Journal of Materials Processing Technology 77 (1998) 201208

The effect of weld geometry and residual stresses on the fatigue of

welded joints under combined loading
T. Ninh Nguyen *, M.A. Wahab
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The Uni6ersity of Adelaide, Adelaide SA 5005, Australia
Abstract
A mathematical model is developed to predict the overall effect of the inuencing weld geometry parameters such as (e.g. weld
toe radius, weld toe undercut, ank angle, plate thickness, misalignment) and residual stresses on the fatigue strength and fatigue
life of butt-welded joints subjected to combined loading (tensile and bending). The concepts of linear elastic fracture mechanics
(LEFM), nite element analysis (FEA), dimensional analysis technique (DAT) and superposition approaches have been used for
the modelling. It has been found that the co-inuence effect of weld toe-undercut with other butt-weld geometry parameters is
very signicant. The reduction of fatigue life and fatigue strength, in comparison to that of ush-ground welded plate, caused by
the introduction of a weld toe undercut is twice that for a welded joint without an undercut. The combined loading condition
resulting from misalignment can signicantly reduce the fatigue life and fatigue strength of butt joints by 1060% subject to
misalignment levels of 550% (ratio of axial eccentricity to plate thickness of 0.050.5), respectively. The effects of both
compressive and tensile residual stresses are incorporated successful in the model. The mathematical model is satisfactorily veried
by experimental data. 1998 Published by Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Combined loading; Fatigue strength; Residual stresses; Welded joints
1. Introduction
Most of the steel structures in engineering practice
today are fabricated by welding. These welded struc-
tures are often subjected to dynamic service loads rang-
ing from cyclic uctuations to completely random
loads. Welded structures such as pipelines, cranes,
ships, ground vehicles, aircraft, bridges, offshore struc-
tures and pressure vessels are nearly always affected by
fatigue loading. The fatigue behaviour of these welded
structures is complicated by many factors intrinsic to
the nature of welded joints. Normally crack-like defects
such as slag inclusions, gas pores, lack of penetration at
the weld root or undercutting at weld toes may be
introduced in welded joints. Stress concentrations usu-
ally arise at locations of crack-like defects and at weld
toes, due to unpredictable variations in the weld geome-
try prole. Locked-in residual stresses, which arise in
the welded joints as a consequence of incompatible
thermal strains during welding process, also affect the
fatigue behaviour of welds. In particular, tensile resid-
ual stress of yield magnitude may exist in as-welded
structures and may cause detrimental effects to the
fatigue behaviour of welded structures [1].
Considerable research on the fatigue of welded joints
has been carried out and reported in the literature.
However, there is no complete study available that
considers that combined and interacting effects of all of
the important parameters on the fatigue of welded
joints. Therefore, this study aims to develop a mathe-
matical model to predict the fatigue behaviour of butt-
welded joints subjected to the interacting effects of
various weld geometry parameters, residual stresses and
combined loading (axial and bending).
2. Theoretical analysis
2.1. Linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM)
Using Fracture Mechanics, the rate of fatigue crack
growth under cyclic loading can be expressed in terms
of the range of stress intensity factor (DK) through the
Paris-Erdogen power law [2], as follows: * Corresponding author.
0924-0136/98/$19.00 1998 Published by Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
PII S0924-0136(97)00418-4
T.N. Nguyen, M.A. Wahab / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 77 (1998) 201208 202
Fig. 1. Surface crack model for a transverse butt joint.
