Journal of Theoretical Biology 234 (2005) 471478

Aerodynamic yawing moment characteristics of bird wings

Gottfried Sachs

Institute of Flight Mechanics and Flight Control, Technische Universitat Munchen, Boltzmannstr. 15, 85748 Garching, Germany
Received 2 September 2004; received in revised form 1 December 2004; accepted 6 December 2004
Abstract
The aerodynamic yawing moments due to sideslip are considered for wings of birds. Reference is made to the experience with
aircraft wings in order to identify features which are signicant for the yawing moment characteristics. Thus, it can be shown that
wing sweep, aspect ratio and lift coefcient have a great impact. Focus of the paper is on wing sweep which can considerably
increase the yawing moment due to sideslip when compared with unswept wings. There are many birds the wings of which employ
sweep. To show the effect of sweep for birds, the aerodynamic characteristics of a gull wing which is considered as a representative
example are treated in detail. For this purpose, a sophisticated aerodynamic method is used to compute results of high precision.
The yawing moments of the gull wing with respect to the sideslip angle and the lift coefcient are determined. They show a
signicant level of yaw stability which strongly increases with the lift coefcient. It is particularly high in the lift coefcient region of
best gliding ight conditions. In order to make the effect of sweep more perspicuous, a modication of the gull wing employing no
sweep is considered for comparison. It turns out that the unswept wing yields yawing moments which are substantially smaller than
those of the original gull wing with sweep. Another feature signicant for the yawing moment characteristics concerns the fact that
sweep is at the outer part of bird wings. By considering the underlying physical mechanism, it is shown that this feature is most
important for the efciency of wing sweep. To sum up, wing sweep provides a primary contribution to the yawing moments. It may
be concluded that this is an essential reason why there is sweep in bird wings.
r 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Keywords: Yawing moments; Bird wings; Wing sweep; Yaw stability
1. Introduction
The aerodynamic moment characteristics in yaw are
essential for the stability properties with respect to this
axis and, thus, for the ability of ight. For inherent
static stability, the yawing moment must be such as to
tend to restore the bird to symmetric ight when a
sideslip disturbance occurs. Otherwise, the aerodynamic
yawing moment would act in a direction to increase the
sideslip excursion, thus leading to instability.
The stability of ight in birds and the underlying
aerodynamic moment relationships are subject of recent
investigations (Taylor and Thomas, 2002; Thomas and
Taylor, 2001; Krus 1997). Emphasis is placed on the
longitudinal motion, providing detailed information
about the aerodynamic moment and stability properties
in the pitch axis. With respect to the yaw axis,
aerodynamic moment and related stability characteris-
tics is treated only in qualitative terms. In regard to the
tail, an aerodynamic yawing moment can be generated
by twisting (Hummel, 1991, 1992). Other relevant
papers and contributions concerned with yawing mo-
ment or related stability properties present treatments
also on a qualitative basis only (e.g. Norberg, 1990;
Nachtigall, 1985; Pennycuick, 1975; Herzog, 1968;
Brown, 1963).
Generally, quantitative and detailed knowledge is
lacking on the aerodynamic yawing moment character-
istics in birds. In particular, the yawing moment
characteristics of the wing and its role for stability need
clarication.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
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0022-5193/$ - see front matter r 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2004.12.001

Tel.: +49 89 289 16061; fax: +49 89 289 16058.

