Passive Solar Design Strategies: Guidelines For Home Building (Los Angeles, California)

Passive Solar
Design Strategies:
Guidelines for
HOlDe Building
Passive Solar Industries Council
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Charles Eley Associates
With Support From:
U.S. Department of Energy
Passive Solar Design
Strategies:
Guidelines for Hom.e
Building
Los Angeles, California
This document was prepared under the sponsorship of the National Renewable
Energy Laboratory and produced with funds made available by the United States
Department of Energy. Neither the United States Department of Energy. the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory. the Passive Solar Industries Council nor any of its
member organizations. nor any of their employees. nor any of their contractors.
subcontractors. or their employees. makes any warranty. expressed or implied. or
assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy., completeness or
usefulness of any information. apparatus. product or process disclosed. or represents
that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. The views and opinions do not
necessarily state or reflect those of the United States government. the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory. or any agency thereof. This document was prepared
with the assistance and participation of representatives from many organizations. but
the views and opinions expressed represent general consensus and available
information. Unanimous approval by all organizations is not implied.
Applicability of the Los Angeles Guidelines
The Los Angeles area weather is characterized
by stability year round, heavily dominated by
the proximity of the oceans, and by the
mountains to the north and east.
The summers are dry, with average
temperatures in the low 70's. A typical diurnal
variation of 20 degrees Fahrenheit leads to
average summer daytime temperatures in the
low 80's and night time temperatures around
60 degrees F. The coastal, city, and immediate
inland areas to the east are influenced virtually
everyday by the shore sea breeze, and generally
at night with a severe of-shore effect. The
persistent day-time inversion also creates the
conditions for the regions poor air quality.
The winters are the rainy season, with the
November through April total averaging 14
inches (1992-3 is twice normal). Average
temperatures are in the high 50's to low 60's,
but the continuing diurnal variation of 20
degrees leads to average daytime temperatures
close to 70 degrees F, and highs around 50
degrees F.
The winter shoreline and inland temperatures
are very similar, so the applicability map has
been drawn for this condition. The ocean tends
to depress summer maximums of the
immediate coastal cities, so they show on an
annual basis, as slightly cooler. This area is
indicated by the inner cross-hatched line on the
map.
The indicated weather stations away from the
shoreline all show winter heating demand
about the same as the coastal cities, but the
summer cooling demand increases toward the
east, to become equal to, or greater than, the
winter energy requirements.
The design implications of this benign climate
with a good diurnal temperature variation year
round are to promote interior temperature
stability: modest solar gain in winter, coupled
with good shading and heat rej ection in
summer, and maximum possible interior
thermal, mass exposure.
Natural ventilation throughout the year is also
a necessary condition to promote comfort and
energy efficiency, but the frequent poor air
quality throughout the region suggests
provisions for forced ventilation with some form
of filtration or purification. Since the primary
toxic ingredients of the smog are ozone, carbon
monoxide, and nitrogen oxides, however,
present affordable residential air filtration
systems are of little benefit.
Worksheets I and II may be used throughout
the circled area by using the appropriate
heating degree day (HDD) value on Line E or
Worksheet I. Worksheet III is applicable over a
latitude range of 30 to 38 degrees.
Worksheet N results may be used throughout
the circled region by multiplying the value on
Line E by the cooling degree day (CD D) value
for the specific location and dividing by 728 (the
cooling degree day value for Los Angeles).
Location
L.A. Airport
L.A. Civic Center
Burbank
Canoga Park
Corona
Fontana
Long Beach
Pasadena
San Bernadino
Santa Ana
Santa Monica
HDD
1,595
1,204
1,679
1,885
1,795
1,529
1,485
1,550
1,777
1,430
1,873
CDD
728
1,339
1,292
1,337
1,225
1,893
1,091
1,299
1,718
1,089
438
PASSIVESOLAR DESIGN STRATEGIES CONTENTS
Guidelines
Part One. Introduction .................................................................................................... 1
1. The Passive Solar Design Strategies Package ............................................................... 2
2. Passive Solar PeIformance Potential ............................................................................. 5
Part Two. Basics of Passive Solar ............................................................................... 7
1. Why Passive Solar? More than a Question of Energy .................................................. 8
2. Key Concepts: Energy ConselVation, Suntempering, Passive Solar ............................. 9
3. Improving ConselVation PeIformance ......................................................................... 10
4. Mechanical Systems ................................................................................................... 13
5. South-Facing Glass .................................................................................................... 14
6. Thermal Mass ............................................................................................................. 15
7. Orientation ................................................................................................................. 16
8. Site Planning for Solar Access .................................................................................... 17
9. Interior Space Planning .............................................................................................. 18
10. Putting it Together: The House as a System ............................................................... 18
Part Three. Strategies for Improving Energy Performance
in Los Angeles, California. ............................................................................................ 21
1. The EXaIIlple Tables ................................................................................................... 22
2. Suntempertng ............................................................................................................. 23
3. Direct Gain ................................................................................................................. 24
4. Sunspaces .................................................................................................................. 27
5. Thermal Storage Wall ................................................................................................. 30
6. Combined Systems ..................................................................................................... 32
7. Natural Cooling Guidelines ........................................................................................ 32
Worksheets
Blank Worksheets, Data Tables, and Worksheet Instructions ............................................ 39
Worked Example
Description of the EXaIIlple Building .................................................................................. 47
Completed Worksheets ....................................................................................................... 51
Annotated Worksheet Tables .............................................................................................. 56
"Anytown", USA .................................................................................................................. 59
Appendix
Glossary of Terms ................................................................................................................ 81
Summary Tables ................................................................................................................. 82
Technical Basis for the Builder Guidelines ........................................................................ 84
PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN STRATEGIES
Acknowledgements
Passive Solar Design Strategies:
Guidelines jar Home Builders
represents over three years of
effort by a unique group of
organizations and individuals.
The challenge of creating an
effective design tool that could
be customized for the specific
needs of builders in cities and
towns all over the U.S. called for
the talents and experience of
speCialists in many different
areas of expertise.
Strategies is based on research
sponsored by the United States
Department of Energy (DOE)
Solar Buildings Program. and
carried out primarily by the Los
Alamos National Laboratory
(LANL). the National Renewable
Energy Laboratory (NREL),
formerly Solar Energy Research
Institute (SERI), and the Florida
Solar Energy Center (FSEC).
The National Association of
Home Builders (NAHB) Standing
Committee on Energy has
provided invaluable advice and
assistance during the
development of the Guidelines.
Valuable information was
drawn from the 14-country
International Energy Agency
(lEA), Solar Heating and Cooling
program. Task VIII on Passive
and Hybrid Solar Low Energy
Buildings (see next page for
more about the international
context of PasSive Solar Design
Strategies) .
PSIC expresses particular
gratitude to the following
individuals:
J. Douglas Balcomb. NREL and
LANL . whose work is the baSis
of the Guidelines; Robert
McFarland. LANL. for
developing and programming
the calculation procedures; Alex
Lekov. NREL. for assistance in
the analysis; Subrato Chandra
and Philip W. Fairey. FSEC.
whose research has guided the
natural cooling sections of the
guidelines; the members of the
NAHB Standing Committee on
Energy, especially Barbara B.
Harwood. Donald L. Carr.
James W. Leach and Craig
Eymann. for the benefit of their
long experience in building
energy-efficient homes; at U.S.
DOE. Frederick H. Morse.
Former Director of the Office of
Solar Heat Technologies and
Mary-Margaret Jenior. Program
Manager; Nancy Carlisle and
Paul Notari at NREL; Helen
English. Executive Director of
PSIC; Michael Bell. former
Chairman of PSIC, and Layne
Evans and Elena Marcheso-
Moreno, former Executive
Directors of PSIC; Arthur W.
Johnson, for technical
assistance in the development of
the Guidelines and worksheets;
Michael Nicklas, who worked
on the Guidelines from their
early stages and was
instrumental in the success of
the first pilot workshop in North
Carolina; Charles Eley, for his
help in every aspect of the
production of the Guidelines
package.
Although all the members of
PSIC, especially the Technical
Committee. contributed to the
financial and technical support
of the Guidelines, several
contributed far beyond the call
of duty. Stephen Szoke,
Director of National Accounts,
National Concrete Masonry
Association. Chairman of PSIC's
Board of Directors during the
development of these guidelines;
James Tann, Brick Institute of
America, Region 4, Chairman of
PSIC's Technical Committee
during the development of these
guidelines; and Bion Howard,
Chairman of PSIC's Technical
Committee during the
development of these guidelines,
the Alliance to Save Energy all
gave unstintingly of their time,
their expertise, and their
enthusiasm.
Passive Solar
Design Strategies
GUIDELINES
With Support From:
PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN
Part One: Introduction
1. The Passive Solar Design Strategies Package
2. Passive Solar Performance Potential
2
1. The Passive Solar
Design Strategies
Package
The concepts of passive solar
are simple. but applying it
effectively requires specific
information and attention to the
details of design and
construction. Some passive
solar techniques are modest and
low-cost. and require only small
changes in a builder's standard
practice. At the other end of the
spectrum, some passive solar
systems can almost eliminate a
house's need for purchased
energy - but probably at a
relatively high first cost.
In between are a broad range
of energy-conserving passive
solar techniques. Whether or
not they are cost-effective.
practical and attractive enough
to offer a market advantage to
any individual builder depends
on very specific factors such as
local costs. climate and market
characteristics.
Strategies; GuideHnes jor Home
Builders is written to help give
builders the information they
need to make these decisions.
Los Angeles. California
GUIDELINES PART ONE: INTRODUCTION
Strategies is a package in four
basic parts:
The Guidelines contain
information about passive solar
techniques and how they work.
Specific examples of systems
which will save various
percentages of energy are
provided.
The Worksheets offer a
simple. fill-in-the-blank method
to pre-evaluate the performance
of a specific design.
The Worked Example
demonstrates how to complete
the worksheets for a typical
residence in Los Angeles.
The section titled Any Town.
USA is a step by step
explanation of the passive solar
worksheets for a generic
example house.
BuilderGuide
A special builder-friendly
computer program caller
BuilderGuide has been
developed to automate the
calculations involved in filling
out the four worksheets. The
program operates like a
spreadsheet; the user fills in
values for the building. and the
computer completes the
calculations. including all table
lookups. and prints out the
answers. The automated
method of using the Worksheets
allows the user to vary input
values. BuilderGuide helps the
user quickly evaluate a wide
range of design strategies.
BuilderGuide is aVailable from
the Passive Solar Industries
Council. Computer data files
containing climate data and
data on component performance
for 228 locations within the
United States. The user can
then adjust for local conditions
so performance can be evaluated
virtually anywhere.
PASSIVE SOLAH UcSIC:iN S I HA I C : i c ~
The Guidelines
Some principles of passive solar
design remain the same in every
climate. An important aspect of
good passive solar design is that
it takes advantage of the
opportunities at the specific site.
So. many fundamental aspects
of passive solar design will
depend on the conditions in a
small local area. and even on
the features of the building site.
Many of the suggestions in this
section apply specifically to Los
Angeles. California. but there is
also information which will be
useful in any climate.