Fig. 2. A classication of undercuts at the weld toe of butt welded joints.
da/dN
p
=C (DK)
m
(1)
The stress intensity factor of mode-I loading has the
following form:
K
I
=Y
a
S
A
ya (2)
Eq. (2) can be rewritten in the following form to allow
for the effect of weld geometry and residual stress in the
combined loading mode (effect of R
ba
), as follows:
K
I,eff
=Y
o,a
M
k,eff
S
A
ya (3)
where
M
k,eff
=

M
k,a
+
Y
o,b
Y
o,a
M
k,b
R
ba
+M
k,r

S
r
S
A
n
If the range of the stress intensity factor of a cracked
body is known, the fatigue crack propagation life N
p
can be calculated by integrating Eq. (1) between the
initial crack length a
i
and the nal crack length at
failure a
f
. In this study, the range of stress intensity
factors is replaced by the range of effective stress inten-
sity factors (DK
eff
) to allow for the effect of the weld
geometry and the residual stresses in the combined
loading mode.
A semi-elliptical surface crack with an initial aspect
ratio a/c=0.2 (Fig. 1) is assumed to be located at a
weld toe with a weld defect of 0.1 mm (a
i
=0.1 mm).
Then the total fatigue life of the welded plate can be
considered as the number of cycles needed for this
already-initiated semi-elliptical surface crack to propa-
gate through the thickness of the welded plate. The
material constants of Paris equation are m=3, C=
310
13
mm cycle
1
as recommended by BS PD 6493
[3]. The failure criteria is chosen for the instant when
the effective range of stress-intensity factor has ex-
ceeded the fracture toughness of the material (DK
eff
\
K
IC
) or the depth of the semi-elliptical surface crack in
the through-thickness direction reaches a half of the
plate thickness (a
f
=0.5 t) (whichever occurs earlier).
More details about the numerical procedures used in
this study can be found elsewhere [4,5].
2.2. Undercut and misalignment
Undercut is considered as a defect and is described
by Jubb [6] as an irregular groove caused by the
welding process, situated along the toe of a weld in the
parent metal or in the weld metal already deposited
during a previous run. According to Jubb, undercut
may be divided into three types as follows: (1) wide and
curved; (2) narrow and very narrow (crack-like); and
(3) shallow and narrow (micro-aws with depth of up
to about 0.25 mm) (Fig. 2).
The type 1 undercut is the most common form of
undercut occurring during the automatic welding of
long single run llet welds in the horizontal-vertical
position with a large heat input [6]. This type of under-
cut can be found in manual metal arc welding due to
T.N. Nguyen, M.A. Wahab / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 77 (1998) 201208 203
Fig. 3. Typical misalignments in a butt welded joint.
careless electrode control. As a result, a lack of suf-
cient weld metal deposit occurs at the weld toe. When
the groove at the weld toe is almost lled by the
solidifying weld metal, the type 2 undercut occurs. The
type 3 undercut 3 is considered to be present at the toe
of the majority of welds irrespective of the presence of
a type 1 undercut. This type of undercut is thought to
be caused by metallurgical debris at the weld toe com-
bined with the HAZ in the parent metal adjacent to the
toe [7]. In this study, type 1 undercut is chosen for the
modelling as it is the most common form of undercut in
welded joints: therefore, types 2 and 3 will not be
discussed further.
A study on the effect of misalignment of a butt joint
in the residual stress-free condition has been carried out
by Maddox [8]. In this study, he pointed out that the
misalignment of the butt joint can be classied into two
types: eccentricity and angular distortion, as illustrated
for the butt joint in Fig. 3. The forces transmitted by
the misalignment butt joints in axial loading can be
split up into an axial and a bending component, as
follows:
S=S
A
+S
B
=S
A
(1+R
ba
) (4)
This equation can be rewritten in the form of a stress
concentration factor (K
t
) for axial misalignment and for
angular misalignment [9], respectively, as follows:
K
t
=1+u(e/t)(l /L) (5)
K
t
=1+0.25uh(l /L) (6)
The equations for K
t
of angularly-misaligned joints
can also be expressed in terms of roof-toping distance
(y) (Fig. 3), as follows [10].
K
t
=1+u(y/t) (7)
where u is a constant subject to boundary conditions
(u=3 for xed ends and u=6 for pinned ends).
Using Eqs. (4) (7), the effects of various types and
levels of misalignment can be related to the induced
bending stress and nominal axial stress that are used for
the assessment of the fatigue of welded joints.
