DIGITAL PHASE SELECTOR

A Mini-Project Report Submitted In Partial

ul!illment Re"uirement# or T$e A%ard O!
&ACHELOR O TECH'OLOG(
IN
ELECTRICAL A'D ELECTRO'ICS E'GI'EERI'G
SUBMITTED BY
)*MADH+ )IRA' ,-.R/0A-1023
SATHISH*&OLLI ,-.R/0A-10-3
Under the guidance of
Sir* R*RAMA'+4A' PRASAD5 ,A##i#t pro!*3
Department o! Electrical 6 Electronic# En7ineerin7
TEEGALA )RISH'A REDD( E'GI'EERI'G COLLEGE
(Affiliated To JNTU & Approved B AI!TE"
Meerpet# $dera%ad&
'(()*'((+
TEEGALA )RISH'A REDD( E'GI'EERI'G
COLLEGE
,Appro8ed b9 AICTE5 'e% Del$i and A!!iliated to 4*'*T*+ni8er#it93
H9derabad-.---:; A*P*

DATE<<<<<*
DEPARTME'T O ELECTRICAL 6 ELECTRO'ICS E'GI'EERI'G
CERTIICATE
Thi, i, to certif that the di,,ertation -or. entitled /DIGITAL PHASE
SELECTOR0 I, a %onafide -or. of Mr*)*Mad$u=iran (1eg& no2 ()1+3A('34"#
MR*SATHISH*&OLLI* (1eg& no2 ()1+3A('3("# -hich ha, %een ,u%5itted a, a partial
fulfill5ent for the a-ard of degree of &ACHELOR O ELECTRICAL A'D
ELECTRO'ICS E'GI'EERI'G5 fro5 Ja-aharlal Nehru Technological Univer,it for
the acade5ic ear 1-->-1--/*
The re,ult e5%odied in hi, di,,ertation ha, not %een ,u%5itted to an other univer,it
or In,titution for the a-ard of an degree&
MR* R*RAMA'+4A' PRASAD Mr* S*?E')AT RAM REDD(
Internal 6uide $ead of the Depart5ent
Electrical and Electronic, engg&
AC)'O@LEDGEME'T
It a plea,ure for u, to add heartfelt -ord, for the people -ho -ere the
part of thi, pro7ect in nu5erou, -a, -ho gave u, ending ,upport right fro5 the
,tage the idea -a, conceived&

It i, great opportunit to render our ,incere than., to our internal guide&
MR*R*RAMA'+4A' PRASAD# for hi, continued and valua%le ,upport during the
pro7ect& 8e are ver 5uch than.ful to Pro!* S*?E')AT RAM REDD(# $ead of the
Depart5ent# Electrical and Electronic, Engineering&
8e e9pre,, our deep gratitude to all teaching and non teaching ,taff
5e5%er, of college for help throughout provo.ing di,cu,,ion,# valua%le ,ugge,tion,
e9tended to u, -ith i55en,e care# :eal and cooperation throughout our -or.&
;ur apologie, for an over,ight, or ,hortco5ing, in the detail, provided in thi,
report& <a,t %ut not lea,t -e than. our fa5il 5e5%er, and friend, for %eing a
con,tant ,ource of encourage5ent throughout thi, period&
A&STRACT
=o-er in,ta%ilit in developing countrie, create, the need for auto5ation of pha,e
,election or alternative ,ource, of po-er to %ac.*up the utilit ,uppl& Mo,t indu,trial and
co55ercial application, are dependent on po-er ,uppl and if the proce,, of change over i,
5anual #not onl con,idera%le ti5e i, -a,ted %ut al,o the device or 5achine 5a get
da5aged fro5 hu5an error during the change over connection,# incurring 5a,,ive lo,,e,&

$ere i, a digital pha,e ,elector that can %e in,talled in re,idential and office
pre5i,e, -here ,ingle*pha,e e>uip5ent i, u,ed& 8hen an of the 5ain, pha,e line, fail,# it
auto5aticall ,elect, the availa%le pha,e line (out of three pha,e line, or %ac.up line,"

CO'TE'TS
3& INT1;DU!TI;N
3&3 I5portance of Electrical Energ
3&' ;%7ective of the =ro7ect
3&? Need for Auto5ation
3&@ $igh Are>uenc S-itching Technolog
3&) Inverter
'& DI6ITA< =$ASE SE<E!T;1
'&3 Introduction
'&' Bloc. Diagra5 of Digital =ha,e Selector
'&? !ircuit De,cription of Digital =ha,e Selector
'&@ Advantage, of Digital =ha,e Selector
:* ;=T; !;U=<E1
?&3 Definition of ;ptocoupler
?&' Sche5atic Diagra5 of I! Mct'e ;pto*!oupler
?&? 8or.ing of I! M!T'E ;pto !oupler
?&@ A%,olute Ma9i5u5 1ating,
?&) Tpical Electro*;ptical !haracteri,tic,
?&)&3 S-itching Ti5e Te,t !ircuit and 8avefor5,
?&)&' S-itching Ti5e 8ave Aor5 of I! M!T'E
?&4 Application
@& !;NT1;< <;6I! DEBI!ES
@&3 Introduction
@&' $e9 Inverter (I! !D@(4+"
@&'&3 6eneral De,cription
@&'&' Aeature,
@&'&? =in Diagra5
@&'&@ Sche5atic Diagra5,
@&'&) A%,olute Ma9i5u5 1ating,
@&'&4 Ac Te,t !ircuit,
@&'&C S-itching Ti5e 8ave Aor5,
@&'&D =erfor5ance !haracteri,tic,
@&? Euad FAndG 6ate (I! !D@(D3"
@&?&3 6eneral De,cription
@&?&' Aeature,
@&?&? !onnection Diagra5
@&?&@ Sche5atic Diagra5,
@&?&) A%,olute Ma9i5u5 1ating,
@&?&4 Tpical =erfor5ance !urve,
@&?&C =h,ical Di5en,ion,
@&@ 8or.ing of !ontrol <ogic Device
)& 1E<AY D1IBE1S
)&3 Introduction
)&' Darlington Sin. Driver
)&? Aeature,
)&@ =in !onfiguration
)&) Sche5atic Diagra5
)&4 Ma9i5u5 1ating,
)&C Te,t !ircuit, of I! U<N'((?
)&D 1ela
4& =;8E1 SU==<Y
4&3 Introduction
4&' Aeature,
4&? De,cription
4&@ !ircuit Diagra5
4&) Internal Bloc. Diagra5
4&4 Tran,for5er,
4&4&3 Step do-n Tran,for5er
4&4&' Tran,for5er 1ating
!;N!<USI;N
AUTU1E S!;=E
BIB<I;61A=$Y
A==ENDIH*A
A==ENDIH*B
A==ENDIH*!
LIST O IG+RES
Aig32 Bloc. Diagra5 of Digital =ha,e Selector&
Aig'2 !ircuit Diagra5 of Digital =ha,e Selector
Aig?2 =o-er Suppl !ircuit Diagra5
Aig@2 Sche5atic Diagra5 of I! M!T'E ;pto !oupler
Aig)2 S-itching Ti5e Te,t !ircuit and 8avefor5,
Aig42 S-itching Ti5e 8ave Aor5 of Mct'e
AigC2 =in Diagra5 of I! !D@(4+
AigD2 Sche5atic Diagra5 of I! !D@(4+
Aig+2 Ac Te,t !ircuit of I! !D@(4+
Aig3(2 S-itching Ti5e 8ave Aor5, I! !D @(4+
Aig332 =erfor5ance !haracteri,tic, of I! !D@(4+
Aig3'2 =in Diagra5 of I! !D@(D3
Aig3?2 Internal Sche5atic Diagra5 of I! !D@(D3
Aig3@2 Tpical =erfor5ance !urve, of I! !D@(D3
Aig3)2 ;utline Diagra5 of I! !D@(D3 -ith =h,ical Di5en,ion,
Aig342 ;utline =in Diagra5 of I! U<N '((?
Aig3C2 =in !onnection of I! U<N '((?
Aig3D2 Sche5atic Diagra5 of I! U<N '((?
Aig3+2 Te,t !ircuit, of I! U<N'((?
Aig'(2 ;utline Structure of Electro5agnetic 1ela
Aig'32 =h,ical Bie- of I! <M?3C
Aig''2 !ircuit Diagra5
Aig'?2 Internal Bloc. Diagra5 of I! <M?3C
Aig'@2 Step Do-n Tran,for5er
LIST O S(M&OLS
3" !apacitor
'" !apacitor# polari:ed
?" !apacitor# varia%le
@" Diode
)" Iener diode