E-mail address: sachs@lfm.mw.tum.de (G. Sachs).
It is the purpose of this paper to present a detailed
treatment on the aerodynamic yawing moments of
wings due to sideslip. Especially, it will be shown which
features in the wings of birds are favourable for
generating yawing moments. With these results, the
signicance of the wing for yaw stability is substan-
tiated.
2. Required aerodynamic yawing moment for sufcient
stability level
There is a necessity for appropriate aerodynamic
moment characteristics in yaw in order to ensure
stability of ight. This means in case of inherent stability
that when the bird is disturbed from symmetric ight by
a sideslip angle b; the aerodynamic yawing moment N
produced must be such as to tend to restore it to the
reference condition b 0; Fig. 1. For a positive sideslip
angle disturbance b40 as shown in Fig. 1, a positive
aerodynamic yawing moment N40 is required for
stability, yielding
N
@N
@b
b40. (1)
From this expression it follows that there is stability if
the change in the aerodynamic yawing moment with the
sideslip angle is positive. As a result, there is stability
provided the following relation holds for the yawing
moment derivative
@N
@b
40. (2)
For expanding Eq. (2), the non-dimensional yawing
moment coefcient C
n
implicitly given by
N C
n
p=2V
2
Ss (3)
is introduced, where r is the density of the air, V the
speed, S the reference area (related to the complete
wing) and s the half wing span. Using the yawing
moment coefcient C
n
, the criterion for yaw stability can
expressed as (with the notation C
nb
@C
n
=@b)
C
nb
40. (4)
The aerodynamic yawing moment derivative C
nb
is a
metric for static stability, i.e. it indicates stability or
instability depending on its sign. However, it does
not provide a quantitative rating basis which can be
used to judge whether a sufcient level of stability
in terms of an adequately fast restoring capability
is provided. This holds even if a numerical value is
assigned to C
nb
:
A quantitative stability metric based on the rotary
dynamics in the yaw axis can be derived, yielding a
measure of the restoring action to offset the sideslip
disturbance and to return to the symmetric ight
condition (Sachs, 2005). This stability metric can be
termed dynamic yaw stiffness. With the dynamic yaw
stiffness, it is possible to determine the required
aerodynamic yawing moment due to sideslip for
achieving a sufcient stability level. Results are pre-
sented in Fig. 2 which shows a conservative estimate for
the required aerodynamic yawing moment in terms of a
necessary minimum value denoted by C
nb

min
:
There are two most important topics:
(1) Bird size: The size of the bird has a substantial
impact on the required aerodynamic yawing moment
C
nb

min
: The C
nb

min
values progressively decrease
with a reduction in the size of birds, expressed
by their mass m in Fig. 2. As a consequence,
the demand for stabilizing aerodynamic yawing
moments is higher for larger birds than for smaller
ones.
(2) Lift coefcient: There is an inuence of the lift
coefcient which is given by
C
L

L
r=2V
2
S
(5)
(with L denoting the lift). From the results presented
in Fig. 2 it follows that the required C
nb

min
values
increase with C
L
, according to a linear relationship.
Thus, the demand for stabilizing aerodynamic
yawing moments is the higher the larger the lift
coefcient is.
Having established a quantitative rating basis with
C
nb

min
for the required aerodynamic yawing moments,
a central issue is how these moments are generated in
birds. In aircraft, the main contribution for yaw stability
is provided by the vertical tail. Since birds do not have a
vertical tail, the wing gains an increased importance as a
means for producing a stabilizing yawing moment. The
ARTICLE IN PRESS
N

V
Fig. 1. Yawing moment due to sideslip. The case shown (positive
sideslip angle b40) represents a conguration with positive static
stability in yaw. This means that the yawing moment N generated by
the slideslip angle b acts in a direction to restore symmetric ight with
b 0:
G. Sachs / Journal of Theoretical Biology 234 (2005) 471478 472
question is whether the wing can generate yawing
moments large enough in order to ensure a sufcient
stability level in birds.
3. Basic yawing moment characteristics of wings
With the non-dimensional stability derivative C
nb
introduced in the preceding section, an aerodynamic
quantity is available which is only dependent on the
form of the wing, but not on its size (i.e. not on the area
S and half wing span s) and not on the ight condition
(i.e. not on the speed V and air density r or altitude,
respectively). Therefore, wings of the same form, but of
different size can be compared and worked with. This
means that yawing characteristics of the wings of
aircraft can be used to describe fundamental relation-
ships of those in birds. Consequently, the great
experience which is available in aeronautics with wing
forms of aircraft can be used to gain a detailed insight
into the characteristics of yawing moments due to
sideslip. Thus, it is possible to identify wing features
which are signicant for generating yawing moments
and others which are not.
Results on wing forms of aircraft are presented in
Figs. 3 and 4. There are several wing features of
signicance for yawing moments, including:
(1) Rectangular or straight wing form (Fig. 3): Gen-
erally, a rectangular or straight wing produces a
yawing moment due to sideslip. This moment which
may be comparatively small provides a positive
contribution to yaw stability because of C
nb
40: The
yawing moment characteristics can be described by
(according to Weissinger, 1943)
C
nb

k
A
0:168
A
A 2
0:1

aC
L
, (6)
where A is the aspect ratio
A b
2
=S, (7)
b the wing span, a the angle of attack and k an
empirical factor (with k between 1 and 1.2).
(2) Wing sweep (Fig. 3): Wing sweep has a great impact
on the yawing moment characteristics. It can lead to
C
nb
values which are considerably larger than those
of straight wings. As a result, wing sweep signi-
cantly enhances the stability in the yaw axis. The
ARTICLE IN PRESS
(
C
n