Part One introduces Passive
Sotar Design Strategies. and
presents the performance
potential of several different
passive solar systems in the Los
Angeles climate. Although in
practice many factors will affect
actual energy performance. this
information gives a general idea
of how various systems might
perform in Los Angeles.
Part Two discusses the basic
concepts of passive solar design
and construction: what the
advantages of passive solar are.
how passive solar relates to
other kinds of energy
conservation measures. how the
primary passive solar systems
work. and what the builder's
most important considerations
should be when evaluating and
using different passive solar
strategies.
Part Three gives more
specific advice about techniques
for suntempering. direct gain
systems. thermal storage mass
walls and sunspaces. and for
natural cooling strategies to
help offset air-conditioning
needs.
The Example Tables in Part
Three are also related to
Worksheet numbers. so that you
can compare them to the
designs you are evaluating. For
example. the Passive Solar
Sunspace Example Case which
uses 40% less energy than the
Base Case House (page 29) has:
A Conservation Performance
Level of approximately 19.867
Btu/yr-sf.
An Auxiliary Heat
Performance Level of
apprOximately 9.676 Btu/yr-sf.
and
A Summer Cooling
Performance Level of 3.724
Btu/yr-sf.
In this example. the energy
saVings are achieved by no
increase in insulation over the
Base Case House. adding a
sunspace with south glazing
area equal to 6% of the house's
floor area. and using a ceiling
fan to cut some of the air
conditioning load.
A Base Case House is
. compared with a series of
example cases to illustrate
exactly how these increased
levels of energy-efficiency might
be achieved.
The Base Case House is a
reasonably energy-efficient
house based on a 1987 National
Association of Home Builders
study of housing characteristics.
for seven different regions. The
Base Case used for Los Angeles.
California is from the 1.000-
2.500 heating degree days
region. The floor construction is
assumed to be slab-on-grade.
because this is typical in
California.
The examples show how to
achieve 20%. 40% and 60%
energy-use 'reductions using
three basic strategies:
Added Insulation:
Increasing thermal resistance
insulation levels without adding
solar features.
Suntempering: Increasing
south-facing glazing to a
maximum of 7% of the house's
total floor area. without adding
thermal mass (energy storage)
beyond what is already in the
framing. standard floor
coverings and gypsum wall-
board and ceiling surfaces.
Suntempering is combined with
increased levels of thermal
resistance insulation.
4
Solar Architecture: Using
three different design
approaches: Direct Gain,
Sunspace, and Thennal Storage
Wall, with increased levels of
thennal resistance insulation.
For all strategies, the energy
savings indicated are based on
the assumption that the energy-
efficient design and construction
gUidelines have been followed,
so the houses are properly sited
and tightly built with high-
quality windows and doors.
The Guidelines section has
been kept as brief and
straightforward as possible, but
more detailed infonnation is
available if needed. References
are indicated in the text. Also
included at the end of this book
are a brief glossary; a summary
of the Example Tables for Los
Angeles, California, and the
Technical Basis for the Builder
Guidelines which explains the
background and assumptions
behind the Guidelines and
Worksheets.
The Worksheets
The Worksheets are specifically
tailored for Los Angeles,
California, and are a very
important part of this package
because they allow you to
compare different passive solar
strategies or combinations of
strategies, and the effect that
changes will have on the overall
perfonnance of the house.
The most effective way to use
the Worksheets is to make
multiple copies before you fill
them out the first time. You ~ n
then use the Worksheets to
calculate several different
designs. For instance, you
GUIDELINES PART ONE: INTRODUCTION
could first calculate the
perfonnance of the baSic house
you build now, then fill out
Worksheets for that house with
a variety of energy perfonnance
strategies such as increased
insulation, suntempering and
specific passive solar
components.
The Worksheets provide a
way to calculate quickly and
with reasonable accuracy how
well a design is likely to perfonn
in four key ways: how well it will
conserve heat energy; how much
the solar features will contribute
to its total heating energy needs;
how comfortable the house will
be; and how much the annual
cooling load (need for air
conditioning) will be.
The Worksheets are
supported by "look-up" tables
containing pre-calculated
numbers for the local area.
Some of the blanks in the
Worksheets call for infonnation
about the house - for example,
floor area and proj ected area of
passive solar glazing. Other
blanks require a number from
one of the tables - for example,
from the Solar System Savings
Fraction table or from the Heat
Gain Factor table.
The Worksheets allow
calculation of the following
perfonnance indicators:
Worksheet I: Conservation
Performance Level: Determines
how well the house's basic
energy conservation measures
(insulation, sealing, caulking,
etc.) are working to prevent
unwanted heat loss or gains.
The bottom line of this
Worksheet is a number
measuring heat loss in British
thennal units per square foot
per year (Btu/sf-yr) - the lower
the heat loss, the better.
Worksheet II: Auxiliary
Heat Performance Level:
Determines how much heat has
to be supplied (that is, provided
by the heating system) after
taking into account the heat
contributed by passive solar.
This worksheet arrives at a
number estimating the amount
of heating energy the house's
non-solar heating system has to
provide in Btu/yr-sf. Again, the
lower the value, the better.
Worksheet m: Thermal
Mass/Comfort: Determines
whether the house has adequate
thennal mass to assure comfort
and good thennal perfonnance.
Worksheet ill calculates the
number of degrees the
temperature inside the house is
likely to vary, or "swing", during
a sunny winter day without the
heating system operating. A
well-designed house should
have a temperature swing of no
more than 13 degrees, and the
less the better.
Vt: I HAl
Worksheet IV: Summer
Cooling Performance Level:
Indicates how much air
conditioning the house will need
in the summer (It is not.
however. intended for use in
sizing equipment. but as an
indication of the reductions in
annual cooling load made
possible by the use of natural
cooling). The natural cooling
gUidelines should make the
house's total cooling load - the
bottom line of this Worksheet. in
Btu/yr-sf - smaller than in a
"conventional" house. The lower
the cooling performance level,
the better the design.
So. the Worksheets provide
four key numbers indicating the
projected performance of the
various designs you are
evaluating.
The Worked Example: To
assist in understanding how the
design strategies outlined in the
Guidelines affect the overall
performance of a house. a
worked example is included.
The example house is assumed
to be constructed of materials
and design elements typical of
the area. Various design
features. such as direct gain
spaces, sunspaces. increased
levels of insulation and thermal
mass. are included to illustrate
the effects combined systems
have on the performance of a
house. Also. many features are
covered to demonstrate how
various conditions and
situations are addressed in the
worksheets. A description of the
design features. along with the
house plans. elevations and
sections. is included for
additional support information.
2. Passive Solar
Performance
Potential
The energy performance of
passive solar strategies varies
significantly. depending on
climate. the specifiC design of
the system. and the way it is
built and operated. Of course.
energy performance is not the
only consideration. A system
which will give excellent energy
performance may not be as
marketable in your area or as
easily adaptable to your designs
as a system which saves less
energy but fits other needs.
In the following table.
several different passive solar
systems are presented along
with two numbers which
indicate their performance. The
Percent Solar Savings is a
measure of how much the
passive solar system is reducing
the need for purchased energy.
For example. the Percent Solar
Savings for the Base Case House
is 21.0%. because even in a
non-solar house. the south-
faCing windows are contributing
some heat energy.
The Yield is the annual net
heating energy benefit of adding
the passive solar system.
measured in Btu saved per year
per square foot of additional
south glazing.
The figures given are for a
1, 500 sf. Single-story house with
a slab floor. The Base Case
House has 45 sf of south-facing
glazing. For the purposes of this
example. the Suntempered
house has 100 sf of south-facing
glass. and each passive solar
system has 145 sf. The energy
savings presented in this
example assume that all the
systems are designed and built
according to the suggestions in
these Guidelines. It's also
important to remember that the
figures below are for annual net
heating benefits. The natural
cooling section in Part Three
gives advice about shading and
other techniques which would
make sure the winter heating
benefits are not at the expense
of higher summer cooling loads.
Please note that throughout
the Guidelines and Worksheets
the glazing areas given are for
the actual net area of the glass
itself. A common rule of thumb
is that the net glass area is 80
percent of the rough frame
opening. For example. if a
south glass area of 100 sf is
deSired. the required area of the
rough frame opening would be
about 125 sf.
6
GUIDELINES PART ON: INTRODUCTION
Performance Potential of Passive Solar Strategies
in Los Angeles, California
1,500 sf, Single Story House
Percent Solar
Case Savings
Base Case 21.0
(45 sf of south-facing double glass)
Suntempered 40.7
(100 sf of south-facing double glass)
Direct Gain (145 sf of south glass)
Double Glass 54.0
Triple or low-e glass 54.1
Double glass with R-4 night 57.0
insulation
l
Double glass with R-9 night 57.6
insulation
l
Sunspace (145 sf of south glass)
Attached with opaque end walls
2
47.9
Attached with glazed end walls
2
47.2
Semi-enclosed with vertical glazi ng3 51.2
Semi-enclosed with 50sloped 58.8
glazing
3
Thermal Storage Wall - Masonry/Concrete
(145 sf of south glass)
Black surface, double glazing 47.8
Selective surface, single glazing 57.3
Selective surface, double glazing 55.9
Thermal Storage Wall - Water Wall
(145 sf of south glass)
Selective surface, single glazing 62.7
Yield
Btu Saved per
Square Foot of
South Glass
not applicable
100,632
93,675
95,722
104,841
106,877
78,325
76,058
86,240
110,374
77,080
106,007
102,095
122,024
1. Night insulation is assumed to cover the south glass each night and
removed when sun is available. Experience has shown that many
homeowners find this inconvenient and so the potential energy savings are
often not achieved. Using low-e or other energy-efficient glazing is more
reliable.
2. The attached sunspace is assumed to have, in addition to glazed walls,
roof glazing at a slope of 30 degrees from the horizontal, or a 7:12 pitch.
(See diagram SSB1 in the Worksheets.)
3. The semi-enclosed sunspace has only the south wall exposed to the out-
of-doors. The glazing has a slope of 50from the horizontal, or a 14:12
pitch. The side walls are adjacent to conditioned space in the house.
(See diagram SSD1 in the Worksheets.)
fJAtiti/VI:; tiULAH Ul:;ti/C:iN ti / HA /1:;C:i/l=ti

Part Two: Basics of Passive Solar
1. Why Passive Solar? More than a Question of Energy
2. Key Concepts: Energy Conservation, Suntempering,
3. Improving Conservation Performance
4. Mechanical Systems
5. South-Facing Glass
6. Thermal Mass
7. Orientation
8. Site Planning for Solar Access
9. Interior Space Planning
10. Putting it Together: The House as a System
8
1. Why Passive Solar?
More than a Question
of Energy
Houses today are more energy-
efficient than ever before.
However. the vast majority of
new houses still ignore a lot of
energy saving opportunities -
opportunities available in the
sunlight falling on the house. in
the landscaping. breezes and
other natural elements of the
site. and opportunities in the
structure and materials of the
house itself. which. with
thoughtful design. could be
used to collect and use free
energy. Passive solar (the name
distinguishes it from "active" or
mechanical solar technologies)
is simply a way to take
maximum advantage of these
opportunities. .
