Weather & Climate

Definitions
o Weather: State of the atmosphere at a place over a short period of time
o Climate: Average state of atmosphere at a place over a long period of time
(usually over 30 years)

Layers of the atmosphere
o Troposphere (0km 15km)
Temperature decreases as altitude increases
Rate of decrease is called the environmental lapse rate or the normal
lapse rate; decreases at per 1km
o Stratosphere (15km 50km)
Temperature increases as altitude increases
Known as temperature inversion
o Occurs as upper layers absorb more UV light
o Mesosphere (50km 90km)
Temperature decreases as altitude increases
Air becomes rarefied and loses heat faster
o Thermosphere (90km 600km)
Temperature increases as altitude increases
Due to exposure to highly energetic solar radiation

Earths Energy Budget
o Definition
The balance between incoming solar energy and outgoing long wave heat
energy on a global scale
o Solar energy is the main source of energy input into the earth-atmosphere
system
o Only about half of incoming solar energy reaches the earths surface while the
rest is lost by:
Reflection and scattering by clouds and atmosphere (27%)
Absorption by gases and particles in atmosphere (24%)
o Insolation occurs when earths surface absorbs the remaining shortwave
radiation from the sun subsequently turned into long wave radiation and re-
radiated as sensible heat energy
o Greenhouse effect
Greenhouse gases cause the atmosphere to absorb heat energy as it is
being re-radiated to space from the earths surface, thereby increasing
global average surface temperature

Goldilocks Principle
o Earths atmosphere is composed of gases like carbon dioxide and methane
of just the right types and the right amounts to warm Earth to temperatures just
right for life
Comparing to Venus and Mars, Venus too hot and Mars too cold
Same types and % of gases but different atmospheric densities




Temperature
Definition
o A measure of how hot or cold the atmosphere is at any point of time

Factors affecting temperature
o Latitude: temperature generally decreases from low-latitude (equatorial
regions) towards high-latitude (polar regions)
Angle of the sun
The angle of the mid-day sun is higher at low latitudes, thus the
greater the angle of incidence of solar radiation and the more
concentrated the insolation received
Vertical or oblique suns rays
Suns rays reach low latitudes more vertically, thus insolation
received is more concentrated and heating is more intense
Thickness or distance of atmosphere travelled by Suns rays
Suns rays travel a shorter distance to reach low latitudes, thus less
solar energy is lost by reflection, scattering and absorption by dust
particles and water vapour in the atmosphere and more solar radiation
reaches low latitudes
o Altitude: the greater the altitude, the cooler the air temperature
Density of air
Air becomes less dense, more rarefied and contains less water vapour
and dust particles heat escapes more easily
Air temperature decreases at a rate of about 6.5 per 1km, also
called the normal lapse rate
Temperature inversion
Temperature increases as altitude increases due to:
o Nocturnal cooling, where air near the ground surface is cooled
rapidly while the air above remains relatively warm
o Katabatic winds, which blow down a valley such that air remains
cool at the valley bottom
o Cold air mass undercutting warm air mass at a cold front
o Warm air mass overrides a cold air mass or occlusion
o Distance from sea: higher annual range of temperatures inland
Different rates of heating and cooling of land and water surfaces
Water has a higher specific capacity than land
Maritime climate (confined to coastal regions)
Onshore winds from sea lower summer temperatures and raise winter
temperatures Smaller annual range of temperature
Continental climate
Maritime effect is lost further inland, with hotter summers and colder
winters Larger annual range of temperature
o Aspect
Northern hemisphere, south-facing slopes warmer than north-facing ones
and vice versa in the southern hemisphere
Warmer slopes are so because they receive more direct solar radiation
and are protected from cold polar winds
Less noticeable in tropical latitudes due to high angles of mid-day sun

Urban Heat Islands
Definition
o Elevated temperatures in urban areas compared to rural surroundings

Factors affecting formation of UHIs
o Vegetation of area: Areas with reduced vegetation are warmer
Trees and vegetation provide shade, reducing surface temperatures
Vegetation releases water to the air through evapotranspiration, thereby
dissipating ambient heat
Urban areas are covered by dry and impervious surfaces that provide less
shade and moisture
o Colour of surface
Darker surfaces are warmer (dark colours absorb more heat)
Lighter surfaces are cooler (light surfaces reflect more heat)
o Heat capacities of surfaces
Building materials, such as steel and stone, have higher heat capacities
than rural materials, such as dry soil and sand urban areas can store
twice the amount of heat as compared to rural surroundings
o Surface Geometry
Spacing of building
o Areas with buildings that are less spaced out are warmer
More difficult for long wave radiation to escape at night
Height of buildings (sky view factor)
o Provides shade less solar energy can reach the area
o Conversely, more solar energy is absorbed and at night, long wave
radiation does not escape as easily temperatures increase
o Anthropogenic source of heat
Refers to heat produced by human activities (e.g. cars, industrial
facilities, air conditioners)
Urban areas have a greater concentration of human activities Higher
temperature
o Weather
Calm winds and clear skies allow for maximum insolation Formation
of UHIs