)
m
i
n

4 10 0
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.010
2 6 8
0.008
Mass m [kg]
C
L
= 1.5
1.0
0.5
Fig. 2. Estimated aerodynamic yawing moment derivative required for
sufcient stability level. The curve represents minimum values which
ensure a fast restoring yaw response following a slideslip disturbance
(according to Sachs, 2005). Data used for estimation: minimum yaw
acceleration: 1.0 rad/s
2
; scaling ratio of half wing span and mass:
s 0.5825 m
0.394
, according to Rayner (1998); radius of gyration:
i
z
=s
2
0:05:
2 4 0 6
0.4
0.2
8 10 12
0

0.6
0.8
Rectangular Wing
Swept Wing
(Sweep Angle: 45 deg)
Theory (from Schlichting &Truckenbrodt 2001 and Gronau 1956)
Approximate formulas Eqs.(6) and (8) with =1
Experimental data (from Bumann & Kopfermann1944)
Experimental data (from Gronau 1956)
Experimental data (from Hummel 1992)
C
n

/
C
L 2

Fig. 3. Yawing moment due to slideslip for wings.

G. Sachs / Journal of Theoretical Biology 234 (2005) 471478 473
effect of wing sweep on the yawing moment is given
by (according to Weissinger, 1943)
C
nb

sweep
tan j
0:5
cos j

1
A 4
1
1
cos j
2A
A 2

aC
L
,
8
where j is the sweep angle.
(3) Aspect ratio (Fig. 3): The aspect ratio A also exerts
an effect. Generally, a decrease of A yields an
increase of C
nb
: This holds for straight as well as for
swept wings. Fig. 3 shows that there is only a little
effect for large A values, but a pronounced one for
small A.
(4) Lift coefcient (Fig. 3): There is a signicant
inuence of the lift coefcient. An increase of C
L
results in an increase of C
nb
; basically on a quadratic
basis. This applies to straight and swept wings.
(5) Additional effect (Fig. 4): There can be an additional
effect producing a yawing moment. Results are
depicted in Fig. 4 which presents theoretical and
experimental data. Comparison of the data which
show deviations approximately independent of C
L
suggests that these may be due to different prole
drag characteristics with respect to the wings used in
the theoretical and experimental investigations.
From a comparison of Figs. 3 and 4 with Fig. 2 it
follows that wings generate stabilizing yawing moments
which can signicantly exceed the required value given
by C
nb

min
. This even holds for rectangular wings the
yawing moments of which are comparatively small. For
wings employing sweep, the surplus over C
nb

min
is
considerably increased. It is particularly large at high lift
coefcients because C
nb
grows more rapidly with C
L
than C
nb

min
which shows merely a linear dependence.
The surplus increases also signicantly with a reduction
in the size of the birds. To sum up, the yawing moments
of wings can provide a sufcient level of stability for
small ying objects like birds.
All wing features described above are of concern for
birds. An important aspect relates to wing sweep whichas
shown in Fig. 3yields a considerable increase of the
yawing moment when compared with straight wings. This
feature is of great interest for birds because many of them
employ wing sweep. Some examples are presented in Fig. 5.
As may be seen, the sweep angle of the wing quarter chord
which is relevant for the aerodynamic efciency can reach
considerable values. Focus in the following treatment is
therefore on wing forms with sweep. Characteristically, the
sweep is at the outer part of the wing. It will be shown in a
subsequent section that this is a most efcient feature for
generating a yawing moment when a sideslip angle occurs.
4. Aerodynamic yawing moment characteristics of a bird
wing
As a representative example for bird wings with
sweep at the outer part, the wing of a gull (Fig. 6)
ARTICLE IN PRESS
Fig. 5. Wing forms of birds with sweep at outer part. Sweep angle j of
quarter chord at outer wing part: frigatebird: j 201; gull: j 201;
peregrine falcon: j 251; swift: j 401:
Theory (from Gronau 1956)
Measurement (from Bumann & Kopfermann 1944)
0.10
0.06
0
0
C
L
C
n