2.3. Dimensional -analysis technique
The technique of dimensional analysis are used for
the analysis of this physical system, which has a large
number of variables. The theoretical concept of dimen-
sional analysis is reported elsewhere [11]. The fatigue
strength of butt-welded joints subjected to residual
stresses and combined loading conditions, S in Eq. (8)
below, is considered as a dependent variable. The fa-
tigue strength of the parental material S
o
, is considered
as a reference limit for the fatigue strength of the
butt-welded joints in the perfectly stress-relieved and
pure axial-loading condition (S
r
=0 and R
ba
=0). The
value of S
o
is assumed to be equal to the fatigue
strength of a ush-ground welded plate subjected to the
same residual stress and loading condition [1]. The
independent variables in Eq. (8) are divided into three
main groups: weld geometry parameters; residual
stresses; and a combined-loading parameter (character-
ised by R
ba
). A single-V butt-welded joint is chosen for
this fatigue study and a set of complete dimensionless
products was obtained using the dimensional analysis
technique. The details of this analysis are reported
elsewhere [12,13].
According to the Buckingham Pi-Theorem [11] the
dimensionless products can be arranged in the follow-
ing form:
S/S
o
=f(r%/r, r/t, q, , t/b, S
r
/S
y
, R
ba
, N) (8)
Fig. 4. Test specimens designed for fatigue test under a load-con-
trolled program.
T.N. Nguyen, M.A. Wahab / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 77 (1998) 201208 204
Table 1
Specimen geometry and treatment during specimen fabrication and fatigue testing
r% ( mm) Set No. r (mm) q (degree) (degree) t (mm) 2b (mm) R No. of speci- Description
mens
0 12 20 0.1 12 Flat unwelded plate 0 0
As weld 11 60 12 As weld 20 7 0.1 12 Low prole (SAW)
As weld 16 60 12 5a 20 As weld 0.1 12 Medium prole (SAW)
As weld 25 60 12 As weld 20 6a 0.1 12 High prole (SAW)
10 4 28 0 60 12 20 0.1 12 High prole with ground weld
toes (SAW)
Fig. 5. Effect of tip radius of the weld toe undercut (r%) on the SN curve (e/t =0 or R
ba
=0)
As the effect of the edge preparation angle () is
found to be insignicant compared with that of other
weld geometry parameters [1,12,13], it can be dropped
from Eq. (8).
In order to quantify the combined effect of all the
geometrical and process parameters on the fatigue be-
haviour of butt-welded joint, a mathematical model for
the SN curve is proposed on the basis of the fatigue
design rule BS: 5400 [1,3], as follows:
S
m
N=A (9)
where:
m/m
o
=f
m
(r%/r, r/t, q, t/b, S
r
/S
y
, R
ba
);
A/A
o
=f
A
(r%/r, r/t, q, t/b, S
r
/S
y
, R
ba
); and m
o
=3
and A
o
=f(t/b)
By using dimensional analysis and transformation func-
tions [1113] the expressions for m and A can be
rewritten as follows:
m/m
o
=k
m
f
m
(r%/r) f
m
(r/t) f
m
(q) f
m
(t/b)
f
m
(S
r
/S
y
) f
m
(R
ba
) (10)
A/A
o
=k
A
f
A
(r%/r) f
A
(r/t) f
A
(q) f
A
(t/b)
f
A
(S
r
/S
y
) f
A
(R
ba
) (11)
Once Eqs. (10) and (11) are determined, the combined
effect of all of the relevant parameters on the fatigue
behaviour of butt joints can be evaluated.
3. Experiments
The reliability of this prediction model incorporating
the effect of weld-geometry parameters, residual stresses
and effect of the combined-loading mode can be ver-
ied adequately using the large amount of published
experimental data available in the literature [1,7
9,14,15]. However, an additional fatigue-testing pro-
gram is designed to cover a particular range of weld
geometries and residual stresses to obtain specic fa-
tigue data for the verication of this model.