UHI Singapore
o Effect of vegetation
Hot spots observed on exposed hard surfaces, such as the industrial
area, airport and Central Business District
o Highest temperature of 28.3C observed in a high density and high
rise commercial area Central Business District
Cool spots observed on large parks, landscape in-between housing
estates and the catchment areas
o Lowest temperature of 24.3C observed in a well-planted area Lim
Chu Kang Difference of 4C as compared to hot spots
Temperatures vary from southern urban areas to northern rural areas
o Effect of colour
Dark-colour materials can be up to higher than air temperature
Light-colour materials only higher than air temperature

Measures to mitigate effects of UHI
o Urban greening: Reduced long wave radiation emitted Lower temperature
Parks
Rooftop gardens
Vertical landscaping: housing estates with 22% vegetation coverage had
lower ambient air temperature as compared to the one with only 7%
o Use of lighter faade materials
Urban ambient temperature correlates to surface temperature of buildings
Materials of lighter colours have higher albedo and can reduce solar heat
gain in daytime
o Reduction of 7.48% of cooling energy achieved when colour of
faade is changed from black to white
o In narrow canyons where high albedo materials were used,
temperatures experienced were lower by up to 2.5
o Strategic placement of tall buildings
High rise towers strategically placed around low rise buildings can
enhance wind velocity within canyons
Strategic placement of tall buildings can cause strong airflow at the lower
zone, thus dissipating large amounts of heat produced by asphalt roads
Wind velocity can be increased by up to 10 times and temperature
reduced by up to 1.1 when wind flow is perpendicular to canyon

Humidity & Precipitation
Definitions
o Humidity
The amount of water vapour/moisture in the air
Air is unsaturated if it contains less moisture than the maximum
amount it can hold at a particular temperature
When temperature falls and the amount of water vapour remains
unchanged, until air is full of water vapour, air is saturated
o Absolute humidity
The actual amount of water vapour in the air at a particular temperature
(measured in kg/m
3
)
o Relative humidity
Relationship between the actual amount of water vapour in the air and
the maximum amount of water vapour, which the air can hold at that
particular temperature (expressed in %)

Forms of Precipitation
o Rain
Relief Rainfall (Orographic Rain)
Onshore winds from the sea bring moisture
Reaching land, they are blocked by mountain ranges / relief barriers
o Air is forced to rise, expands due to decrease of air pressure
o Due to expansion, air cools adiabatically
Air becomes saturated at dew point, relative humidity reaches 100%
Water vapour condenses, forming water droplets
Continual condensation results in bigger droplets in clouds on the
windward slope















The leeward side of a mountain forms a rain shadow area
o E.g. in SE Australia, the Murray Basin is shadowed by the
Eastern Highlands from the SE onshore winds
If the mountain is very high, after crossing the mountain, the
descending dry air is compressed and becomes warm adiabatically
o Forms warm dry wind called fohn wind or chinook in leeward
side
E.g. Calgary in the Rockies in Canada
Convectional Rainfall
Commonly occurs in warmed or heated areas
Air layer near the surface is heated up due to intense insolation
Warm air expands, and, being lighter than the surrounding air, rises
Rising air cools adiabatically to its dew point at its condensation
level
Tall, tower clouds (cumulonimbus) may be formed rapidly by
uprising, moisture-laden currents
Convection rain is usually associated with tropical depressions
(typhoons) and thunderstorms
o Also common in the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)


Characteristics
o Almost daily occurrence and even distribution throughout the
year (in equatorial and tropical regions)
o Usually occurs in the afternoon
o Brings intense but short-lived showers which last for minutes
o Raindrops are usually larger (i.e. heavy downpours)
Frontal Rainfall
Occurs along fronts
o Fronts formed by the meeting of a tropical maritime air mass
and a polar air mass moving in opposite directions (warm meet
cold)
Cold air is denser and heavier; it sinks and remains close to the
ground
Warm moist air rises over the cold air resulting in frontal uplift
o Warm air expands and cools adiabatically to its dew point
o Becomes saturated with relative humidity reaching 100%
o Condensation takes place and clouds form
o Rain finally falls, known as frontal rain