Home buyers are also
increasingly sophisticated about
energy issues. although the
average home buyer is probably
much more familiar with
insulation than with passive
solar. The "energy crisis" may
come and go. but very few
people perceive their own
household energy bills as
getting smaller - quite the
opposite. So a house with
significantly lower monthly
energy costs year-round will
have a strong market advantage
over a comparable house down
the street. no matter what
international oil prices may be.
There are many different
ways to reduce energy bills. and
some are more marketable than
others. For instance. adding
insulation can markedly
GUIDELINES PART TWO: BASIS OF PASSIVE SOLAR
improve energy-efficiency - but
added insulation is invisible to
the prospective home buyer. A
sunny. open living area lit by
south-facing windows. on the
other hand. may be a key selling
point. Windows in general are
popular with homebuyers. and
passive solar can make windows
energy produce.rs instead of
energy liabilities.
Another example: high-
effiCiency heating equipment
can account for Significant
energy savings - but it won't be
as much fun on a winter
morning as breakfast in a
bright. attractive sunspace.
The point is not that a
builder should choose passive
solar instead of other energy-
conserving measures. The
important thing is that passive
solar strategies can add not only
energy-efficiency. but also very
saleable amenities - style.
comfort. attractive interiors.
curb appeal and resale value.
In fact. in some local
markets. builders report that
they don't even make specific
reference to "passive solar".
They just present their houses
as the state of the art in eriergy-
efficiency and style. and they
use passive solar as a part of the
package.
The U. S. Department of
Energy and the National Renew-
able Energy Laboratory (NREL)
conducted extensive national
surveys of passive solar homes.
home owners and potential
buyers. Some key findings:
Passive solar homes work -
they generally require an
average of about 30% less
energy for heating than
"conventional" houses. with
some houses saving much more.
Occupants of passive solar
homes are pleased with the
performance of their homes
(over 90% "very satisfied"). but
they rank the comfort and
pleasant living environment as
just as important (in some
regions. more important) to their
satisfaction. and in their
decision to buy the house. as
energy considerations.
Passive solar home owners
and lenders perceive the
resale value of passive solar
houses as high.
Advantages of Passive Solar
Energy performance: Lower energy bills all year-round
Attractive living environment: large windows and views, sunny
interiors, open floor plans
Comfort: quiet (no operating noise), solid construction, warmer in
winter, cooler in summer (even during a power failure)
Value: high owner satisfaction, high resale value
Low Maintenance: durable, reduced operation and repairs
Investment: independence from future rises in fuel costs, will continue
to save money long after any initial costs have been recovered
Environmental Concerns: clean, renewable energy to combat growing
concerns over global warming, acid rain and ozone depletion
I-'A::5::5/Vc ::5ULAH Uc::5/C:iN ::5 / HA / cC:i!c::5
2. Key Concepts:
Energy Conservation,
Suntempering,
Passive Solar
The strategies for enhancing
energy performance which are
presented here fall into four
general categories:
Energy Conservation:
insulation levels. control of air
infiltration. glazing type and
location. mechanical equipment
and energy efficient appliances.
Suntemperlng: a limited use
of solar techniques; modestly
increasing south-facing window
area. usually by relocating
windows from other sides of the
house. but without adding
thermal mass.
Solar Architecture: going
beyond conservation and
suntempering to a complete
system of collection. storage and
use of solar energy: using more
south glass. adding appropriate
thermal mass. and taking steps
to control and distribute heat
energy throughout the house.
Natural Cooling: using
design and the environment to
cool the house and increase
comfort. by increasing air
movement and employing
shading strategies.
What is immediately clear is
that these categories overlap. A
good passive solar design must
include an appropriate thermal
envelope. energy efficient
mechanical systems. energy
efficient appliances and proper
solar architecture. specifically
the appropriate amounts and
locations of mass and glass.
Many of the measures that
are often considered part of
suntempering or passive solar -
such as orienting to take
advantage of summer breezes. or
landscaping for natural cooling.
or facing a long wall of the
house south - can help a house
conserve energy even if no
"solar" features are planned.
The essential elements in a
passive solar house are south-
facing glass and thermal mass.
In the simplest terms. a
passive solar system collects
solar energy through south-
facing glass and stores solar
energy in thermal mass -
materials with a high capacity
for storing heat (e.g .. brick.
concrete masoIllY. concrete
slab. tile. water). The more
south-facing glass is used in the
house. the more thermal mass
must be provided. or the house
will overheat and the solar
system will not perform as
expected.
Improperly done. passive
solar may continue to heat the
house in the summer. causing
discomfort or high air-
conditioning bills. or overheat
the house in the winter and
require additional ventilation.
Although the concept is simple.
in practice the relationship
between the amounts of glazing
and mass is complicated by
many factors. and has been a
subject of conSiderable study
and experiment. From a comfort
and energy standpoint. it would
be difficult to add too much
mass. Thermal mass will hold
warmth longer in winter and
keep houses cooler in summer.
The following sections of the
Guidelines discuss the size and
location of glass and mass. as
well as other considerations
which are basic to both
suntempered and passive solar
houses: improving conservation
performance; mechanical
systems; orientation; site
planning for solar access;
interior space planning; and
approaching to the house as a
totally integrated system.
10
3.
Conservation
Performance
The techniques described in this
section relate to Worksheet I:
Conservation Performance
Level, which measures the
house's heat loss. The energy
conservation measures that
reduce heat loss also tend to
reduce the house's need for air
conditioning.
The most important
measures for improving the
house's basic ability to conserve
the heat generated either by the
sun or by the house's
conventional heating system are
in the following areas:
Insulation
Air infiltration
Non-solar glazing
Insulation
Adding insulation to walls,
floors, ceilings, roof and
foundation improves their
thermal resistance (R-value)-
their resistance to heat flowing
out of the house.
A quality job of installing the
insulation can have almost as
much effect on energy
performance as the R-value. so
careful construction supervision
is important. An inspection just
before the drywall is hung may
identify improvements which are
easy at that time but might
make a big difference in the
energy use of the home for the
life of the building.
The thermal resistance of
ceiling/roof assemblies, walls
and floors is affected not only
by the R-value of the insulation
itself. but also the resistance of
other elements in the
construction assembly - framing
effects. exterior sheathing. and
finishes and interior finishes.
The Worksheets include tables
that show Equivalent
Construction R-Values which
account for these and other
effects. For instance. ventilated
crawlspaces and unheated
basements provide a buffering
effect which is accounted for in
the Worksheet tables.
With attics. framing effects
are minimized if the insulation
covers the ceilingjoists. either
by using blown-in insulation or
by running an additional layer
of batts in the opposite direction
of the ceilingjoists. Ridge
and/ or eave vents are needed for
ventilation.
Insulation In an Attic
Insulation should extend over the top ceiling
joists and ventilation should be provided at the
eaves.
In cathedral ceilings. an
insulating sheathing over the
top decking will increase the R-
value.
Slab edge insulation should
be at least two feet deep.
extending from the surface of
the floor or above. Materials for
slab edge insulation should be
selected for underground
durability. One material with a
proven track record is extruded
polystyrene. Exposed insulation
should be protected from
physical damage by attaching a
protection board. for instance.
or by covering the insulation
with a protective surface. The
use of termite shields may be
required.
Heated basement walls
should be fully insulated to at
least four feet below grade. but
the portion of the wall below
that depth only needs to be
insulated to about half the R-
value of the upper portion.
Insulation can be placed on the
outside surface of the wall. or on
the inside surface of the wall. or
in the cores of the masonry
units.
lf the basement walls are
insulated on the outside. the
materials should be durable
underground. and exposed
insulation should be protected
from damage. Exterior
insulation strategies only
require the use of a termite
shield. In the case of a finished
basement or walk-out basement.
placing insulation on the
interior or within the cores of
architectural masonry units
may be less costly than
insulating the exterior
foundation.
PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN STRATEGIES I I
Air Infiltration
Sealing the house carefully to
reduce air infiltration - air
leakage - is as necessary to
energy conservation as adding
insulation.
The tightness of houses is
generally measured in the
number of air changes per hour
(ACH). A good, comfortable,
energy-efficient house, built
along the gUidelines in the table
on this page, will have
apprOximately 0.35 to 0.50 air
changes per hour under normal
winter conditions.
Increasing the tightness of
the house beyond that may
improve the energy performance,
but it may also create problems
with indoor air quality, moisture
build-up, and inadequately
vented fireplaces and furnaces.
Tighter houses may perform
effectively with appropriate
mechanical ventilation systems.
The use of house sealing
subcontractors to do the
tightening and check it with a
blower door can often save the
builder time and problems,
especially when trying to
achieve particularly high levels
of infiltration control.
Checklist for Minimizing Air Leakage
.I Tighten seals around windows and doors, and weatherstripping around
all openings to the outside or to unconditioned rooms;
.I Caulk around all windows and doors before drywall is hung; seal all
penetrations (plumbing, electrical, etc.);
.I Insulate behind wall outlets and/or plumbing lines in exterior walls;
.I Caulk under headers and sills;
.I Chink spaces between rough openings and millwork with insulation, or
for a better seal, fill with foam;
,/ Seal larger openings such as ducts into attics or crawlspaces with taped
polyethylene covered with insulation;
.I Locate continuous vapor retardants located on the warm side of the
inSUlation (building wrap, continuous interior polyethylene, etc.);
.I Install dampers and/or glass doors on fireplaces; combined with outside
combustion air intake;
.I Install backdraft dampers on all exhaust fan openings;
.I Caulk and seal the joint between floor slabs and walls; .
.I Remove wood grade stakes from slabs and seal;
.I Cover and seal sump cracks;
.I Close core voids in top of concrete masonry foundation walls;
.I Control concrete and masonry cracking;
.I Use of air tight drywall methods are also acceptable;
.I Employ appropriate radon mitigation techniques.
.I Seal seams in exterior sheathing.
Los Angeles, CaHfomia
12
Non-Solar Glazing
South-faCing windows are
considered solar glazing. The
south windows in any house are
contributing some solar heat
energy to the house's heating
needs - whether it's a
Significant. usable amount or
hardly worth measuring will
depend on design. location and
other factors which are dealt
with later under the discussions
of suntempering and passive
solar systems.
North windows in almost
every climate lose significant
heat energy and gain very little
useful sunlight in the winter.
East and west windows are
likely to increase air
conditioning needs unless heat
gain is minimized with careful
attention to shading.
But most of the reasons
people want windows have very
little to do with energy. so the
best design will probably be a
good compromise between
energy efficiency and other
benefits. such as bright living
spaces and views.
Double-glazing of all non-
solar glazing is advisable. Low-e
glazing on all non-solar windows
may be an especially useful
solution because some low-e
coatings can insulate in winter
and shield against unwanted
heat gain in summer.
A chart is provided with the
worksheets that gives typical
window R-values for generic
window types. When possible.
however. manufacturer's data
based on National Fenestration
Rating Council (NFRC)
procedures should be used. The
R-values that result from
procedures account for the
glass. the frame. the air gap and
any special (low-e) coatings.