3.1. Specimens fabrication
All of the weld specimens were fabricated from
ASTM A36 structural steel due to its wide application
in welded structures. Small-scale specimens were de-
signed for constant load amplitude fatigue tests accord-
ing to ASTM Standard E466-82 (Fig. 4). The specimens
were cut and machined from welded plates and were
treated according to the experimental design specica-
tions (Table 1). Welded plates were fabricated from 12
mm thick plate using Submerged Arc Welding and
keeping the direction of the transverse butt welds per-
pendicular to the rolled direction of the parent material.
All welded plates were X-rayed to detect possible weld
defects, only defect-free welds being taken from speci-
men fabrication.
3.2. Experimental procedure
A dynamic servo-hydraulic universal MTS-testing
system was used for both the static and the fatigue
T.N. Nguyen, M.A. Wahab / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 77 (1998) 201208 205
Fig. 6. Effect of residual stresses on the fatigue of butt joints.
testing program. This system is able to record all of the
dynamic test results (load, displacement, strains, fre-
quency, number of fatigue cycles, etc.) digitally and
store them in a computer hard disk for later assess-
ment. From each of test specimens, two tensile tests
were conducted to obtain the static properties of that
set. The remaining specimens were used for fatigue tests
at several constant loading levels at frequencies from
1220 Hz and at the stress ratio R=0.1.
For each load level strain, gauges were bonded at the
toes of the welded specimens to detect the bending
stress at the beginning of the fatigue test due to mis-
alignment and also to detect the crack initiation life.
The strain gauges at each side of the weld toe were
connected to Wheatstone bridges. The analogue out-
puts of the bridges were connected to the channels of
the MTS-testing system through a dynamic strain-
gauges amplier. The calibration of strain gaugers was
carried out by running a calibration program for the
rst-loading cycle. All of the fatigue were run by Test-
Star Software with a program written for each loading
level.
4. Results and discussion
Fig. 5 shows the effect of the tip radius of the
undercut at the weld toe (r%) and the SN curve of an
aligned joint. The SN curve tends to move from the
left to the right side as the value of (r%) decreases (other
parameters are kept constant: r=1, q=30, =60,
t =12 mm, R
ba
=0 and S
r
=0), which means that the
fatigue strength and fatigue life of butt-welded joints
can be improved by either partly or totally eliminating
the weld toe undercut. The fatigue strength at 210
6
cycles is increased by 12% as the tip radius of undercut
is decreased from 0.35 to 0.05 mm. However, the
fatigue limit of welded joint with an undercut is de-
creased by 58.3% (from 120 to 50 MPa) compared to
that of an undercut-free joint and by up to 75% (from
200 to 50 MPa) compared to that of a ush-ground
welded plate or the parent material. In contrast, the
fatigue limit of an undercut-free joint is decreased by
only 40% (from 200 to 120 MPa) compared with that of
a ush-ground welded plate or the parent material,
which means that the reduction of fatigue life and
fatigue strength in comparison to those of a ush-
ground welded plate, caused by the introduction of a
weld toe undercut is twice that due to a welded joint
without an undercut.
This also means that the fatigue limit of an undercut
joint can be improved by up to 140% (from 50 to 120
MPa) and 300% (from 50 to 200 MPa) by eliminating
the undercut at the weld toe and by ush-grinding the
weld bead to the level of the parent plate, respectively.
It is obvious from Fig. 5 that the undercut is a very
signicant geometrical parameter affecting the fatigue
behaviour of a butt joint and this effect of the tip radius
of the undercut is governed by other weld geometry
parameters (q, r, t or ). More details about the effect
of weld geometry on the fatigue behaviour of welded
joints can be found elsewhere [4,13].