4" <ED
C" =hotodiode
D" Inductor
+" Tran,for5er
3(" N=N tran,i,tor
33" Earth or ground
3'" Au,e
3?" Batter
3@" S=ST (on*off ,-itch"
3)" S=DT ('*-a ,-itch"
34" 1ela
3C" 1e,i,tor
3D" Baria%le re,i,tor
3+" And gate
'(" Not gate

HARD @ARE COMPO'E'TS +SED I' THIS PRO4ECT
Semi conductor#
I!3*I!@ M!T'E optocoupler
I!) !D@(4+ he9 inverter
I!4 !D@(D3 >uad AND gate
I!C U<N'((? Darlington arra
I!D <M?3C ad7u,ta%le regulator&
ID3*ID@ +B Iener diode
D3*D34 IN@((C rectifier diode&
<ED3*<ED@ )55 <ED
Re#i#tor# ,all A-%att5B.C carbon3
13*1?#1'3 3)*.ilo*oh5#38
1@*14#1'' 3*.ilo*oh5
1C*13( 3(*.ilo*oh5
13'*13) '&'*.ilo*oh5
133 3'*.ilo*oh5
134*13+ ??(*oh5
1'( )4(*oh5
B13 )&4*.ilo*oh5 pre,et
Capacitor#D
!3*!?#!3' 3(JA# @(B electroltic
!@*!C ''nA cera5ic di,c&
!D ''((JA# ')B electroltic&
!+#!33 (&3JA cera5ic di,c
!3( 3(JA# 34B electroltic&
Mi#cellaneou#D
H3 '?(B pri5ar to +B#'A ,econdar tran,for5er
1<3*1<@ 4B#3!K; rela
A3*A@ 3A fu,e
BATT& 4B rechargea%le %atter
CHAPTER-0
I'TROD+CTIO'
0*0 Importance o! electrical ener79D
Electrical energ i, the onl for5 of energ -hich i, ea,il availa%le& The 5ain
advantage of thi, for5 of energ i, -e can ea,il convert an for5 of energ into
electrical energ and vice*ver,a&
The u,age of thi, electrical energ i, increa,ing da*%*da& The %e,t e9a5ple i,
in India in 3+)( the generation of electrical energ -a, 3)(M8 and no- the generation
ha, %een increa,ed to a ver large e9tent& To 5eet thi, load de5and 5an po-er ,tation,
-ere %uild acro,, the countr&
0*1 Objecti8e o! t$e projectD
The load de5and i, increa,ing da % da and -e are a%le to generate po-er to
the re>uire5ent and -e are a%le to tran,5it po-er to the load center, -ith 5a9i5u5
efficienc and 5ini5u5 lo,,e,&
The 5a7or pro%le5 a con,u5er facing no- a da, i, po-er interruption& Due to
thi, po-er interruption lot of da5age i, cau,ed in ter5, of 5one and ,o5eti5e, to life&
Due to thi, po-er interruption lot of ti5e i, -a,ted&
But the 5a7or pro%le5 of po-er interruption i, in di,tri%ution ,,te5 and 5ore
over C(L fault, are ,ingle pha,e fault,# in thi, ca,e po-er i, availa%le in other t-o
pha,e,&
But all the do5e,tic load, are connected to ,ingle pha,e ,uppl and if the fault
occur,# even then po-er i, availa%le in other pha,e, -e can not utili:e that po-er& If -e
-ant to utili:e that po-er 5anual operation i, re>uired -hich re,ult, in fire accident, and
al,o not relia%le&
Aor thi, -e need auto5atic ,-itching fro5 one pha,e to other auto5aticall
-hich i, 5ade po,,i%le % thi, /DI6ITA< =$ASE SE<E!T;10&
0*: 'eed or AutomationD
In order to change fro5 one pha,e to other 5anual operation i, not po,,i%le a, -e
are dealing -ith ?*M @3)B ,uppl -hich cau,e, fire accident, during change over and
lead, to ?*M fault, -hich i, dangerou, to electrical e>uip5ent& And 5ore over 5anual
changing i, not po,,i%le at ever ti5e a, identifing the pha,e of po-er interruption i,
difficult&
To avoid all thi, -e need auto5ation -hich i, done % /DI6ITA< =$ASE
SE<E!T;10& $ere -e do not need an 5anual -or. and -e are no -a concerned -ith
the pha,e of fault a, the digital pha,e ,elector auto5aticall ,-itche, to the pha,e -here
the po-er i, availa%le&
0*; Hi7$ !re"uenc9 #%itc$in7 tec$nolo79D
$igh fre>uenc ,-itching technolog i, the late,t techni>ue -hich u,e, infra red
radiation for ,-itching purpo,e&
Aor thi, -e u,e I! M!T'E opto coupler& The 5ain advantage of thi, techni>ue i,#
5echanical ,-itching i, relia%le for ,ingle pha,e ,uppl# %ut for three pha,e ,uppl
,udden 5echanical ,-itching cau,e, arching& Thi, can %e avoided % u,ing thi,
technolog a, it u,e, infrared radiation to trigger tran,i,tor,# M;SAETS# I6BT, etc&&&
0*. I'?ERTERD
The digital pha,e ,elector ha, capa%ilit to ta.e po-er fro5 inverter al,o& Even if
the po-er failure i, in all the three pha,e, the availa%ilit of inverter 5a.e, thi, 5ore
relia%le& And 5ore over thi, inverter need not 5e 5anuall operated 7u,t % connecting it
to digital pha,e ,elector it can %e operated& During nor5al condition, the inverter i,
charged i&e&&# the %atter i, charged and during fault condition, it give, %ac. up&
CHAPTER-1
DIGITAL PHASE SELECTOR
1*0 I'TROD+CTIO'D
=o-er in,ta%ilit in developing countrie, create, the need for auto5ation of pha,e
,election or alternative ,ource, of po-er to %ac.*up the utilit ,uppl& Mo,t indu,trial and
co55ercial application, are dependent on po-er ,uppl and if the proce,, of change
over i, 5anual #not onl con,idera%le ti5e i, -a,ted %ut al,o the device or 5achine 5a
get da5aged fro5 hu5an error during the change over connection,# incurring 5a,,ive
lo,,e,&
$ere i, a digital pha,e ,elector that can %e in,talled in re,idential and office
pre5i,e, -here ,ingle*pha,e e>uip5ent i, u,ed& 8hen an of the 5ain, pha,e line, fail,#
it auto5aticall ,elect, the availa%le pha,e line (out of three pha,e line, or %ac.up line,"&
1*1 &LOC) DIAGRAM O DIGITAL PHASE SELECTORD
The figure %elo- i, the %loc. diagra5 of digital pha,e ,elector& Thi, ha, 5ainl
four %loc., the are
=ha,e ,en,ing and ,-itching %loc.&
!ontrol logic %loc.&
1ela driver ,ection&
=o-er ,uppl unit&
All the four %loc., are inter connected to each other and are independent of load
connected to it& All the %loc., get ,ignal, ,i5ultaneou,l and -e can not decide -hich
%loc. i, operating fir,t ph,icall&
Aig32 Bloc. diagra5 of digital pha,e ,elector&
Control lo7ic bloc=D
The control logic circuitr decide, the pha,e priorit for one out of four line,&
The order of pha,e priorit i, 1*pha,e follo-ed % Y*pha,e# B*pha,e and then %ac. up
(inverter" a, ,ho-n in truth ta%le given %elo-&
P$a#e #en#in7 and #%itc$in7 bloc=D
Thi, give, infor5ation to the optocoupler -here the pha,e fro5 -hich the po-er
ha, to %e ta.en i, ,en,ed and corre,ponding ,-itching operation i, perfor5ed& Thu, the
,peed of operation of ,en,ing the pha,e depend, directl on the control circuit and not on
1 =$ASE
SE<E!T;1
Y =$ASE
SE<E!T;1
B =$ASE
SE<E!T;1
INBE1TE1
SE<E!T;1
!;NT1;<
<;6I!
!I1!UIT
1E<AY
D1IBE1
1E<AY A;1
1 =$ASE
1E<AY A;1
Y =$ASE
1E<AY A;1
B =$ASE
1E<AY A;1
INBE1TE1
=;8E1
SU==<Y