North windows should be
used with care. Sometimes
views or the diffuse northern
light are deSirable. but in
general north-facing windows
should not be large. Very large
north-facing windows should
have high insulation value. or
R-value. Since north windows
receive relatively little direct sun
in summer. they do not present
much of a shading problem. So
if the chOice were between an
average-sized north-facing
window and an east or west-
facing window. north would
actually be a better choice.
considering both summer and
winter performance.
East windows catch the
morning sun. Not enough to
provide significant energy. but.
unfortunately. usually enough
to cause potential overheating
problems in summer. lfthe
views or other elements in the
house's design dictate east
windows. shading should be
done with particular care.
West windows may be the
most problematic. and there are
few shading systems that will be
effective enough to offset the
potential for overheating from a
large west-facing window. Glass
. with a low shading coefficient
may be one effective approach -
for example. tinted glass or
some types of low-e glass which
provide some shading while
allowing almost clear views. The
cost of properly shading both
east and west windows should
be balanced against the
benefits.
As many windows as
possible should be kept operable
for easy natural ventilation in
summer. (See also Orientation.
page 16. Recommended Non-
South Glass GUidelines. page
34. and Shading. page 35)
Low-e Glass
The principle mechanism of heat
transfer in multi-layer glazing is
thermal radiation from a warm
pane of glass to a cooler pane.
Coating a glass surface with a
low-emissivity (low-e) metallic
oxide material and facing that
coating into the gap between the
glass layers significantly
reduces the amount of heat
transfer. The improvement in
insulating value due to the
low-e coating is roughly
equivalent to adding another
layer of glass to the multi-pane
glass unit. Two panes of glass.
one with a low-e coating. will
h v ~ about the same insulating
value as three clear panes. Add
argon gas to this two pane low-e
unit and the system will be
nearly as effective as four layers
of clear glass. The net effect to
the building occupant is an
improvement in comfort in both
winter and summer.
In the market today. there
are three basiC types of low-e
coatings: (1) high transmiSSion
low-e. (2) selective transmission
low-e. and: (3) tinted low-e or
tinted glass with low-e.
These categories are related
to the windows' transmission of
sunlight. or Solar Heat Gain
(SHG) coefficient. The SHG
coeffiCient will soon be made
available to builders and
PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN STHA I CWC::;
consumers from 'uniform ratings
made by the NFRC.
High transmission products
are best suited to passive solar
buildings designs located in
heating dominated climates
where high solar gains can be
utilized by thermal mass and
where overhangs are
incorporated to prevent
unwanted summer heat gains.
Selective transmission
products are ideal for those
buildings that have both winter
heating and summer cooling
reqUirements. The low
emittance characteristics of this
glass ensure winter performance
by a reduction in heat loss. In
summer. the selective properties
allow natural daylighting. but
block a large fraction of solar
infrared energy. reducing the
cooling load.
Putting a Iow-e coating on
tinted glass. or coloring the
coating itself. creates a product
with the U-value. or insulating
capability. of both the products
above. However. this glass also
provides glare control along with
a high level of solar heat
rejection. helping control solar
gains in cooling dominated
areas.
With this range of products
available in the market. nearly
all buildings can benefit from
the application of low-e glass.
Home owners will enjoy
increased comfort and livability
in interior spaces. reduced
operating costs. and possibly
first cost savings from reduced
HV AC eqUipment sizing.
4. Mechanical
Systems
The passive solar features in the
house and the mechanical
heating. ventilating and air
conditioning systems (HVAC)
will interact all year round. so
the most effective approach will
be to design the system as an
integrated whole. HVAC design
is. of course. a complex subj ect.
but four areas are particularly
worth noting in energy-efficient
houses:
System Sizing: Mechanical
systems are often oversized for
the relatively low heating loads
in well-insulated passive solar
houses. Oversized systems will
cost more in the first place. and
will cycle on and off more often.
wasting energy. The back-up
systems in passive solar houses
should be sized to provide 100%
of the heating or cooling load on
the design day. but no larger.
Comparing estimates on system
sizes from more than one
contractor is probably a good
idea.
Night Setback: Clock
thermostats for automatic
setback are usually very
effective - but in passive solar
systems with large amounts of
thermal mass (and thus a large
capacity for storing energy and
releasing it during the night).
setback of the thermostat may
not save very much energy
unless set properly to account
for the time lag effects resulting
from the thermal mass.
I'"
Ducts: One area often
neglected but of key importance
to the house's energy
performance is the design and
location of the ducts. Both the
supply and return ducts should
be located within insulated
areas, or be well insulated if
they run in cold areas of the
house. All segments of ducts
should be sealed at the jOints.
The joints where the ducts turn
up into exterior walls or
penetrate the ceiling should be
particularly tight and sealed.
System Efficiency: Heating
system efficiency is rated by the
annual fuel utilization efficiency
(AFUE). Cooling system
efficiency is rated by the
seasonal efficiency is rating
(SEER). The higher the number,
the better the performance.
In the National AsSOCiation
of Home Builders' Energy-
EffiCient House Project, all the
rooms were fed with low, central
air supplies, as opposed to the
usual placement of registers
under windows at the end of
long runs. This resulted in good
comfort and energy
performance.
The performance of even the
most beautifully designed
passive solar house can easily
be undermined by details like
uninsulated ducts, or by
overlooking other basic energy
conservation measures.
14
5. South-Facing Glass
South-facing solar glass is a key
component of any passive solar
system. The system must
include enough solar glazing for
good performance in winter. but
not so much that cooling
performance in summer will be
compromised. The amount of
solar glazing must also be
carefully related to the amount
of thermal mass. Suntempered
houses use no additional
thermal mass beyond that
already in the wallboard.
framing and furnishings of a
typical house. Houses with
solar architecture must have
additional thermal mass.
There are three types of
limits on the amount of south-
facing glass that can be used
effectively in a house. The first
is a limit on the amount of
glazing for suntempered houses.
7% of the house's total floor
area. Above this 7% limit. mass
must be added.
For direct gain systems in
passive solar houses. the
maximum amount of south-
facing glazing is 12% of total
floor area. regardless of how
much additional thermal mass
is provided. This limit will
reduce the problems associated
with visual glare or fabriC
fading. Further details about
the most effective sizing of south
glass and thermal mass for
direct gain systems are provided
in Part Three.
GUIDL1NES PART TWO: BASIS OF PASSIVE SOLAR
The third limit on south-
facing glass is the total of all
passive solar systems combined.
which should not exceed 13% of
total floor area. Using more
south glass than this limit could
lead to overheating even in
winter.
For example. a passive solar
system for a 1.500 sf house
might combine 99 sf of direct
gain glazing with 79 sf of
sunspace glazing for a total of
179 sf of solar glazing. or 11 % of
the total floor area. well within
the direct gain limit of 12% and
the overall limit of 13%. For a
design like this. thermal mass
would be required both in the
house and within the sunspace.
The Natural Cooling
guidelines in Part Three include
recommendations on the
window area that should be
operable to allow for natural
ventilation.
. When the solar glazing is
tilted. its winter effectiveness as
a solar collector usually
increases. However. tilted
glazing can cause serious
overheating in the summer if it
is not properly shaded.
Ordinary vertical glazing is
easier to shade. less likely to
overheat. less susceptible to
damage and leaking. and so is
almost always a better year-
round solution.
J-'A::i::i/Vc ::iULAH Uc::i/C:iN ::i / HA 11:1.::111:.:>
6. Thermal Mass
Some heat storage capacity. or
thermal mass. is present in all
houses. in the framing. gypsum
wallboard. typical furnishings
and floor coverings. In
suntempered houses. this
modest amount of mass is
sufficient for the modest amount
of south-facing glass. But more
thermal mass is required in
passive solar houses. and the
question is not only how much.
but what kind and where it
should be located.
The thermal storage
capabilities of a given material
depend on the material's
conductivity. specifiC heat and
denSity. Most of the concrete
and masonry materials typically
used in passive solar have
similar specific heats.
Conductivity tends to increase
with increasing density. So the
major factor affecting
performance is density.
Generally. the higher the
density the better.
. '"
The design issues related to
thermal mass depend on the
passive system type. For
sunspaces and thermal storage
wall systems. the required mass
of the system is included in the
design itself. For direct gain.
the added mass must be within
the rooms receiving the
sunlight. The sections on Direct
Gain Systems. Sunspaces and
Thermal Storage Walls contain
more information on techniques
for sizing and locating thermal
mass in those systems.
The thermal mass in a
passive solar system is usually a
conventional construction
material such as brick. poured
concrete. concrete masonry. or
tile. and is usually placed in the
floor or interior walls. Other
materials can also be used for
thermal mass. such as water or
"phase change" materials.
Heat Storage Properties of Materials
Phase change materials store
and release heat through a
chemical reactions. Water
actually has a higher unit
thermal storage capacity than
concrete or masonry. Water
tubes and units called "water
walls" are commercially
available (general
recommendations for these
systems are included in the
section on Thermal Storage Wall
systems).
Material
Poured Concrete
Clay Masonry
Molded Brick
Extruded Brick
Pavers
Concrete Masonry
Concrete Masonry Units
Brick
Pavers
Gypsum Wallboard
Water
Specific
Heat
(BtU/lb OF)
0.16-0.20
0.19-0.21
0.19-0.22
0.26
Density Heat
(lb/ft3) Capacity
(BtU/in-sf-OF)
120 - 150 2.0 - 2.5
120 - 130 2.0 - 2.2
125 -135 2.1 - 2.3
130 - 135 2.2 - 2.3
80 -140 1.3 - 2.3
115-140 1.9 - 2.3
130 -150 2.2 - 2.5
50 1.1
62.4 5.2
16
7. Orientation
The ideal orientation for solar
glazing is within 5 degrees of
true south. This orientation will
provide maximum performance.
Glazing oriented to within 15
degrees of true south will
perform almost as well. and
orientations up to 30 degrees off
- although less effective - will
still provide a substantial level
of solar contribution.
In Los Angeles. magnetic
north as indicated on the
compass is actually 15 degrees
East of true north. and this
should be corrected for when
planning for orientation of south
glazing.
"Los Angeles, California
When glazing is oriented
more than 15 degrees off true
south. not only is winter solar
performance reduced. but
summer air conditioning loads
also Significantly increase.
especially as the orientation
goes west. The warmer the
climate. the more east- and
west-facing glass will tend to
cause overheating problems. In
general. southeast orientations
present less of a problem than
southwest.
Magnetic
North
Magnetic DevIation
Magnetic DMation is the angle between true
north and magnetic north.
In the ideal Situation. the
house should be oriented east-
west and so have its longest wall
facing south. But as a practical
matter. if the house's short side
has good southern exposure it
will usually accommodate
suffiCient glazing for an effective
passive solar system. provided
the heat can be transferred to
the northern zones of the house.
PASS/VI:; SOLAH UI:;S/C:iN S / HA
8. Site Planning for
Solar Access
The basic objective of site
planning for maximum energy
performance is to allow the
south side as much unshaded
exposure as possible during the
winter months.