0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 -0.2

0.02
0.04
Fig. 4. Comparison of theoretical results without zero-lift drag effect
and experimental data (rectangular wing, A 5:2).
G. Sachs / Journal of Theoretical Biology 234 (2005) 471478 474
was selected and its yawing moment characteristics
have been determined in detail. A modern and efcient
aerodynamic method was applied to compute the
forces and moments with high numerical precision.
For this purpose, the FLM-Eu Code was used which
is a computer program developed at the Institute
of Fluid Mechanics of the Technische Universita t
Mu nchen (Cvrlje, et al., 2000; Jiang et al., 2003).
The FLM-Eu Code is a program for modelling
uid ow around complex geometries. It provides
comprehensive modelling capabilities for a wide
range of steady and unsteady ows of inviscid,
rotational and compressible nature and for complex
two and three dimensional forms. The calculations
are based on a nite-volume approximation to the
integral form of the unsteady Euler equations. The
FLM-Eu Code uses body tted structured meshes
that are quadrilateral elements in two dimensions and
hexahedral ones in three dimensions. They may be
generated by single- or multi-block structured grid
systems.
For determining the pressure distribution and conse-
quently the forces and moments, the wing geometry is
modelled with regard to its plan form and prole, and
the surface is divided into a large number of grid
elements, as illustrated in Fig. 6. The wing prole is
assumed to be constant along the wing span.
Results from the aerodynamic modelling and calcula-
tion are presented in Fig. 7. The relationship between
the yawing moment and the sideslip angle is depicted
for several angles of attack. There is an increase
of C
n
with b; showing a nearly linear behaviour.
Furthermore, C
n
also increases with a on which the
lift coefcient C
L
is dependant. The lift coefcient
which has a signicant inuence on the yawing moment
is also shown in Fig. 7. There is a slight decrease of C
L
with b:
An evaluation of the discussed force and moment
characteristics yields the yawing moment derivative C
nb
;
which is a metric for static stability as outlined above.
This derivative is presented in Fig. 8. There is an
increase of C
nb
with C
L
, showing basically a quadratic
relationship. From a comparison with Fig. 2 it follows
that C
nb
of the gull wing considerably exceeds the
required minimum given by C
nb

min
: This holds for the
whole lift coefcient range, and it is particularly
pronounced at high C
L
values because of the progressive
increase of C
nb
:
It may be of interest to note that the C
L
range
signicant for large C
nb
values begins at about
C
L
0:8 beyond which the progressive increase of C
nb
takes place. This C
L
range is of primary importance
for gliding ight. It concerns conditions at minimum
glide angle or minimum sink rate, corresponding to
ights at maximum lift-to-drag ratio C
L
/C
D
or at
the maximum of the ratio C
L
3/2
/C
D
, respectively
(Bru ning, et al., 1993). For such ight conditions, lift
coefcients at C
L
0:8 and above are reported
(Norberg, 1990). In circling ight, the lift coefcients
are also high. There are observations showing circling
lift coefcients with mean values of 1.33 to 1.45
(Pennycuick, 1983).
ARTICLE IN PRESS
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0
x/c
z
/
c
(C)
(B)
(A)
Fig. 6. Modelling of gull wing (gull from Fig. 5, according to Herzog,
1968). Wing data: S 0:206 m
2
; s 0:78 m; A 11:81: (A) wing plan
form (including body area projection between two wing halfs); (B)
detail of wing grid distribution; (C) wing prole (c: local chord, x:
horizontal coordinate, z: vertical coordinate).
deg
C
n
0
0 5 10
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.010 8 deg
4 deg
0
0
1.0
1.5
0.5
C
L
= 12 deg
Yawing moment coefficient C
n
Lift coefficient C
L
Fig. 7. Yawing moment and lift characteristics of gull wing. Wing
data: S 0:206 m
2
; s 0:78 m; A 11:81; from Herzog, 1968.
G. Sachs / Journal of Theoretical Biology 234 (2005) 471478 475
5. Signicance of wing sweep for the yawing moment
characteristics of birds
From the above results it follows that a main effect
yielding an increase of the aerodynamic yawing moment
is due to the sweep of the wing. In order to make the
addressed effect more perspicuous, a modication of the
wing was considered. For this purpose, the sweep angle
at the outer part of the wing was reduced to zero,
yielding the unswept conguration depicted in Fig. 9.
The unswept conguration relates to the quarter chord
of the wing as the aerodynamically relevant reference for
sweep. For an isolated treatment of the wing sweep
effect, the aspect ratio A was kept constant.
Results on the modied wing conguration without
sweep are presented in Fig. 10 which shows the yawing
moment derivative C
nb
: As a main result, C
nb
of the
unswept conguration is substantially decreased when
compared to the values of the original wing with sweep.
The difference increases with the lift coefcient. It is
especially large in the higher lift coefcient range which
is of particular interest for gliding ight. This character-
istic emphasizes the importance of wing sweep for the
yawing moment characteristics.
There is a further point concerning the importance
of the sweep in the original wing. It relates to the fact
that the modied wing even shows negative C
nb
values
(Fig. 10). This means that it would produce instability.
The reason for the negative C
nb
values is that the inner
part of the wing employs sweep in forward direction,
yielding a sign change of C
nb
: This result further
emphasizes the importance of the sweep as existing in
the original wing.
The above investigation shows as a main result that
wing sweep (in terms of sweep back) is most efcient for
generating favourable yawing moments and, thus, can
be rated as of great signicance for achieving yaw
stability.
6. Physical mechanism and efciency enhancement of
wing sweep
A physical insight into the effect of wing sweep can be
gained when considering the mechanism underlying the
yawing moment due to sideslip. In general, the yawing
moment is produced by the aerodynamic drag change
which is primarily caused by the asymmetrical induced-
drag distribution associated with the asymmetrical lift
ARTICLE IN PRESS
C
n