<;AD

optocoupler& The opto coupler 7u,t perfor5, the -or. a, according to the in,truction,
given % the control circuit&
Ta%le32 truth ta%le of digital pha,e ,elector&
Rela9 dri8er #ectionD
The control logic circuit not onl give, ,ignal to opto coupler %ut it ha, to give
,ignal to rela driver ,ection al,o ,i5ultaneou,l& Thi, i, the rea,on the control logic
circuit i, ver i5portant&
The rela driver get, ,ignal fro5 the control logic circuit and according to the
,ignal it -ill activate the corre,ponding rela to operate& The rela driver ,ection give,
electrical ,ignal to the ,trip of the rela and rela contact, clo,e, thu, the po-er flo-, to
load&
Po%er #uppl9 unitD
The digital pha,e ,elector ha, three 5ain %loc., -hich contain, four
optocoupler(I! M!T'E"# one he9 inverter(I! !D@(4+"# one >uad and gate(I! !D@(D3"#
one Darlington arra (U<N '((?"& And 5ore over there i, a rela in each pha,e -hich
ha, 5echanical contact&
T1UT$ TAB<E
<ine input !ontrol logic output
1 pha,e Y pha,e B pha,e Inverter 1 Y B Inv
3 H H H 3 ( ( (
( 3 H H ( 3 ( (
( ( 3 H ( ( 3 (
( ( ( 3 ( ( ( 3
To 5a.e all the,e device, to -or. a perfect 4B D&! ,uppl i, re>uired -hich doe,
not contain an ripple,& And to drive the rela, and the I! -e need 'A# 4B ,uppl i&e&&# a
pure D&! -hich i, provided % the po-er ,uppl unit&
The po-er ,uppl unit con,i,t, of ad7u,ta%le regulator -hich varie, auto5aticall
the voltage during nor5al running condition,&
1*: Circuit de#cription o! EDIGITAL PHASE SELECTORFD
The figure %elo- ,ho-, i, the circuit of the digital pha,e ,elector& The 1*pha,e of
A! 5ain, ,uppl i, rectified % half -ave rectifier 3N@((C (D3"& The rectified ,ignal i,
li5ited to +Bolt, % the Iener diode and filtered % 3(5icroAA1AD capacitor& The
3).oh5 re,i,tor act, a, the current li5iter&
Aig' 2 circuit diagra5 of digital pha,e ,elector&
The cathode of the Iener diode i, connected to pin3 of opto coupler M!T 'E
through a 3.ilo*oh5 re,i,tor& The 3*.ilo*oh5 re,i,tor act, a, the current li5iter for
M!T'E& Each opto coupler con,i,t, of a galliu5*ar,enide infrared <ED and a ,ilicon
N=N photo tran,i,tor& 8hen 1*pha,e i, pre,ent# the internal infrared led drive, the
internal photo tran,i,tor of M!T'E i, u,ed for the logic circuitr&
All the line*Kpha,e*,en,ing circuit, are ,i5ilar a, e9plained a%ove& The control
logic circuit i, i,olated fro5 the pha,e*,en,ing circuit % opto coupler M!T'E&
The control logic circuit co5pri,e, N;T gate# AND gate# diode, and a fe- pa,,ive
co5ponent,& It i, %a,icall a priorit encoder and -or., according to the truth ta%le& If an
input varia%le i, at logic F(G# it 5ean, that particular pha,e (line" i, a%,ent in the pha,e
,elector# -hile if an input varia%le i, at logic F3G# that particular pha,e i, pre,ent in the
pha,e ,elector&
The truth ta%le e9pre,,ion 5a contain an nu5%er of line, (an nu5%er of input,
5a %e at logicG3G"# %ut onl one input -ill %e at logic F3G& Thi, 5ean, that onl a
particular pha,e ha, the highe,t priorit and 5u,t %e carried out fir,t& FHG in the truth
ta%le indicate, the FdonGt care# input# i&e&# the input 5a %e at logic F(G or F3G&
Aro5 the truth ta%le# ou can ea,il arrive at the follo-ing Boolean e>uation,2
1N1 pha,e
YN1 pha,e# Y pha,e
BN1 pha,e# Y pha,e#
INB& N 1G pha,e# YG pha,e# BG pha,e# inverter