As discussed above, a good
solar orientation is possible
within a relatively large
southern arc, so the flexibility
exists to achieve a workable
balance between energy
performance and other
important factors such as the
slope of the site, the individual
house plan, the direction of
prevailing breezes for summer
cooling, the views, the street lay-
out, and so on .
. But planning for solar
access does place some
restrictions even on an
individual site, and presents
even more challenges when
planning a complete
subdivision. Over the years,
developers and builders of many
different kinds of projects all
over the country have come up
with flexible ways to provide
adequate solar access.
Once again, there is an ideal
situation and then some degree
of flexibility to address practical
concerns. Ideally, the glazing on
the house should be exposed to
sunlight with no obstructions
within an arc of 60 degrees on
either side of true south, but
reasonably good solar access
will still be guaranteed if the
glazing is unshaded within an
arc of 45 degrees. The figure on
this page shows the optimum
situation for providing
unshaded southern exposure
during the winter. See also the
figure on page 35 showing
landscaping for summer shade.
2 Story Buildings Allowed
Ideal Solar Access
Buildings, trees or other obstructions should
not be located so as to shade the south wall of
solar buildings. At this latitude, A = 9 ft., B =
16 ft., and C = 37 ft.
Of course, not all lots are large
enough to accommodate this
kind of optimum solar access, so
it's important to carefully assess
shading patterns on smaller lots
to make the best compromise.
Protecting solar access is
easiest in subdivisions with
streets that run within 25
degrees of east-west, because all
lots will either face or back up to
south. Where the streets run
north- south, creation of east-
west cul-de-sacs will help
ensure solar access.

: ............ : ............ : ............ :
Solar Subdivision Layouts
Solar access may be provided to the rear
yard, the side yard or the front yard of solar
homes.

Solar Subdivision Layouts
Short east-west cul-de-sacs tied into north-
south collectors is a good street pattern for
solar access.
Two excellent references for
ideas about subdivision lay-out
to protect solar access are
Builders Guide to Passive Solar
Home Design and Land.
Development and Site Planning
jor Solar Access.
18
9. Interior Space
Planning
Planning room lay-out by
considering how the rooms will
be used in different seasons.
and at different times of day.
can save energy and increase
comfort. In houses with passive
solar features. the lay-out of
rooms - and interior zones
which may include more than
one room - is particularly
important.
In general. living areas and
other high-activity rooms should
be located on the south side to
benefit from the solar heat. The
closets. storage areas. garage
and other less-used rooms can
act as buffers along the north
side. but entry-ways should be
located away r o ~ the wind.
Clustering baths. kitchens and
laundry-rooms near the water
heater will save the heat that
would be lost from longer water
lines.
~
Interior Space Planning
Uving and high activity spaces should be
located on the south.
Another general principle is
that an open floor plan will
allow the collected solar heat to
circulate freely through natural
convection.
Other ideas from effective
passive solar 'houses:
Orienting internal mass
walls as north-south partitions
that can be "charged" on both
sides.
Using an east-west partition
wall for thermal mass.
Avoid dividing the house
between north and south zones.
Using thermal storage walls
(see page 30); the walls store
energy all day and slowly release
it at night. and can be a good
alternative to ensure privacy
and to buffer noise when the
south side faces the street;
Collecting the solar energy
in one zone of the house and
transporting it to another by
fans or natural convection
through an open floor plan.
Providing south-faCing
clerestOries to "charge" north
zones.
10. Putting it
Together: The House
as a System
Many different factors will affect
a house's overall performance.
and these factors all interact:
the mechanical system. the
insulation. the house's
tightness. the effects of the
passive solar features. the
appliances. and. very
importantly. the actions of the
people who live in the house. In
each of these areas. changes are
possible which would improve
the house's energy performance.
Some energy savings are
relatively. easy to get. Others
can be more expensive and more
difficult to achieve. but may
provide benefits over and above
good energy performance.
A sensible energy-efficient
house uses a combination of
techniques.
In fact. probably the most
important thing to remember
about designing for energy
performance in a way that will
also enhance the comfort and
value of the house is to take an
integrated approach. keeping in
mind the house as a total
system. On the the following
page is a basic checklist for
energy-efficient design. These
techniques are dealt with in
more detail. including their
impact in your location. in Part
Three.
PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN STRATEGIES Iv
Checklist for Good Design
1. Building Orientation: A number of innovative techniques can be used for obtaining good solar access. No
matter what the house's design, and no matter what the site, some options for orientation will be more energy-
efficient than others, and even a very simple review of the site will probably help you choose the best option
available.
2. Upgraded levels of insulation: It is possible, of course, to achieve very high energy-efficiency with a
"superinsulated" design. But in many cases, one advantage of passive solar design is that energy-efficiency
can be achieved with more economical increases in insulation.
On the other hand, if very high energy performance is a priority - for example, in areas where the cost of
fuel is high - the most cost-effective way to achieve it is generally through a combination of high levels of
insulation and passive solar features.
3. Reduced air infiltration: Air tightness is not only critical to energy performance, but it also makes the
house more comfortable.
Indoor air quality is an important issue, and too complex for a complete discussion here, but in general, the
suntempered and passive solar houses built according to the Guidelines provide an alternative approach to
achieving improved energy efficiency without requiring air quality controls such as air to air heat exchangers,
which would be needed if the house were made extremely airtight.
4. Proper window sizing and location: Even if the total amount of glazing is not changed, rearranging the
location alone can often lead to significant energy savings at little or no added cost. Some energy-conserving
designs minimize window area on all sides of the house - but it's a fact of human nature that people like
windows, and windows can be energy producers if located correctly.
5. Selection of glazing: Low-emissivity (low-e) glazing types went from revolutionary to commonplace in a
very short time, and they can be highly energy-efficient choices. But the range of glazing possibilities is
broader than that, and the choice will have a significant impact on energy performance. Using different types
of glazing for windows with different orientations is worth considering for maximum energy performance; for
example, using heat-rejecting glazing on west windows, high R-value glazing for north and east windows, and
clear double-glazing on solar glazing.
6. Proper shading of windows: If windows are not properly shaded in summer - either with shading devices,
or by high-performance glazing with a low shading coefficient - the air conditioner will have to work overtime
'and the energy savings of the winter may be canceled out. Even more important, unwanted solar gain is
uncomfortable.
7. Addition of thermal mass: Adding thermal mass - tiled or paved concrete slab, masonry walls, brick
fireplaces, tile floors, etc. - can greatly improve the comfort in the house, holding heat better in winter and
keeping rooms cooler in summer. In a passive solar system, of course, properly sized and located thermal
mass is essential.
8. Interior design for easy air distribution: If the rooms in the house are planned carefully, the flow of heat
in the winter will make the passive solar features more effective, and the air movement will also enhance
ventilation and comfort during the summer. Often this means the kind of open floor plan which is highly
marketable in most areas. Planning the rooms with attention to use pattems and energy needs can save
energy in other ways, too - for instance, using less-lived-in areas like storage rooms as buffers on the north
side. .
9. Selection and proper sizing of mechanical systems, and selection of energy-efficient appliances:
High-performance heating, cooling and hot water systems are extremely energy-efficient, and almost always a
good investment. Mechanical equipment should have at least a 0.80 Annual Fuel Utilization Efficiency (AFUE).
Well-insulated passive solar homes will have much lower energy loads than conventional homes, and
should be sized accordingly. Oversized systems will cost more and reduce performance.
20 GUIDELINES PART TWO: BASIS OF PASSIVE SOLAR
-Los Angeles, CaHfornia
t'A::i::i/VI= ::iULAH UI=::i/C:iN ::i / HA I = ~ c : : i
Part Three: Strategies for
Improving Energy Performance in
1. The Example Tables
2. Suntempering
3. Direct Gain
4. Sunspaces
5. Thermal Storage Wall
6. Combined Systems
7. Natural Cooling Guidelines
" I
22
GUIDELINES PART THREE: STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING ENERGY PERFORMANCE
1. The Example
Tables
In the following sections of the
Guidelines. the primary passive
solar energy systems -
Suntempering. Direct Gain.
Thermal Storage Walls and
Sunspaces - are described in
more detail.
As part of the explanation of
each system. an Example table
is provided. The Examples
present the following .
information about a Base Case
House. based on a National
Association of Home Builders
study of a typical construction:
Insulation levels (ceilings
and walls);
Insulation added to the
perimeter of slab-on-grade
construction. ;
Tightness (measured in air
changes per hour. ACH);
The amount of glass area on
each side (measured as a
percentage of floor area; the
actual square footage for a 1.500
sf house is also given as a
reference point);
The "percent solar savings"
(the part of a house's heating
energy saved by the solar
features); and
Three numbers
corresponding to those on the
Worksheets: Conservation.
Auxiliary Heat. and Cooling
Perlormance
The Example tables then show
how the house design could be
changed to reduce winter
heating energy by 20. 40 and
60%. compared to this Base
Case House.
There are. of course. other
ways to achieve energy savings
than those shown in the
Examples. The Examples are
designed to show an effective
integration of strategies. and a
useful approach to the design of
the house as a total system.
Using any of these combinations
would result in excellent
perlormance in your area.
However, they are general
indications only. and using the
Worksheets will give you more
information about your specific
design.
The Example assumes a
1.500 sf house. but the
percentages apply to a house of
any size or configuration.
The R-values indicated in
the Example tables are. of
course. approximate and are
intended to show how
incremental improvements can
be achieved. All R-values in the
Examples and Worksheets are
equivalent R-values for the
entire construction assembly.
not just for the cavity insulation
itself. and take into account
framing and buffering effects.
Other assumptions are
noted for each Example.
However. one more general
assumption is important to note
here. When the Examples were
calculated. it was assumed that
natural cooling strategies such
as those described in these
Guidelines were used.
particularly in the very high-
perlormance systems. The
greater the percentage reduction
in heating energy needs using
passive solar deSign. the more
shading and natural cooling
were assumed.
The Examples show passive
solar strategies. but an Added
Insulation Example table
(achieving energy savings only
by increasing insulation levels.
without specifiC solar features)
is provided in the Summary
beginning on page 82.
PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN STHA 1 = c ; ; 1 = ~
2. Suntempering
Both suntempered and passive
solar houses:
begin with good basic
energy-conservation.
take maximum advantage of
the building site through the
right orientation for year-round
energy savings. and
have "increased south-facing
glass to collect solar energy.
Suntempertng refers to
modest increases in windows on
the south side.
No additional thermal mass
is used. only the "free mass" in
the house - the framing.
gypsum wall-board and
furnishings.
In a "conventional" house.
about 25% of the windows face
south. which amounts to about
3% of the house's total floor
area. In a suntempered house.
the percentage is increased to a
maximum of about 7% of the
floor area.
The energy savings are more
modest with this system. but
suntempering is a very low-cost
strategy.
Of course. even though the
necessity for precise sizing of
glazing and thermal mass does
not apply to suntempering (as
long as the total south-facing
glass does not exceed 7% of the
total house floor area). all other
recommendations about energy-
efficient design such as the
basic energy conservation
measures. room lay-out. siting.
glazing type and so on are still
important for performance and
comfort in suntempered homes.
