her.
Once,in a particularly violent dream,she hit me on the ear with her fist I was in a dreamless
sleep ,but I struck out in the dark and hit her on the forehead.Then we began yelling.We both
yelled and yelled.We’d hurt each other,but we were mainly scared.We had no idea what had
happened until I turned the lamp on ; then we sorted it out . Afterwards, we joked about it-
fistfighting in our sleep.
II/A- Underline the multi-word verbs in the letter and try to work out what they mean,
what kind of multi-word verbs they are.
“ I’m having problems with my studies at school. I find it difficult to get down to work in
the evening and I can’t concentrate on anything at the moment. I spend most of my time
listening to music or watching TV instead of doing my homework . The other students in my
class are much better than I am and I have difficulty in keeping up with them . I sometimes
have problems with following the lessons as well. I can’t always take down the important
things my teachers says because I write so slowly. She has told me that I’m falling behind with
my studies. I’m not good at writing essays and I usually hand in my homework late because I
put off doing it until the last minute. So I often have to invent silly excuses to explain why I
haven’t done the work . I’m sure I’m not going to get through my final exam in January. I
scraped through the mock exams last June with 54% - All the other students passed with flying
colours. I’m now so far behind that I don’t know how I’m going to catch up with them . My
teacher spent some time going through my homework with me but she found so many mistakes
that I felt even more depressed . What do you suggest I do ? ”
B- Using the multi- word verbs in the text above to replace the verbs in the following
sentences :
....................................................................................................................................
9. I must try to reach the same level as the other students in my class.
......................................................................................................................................
Example:
TAKE: He resembles his father in many ways.
> He takes after his father in many ways. ( Type 3- prepositional verb)
1. TURN : The manager refused his request for two days off.
………………………………………………………………………………….
2. GET : She is so upset at her husband’s death that I don’t think she will ever
recover from the shock.
………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
3. TAKE: That teacher has a way with students: they seem to like her immediately.
……………………………………………………………………………………
4. PUT : I had to postpone my visit because of the weather.
…………………………………………………………………………………….
5. PUT : He refused to tolerate laziness on the part of his students.
…………………………………………………………………………………….
6. STAND: What does this abbreviation mean?
…………………………………………………………………………………..
7. COME: While looking through the books he found an old and valuable map.
……………………………………………………………………………………
8. GIVE : Although he agreed with me on most points, there was one on which he was
unwilling to yield.
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
V. Identify the non-finite and verbless clauses in the following sentences, then denote their
names and functions:
1. Having received their final medical check, the astronauts boarded their spacecraft.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
2. The thieves took two mail-bags containing registered letters.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Closing the factory means putting people out of work.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. Not very happy with the result, she said nothing to her classmates.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. The long journey over, we relax in the warm sunshine.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. He likes being invited to parties.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
7. The worst thing at University is retaking examinations.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
8. We are happy having you with us today.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
9. Used economically, one tin can last for at least 4 weeks.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
10. Her ambition, to be a teacher, was never fulfilled.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
11. To be honest, I’m not sure what to do.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
12. All he did was hit his son on the head.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
13. We come to see you .
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
14. Cleared, the site will be very valuable.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
VI. Say whether the complementation in each of the following sentences is intensive,
monotransitive, ditransitive or complex transitive:
1. Transportation to the mainland is by ferry.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
2. They blamed him for the damage.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. They had made good use of the language lab.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
4. I am not familiar with this town.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. We are proud to have her as a friend.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
6. Ah,now I know where we went wrong.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
7. I would love John to teach me.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
8. We wish you to help us.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. We admitted that a mistake had been made.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
10. We expect you to show a little more tact.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
11. Everyone considered the mistake to be very serious.
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
12.We have not kept pace with the latest research.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
13. I advise you to be more careful.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
14. I am sure that she is here now.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
15. John put the car into the garage.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….