The -or.ing of the control logic circuit i, a, ,i5ple a, it, ,tructure& The pre,ence
of an of four pha,e line,# na5el# 1# Y# B and inverter# 5a.e, the corre,ponding
varia%le high (logic 3"& The glo-ing of a particular <ED# %earing the ,a5e na5e a, the
output varia%le# -ill indicate top priorit&
The output fro5 the logic control circuit i, fed to rela driver U<N'((? (I! C"& I!
U<N'((? i, a high voltage# high current Darlington arra containing open*collector
Darlington pair, -ith co55on e5itter,& Each channel i, rated at )((5A and can
-ith,tand pea. current, of 4((5A& Suppre,,ion diode, are included for driving inductive
load,&
8hen all pha,e line, are pre,ent# onl rela 1<3 energi:e, and it, contact, are
connected to the load& The order of pha,e line, connected to the load i, 1 pha,e follo-ed
% Y pha,e# B pha,e and then %ac. up (inverter"& <ED3# <ED'# <ED? and <ED@
indicating 1 pha,e# Y pha,e# B pha,e and %ac.up (inverter" re,pectivel# are connected to
the load& 1e,i,tor, 134 through 13+ act a, current li5iter, for <ED3 through <ED@#
re,pectivel&
The figure %elo- ,ho-, the circuit of po-er ,uppl& The A&! 5ain i, ,tepped
do-n % tran,for5er H3 to deliver +B# 'A ,econdar output&
Aig?2 po-er ,uppl circuit diagra5&
The tran,for5er output i, rectified % a full -ave %ridge rectifier co5pri,ing
diode, D4 through D+# filtered % capacitor !D and regulated % I! <M?3C (I! D"& The
<M?3C (T pac.age" i, ad7u,ta%le regulator that re>uire, t-o e9ternal co5ponent,
(re,i,tor 1'( and pre,et B13" to deter5ine the output voltage& =re,et B13 i, u,ed to ,et
the voltage to 4B&
Diode D3( protect, regulator <M?3C# inca,e it, input ,hort, to ground if
capacitor, a%ove 3( 5icro Aarad, are connected to the output of the regulator I!&
!apacitor !33 % pa,,e, an ripple in the regulated output& !apacitor, !@ through !C are
connected in parallel to rectifier diode to % pa,, unde,ired ,pi.e, and provide ,5ooth
and fluctuation*free po-er&
1*; Ad8anta7e# o! di7ital p$a#e #electorD
No 5echanical contact,&
!o5pact in ,i:e&
$igh fre>uenc ,-itching technolog&
!an %e u,ed for all ,ingle pha,e load,&
CHAPTER-:
OPTO CO+PLER
:*0 De!inition o! optocouplerD
An opto*i,olator circuit& In electronic,# an opto*i,olator i, a device that u,e, a
,hort optical tran,5i,,ion path to tran,fer a ,ignal %et-een ele5ent, of a circuit# tpicall
a tran,5itter and a receiver# -hile .eeping the5 electricall i,olated ,ince the ,ignal
goe, fro5 an electrical ,ignal to an optical ,ignal %ac. to an electrical ,ignal# electrical
contact along the path i, %ro.en&
:*1 #c$ematic dia7ram o! IC MCT1E opto-couplerD
Aig2@ ,che5atic diagra5 of I! M!T'E ;=T; !;U=<E1
The ,che5atic diagra5 of I! M!T'E opto coupler i, ,ho-n a%ove and it, pin diagra5 i,
al,o ,ho-n& It i, a 4*pin I! -hich ha, infra red <ED and a photo tran,i,tor internall -hich
can %e ,een in the figure&
;ut of the ,i9 pin, the fir,t pin i, anode# ,econd pin i, cathode& The,e t-o pin, act a,
,uppl ter5inal,& The third ter5inal i, given no connection a, thi, ter5inal i, 5ainl dealt
-ith dc ,uppl& But here -e are onl dealing -ith ac ,uppl and -e are no -a concerned
-ith dc ,uppl hence -e 5ade the third ter5inal dead&
:*: @or=in7 o! IC MCT1E OPTO CO+PLERD
The M!T'E ,erie, opto*coupler con,i,t, of a galliu5 ar,enide infra red e5itting
diode a ,ilicon photo tran,i,tor in a 4*pin dual*in*line pac.age&
Thi, con,i,t, of a high po-er infrared e5itting diode -hich e5it, I1 radiation
-hen it get, +B ,uppl& Thi, +B i, ,upplied % Iener diode -hich i, u,ed in ,erie, -ith a
3)OP re,i,tor&
Thi, i, ,o accurate that even a pul,e of voltage 5a.e, the led to e5it the radiation&
And thi, i, the rea,on the ,-itch over i, po,,i%le -hich 5ade thi, device highl accurate
and fa,t in operation&
8hen ever the ,uppl i, given to the anode# the radiation e5itted % the high
po-er <ED trigger, the photo tran,i,tor& =hoto tran,i,tor i, one -hich need, radiation to
conduct& The @# )# 4 pin, of M!T'E i, e5itter# collector# %a,e re,pectivel& 8hen ever
the radiation fall, on %a,e the electron 5o5ent ,tart, and electron, flo- fro5 e5itter to
control logic& Thi, give ,ignal to control logic circuit and activate, the logic I!&
:*; Ab#olute maGimum ratin7#D
Stre,, e9ceeding the a%,olute 5a9i5u5 rating, 5a da5age the device& The
device 5a not function or to %e opera%le a%ove the reco55ended operating condition,
and ,tre,,ing the part, to the,e level, i, not reco55ended& In addition# e9tended e9po,ure
to ,tre,,e, a%ove the reco55ended operating condition, 5a affect device relia%ilit&
The a%,olute 5a9i5u5 rating, are ,tre,, rating, onl&
All the,e rating, are for M!T'E and the,e value, 5a var for different
5anufacturer depending on the application of the I!& The rating, 5entioned here al,o
include the tran,i,tor para5eter, al,o& The rating of <ED varie, depending on the po-er
input& Since -e u,e here for ?*M# @3)B ,uppl the <ED rating, are lo-& But the tran,i,tor
rating, canGt %e varied to the e9tent a, the co,t of the tran,i,tor increa,e, -ith increa,e in
the rating& Even then it i, econo5ical and ,afe to u,e a photo tran,i,tor&
Table1D ab#olute maGimum ratin7# o! MCT1E

:*. T9pical electro-optical c$aracteri#tic#D
:*.*0 S%itc$in7 time te#t circuit and %a8e!orm#D
i7 .D S%itc$in7 time te#t circuit and %a8e!orm#*
The a%ove figure ,ho-, the ,-itching ti5e te,t circuit diagra5 and it, corre,ponding
-ave for5,& The te,t circuit con,i,t, of a diode N=N tran,i,tor and pa,,ive ele5ent, li.e
re,i,tor and input ,uppl&
The -ave for5, of the te,t circuit -hich con,i,t, of input pul,e and output pul,e
-hich al,o ,ho-, the percentage variation, al,o&
The te,t circuit ,ho-n in the figure clearl e9plain, ho- the infrared radiation
trigger, the tran,i,tor,& $ere -hen ever the radiation hit, the %a,e of the tran,i,tor, a current
IA flo-, through the e5itter and a voltage BccN3(B i, applied& The current If can %e
produced % ad7u,ting collector current Ic&
The -ave for5, of the a%ove te,t circuit are ,ho-n in the ne9t figure& The figure
,ho-n ha, an input -ave and a output -ave -hich clearl e9plain, ho- the out put varie,
-ith the input& 8hen ever the input reache, fro5 3(L to +(L the output curve i,
indicated fro5 off to on ,tate& 8hen ever the input pul,e i, declined the output graduall
reache, to 3(L fro5 +(L&
If the po-er ,uppl i, continuou, for that pha,e the output again pic., up to +(L
and thi, proce,, continue,& If in ca,e the po-er i, di,connected in that pha,e the input
,uddenl co5e, to (L %ut the output graduall decrea,e, to (L&
:*.*1 S%itc$in7 time %a8e !orm o! MCT1E*
i72D S%itc$in7 time %a8e !orm o! MCT1E*
The a%ove -ave for5 ,ho-, the ,-itching ti5e -ave for5, of I! M!T'E
optocoupler& Thi, e9plain, clearl the ,aturation ,tate of I! M!T'E opto coupler& The
opto coupler ha, an <ED -hich ha, capacit to radiate 3( ti5e, 5ore radiation than it,
rating %ut if the radiation increa,e, the tran,i,tor conduct, 5ore a 5ore and at one ,tate it
reache, to ,aturation ,tate -here the conduction ,top, and the tran,i,tor conduct,
5a9i5u5 po-er and e5it, enor5ou, heat& If the ,a5e ,ituation continue, for 5ore ti5e
the tran,i,tor graduall goe, into recover ,tate and finall ,top, conducting&
:*2 ApplicationD
A ,i5ple circuit -ith an opto*i,olator& 8hen ,-itch S
3
i, clo,ed# <ED D
3
light,#
-hich trigger, phototran,i,tor E
3
# -hich pull, the output pin lo-& Thi, circuit# thu,# act,
a, a N;T gate&
A5ong other application,# opto*i,olator, can help cut do-n on ground loop,# %loc.
voltage ,pi.e,# and provide electrical i,olation&
;ne of the re>uire5ent, of the MIDI (Mu,ical In,tru5ent Digital Interface"
,tandard i, that input connection, %e opto*i,olated&
The are u,ed to i,olate lo-*current control or ,ignal circuitr fro5 tran,ient,
generated or tran,5itted % po-er ,uppl and high*current control circuit,& The
latter are u,ed -ithin 5otor and 5achine control function %loc.,&
Mo,t ,-itched*5ode po-er ,upplie, utili:e optocoupler for 5ain, i,olation&
CHAPTER-;
CO'TROL LOGIC DE?ICES
;*0 IntroductionD
A control logic circuit i, the circuit -hich control, the pha,e ,en,ing and
,-itching operation, of optocoupler and rela driver ,ection& Aor thi, there are t-o
co5ponent, u,ed the are $EH INBE1TE1 (I! !D@(4+" and the F>uad AND 6ATEG
(!D @(D3"&
;*1 HeG In8erter ,IC CD;-2/3D
;*1*0 General De#criptionD
The !D @(4+ con,i,t, of ,i9 inverter circuit, and i, 5anufactured u,ing co5pli5entar
M;S (!M;S" to achieve -ide po-er ,uppl operating range# lo- po-er con,u5ption# high
noi,e i55unit# and ,55etric controlled ri,e and fall ti5e,&
Thi, device i, intended for all general purpo,e inverter application, -here the ,pecial
characteri,tic, of the I! !D @(4+ $EH INBE1TE1 are not re>uired& In tho,e application,
re>uiring larger noi,e i55unit he9 Sch5itt trigger i, ,ugge,ted& All input, are protected fro5
da5age due to ,tatic di,charge % diode cla5p, to BDD and BSS&
;*1*1 eature#D
8ide ,uppl voltage range 2 ?&( to 3)B
$igh noi,e i55unit 2 (&@) BDD tpe&
<o- po-er TT< co5pati%ilit 2 fan out of t-o driving C@<&
;*1*: Pin Dia7ramD