Examples of Heat Energy Savings
Suntempered
1,500 sf Single Story House (in a specific location)
Base
Case 20% 40% 60%
R-Values
Ceiling/Roof 26 24 26 33
Walls 14 12 13 18
Slab Edge 0 0 0 0
Glass .9 1.8 1.8 1.8
Air Changes/Hour 0.75 0.69 0.46 0.69
Glass Area (percent of total floor area)
West 3.0% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0%
North 3.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0%
East 3.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0%
South 3.0% 5.9% 6.7% 6.7%
Solar System Size (square feet)
South Glass 45 88 100 100
Percent Solar Savings
21% 36% 45% 53%
Performance (Btu/yr-sf)
Conservation 19,893 20,287 17,629 13,926
Auxiliary Heat 15,709 12,855 9,698 6,531
Cooling 7,544 5,540 3,543 2,746
Summary: The window area has been slightly decreased on the west,
increased slightly on the east and north, and increased significantly on the
south.
Note: These examples should not be construed as recommendations - the
numbers represent the effect of changes in design required to achieve the
exact savings in annual auxiliary heat. In practice, the designer has great
latitude in selecting values to use.
24
GUIDELINES PART THREE: STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING ENERGY PERFORMANCE
3. Direct Gain
The most common passive solar
strategy system is called direct
gain: sunlight through south-
facing glazing falls directly into
the space to be heated, and is
stored in thermal mass
incorporated into the floor or
interior walls. The south
window area is increased above
the 7% limit of a suntempered
house, and additional thermal
mass is added to store the
additional solar gains and thus
prevent overheating.
Direct Gain
Direct gain is the most common passive solar
system in residential applications
Sizing Limit
Total direct gain glass area
should not exceed about 12% of
the house's floor area. Beyond
that, problems with glare or
fading of fabrics are more likely
to occur, and it becomes more
difficult to provide enough
thermal mass for year-round
comfort.
So the total south-facing
glass area in a direct gain
system should be between 7%
(the maximum for suntempered
houses) and 12%, depending on
how much thermal mass will be
used in the design, as discussed
below.
Glazing
Double glazing is recommended
for direct gain glazing in Los
Angeles. The PeIformance
Potential table on page 6 shows
the relative peIformance of
different types of direct gain
glazing. You will note from this
table that yield increases by 2%
between double and triple or
low-e glazing. Night insulation
also improves energy
peIformance dramatically. In
fact, as the PeIformance
Potential table shows, covering
the windows at night or on
cloudy days with the equivalent
of R-4 shades or other material
will save almost as much energy
as with R-9 material. But
studies have shown that only
relatively few homeowners will
be diligent enough about
operating their night insulation
to achieve those savings.
Energy-efficient glazing, on the
other hand, needs no operation,
and therefore is a more
convenient and reliable option.
Thermal Mass
Thermal mass can be
incorporated easily into houses
with slab-on-grade floors by
exposing the mass. The mass is
much more effective if sunlight
falls directly on it. Covering the
mass with any insulation
material, such as carpet, greatly
reduces its effectiveness. A good
strategy is to expose a narrow
strip about 8 ft. wide along the
south wall next to the windows
where the winter sun will fall
directly on it.
Effective materials for floors
include painted, colored or
vinyl- covered concrete, brick
(face brick or pavers have even
higher density than ordinary
building brick), quarry tile, and
dark-colored ceramic tile lead
directly on the slab.
For houses built with
crawlspaces or basements, the
incorporation of significant
amounts of heavy thermal mass
is a little more difficult. Thermal
mass floor coverings over
basements, crawlspaces and
lower stories would generally be
limited to thin set tile or other
thin mass floors.
When more mass is required,
the next best option is for
interior walls interior finishes or
exterior walls or interior
masonry fireplaces. When
evaluating costs, the dual
function of mass walls should
be remembered. They often
serve as structural elements or
for fire protection as well as for
thermal storage. Another option
is to switch to another passive
solar system type such as
attached slab-on-grade
sunspaces or thermal storage
walls built directly on exterior
foundation walls.
Sunlit thermal mass floors
should be relatively dark in
color, to absorb and store energy
more effectively. However, mass
walls and ceilings should be
light in color to help distribute
both heat and light more evenly.
J-'A:::i:::iIVI= :::iULAH UI=:::iIl:i!V ., I HA 11=l:i11=.,
Ratio of Mass to Glass. The
simplest rule of thumb states:
For each added ft
2
of direct-gain
glass (above the 7%
suntempeIing limit), 6 ft
2
of
exposed mass surface should be
added within the direct-gain
space. The following procedure
can be used to determine a
somewhat more accurate
estimate. This procedure gives
the maximum amount of direct-
gain glazing for a given amount
of thermal mass. If the amount
of direct -gain glazing to be used
is already known, thermal mass
can be added until this
procedure produces the deSired
proportions:
Start with a direct gain glass
area equal to 7% of the house's
total floor area. As noted above,
the "free mass" in the house will
be able to accommodate this
much solar energy.
An additional 1.0 sf of direct
gain glazing may be d d ~ d for
every 5.5 sf of uncovered. sunlit
mass. Carpet or area rugs will
seriously reduce the
effectiveness of the mass. The
maximum mass that can be
considered as "sunlit" may be
estimated as about 1.5 times the
south window area.
An additional 1.0 square foot
of direct gain glazing may be
added for every 40 sf of thermal
mass in the floor of the room,
but not in the sun.
An additional 1.0 square foot
of direct gain glazing may be
added for each 8.3 sf of thermal
mass placed in the wall or
ceiling of the room. Mass in the
wall or ceiling does not have to
be located directly in the
sunlight, as long as it is in the
same room, with no other walls
between the mass and the area
where the sunlight is falling.
(The 8.3 value is typical, but the
true value does depend on mass
density and thickness. Refer to
the mass thickness graph for
more specific values to use.)
More south-facing glazing
than the maximum as
determined here would tend to
overheat the room, and to
reduce energy penormance as
well.
,---.....
/
" ....
, ....
/ ..... .....,
/ ....
/ "" ....
/ ....
/ "" ....
" ....
: ~ ~
I,
I I
I
Mass Location and Effectiveness
Additional mass must be provided for south
facing glass over 7% of the floor area. The
ratio of mass area to additional glass area
depends on its location within the direct gain
space.
Thickness. For most materials,
the effectiveness of the thermal
mass in the floor or interior wall
increases proportionally with
thickness up to about 4 inches.
Mter that, the effectiveness
doesn't increase as significantly.
A two-inch mass floor will be
about two-thirds as effective in a
direct gain system as a four-
inch mass floor. But a six-inch
mass floor will only penorm
about eight percent better than
a four-inch floor.
The effectiveness of thermal
mass is relative to the density
and thickness. The vertical axis
shows how many square feet of
mass area are needed for each
added square foot of direct gain.
As you can see, penormance
increases start leveling off after
a few inches of thermal mass.
40
.2
1ii
r::c
III 30
~
III
en
III
(5 20
~
Q.
III
!

10
en
:a
:::i:
0
0 5 10
Thickness (inches)
Mass Thickness
50#/cf
75#/cf
100#/cf
125#/cf
150#/cf
The effectiveness of thermal mass depends
on the density of the material and thickness.
This graph is for wall or ceiling mass in the
direct gain space. The ratio of 8.3 was used
earlier as a representative value. More
accurate values can be read from this graph
and used in the fourth step of the procedure.
In cases in which you are still
uncertain if thermal mass is
adequate, you can go to
Worksheet III: Thermal
MassI Comfort, which is more
comprehensive.
15
26 GUIDELINES PART THflE: STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING ENERGY PERFORMANCE
Passive Solar-Direct Gain
1,500 sf Single Story House
Base
Case 20% 40% 60%
R-values
Walls 14 12 12 12
Slab Edge 0 0 0 0
Glass .9 1.8 1.8 1.8
Air Changes/Hour 0.75 0.69 0.60 0.52
West 3.0% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0%
North 3.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0%
East 3.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0%
South 3.0% 5.9% 8.6% 12.0%
Added Thermal Mass
Percent of Floor Area 0.0% 0.0% 9.7% 30.0%
Added Thermal Mass 0 0 145 450
21% 36% 50% 65%
Conservation 19,893 20,287 19,666 18,962
Auxiliary Heat 15,709 12,855 9,691 6,505
Cooling 7,544 5,540 4,656 5,947
Summary: South-facing glazing has been substantially increased. For
these examples, added mass area is assumed to be six times the excess
south glass area.
t-'A:::i:::iIVc :::iULAH Uc:::iII.:i!V:::i I HA I cl.:ilc:::i
4. Sunspaces
The sunspace is a very popular
passive solar feature. adding an
attractive living space as well as
energy performance. There are
many variations on the basic
theme of the sunspace. and the
possibilities for sunspace design
are extraordinarily diverse. As
used in this gUide. a sunspace
is a separate direct-gain room
on the south side of the house.
The wall that separates the
house from the sunspace is
called a common wall. The
common wall should include
operable windows and doors
that may be closed so that when
the sunspace is not providing
heat to the house it is not
draining heat from the house.
The sunspace concept used
in these Guidelines can be used
year-round. will provide most or
all of its own energy needs. and
will contribute to the energy
needs of the rest of the house as
well.
Sunspaces are referred to as
"isolated gain" passive solar
systems. because the sunlight is
collected in an area which can
be closed off from the rest of the
house. During the day. the
doors or windows between the
sunspace and the house can be
opened to circulate collected
heat. and then closed at night.
and the temperature in the
sunspace allowed to drop. It
should be noted that the
common wall is often mass. and
not necessarily sufficient for the
sunspace to be considered truly
thermally isolated.
The sunspace should not be
on the same heating system as
the rest of the house. A well
designed sunspace will probably
need no mechanical heating
system. but if necessary. a small
fan or heater may be used to
protect plants on extremely cold
winter nights.
The sunspace should be just
as tightly constructed and
insulated as the rest of the
house.
Sunspaces
Sunspaces provide useful passive solar .
heating and also provide a valuable amemty to
homes.
Thennal Mass
A sunspace has extensive
south-facing glass. so sufficient
thermal mass is very important.
Without it. the sunspace is
liable to be uncomfortably hot
during the day. and too cold for
plants or people at night.
However. the temperature in
the sunspace can vary more
than in the house itself. so
about three square feet of four
inch thick thermal mass for
each square foot of sunspace
glazing should be adequate.
With this glass-to-mass ratio. on
a clear winter day a temperature
swing of about 30F should be
expected.
"
The sunspace floor is a good
location for thermal mass. The
mass floors should be dark in
color. No more than 15-25% of
the floor slab should be covered
with rugs or plants. The'lower
edge of the south-facing
windows should be no more
than six inches from the floor to
make sure the mass in the floor
receives suffiCient direct
sunlight. If the windows sills
are higher than that. additional
mass may have to be located in
the walls.
Another good location for
thermal mass is the common
wall (the wall separating the
sunspace from the rest of the
house). Options for the
common wall are discussed in
more detail later.