0
C
L
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
1 2
Fig. 8. Yawing moment due to slideslip for gull wing. wing data:
S 0:206 m
2
; s 0:78 m; A 11:81; from Herzog, 1968.
Fig. 9. Modication of gull wing to a form without sweep at outer
part (with same area and span as original wing).
C
n

0
0.02
0.04
-0.04
-0.02
C
L
0 1 2
Fig. 10. Yawing moment due to sideslip for modied gull wing
without sweep at outer part (corresponding to wing shown in Fig. 9).
G. Sachs / Journal of Theoretical Biology 234 (2005) 471478 476
distribution due to the sideslip angle. This is schemati-
cally illustrated in Fig. 11 which shows the drag changes
of the wing. For a positive sideslip angle, there is an
increase in the drag at the right half of the wing (denoted
by DD
r
and acting in a rearward direction) while the left
wing half shows a drag decrease corresponding to a
negative change (denoted by DD
l
and acting in a
forward direction). The two drag changes, DD
r
and
DD
l
; generate yawing moments acting in the same
direction. Thus, they yield a resultant yawing moment as
the sum of both contributions
N DD
r
l
r
DD
l
l
l
, (9)
where l
r
and l
l
are the respective lever arms (Fig. 11).
The effect of wing sweep manifests in the fact that the
drag changes are increased when compared with an
unswept wing.
There is a further point which is important. It
concerns the enhancement of the efciency of wing
sweep for producing yawing moments. This relates to
the wing region that employs sweep. Fig. 5 shows that
the sweep is at the outer part of the wing. Sweep at this
region of the wing is most efcient for generating yawing
moments. The underlying physical mechanism is de-
scribed in the following.
The yawing moment is the product of the drag
changes DD
r
; DD
l
; and the related lever arms l
r
, l
l
,
Eq. (9). For given drag changes DD
r
and DD
l
; the
yawing moment is the larger the larger the lever arms
are. At the outer part of the wing, the drag change has a
larger lever arm than a drag change has at the inner
part. Using sweep at the wing means to increase the drag
change due to sideslip. With sweep at the outer wing
part, the increase in the drag change is combined with
the larger lever arm. As a result, sweep at the outer part
of the wing is most efcient for generating yawing
moments.
7. Concluding remarks
In a preceding section, wing features concerning
yawing moment characteristics are considered and three
are identied as having a signicant impact. They are
the aspect ratio, the lift coefcient and the sweep of the
wing. Of these, the aspect ratio and the lift coefcient
are strongly related to performance or size issues
(Norberg, 1990). Thus, they may be regarded as
determined by corresponding relationships. For realistic
values of the aspect ratio and the lift coefcient, a
signicant increase of the yawing moment can only be
achieved with sweep. Wing sweep is a feature which can
be considered as free to be selected for increasing the
yawing moment, introducing little or no performance
penalty. Therefore, it is well suited as a factor for
improving static stability in yaw. To sum up, it may be
concluded that this is an essential reason why there is
sweep in bird wings.
Acknowledgements
The author gratefully acknowledges the support of
M.Sc. M.A. Moelyadi of the Institute of Fluid
Mechanics of the Technische Universita t Mu nchen for
performing the computations with the FLM-Eu Code.
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V
D
l
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Fig. 11. Yawing moment caused by drag changes due to slideslip (left
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l
o0; right wing: DD
r
40), with related lever arms l
l
and l
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