AigC2 =in diagra5 of I! !D@(4+
The a%ove diagra5 i, the pin diagra5 of I! !D@(4+& It con,i,t, of ,i9 not gate, and
the t-o ter5inal, of the N;T gate i, %rought out a, t-o pin,& The pin 3@ i, Bdd and the pin
C i, B,, and in thi, pro7ect -e are not u,ing the pin, D*3? a, their application, are not
related to the pro7ect& The -or.ing of the I! i, purel %a,ed on the truth ta%le of the N;T
gate&
;*1*; Sc$ematic Dia7ram#D
i7>D Sc$ematic dia7ram o! IC CD;-2/
The a%ove diagra5 i, the ,che5atic diagra5 of I! !D@(4+& It ha, four ter5inal,
input voltage Bin# Bdd# B,, and Bout& It con,i,t, of t-o diode,# t-o M;SAETS and a
varia%le re,i,tor& The t-o diode, are u,ed for directing the current in a particular direction
and the M;SAETS are u,ed for the ,-itching and driving purpo,e&
The varia%le re,i,tor i, u,ed to li5it the current a, the M;SAETS are not capa%le of
holding current, 5ore than it, rating,& The current direction i, indicated % arro-, and if the
direction rever,ed then the M;SAETS operation i, interchanged and give, unnece,,ar
,ignal even in nor5al condition&
;*1*. Ab#olute MaGimum Ratin7#D
Dc ,uppl voltage (BDD" 2 *(&) to Q3DB
Input voltage (BIN" 2 *(&) to BDD Q(&) BD!
Storage te5perature range (T,"in Rc 2 *4) to Q3)(
=o-er di,,ipation (=d"
Dual*in*line 2 C((M8
S5all out line 2 )((M8
<ead te5perature (T<" 2 '4(Rc
;*1*2 AC Te#t Circuit#D

Aig+2 A! te,t circuit of I!@(4+
The a%ove circuit diagra5 ,ho-, the A! te,t circuit of I! !D@(4+& it con,i,t, of an
N;T gate and a capacitor i, connected in %et-een the output and the ground& It con,i,t, of
t-o ter5inal, input Bin and the output Bout& During nor5al running condition, the
capacitor charge, and -hen fault occur, it di,charge, and 5a.e, the output to drive the
,ignal&
;*1*H S%itc$in7 Time @a8e orm#D
Aig3(2 S-itching ti5e -ave for5, I! !D @(4+
The a%ove -ave for5 ,ho-, ,-itching ti5e -ave for5 of I! !D@(4+& Thi, -ave
for5 clearl e9plain, the input and output ,i5ultaneou,l& The output of the I! i, :ero until
the input reache, to 3(L %ut ,uddenl the output reache, to +(L -hen the input graduall
increa,e, fro5 3(L to +(L& 8hen the input reache, to +(L the out put graduall decrea,e,
to 3(L& Thi, ccle continue, and if there i, an fault the output doe, not follo- the input
for ,o5e ti5e and after a ti5e dela the output gain co5e, to nor5al po,ition&
;*1*> Per!ormance C$aracteri#tic#D
Aig2(a" fig 2(%"
Aig332 perfor5ance characteri,tic, of I! !D@(4+
The a%ove graph, ,ho- tpical perfor5ance characteri,tic,& Aig 2( a" ,ho-, the gate
tran,fer characteri,tic, input voltage Bin i, on H*a9i, and the out put voltage i, on Y*a9i,&
The dotted line ,ho-, the a5%ient te5perature Q3')Rc and the thin line give, the a5%ient
te5perature *))Rc&
Aig 2( %" ,ho-, the relation %et-een propagation dela and a5%ient te5perature#
-here the a5%ient te5perature i, on H*a9i, and the propagation dela on Y*a9i,& The
propagation dela increa,e, -ith increa,e in the a5%ient te5perature& In al,o depend, on
the value of the capacitance&
;*: Iuad JAndK Gate ,Ic Cd ;->03D
;*:*0 General De#criptionD
The !D @(D3 >uad and gate, are 5onolithic co5pli5entar M;S (!M;S" integrated
circuit, con,tructed -ith n and p channel enhance5ent 5ode tran,i,tor,& The have e>ual
,ource and ,in. current and co5pati%ilitie, and confir5ed to ,tandard B ,erie, output drive&
The device, al,o have %uffered output, -hich i5prove tran,fer characteri,tic, % providing
ver high gain& All input, protected again,t ,tatic di,charge -ith diode, to BDD and BSS&
;*:*1 eature#D
<o- po-er TT< co5pati%ilit&
)B*3(B*3)B para5etric rating,&
S55etrical output characteri,tic,&
Ma9i5u5 input lea.age 3JA at 3)B over full te5perature range&
;*:*: Connection Dia7ramD
Aig3'2 =in diagra5 of I! !D@(D3
The a%ove diagra5 ,ho-, the connection diagra5 of I! !D@(D3& It ha, 3@ pin,
-here pin 3@ i, Bdd# pin C i, B,,& In our pro7ect -e are u,ing all the pin, a, it ha, to drive
the rela driver ,ection and it ha, to give ,ignal, to the opto coupler&
Internall the I! con,i,t, of AND gate, and each AND gate ha, three ter5inal,
and all the three ter5inal, are %rought out&
The -or.ing of AND gate purel depend, on the truth ta%le of the AND gate and
the re>uired ,uppl i, given % the po-er ,uppl unit&
;*:*; Sc$ematic Dia7ram#D
Aig3?2 Internal ,che5atic diagra5 of I! !D@(D3
The a%ove diagra5 i, the internal ,che5atic diagra5 of I! !D@(D3& It ha, three ter5inal,
and there are ten M;SAETS internall and each M;SAET con,i,t, of three ter5inal,& Each
ter5inal of all the M;SAETS i, interconnected and three co55on ter5inal, are %ought
out& Thi, tell, that each M;SAET can handle ten operation, at a ti5e -ith onl three
ter5inal,& Thi, -e can interconnect an AND gate irre,pective of ter5inal, and -e can u,e
different ter5inal, of different gate, -hich are of ,a5e operation i&e&# if -e connect to pin '
all the M;SAETS connected to pin ' -ill -or. thu, ena%le, 5ultiple operation, -ith
,ingle pin and reduce, the po-er con,u5ption&
;*:*. Ab#olute MaGimum Ratin7#D
Boltage at an pin 2 *(&) to Q(&)
=o-er di,,ipation
Dual in line 2 C((58
S5all out line 2 )((58
BDD range 2 *(&) to Q3DB
Storage te5perature Sc 2 *4)Sc to Q3)(Sc
<ead te5perature 2 '4(Sc
;*:*2 T9pical Per!ormance Cur8e#D
Aig3@2 Tpical perfor5ance curve, of I!@(D3
The a%ove graph ,ho-, the tpical tran,fer characteri,tic, of I! !D@(D3& It ,ho-,
the relation %et-een output voltage B( and the input current Bi& The input i, on H*a9i, and
the output i, on Y*a9i,&
The out varie, in ,tep and for particular value of input the output re5ain, con,tant
and thi, value al,o depend, on the te5perature& A, the te5perature increa,e, the output
varie,&
;*:*H P$9#ical Dimen#ion#D