Water in various types of
containers is another form of
energy storage often used in
sunspaces.
Glazing
Single-glazing may be used for
sunspaces. although double-
glazing will further improve
comfort. in terms of energy
savings. The performance
potential table on page 6 shows
the relative performance of
different types of glazing.
Windows on the east and
west walls should be small (no
more than 10% of the total
sunspace floor area) but they
are useful for cross-ventilation.
28
. GUIDELINES PART THREE: STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING ENERGY PERFORMANCE
Summer Overheating
Probably the single biggest
problem encountered in
sunspaces is summer
overheating. Largely. this stems
directly from poor design
practice and can be avoided.
The problem can usually be
traced directly to poor glazing
orientations - too much non-
south glazing. Glass on the roof
or on the west walls can create
major overheating.
Like tilted or sloped glazing.
glazed roofs can increase solar
gain. but they can also present
big overheating problems and
become counter-productive. If
either glazed roofs or tilted
glazing are used in the
sunspace. special care should
be taken to make sure they can
be effectively shaded during the
summer and. if necessary. on
sunny days the rest of the year.
too. The manufacturers of
sunspaces and glazing are
developing products with better
ability to control both heat loss
and heat gain (for example. roof
glazing with low shading
coeffiCients. shading treatments
and devices. etc.).
You'll note that in the
Performance Potential chart on
page 6. sunspaces with glazed
roofs or sloped glazing perform
very well. This analysis
assumes effective shading in the
summer. If such shading is not
economical or marketable in
your area. you should conSider
using only vertical glazing. and
accepting somewhat less energy
performance in winter.
Common Wall
There are a number of options
for the sunspace common wall.
The common wall may be a
masonry wall. it can also be
used for thermal mass. in which
case it should be solid masonry
apprOximately 4 to 8 inches .
thick. Another option is a frame
wall with masonry veneer.
In mild climates. and when
the sunspace is very tightly
constructed. an UIiinsulated
frame wall is probably adequate.
However. insulating the
common wall to about R-I0 is a
good idea. especially in cold
climates. An insulated common
wall will help guard against heat
loss during prolonged cold.
cloudy periods. or if the thermal
storage in the sunspace is
insuffiCient.
Probably the most important
factor in controlling the
temperature in the sunspace.
and thus keeping it as
comfortable and effiCient as
possible. is to make sure the
exterior walls are tightly
constructed and well-insulated.
Some solar energy may be
transferred from the sunspace to
the rest of the house by
conduction through the
common wall if it is made of
thermal mass. But energy is
mainly transferred by natural
convection through openings in
the common wall - doors.
windows and/ or vents.
Doors are the most common
opening in the common wall. If
only doorways are used. the
open area should be at least
15% of the sunspace south-
glass area.
Windows or sliding glass
doors will provide light and
views. The window area in the
common wall should be no
larger than about 40% of the
entire common wall area. Per
unit area. window and slider
openings are about one-half as
effective for natural convection
as are door openings.
PASSIVE SOLAH UE:SIGN S I HA I eWeS
Summer ventilation
The sunspace must be vented to
the outside to avoid overheating
in the summer or on warm days
in spring and fall. A properly
vented and shaded sunspace
can function much like a
screened-in porch in late spring,
summer, and early fall.
Operable windows and/or
vent openings should be located
for effective cross-ventilation,
and to take advantage of the
prevailing summer wind. Low
inlets and high outlets can be
used in a "stack effect", since
warm air will rise. These
ventilation areas should be at
least 15% of the total sunspace
south glass areas.
Where natural ventilation is
insufficient. or access to natural
breezes is blocked. a small.
thermostat-controlled fan set at
about 76F will probably be a
useful addition.
Passive Solar-Sunspace
Base
Case 20% 40% 60%
R-Values
Walls 14 12 12 12
Slab Edge 0 0 0 0
Glass .9 1.8 1:8 1.8
Air Changes/Hour 0.75 0.69 0.62 0.54
West 3.0% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0%
North 3.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0%
East 3.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0%
South (windows) 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0%
Sunspace 0.0% 3.0% 6.5% 11.5%
Sunspace Glass 0 44 96 171
Sunspace Thermal Mass 0 134 290 515
21% 36% 51% 66%
Conservation 19,893 20,294 19,867 19,296
Auxiliary Heat 15,709 12,850 9,676 6,483
Cooling 7,544 5,203 3,724 4,538
Summary: Insulation and tightness (for the 60% case) have been
increased. North and east-facing glazing have been increased slightly.
The sunspace assumed here is semi-enclosed (surrounded on three sides
by conditioned rooms of the house, as in Figure SSC1 of the worksheets),
with vertical south glazing. The common wall is a thermal mass wall
made of masonry. Sunspace glazing is assumed to be double.
30 GUIDELINES PART THREE: STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING ENERGY PERFORMANCE
5. Thermal Storage
Wall
The Thennal Storage Wall - also
referred to as a Trombe wall or
an indirect gain system - is a
south-facing glazed wall. usually
built of masonry. but sometimes
using water containers or phase
change materials. The masonry
is separated from the glazing
only by a air space. Sunlight is
absorbed directly into the wall
instead of into the living space.
The energy is then released into
the living space over a relatively
long period. The time lag varies
with different materials.
thicknesses and other factors.
but typically. energy stored in a
Thennal Storage Wall during the
day is released during the
evening and nighttime hours.
The outside surface of a
thermal storage wall should be a
very dark color - an absorptance
greater than 0.92 is
recommended.
The summer heat gain from
a Thennal Storage Wall is much
less - roughly 100% less - than
from a comparable area of direct
gain glazing.
Thermal Storage Wall
A thermal storage wall is an effective passive
solar system, especially to provide nighttime
heating.
A masonry Thennal Storage Wall
should be solid. and there
should be no openings or vents
either to the outside or to the
living space. Although vents to
the living space were once
commonly built into Thennal
Storage Walls. experience has
demonstrated that they are
ineffective. Vents between the
Thermal Storage Wall and the
house tend to reduce the
system's nighttime heating
capability. and to increase the
temperature fluctuation in the
house. Vents to the outside are
Similarly ineffective. and do little
to reduce summer heat gains.
Glazing
Double glazing is recommended
for Thennal Storage Walls
unless a selective surface is
used. In this case. single
glazing perfonns about the same
as double glazing.
The space between the
glazing and the thennal mass
should be one to three inches.
Selective Surfaces
A selective surface is a special
adhesive foil applied to the
exterior side of the mass of
Thennal Storage Walls.
Selective surfaces absorb a large
percentage of solar radiation but
radiate very little heat back to .
the out-of-doors (low emittance).
To be effective. selective
surfaces must be applied
carefully for 100% adhesion to
the mass surface.
In Los Angeles. California. a
selective surface will improve
Thennal Storage Wall
perfonnance by about 38%.
Mass Material and
Thickness
In general. the effectiveness
of the Thennal Storage Wall will
increase as the density of the
material increases.
The optimum thickness of
the wall depends on the density
of the material chosen. but
perfonnance is not very
sensitive to thickness. The
following chart indicates the
recommended thickness of
Thennal Storage Walls made of
various materials. As thickness
is increased. the time delay of
heat flow through the wall is
increased. and the temperature
variation on the inside surface is
decreased.
PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN T H T E G I E ~ ~ I
Mass Wall Thickness
(inches)
Density Thick-
ness
Material (Ib/cf) (inches)
Concrete 140 8-24
Concrete Masonry 130 7-18
Clay Brick 120 7-16
Ltwt. Concrete
110 6-12
Masonry
Adobe 100 6-12
Water Walls
Water provides about twice the
heat storage per unit volume as
masonry, so a smaller volume of
mass can be used. In "water
walls" the water is in light, rigid
containers. The containers are
shipped empty and easily
installed. Manufacturers can
provide information about
durability, installation,
protection against leakage and
other characteristics. At least
30 pounds (3.5 gallons) of water
should be provided for each
square foot of glazing. This is
equivalent to a water container
about six inches thick, having
the same area as the glazing.
Passive Solar-Thermal Storage Wall
Base
Case 20% 40% 60%
R-Values
Walls 14 12 12 12
Slab Edge 0 0 0 0
Glass .9 1.8 1.8 1.8
Air Changes/Hour 0.75 0.69 0.67 0.69
West 3.0% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0%
North 3.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0%
East 3.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0%
South 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0%
Thermal Storage Wall 0.0% 2.4% 5.5% 10.3%
Thermal Storage Wall 0 35 82 154
21% 36% 52% 68%
Performance (Btulyr-sf)
Conservation 19,893 20,253 20,346 20,760
Auxiliary Heat 15,709 12,852 9,676 6,482
Cooling 7,544 4,499 2,205 2,056
Summary: In the case of a Thermal Storage Wall, south-facing glazing
and thermal mass are incorporated together. The estimates here assume
a 12-inch thick concrete Thermal Storage Wall with a selective surface
and single glazing.
6. Combined Systems
Although the previous sections
have presented separate
discussions of four different
systems. it isn't necessary to
choose one and only one
system. In fact. passive solar
features work well in
combination.
For example. direct gain
works very well in conjunction
with a sunspace or thermal
storage wall. Since thermal
storage walls release energy
more slowly than direct gain
systems. they are useful for
supplying heat in the evening
and at night. whereas the direct
gain system works best during
the day. Although using a
sunspace. thermal storage wall
and direct gain system in the
same house may result in
excellent performance. such
combinations do require a large
south-facing area. and careful
design to make sure the systems
are well-integrated with each
other and with the house's
mechanical system.
7. Natural Cooling
Guidelines
The term "natural cooling" is
used here to describe
techniques which help a house
stay cool in summer but which
require little or no energy.
Natural cooling techniques work
to help reduce air-conditioning.
not replace it.
These techniques are useful
not only in passive solar houses.
but in "conventional" houses as
well. The strategies outlined
below - attention to the location.
size and shading of glazing.
using the opportunities on the
site for shading and natural
ventilation. and using fans - can
reduce air conditioning needs
and increase comfort even if the
house has no passive solar
heating features.
But shading is particularly
important in passive solar
houses. because the same
features that collect sunlight so
effectively in winter will go right
on collecting it in summer -
resulting in uncomfortably hot
rooms and big air conditioning
bills - unless they are shaded
and the house is designed to
help cool itself.
Fortunately. many of the
features that help maintain
comfort and reduce energy
needs in winter also work well in
summer. For instance.
additional thermal mass
performs well year-round.
Masonry materials are equally
effective in staying cool and
storing heat. If mass surfaces
can be exposed to cool night-
time temperatures - a technique
referred to as "night ventilation"
- they will help the house stay
cooler the next day. A California
utility found during studies of
small test buildings that on hot
summer days the workmen at
the facility always ate lunch in
the masonry test building
because it stayed much cooler
than any of the others.
The additional insulation
that increases winter
performance will also work to
improve summer performance
by conserving the conditioned
air inside the house. And some
low-e windows and other glazing
with high R-value can help
shield against unwanted heat
gain in summer.