Characteristics
o Usually associated with temperate depressions (temperate
cyclones)
o Steady, persistent and lasts for several hours to several days
Similarities amongst 3 types
Involve
o Warm moist air rising cooling condensation
precipitation
Differences amongst 3 types
The reason the air is rising
o Relief: forced to rise by mountains
o Convectional: air is being heated
o Frontal: warm air is rising over cold air
o Snow
Formed by condensation of water vapour in the atmosphere below
Water vapour passes directly from gaseous to solid state
Snow crystals are flat hexagonal plates with infinite variations in pattern
Snow may either by dry and powdery or wet and compact
o Sleet
Mixture of rain and snow
Formed when snow falls through a layer of warm air, or when raindrops
have frozen in the atmosphere and partially melt as they fall
o Hail
Ice-pellets with a diameter of 5mm or more
Form of precipitation associated with thunderstorms
Formed by the following process
Convection currents with moisture rise rapidly; condensation occurs
Condensed droplets are carried upward by air currents; freezing
occurs around an embryo (frozen droplet in a cloud)
As ice crystals fall, more water vapour condenses around them into
ice; Size of pellets increases
Violent uprising air currents carry the ice crystals upward and
downward in the cumulonimbus cloud, until size increases and ice
falls
Ice crystals do not melt by the time they reach the ground =
hailstones

Air Pressure & Wind
Definitions
o Air pressure
The force exerted by atmospheric gases at a particular point
o Wind
Air that is moving from high pressure to low pressure

Wind formation
o Pressure gradient force
Force that oversees the movement of air from a region of higher
pressure to one of lower pressure
o Coriolis force
Wind is deflected as it moves across Earth due to Earths rotation
Deflection occurs to the right in the northern hemisphere and to
the left in the southern hemisphere

Planetary wind belts
o Equatorial Lows/Doldrums (5N to 5S)
Region of low pressure
o Equatorial Sub-Tropical High / Horse Latitudes (
Region of high pressure
o Sub-Polar Lows (
Region of low pressure
o Polar Highs (
Region of high pressure





Breezes
o Sea Breeze (Day)
Specific heat capacity of water is higher than that of land
Land heats up faster than sea
Warm air at land expands due to heat, therefore pressure is low and
air rises
Advection currents bring warm air over the sea
As air contracts due to the cool sea, pressure is high and air sinks
Air travels from high pressure (the sea) to low pressure (the land),
thus the sea breeze is formed



o Land Breeze (Night)
Specific heat capacity of water is higher than that of land
Land cools down faster than sea
Warm air at sea expands due to heat, therefore pressure is low and air
rises
Advection currents bring warm air over the land
As air contracts due to the cool land, pressure is high and air sinks
Air travels from high pressure (the land) to low pressure (the sea),
thus the land breeze is formed







Tropical Monsoons
January (Winter Monsoon/Northern Monsoon)
o Occurs from November to February
o Sun is directly overhead the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5S)
Southern hemisphere experiencing summer, higher temperatures
which lead to expansion and rising of air Lower pressure region
Large-scale movement of air from higher pressure regions in
North to lower pressure regions in South
Results in Northeast Monsoon in northern hemisphere and
Northwest Monsoon in southern Hemisphere
o Impact of rainfall on
Singapore
Experiences more rainfall than usual, but less than the East Coast
of Peninsular Malaysia
Peninsular Malaysia
Northeast Monsoon picks up moisture over the South China Sea
and brings heavy rainfall to the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia
West Coast experiences higher rainfall than usual but less
compared to East Coast, since the Central Highlands shield the
West Coast from much rainfall
India
Little rainfall in most areas as Northeast Monsoon comes from
over Central Asia, a continental area with little moisture
o Only Southeast India experiences heavy rainfall due to
Northeast Monsoon picking up moisture over Bay of Bengal

July (Summer Monsoon/Southern Monsoon)
o Occurs from June to September
o Sun is directly overhead Cape of Cancer (23.5 N)
Northern Hemisphere experiencing summer, higher temperatures
which lead to expansion and rising of air Lower pressure region
Large-scale movement of air from higher pressure regions in
South to lower pressure regions in North
Results in Southwest Monsoon in the northern hemisphere and
Southeast Monsoon in the southern hemisphere
o Impact of rainfall on
Singapore
Experiences more rainfall than usual, but less significant than
Northeast Monsoon
Peninsular Malaysia
Experiences more rainfall than usual, but less significant than
Northeast Monsoon
India
Heavier rainfall on the West Coast of India due to Southwest
Monsoon picking up moisture over the Indian Ocean
Northeast of India also experiences heavy rainfall as Southwest
Monsoon picks up moisture over the Bay of Bengal