Aig3)2 outline diagra5 of I! !D@(D3 -ith ph,ical di5en,ion,
The a%ove diagra5 i, the ph,ical over vie- of the I! !D@(D3& Thi, clearl ,ho-, the
length of the I! gap %et-een the pin,# thic.ne,, of I!&
The ca,ing of the I! i, 5olded % ?(R a, it ena%le, the I! to %e ea, to a,,e5%le& It
al,o 5a.e, the I! to %e ea,il 5ounted on the =!B %oard,&
The notch indicate, the ,tarting of the pin, and the tip of the pin, are ,harpened ,o that
it can %e ea,il ,oldered& The gap %et-een each pin i, 5ore %ecau,e the I! i, u,ed for 5ultiple
operation, and if the gap i, le,, there i, po,,i%ilit of ,hot of pin,&
;*; @or=in7 o! Control Lo7ic De8iceD
Thi, control logic circuit receive, ,ignal fro5 the pha,e ,en,ing %loc. and
activate, the appropriate ele5ent and al,o give, ,ignal to rela driver and thi, circuit
need, 4B ,uppl and thi, can %e o%tained % a po-er circuit unit&
The control logic circuitr decide, the pha,e priorit for one out of four line,& The order
of pha,e priorit i, 1*pha,e follo-ed % Y*pha,e# B*pha,e and then %ac. up (inverter"&&
The control logic circuit i, i,olated fro5 the pha,e*,en,ing circuit % opto coupler M!T'E&
The control logic circuit co5pri,e, N;T gate# AND gate# diode, and a fe-
pa,,ive co5ponent,& It i, %a,icall a priorit encoder and -or., according to the truth
ta%le& If an input varia%le i, at logic F(G# it 5ean, that particular pha,e (line" i, a%,ent in
the pha,e ,elector# -hile if an input varia%le i, at logic F3G# that particular pha,e i, pre,ent
in the pha,e ,elector&
The truth ta%le e9pre,,ion 5a contain an nu5%er of line, (an nu5%er of input,
5a %e at logicG3G"# %ut onl one input -ill %e at logic F3G& Thi, 5ean, that onl a
particular pha,e ha, the highe,t priorit and 5u,t %e carried out fir,t& FHG in the truth
ta%le indicate, the FdonGt care# input# i&e&# the input 5a %e at logic F(G or F3G&
Aro5 the truth ta%le# ou can ea,il arrive at the follo-ing Boolean e>uation,2
1N1 pha,e
YN1 pha,e# Y pha,e
BN1 pha,e# Y pha,e# B pha,e
INB& N 1G pha,e# YG pha,e# BG pha,e# inverter

The -or.ing of the control logic circuit i, a, ,i5ple a, it, ,tructure& The pre,ence
of an of four pha,e line,# na5el# 1# Y# B and inverter# 5a.e, the corre,ponding
varia%le high (logic 3"& The glo-ing of a particular <ED# %earing the ,a5e na5e a, the
output varia%le# -ill indicate top priorit&
The output fro5 the logic control circuit i, fed to rela driver U<N'((? (I! C"&
CHAPTER-.
RELA( DRI?ERS
.*0 IntroductionD
The rela driver ,ection give, ,ignal to the rela and 5a.e, the rela to clo,e it,
contact,& A, the rela ha, a ,5all 5echanical contact i&e&&# a ,5all 5etallic ,trip the rela
drier 5u,t have capacit to drive it& Aor thi, a ,pecial I! u,ed -hich ha, high ,ignal
carring capacit and the I! u,ed for thi, i, IC +L' 1--: DARLI'GTO' ARRA(&
.*1 Darlin7ton Sin= Dri8erD
The I! U<N '((? ,erie, are high voltage# high current Darlington driver, co5pri,ed of
,even N=N Darlington pair,&
All unit, feature integral cla5p diode, for ,-itching inductive load,& Application,
include rela# ha55er# la5p and di,pla (<ED" driver,&
i7 02D Outline pin dia7ram o! IC +L' 1--:
The a%ove diagra5 ,ho-, the out line pin diagra5 of I! U<N '((?& it ha, 34 pin, and
each pin ha, ,o5e ,pecific application and the t-o 5odel, of the I! are DI= tpe and S;<
tpe&
.*: eature#D
;utput current (,ingle output" )((5A MAH&
$igh ,u,taining voltage output )(B MIN&
;utput cla5p, diode,&
Input, co5pati%le -ith variou, tpe, of logic&
=ac.age tpe*A= 2 DI=*34 pin
=ac.age tpe*AA8 2 S;<*34 pin
.*; Pin Con!i7urationD
i7 0HD Pin connection o! IC +L' 1--:
The a%ove diagra5 ,ho-, the pin diagra5 of I! U<N '((? darling ton arra& It ha, 34
pin, -here the pin D i, ground pin and pin + i, u,ed a, co55on pin for all application, -hich i,
al,o grounded& If -e ,ee the internal diagra5 of I! it ha, not gate, in ,erie, -ith diode and all
are connected in parallel and their output i, connected to corre,ponding ter5inal,&
The U<N'((? are high voltage# high current Darlington arra, each containing
,even open collector Darlington pair, -ith co55on e5itter,& Each channel rated at
)((5A and can -ith,tand pea. current, of 4((5A& Suppre,,ion diode, are included for
inductive load driving and the input, are pinned oppo,ite the output, to ,i5plif %oard
laout.
The,e ver,atile device, are u,eful for driving a -ide range of load, including
,olenoid,# rela, D! 5otor,T <ED di,pla, fila5ent la5p,# ther5al print head, and high
po-er %uffer,&
U<N '((? i, ,upplied in 34 pin pla,tic DI= pac.age, -ith a copper lead fra5e to
reduce ther5al re,i,tance& The are availa%le al,o in ,5all outline pac.age&
.*. Sc$ematic Dia7ramD
i7 0>D Sc$ematic dia7ram o! IC +L' 1--:
The a%ove figure ,ho-, the ,che5atic diagra5 of I! U<N '((?& $ere it ha, an input
ter5inal# t-o N=N tran,i,tor,# four IN @((C diode,& Thi, diagra5 i, replaced to ,5all ,i:e and
e5%edded in the for5 of I!&
The ,che5atic diagra5 con,i,t, of four diode,# t-o tran,i,tor, and a ,et of re,i,tor,& It
ha, four ter5inal, input# output# ground and co55on ter5inal& The three ter5inal, are given to
three ter5inal, of the rela and the input ter5inal i, connected to control logic circuit&
.*2 MaGimum Ratin7#D
The ta%le ,ho-, the 5a9i5u5 rating, of I! U<N'((? -here it ,ho-, the output
voltage# 5a9i5u5 input voltage# operating te5perature# ,torage te5perature etc&&#
Ta%le?2 5a9i5u5 rating, of I! U<N '((?
.*H Te#t Circuit# O! IC +ln1--:D
i70/D Te#t circuit# o! IC +L'1--:
The circuit ,ho-n a%ove i, the te,t circuit of I! U<N'((?& It ha, a pul,e generator
-hich generate, re>uired ,ignal to %e given to the rela& A, the rela -or., on D! ,uppl
thi, pul,e generator generate, pure ripple free D!&
It al,o ha, a N;T gate -hich 5a.e, the rela to open it, contact, -hen the po-er i,
off or -hen the fault occur, or el,e -hen the ,uppl i, on ,par. occur,& To avoid thi, -e
u,e a N;T gate and a diode connected parallel&
.*> Rela9D
Contact Speci!ication#D
!onfiguration 2 '!;# 'N;
!ontact rating 2 ?(A at '@(B A!K '@B D!&
!ontact re,i,tance 2 3((5U( 5a9"
!ontact 5aterial 2 Silver allo&
Aig'(2 outline ,tructure of electro5agnetic rela
General Per!ormanceD
;perating ti5e 2 ?(5,ec Ma9
Aa,t ,-itching ver,ion 2 3(5,ec Ma9
1elea,e ti5e 2 3(5aec Ma9
<ife e9pectanc
Electrical 2 )H 3(V? operation,
Mechanical 2 3(V? operation,
Dielectric ,trength
Bet-een open contact, 2 3(((B A!
Bet-een coil and contact 2 '(((B A!
Bet-een an ter5inal and earth 2 '(((B A!
In,ulation re,i,tance 2 3(((MU
Te5p range 2 *@(Sc
8eight 2 3?(g
Mounting 2 !ha,,i, 5ounting&
CHAPTER 2
PO@ER S+PPL(
2*0 IntroductionD
The digital pha,e ,elector con,i,t, of I!,# rela,# -hich need, D! ,uppl for
operation of I!, and -e al,o .no- the rela, need pure D! ,uppl for it, operation &thi,
D! ,uppl can %e o%tained % the po-er ,uppl circuit
The 5a7or co5ponent, of the po-er ,uppl circuit i, the ad7u,ta%le regulator(I!
<M ?3C"
2*1 eature#D
;utput current in e9ce,, of 3&)A&
;utput ad7u,ta%le %et-een 3&'B and ?CB&
Internal ther5al over load protection&
Internal ,hort circuit current li5iting&
;utput tran,i,tor ,afe operating area co5pen,ation&
T;*''( pac.age&
2*: De#criptionD
Aig'32 =h,ical vie- of I! <M?3C
Thi, 5onolithic integrated circuit i, an ad7u,ta%le ?*ter5inal po,itive voltage regulator
de,igned to ,uppl 5ore than 3&)A of load current -ith an output voltage ad7u,ta%le over a 3&'
to ?CB& It e5plo, internal current li5iting# ther5al ,hut do-n and ,afe area co5pen,ation&
2*; Circuit Dia7ramD
Aig''2 !ircuit diagra5
The a%ove circuit diagra5 i, the co5plete diagra5 of I! <M?3C and the e9ternal
re,i,tor, and capacitor, indicate that i, %eing u,ed a, ad7u,ta%le regulator& The <M?3C (T
pac.age" i, ad7u,ta%le regulator that re>uire, t-o e9ternal co5ponent, (re,i,tor 1'( and
pre,et B13" to deter5ine the output voltage& =re,et B13 i, u,ed to ,et the voltage to 4B&
Diode D3( protect, regulator <M?3C# inca,e it, input ,hort, to ground if
capacitor, a%ove 3( 5icro Aarad, are connected to the output of the regulator I!&
!apacitor !33 % pa,,e, an ripple in the regulated output& !apacitor, !@ through
!C are connected in parallel to rectifier diode to % pa,, un de,ired ,pi.e, and provide
,5ooth and fluctuation*free po-er&