In this study, various levels of compressive residual
stress eld introduced by several post-weld surface
treatments such as single or multiple hammer peening
(S
r
=152 and 172 MPa), glass or steel-shot peen-
ing (S
r
=62 and 110 MPa) and stress peening
(loaded and peened) (S
r
=172 MPa) are considered
from available experimental data [15]. Various levels of
tensile residual stress in the as-welded condition are
assumed up to the level of the yield strength of the
parent material (S
r
=300 MPa). In stress-relieved con-
ditions, the residual stresses are assumed to vary from
S
r
=0 and S
r
=14 MPa [16].
Fig. 6 shows the conventional fatigue curves (SN
curves) in terms of the effect of residual stresses in butt
welded joints. It is obvious that the fatigue life is
improved by compressive residual stresses, whilst it
reduced by tensile residual stresses. This conclusion is
consistent with the results reported by many other
authors, as mentioned above [1417]. The effect of a
stress-relieving process (S
r
=14 or 30 MPa) and low
T.N. Nguyen, M.A. Wahab / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 77 (1998) 201208 206
Fig. 7. Effect of combined loading as a result of misalignment on the SN curve (R
ba
=3 e/t).
compressive residual stresses (B62 MPa) produce
results that fall into the same scatter band. Fig. 6 also
shows that there is no signicant difference between the
effect of compressive stresses of magnitude 152 or
172 MPa. Under the inuence of high tensile stresses
(S
r
=150 or 300 MPa), SN curve plotting in loglog
scale will no longer be linear.
Fig. 7 shows that in the presence of an undercut
(r% =0.25 mm) and the perfectly stress-relieving condi-
tion (S
r
=0) the fatigue strength and fatigue life of butt
joints are decreased with increasing levels of misalign-
ment (increasing value of e/t or y). The SN curves of
the misaligned joint moves to the left side of the graph
with increased levels of misalignment. The reduction of
the fatigue limit of the undercut joint ranges from 10 to
60% due to levels of misalignment of from 5 to 50%,
respectively, which also means that the fatigue limits of
the undercut misaligned joint can be improved by 11
and 150% by the elimination of the corresponding
misalignments of 5 and 50%.
Fig. 8(a) shows a comparison between calculated
SN curves and the experimental results. It is obvious
that despite the relatively large scatter of the experi-
mental results obtained, fatigue data predicted by the
numerical model match satisfactorily with the results of
the experiments. However, for the lower levels of stress
range, the SN curves predicted by the model underes-
timate the experimental data. This may due to a por-
tion of the fatigue life due to crack initiation having
been ignored in this study, this portion of fatigue life
being quite signicant at lower levels of loading.
Fig. 8(b) shows the fatigue data represented in terms
of (S K
f
) versus N in loglog scale. The values of (K
f
)
for each set of fatigue data were calculated using Eqs.
(9) (11). It is observed from this gure that the scatter
band of fatigue data is reduced signicantly when the
fatigue data obtained is corrected by the fatigue
strength reduction factor (K
f
). The 95% condence
limits of predicted (S K
f
) versus N curves are also
plotted using an S.D. value specied for SN design
class B in BS 5400 [1].
It is obvious from this gure that the majority of the
experimental fatigue results fall within the 95% con-
dence-limit lines, which means that the numerical
model developed in this study can predict satisfactorily
the fatigue behaviour of butt joints subjected to the
variation of weld geometry and residual stresses in the
combined-loading mode (axial and bending).
5. Conclusions
The analysis of the effect of the weld geometry and
the residual stresses in the combined loading condition
(axial and bending) on the fatigue behaviour of a
butt-welded joint provides the following important con-
clusions. (1) The fatigue life and fatigue strength of butt
welded joints can be improved signicantly by decreas-
ing the tip radius of the undercut at weld toes or
eliminating the weld toe undercut completely. (2) Com-
pressive residual stresses introduced on the surface of
welded joints by various surface-treatment methods
(surface peening or tensile pre-loading) are benecial
for the fatigue life and fatigue strength of butt-welded
joints, whilst welding tensile residual stresses are detri-
mental. Low surface compressive residual stresses (B
62 MPa) gives the same level of improvement of the
fatigue life as that obtained by post-weld thermal stress-
relieving (annealing). (3) The combined-loading condi-
tion resulting from misalignment can signicantly
reduce the fatigue life and fatigue strength of butt
joints, by 10 to 60% due to misalignment levels of 5 to
50% (e/t from 0.05 to 0.5), respectively. (4) The mathe-
matical model developed in this study can be used to
predict satisfactorily the overall effect of butt-weld ge-
ometry parameters and residual stresses in combined-
loading conditions.