2*. Internal bloc= dia7ramD
Aig'?2 Internal %loc. diagra5 of I! <M?3C
The a%ove diagra5 i, the internal %loc. diagra5 of I! <M?3C& It 5ainl con,i,t, of
t-o %loc., the are the voltage reference %loc. and the protection circuitr %loc.& There i, an
op a5p and a pair of pa,,ive devi,e, and the one tran,i,tor i, u,ed to drive the load and another
tran,i,tor i, u,ed to control the output&
There are three ter5inal, the are ad7u,ting ter5inal# output ter5inal# and input
ter5inal& The ad7u,ting ter5inal i, a varia%le re,i,tor -hich can %e varied 5anuall and if -e
,et a particular value auto5atic variation i, po,,i%le % a voltage reference co5pared -ith the
output& If the output deviate, fro5 the input the difference %et-een voltage, reache, to ,o5e
finite value -hich 5a.e, to change the value of the re,i,tance&
Since the I! <M?3C u,ed here i, for ad7u,ta%le regulator# the variation ,in voltage 5a
lead to continuou, ,tre,, over the co5ponent, and thi, can %e avoided % the protection circuit&
Internall the protection circuit con,i,t, of ,erie, connected re,i,tor, and a 5oving contact&
Depending on the value of the current the 5etallic contact i, 5oved and a, the re,i,tance, are
,erie, connected the value of re,i,tance i, added&
2*2 Tran#!ormer#D
A tran#!ormer i, a device that tran,fer, electrical energ fro5 one circuit to
another through inductivel coupled electrical conductor,& A changing current in the fir,t
circuit (the pri5ar" create, a changing 5agnetic field& Thi, changing 5agnetic field
induce, a changing voltage in the ,econd circuit (the ,econdar"& Thi, effect i, called
5utual induction&
If a load i, connected to the ,econdar circuit# electric charge -ill flo- in the ,econdar
-inding of the tran,for5er and tran,fer energ fro5 the pri5ar circuit to the load& In an
ideal tran,for5er# the induced voltage in the ,econdar -inding (V
S
" i, a fraction of the
pri5ar voltage (V
P
" and i, given % the ratio of the nu5%er of ,econdar turn, to the
nu5%er of pri5ar turn,2
B appropriate ,election of the nu5%er, of turn,# a tran,for5er thu, allo-, an alternating
voltage to %e ,tepped up W % 5a.ing N
S
5ore than N
P
W or ,tepped do-n# % 5a.ing it
le,,&
Tran,for5er, are ,o5e of the 5o,t efficient electrical X5achine,X# -ith ,o5e large unit,
a%le to tran,fer ++&C)L of their input po-er to their output& Tran,for5er, co5e in a range
of ,i:e, fro5 a thu5%nail*,i:ed coupling tran,for5er hidden in,ide a ,tage 5icrophone to
huge unit, -eighing hundred, of ton, u,ed to interconnect portion, of national po-er
grid,& All operate -ith the ,a5e %a,ic principle,# although the range of de,ign, i, -ide&
8hile ne- technologie, have 5ade tran,for5er, in ,o5e electronic, application,
o%,olete# tran,for5er, are ,till found in 5an electronic device,& Tran,for5er, are
e,,ential for high voltage po-er tran,5i,,ion# -hich 5a.e, long di,tance tran,5i,,ion
econo5icall practical&
2*2*0 Step Do%n Tran#!ormerD
So far -eGve o%,erved ,i5ulation, of tran,for5er, -here the pri5ar and
,econdar -inding, -ere of identical inductance# giving appro9i5atel e>ual voltage and
current level, in %oth circuit,& E>ualit of voltage and current %et-een the pri5ar and
,econdar ,ide, of a tran,for5er ho-ever i, not the nor5 for all tran,for5er,& If the
inductance of the t-o -inding, i, not e>ual# ,o5ething intere,ting happen,& Notice ho-
the ,econdar voltage i, appro9i5atel ten ti5e, le,, than the pri5ar voltage ((&++4'
volt, co5pared to 3(volt,"
Aig'@2 Step Do-n Tran,for5er
2*2*1 Tran#!ormer Ratin72
In our e9a5ple a%ove -e -ere ta.ing 'A out of the B,ec of +*(*+B& The
BA re>uired i, +H'A N 3DBA& Thi, i, a ,5all =!B 5ount tran,for5er availa%le in
Au,tralia and pro%a%l el,e-here& Thi, -ould %e an a%,olute 5ini5u5 and if ou
anticipated dra-ing the 5a9i5u5 current all the ti5e then go to a higher BA
rating&
CO'CL+SIO'
The DI6ITA< =$ASE SE<E!T;1 i, an advanced techni>ue -hich not onl u,ed
for auto5ation %ut al,o i, one of the techni>ue, for po-er >ualit i5prove5ent& Thi, i, a ,afe
5ethod of for change over of pha,e a, it u,e, I! M!T'E ;=T; !;U=<E1 -hich i, high
fre>uenc ,-itch -hich -or., on infrared radiation and it doe, not contain an 5echanical
contact,&
Thi, digital pha,e ,elector al,o ta.e, po-er fro5 inverter -hich 5ade thi, devi,e
highl relia%le and it, co5pact ,i:e 5ade thi, device to %e u,ed for hou,e hold purpo,e,&
+T+RE SCOPE
Thi, digital pha,e ,elector i, u,ed for hou,e hold purpo,e and % develop5ent of high
po-er opto couple, -e can e9tend the u,e of thi, device in ,u%,tation, and po-er ,tation,&
&I&LIOGRAPH(
Y3Z Automation and Controllin7 O! Po%er S9#tem# % ,& Sunil Ou5ar&
Y'Z Po%er S9#tem En7ineerin7 b9 A& !ha.ra%arti# M&<&Soni# &=&B&6upta#
Y?Z Modern Po%er S9#tem % I&J&Nagarath
@E& SITED 888&EAYMA6&!;M
APPE'DIL-A
CAPACITORS
A capacitor or conden,er i, a pa,,ive electronic co5ponent con,i,ting of a pair of
conductor, ,eparated % a dielectric& !apacitor, -ere di,covered in 3C@) and have
%eco5e u%i>uitou, -ithin electronic and electrical ,,te5,& The net charge on the
conductor, i, proportional to the voltage acro,, the dielectric# and the current i,
proportional to the ti5e*derivative of the voltage& The proportionalit con,tant i, .no-n
a, the capacitance of the device and i, 5ea,ured in unit, of farad,# -hich corre,pond to
one coulo5% of charge ,torage per volt&
In D! circuit,# a capacitor charge, or di,charge, and energ i, ,tored or relea,ed
over ti5e& In A! circuit,# the periodic variation in charge ield, a non:ero current -ith a
+(R pha,e lead over the voltage& The capacitor therefore %ehave, a, a ,hort circuit for
high fre>uenc ,ignal, and a, an open circuit at lo- fre>uencie,& Multiple capacitor, 5a
%e connected in parallel to o%tain a higher capacitance or in ,erie, to o%tain a lo-er
capacitance&
Although an ideal capacitor i, characteri:ed % it, capacitance alone# real device,
e9hi%it 5ore co5ple9 %ehavior& An e>uivalent ,erie, re,i,tance (ES1" and inductance
e9i,t due to i5perfect fa%rication and Joule heating of the ES1 place, a li5it on the
ripple current, tolerated % the device& A ,5all lea.age current %et-een the conductor,
lead, to the di,charge of the device over ti5e& A%ove a %rea.do-n voltage# the dielectric
%eco5e, conductive and the capacitor fail,& The capacitance i, affected % the a5%ient
te5perature# % incident ,ound -ave, and % the age of the device&
The %ehavior of a capacitor depend, upon it, geo5etr and the 5aterial, fro5
-hich it i, con,tructed& A variet of dielectric 5aterial, including paper# pla,tic# gla,,#
5ica# cera5ic, and li>uid electrolte, are in co55on u,e& The conductor, 5a ta.e the
for5 of 5etallic coating, upon the dielectric, or 5ultiple 5etallic plate, in a ,tac.& The
connecting lead, 5a %e arranged a9iall# or 5a %e o5itted entirel in ,urface 5ount
co5ponent,& Baria%le capacitor, allo- the capacitance to %e varied % 5echanicall
ad7u,ting the location, of the conductor,&
Application, of capacitor, are diver,e& Their fre>uenc dependent %ehavior allo-,
filtering application, including noi,e filtering# ,eparation of A! and D! co5ponent, of
,ignal, and the ,5oothing of po-er ,upplie,& The charge and energ ,torage propertie, of
a capacitor are e5ploed in uninterrupti%le po-er ,upplie,# pul,ed po-er application,
and a5plifier,& DeEarl capacitor, -ere al,o .no-n a, condensers# a ter5 that i, ,till
occa,ionall u,ed toda& It -a, coined % Ale,,andro Bolta in 3CD' (derived fro5 the
Italian conden,atore"# -ith reference to the deviceX, a%ilit to ,tore a higher den,it of
electric charge than a nor5al i,olated conductor& Mo,t non*Engli,h European language,
,till u,e a -ord derived fro5 [conden,atore[&
!harge ,eparation in a parallel*plate capacitor cau,e, an internal electric field& A
dielectric (orange" reduce, the field and increa,e, the capacitance&
A capacitor con,i,t, of t-o conductor, ,eparated % a non*conductive region&
Y?Z

The non*conductive ,u%,tance i, called the dielectric 5ediu5# although thi, 5a al,o
5ean a vacuu5 or a ,e5iconductor depletion region che5icall identical to the
conductor,& A capacitor i, a,,u5ed to %e ,elf*contained and i,olated# -ith no net electric
charge and no influence fro5 an e9ternal electric field& The conductor, thu, contain e>ual
and oppo,ite charge, on their facing ,urface,#
Y@Z
and the dielectric contain, an electric
field& The capacitor i, a rea,ona%l general 5odel for electric field, -ithin electric
circuit,&
An ideal capacitor i, -holl characteri:ed % a con,tant capacitance C# defined a,
the ratio of charge \Q on each conductor to the voltage V %et-een the52
Y?Z
So5eti5e, charge %uildup affect, the 5echanic, of the capacitor# cau,ing the
capacitance to var& In thi, ca,e# capacitance i, defined in ter5, of incre5ental change,
vice, -ith varia%le capacitance are u,ed in ,en,or, and 5icrophone,&
APPE'DIL-&
FUSE (ELECTRICAL)
In electronic, and electrical engineering a !u#e (,hort for fu,i%le lin." i, a tpe of
over current protection device& It, e,,ential co5ponent i, a 5etal -ire or ,trip that 5elt,
-hen too 5uch current flo-,# -hich %rea., the circuit in -hich it i, connected# thu,
protecting the circuitX, other co5ponent, fro5 da5age due to e9ce,,ive current&
A practical fu,e -a, one of the e,,ential feature, of Tho5a, Edi,onX, electrical
po-er di,tri%ution ,,te5&
Au,e, (and other over current device," are an e,,ential part of a po-er di,tri%ution
,,te5 to prevent fire or da5age& 8hen too 5uch current flo-, through a -ire# it 5a
overheat and %e da5aged or even ,tart a fire& 8iring regulation, give the 5a9i5u5
rating of a fu,e for protection of a particular circuit& <ocal authoritie, -ill incorporate
national -iring regulation, a, part of la-& Au,e, are ,elected to allo- pa,,age of nor5al
current,# %ut to >uic.l interrupt a ,hort circuit or overload condition&
APPE'DIL-C
LIGHT-EMITTI'G DIODE
Blue# green# and red <ED,T the,e can %e co5%ined to produce 5o,t percepti%le
color,# including -hite& Infrared and ultraviolet (UBA" <ED, are al,o availa%le&
A li7$t-emittin7-diode (LED"#
Y3Z
i, a ,e5iconductor diode that e5it, light -hen
an electric current i, applied in the for-ard direction of the device# a, in the ,i5ple <ED
circuit& The effect i, a for5 of electrolu5ine,cence -here incoherent and narro-*
,pectru5 light i, e5itted fro5 the p*n 7unction in a ,olid ,tate 5aterial&
<ED, are -idel u,ed a, indicator light, on electronic device, and increa,ingl in
higher po-er application, ,uch a, fla,hlight, and area lighting& An <ED i, u,uall a
,5all area (le,, than 3 55
'
" light ,ource# often -ith optic, added directl on top of the
chip to ,hape it, radiation pattern and a,,i,t in reflection& The color of the e5itted light
depend, on the co5po,ition and condition of the ,e5i conducting 5aterial u,ed# and can
%e infrared# vi,i%le# or ultraviolet& Be,ide, lighting# intere,ting application, include u,ing
UB*<ED, for ,terili:ation of -ater and di,infection of device,# and a, a gro- light to
enhance photo,nthe,i, in plant,&