Using the model equations developed in this study,
the fatigue strength reduction factor (K
f
) can be ob-
tained easily and all of the test results subject to various
residual stresses, weld geometry and loading conditions
T.N. Nguyen, M.A. Wahab / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 77 (1998) 201208 207
Fig. 8. A comparison between calculated SN curves and experimental results: (a) conventional representation of fatigue data in terms of SN
curves; and (b) representation of the fatigue data incorporating the values of (K
f
).
can be scaled into one set of data by plotting (S K
f
)
versus N. As a result, the scatter band of fatigue data
can be reduced signicantly. This study suggests a new
initiative for the establishment of a new standard proce-
dure for the evaluation of the fatigue test.
Appendix A. Nomenclature
r radius of weld toe of butt-welded joint
r% tip radius of weld toe undercut
weld ank angle q
plate edge preparation angle
plate thickness t
crack length (edge crack); also half-length a
of minor elliptical surface crack
half-width of cracked plate b
c half-length of minor elliptical surface
crack
h half-length of cracked plate
parametric angle of the ellipse
o
a constant expressing the effect of mis- u
alignment on the stress concentration fac-
tor subject to boundary conditions (u=3
for xed ends and u=6 for pinned ends)
(Eqs. (5) (7))
e axial eccentricity due to misalignment
a half length of welded plate l
length of welded plate L
distortion angle due to angular misalign- h
ment (in radians)
a
i
crack initiation length
nal crack length a
f
number of fatigue cycles N
fatigue crack propagation life N
p
material constants in Paris equation C, m
fracture toughness of the material K
IC
stress intensity factor in mode-I loading K
I
K
I,eff
effective stress intensity factor in mode-I
loading
DK range of stress intensity factor
range of effective stress intensity factor DK
eff
stress intensity geometry-conguration Y
a
correction factor in the axial loading
mode for welds
stress intensity geometry-conguration Y
o,a
correction factor in the axial loading (at
plate)
stress intensity geometry-conguration Y
o,b
correction factor in the bending loading
(at plate)
stress intensity magnication factor pro- M
k,r
duced by weld prole geometry and resid-
ual stress
T.N. Nguyen, M.A. Wahab / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 77 (1998) 201208 208
stress intensity magnication factor pro- M
k,a
duced by weld prole geometry in axial
loading
stress intensity magnication factor pro- M
k,b
duced by weld prole geometry in bend-
ing loading
effective stress intensity magnication fac- M
k,eff
tor produced by weld prole geometry
and residual stresses in the combined
loading mode (axial and bending)
axial nominal stress range S
A
bending nominal stress range S
B
yield strength of the parent material S
y
ratio between the bending and axial nom- R
ba
inal stress range (R
ba
=S
B
/S
A
)
maximum residual stress at the weld toe S
r
surface
fatigue strength of a butt-welded joint S
subjected to residual stresses and com-
bined loading
fatigue strength of the parent material or S
o
ush-ground welded plate subjected to
perfectly stress-relieved and pure axial
loading (S
r
=0 and R
ba
=0)
stress concentration factor at the weld toe K
t
K
f
fatigue strength reduction factor or fa-
tigue notch factor (K
f
=S
o
/S)
a constants related to the weld geometry, A, m
residual stresses and loading condition
(Eq. (9))
k
A
, k
m
proportional constants related to A and
m respectively
f
m
() transformation functions for m
transformation functions for A f
A
()
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