The potential of some
natural and low-energy cooling
strategies is shown in the
following table for Los Angeles.
Worksheet IV: Cooling
Performance Level indicates
the total annual cooling load.
and so can give an idea of how
the passive solar features
increase the cooling load and
how much reduction is possible
when natural cooling techniques
are used.
It should be noted that the
Cooling Performance numbers
presented in the Examples for
each passive solar strategy
assume that the design also
includes the recommended
natural cooling techniques.
This is especially true of the
higher percentage reductions;
these assume better heating
performance. but also better
shading and other natural
cooling strategies.
Cooling Potential
Basecase 7,544 Btu/yr-sf
Energy
Savings
Strategy (Btu/yr-sf)
No Night Ventilation
1
without ceiling fans 0
with ceiling fans 3,090
Night Ventilation
1
with ceiling fans 3,240
High Mass
2
with ceiling fans 380
1 With night ventilation, the house is ventilated at night when
temperature and humidity conditions are favorable.
Percent
Savings
0%
41%
12%
43%
9%
5%
2 A "high mass" building is one with a thermal mass area at least equal
to the house floor area.
Glazing
As mentioned earlier, poorly
placed windows can increase air
conditioning loads dramatically.
It is generally best in terms of
energy performance to carefully
size non-solar glazing as
indicated in the following table.
Recommended Non-south Glass
Guidelines
Orientation
East
North
West
Percent of Total
Floor Area
4%
4%
2%
West-facing windows present
particularly difficult shading
problems. If glazing is added
above the levels indicated, the
need for shading will become
even more critical.
Cooling loads increase as
window area increases. This
relationship for Los Angeles is
shown in the following table for
each of the cardinal window
orientations. For instance when
a square foot of west area is
added or subtracted, the annual
cooling load increases or
decreases by 83,480 Btu/yr-sf.
Added Window Cooling Load
Orientation
North
East
South
West
Skylights
Added Annual
Cooling
Load(Btu/yr-sf)
30,770
91,590
67,170
83,480
157,870
These values are based on double
glass with a shading coefficient of
0.88. When glazing with a different
shading coefficient is used the
values may be scaled
proportionallv.
These numbers can be reduced
by shading as deSCribed in the
next section.
Using special glazing or
window films that block solar
transmission (low shading
coeffiCient) is an option often
used in particularly hot
climates, but the more effective
they are at blocking sunlight.
the less clear they are, as a rule,
and so they may interfere with
desirable views. It is important
to note, however, that some
types of low-e windows block
solar tranSmission but also
allow clear views. These
treatments are not
recommended for south
windows.
As the table shows, skylights
present a high potential for
overheating, and are usually
difficult to shade properly. But
skylights are very popular
features, and they save
electricity by providing good
natural daylight to the house.
In some parts of the country
almost every new house has at
least one skylight. A good
working compromise can
usually be achieved if skylight
area is limited, and if careful
attention is paid to shading,
either by trees or by devices
such as roller shades or blinds.
The manufacturer can usually
give guidance on shading
options for a particular skylight
design.
PASSIVE SOLAH DESIGN STHA I CWC::;)
Shading
Shading strategies generally fall
into three categories:
landscaping. roof overhangs and
exterior or interior shading
devices.
Landscaping. The ideal site for
summer shading has deciduous
trees to shade the east and west
windows. Even small trees such
as fruit trees can help block sun
hitting the first story of a house.
Trees on the south side can
present a difficult choice. Even
deciduous trees will shadow the
solar glazing during the winter
and interfere with solar gain. In
fact. trees on the south side can
all but eliminate passive solar
performance. unless they are
very close to the house and the
low branches can be removed.
allowing the winter sun to
penetrate under the tree canopy.
However. in many cases the
trees around the house are
bigger selling points than the
energy effiCiency and the builder
must make a choice.
If a careful study of the
shading patterns is done before
construction. it should be
possible to accomodate the
south-facing glazing while
leaving in as many trees as
possible (see page 17. Site
Planning for Solar Access).
Landscaping for Summer Shade
Trees and other landscaping features may be
effectively used to shade east and west
windows from summer solar gains.
Other landscaping ideas for
summer shade:
Trellises on east and west
covered with vines.
Shrubbery or other plantings
to shade paved areas.
Use of ground cover to
prevent glare and heat
absorption.
Trees. fences. shrubbery or
other plantings to "channel"
summer breezes into the house.
Deciduous trees on the east
and west sides of the house. as
shown above. to balance solar
gains in all seasons.
Roof Overhangs. Fixed
overhangs are an inexpensive
feature. and require no
operation by the home owner.
They must be carefully
designed. however. Otherwise.
an overhang that blocks
summer sun may also block sun
in the spring. when solar
heating is desired. and. by the
same token. an overhang sized
for maximum solar gain in
winter will allow solar gain in
the fall on hot days. The
following figure may be used to
determine the optimum
overhang size.
In Los Angeles. an ideal
overhang projection for a four
foot high window would be 16
inches and the bottom of the
overhang would be 12 inches
above the top of the window.
A
South Overhang Sizing
In Los Angeles, an ideally sized south
overhang should allow full exposure of the
window when the sun has a noon altitude of
37 degrees (angle A) and fully shade the
window when the sun has a noon altitude of
74 degrees (angle 8).
A combination of carefully sized
overhangs on the south
windows and shading devices on
the other windows will probably
be an effective solution.
Adjustable overhangs that can
be seasonally regulated are
another option.
Shading Devices. External
shades are the most effective
because they stop solar gain
before the sun hits the butlding.
A wide range of products are
available, from canvas awnings
to solar screens to roll-down
blinds to shutters to vertical
louvers. They are adjustable
and perform very well, but their
limitation is that they require
the home owner's cooperation.
Usually external screens that
can be put up and taken down
once a year like storm windows
are more acceptable to home
owners than those requiring
more frequent operation.
Interior shades must be
operated, too, and have the
further disadvantage of
permitting the sun to enter the
house and be trapped between
the window and the shading
device. But highly reflective
interior blinds and curtains are
relatively low-cost and easy to
operate.
Another shading "device"
well worth considering is a
porch. Especially on the east
and west sides, porches add
pleasant spaces to houses and
are excellent for prOviding shade
to windows. Carports located on
the east or west are another
option.
Ceiling Fans
Ceiling fans will probably save
more energy than any other .
single cooling strategy. Studies
show that air movement can
make people feel comfortable at
higher temperatures. As a
general rule, the thermostat can
be set 4 degrees higher without
affecting comfort if the air is
moving at 100-150 feet per
minute. This is enough air
movement to greatly improve
comfort but not enough to
disturb loose papers.
Ceiling Fan Sizes
Largest Room Minimum Fan
Dimension Diameter
(inches)
12 feet or less 36
12 - 16 feet 48
16 - 17.5 feet 52
17.5 -18.5 feet 56
18.5 or more feet 2 fans
A ceiling fan should have a
minimum clearance of ten
inches between ceiling and fan
to provide adequate ventilation
in a standard room with eight-
foot ceilings. In rooms with
higher ceilings, fans should be
mounted 7.5 to 8.0 feet above
the floor.
Ventilation
When possible. the house
should be positioned on the site
to take advantage of prevailing
winds. The prevailing wind
direction is from the south
during the cooling season.
Windows. stailWelIs. transoms
and other elements should be
located for maximum cross-
ventilation in each room. The
free vent area (unobstructed
openings like open windows)
should be between 6-7.5% of
total floor area. half located on
the leeward and half on the
windward side of the building.
Insect screens can reduce the
effective free vent area by as
much as 50%. Casement or
awning windows have a 90%
open area; double hung
windows have only 50%.
Casement windows extend
outward from the house.
tending to channel breezes
through the opening if properly
placed. Improperly placed
casements might deflect breezes.
Double-hung windows do not
have this advantage.
Natural ventilation can help
keep houses cool and
comfortable at the beginning
and end of the cooling season
and thus shorten the time when
air conditioning is required. But
natural ventilation can seldom
do the entire cooling job.
especially for less than ideal
sites with little natural air
movement.
Ventilation for Summer Cooling
Natural ventilation is often impaired by
vegetation and topography. Ventilation fans
do not depend on surroundings to be effective.
In cooling climates. a whole-
house fan is a good idea for
assisting ventilation. especially
in houses with sites or designs
that make natural ventilation
difficult. On the other hand.
when the temperature is higher
than about 76F. a whole-house
fan will not be very effective.
Research indicates that a
whole-house fan should pull
apprOximately 10 ACR. A rule
of thumb: for rooms with eight
foot ceilings. total floor area
multiplied by 1.34 will equal the
necessary CFM of the fan. For
10 foot ceilings. multiply floor
area by 1.67.
~
The best possible
performance of a whole-house
fan results when a timer. a
thermostat and a "humidistat"
are used. so that the fan would
only operate when there is less
than 60% relative hUmidity and
a temperature of less than 76F.
Natural ventilation and
whole-house fans are effective at
removing heat. but not at
moving air. Ceiling fans. on the
other hand. can often create
enough of a breeze to maintain
comfort at higher temperatures.
and still use less power than
required by air conditioning. By
using natural cooling strategies
and low-energy fans. the days
when air-conditioning is needed
can be reduced substantially.
Los Angeles, CalifOrnia
Passive Solar
Design Strategies
WORKSHEETS
With Support From:
Los Angeles,
California
39
NOTE: Please make copies of the blank
worksheets and tables before entering
numbers so that the worksheets may be
used to evaluate several design options.
Worksheets
40 PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN STRATEGIES
General Pro ect Information
project Name floor Area

Designer
Worksheet I: Conservation Performance Level
A. Envelope Heat Loss
Construction
Description Area
+
+
+
+
EIQQ[:I
..,...
+
t::/QD-:lQIw: +
+
.PQw. +
+
B. Foundation Perimeter Heat Loss
Description Perimeter
Sliilb:l-QD-!:a[ii1s;1i! X
lJiiruiid BiiI:liimiiDIli X
U Dbiiiilliid BiiI:liimiiDI:I X
Pii[imiilii[ ID:ll.lliillid X
C. Infiltration Heat Loss
X X
Building Air Changes
Volume per Hour
D. Total Heat Loss per Square Foot
24 X
..,...
Total Heat Loss
(A+B+C)
E. Conservation Performance Level
X X
Total Heat Heating Degree
Loss per Days [Table C]
Square Foot
R-value
[Table A]
Heat Loss
Factor
[Table B]
.018
Floor Area
Heating Degree
Day Multiplier
[Table C]
=
Heat
Loss
Btu/oF-h
Total
Heat
Loss
Btu/oF-h
Total
Btu/OF-h

Btulyr-sf
F. Comparison Conservation Performance (From Previous Calculation or from Table 0)
Btulyr-sf
Com are Line E to Line F
Log Aru1eleg. CaHfornia
41
Worksheet II: Aurili Heat Performance Level
A. Projected Area of Passive Solar Glazing
Solar System Rough Frame Net Area Adjustment Projected
Reference Code Area Factor Factor [Table E] Area
X 0.80 X
=
X 0.80 X
X 0.80 X
X 0.80 X
X 0.80 X
X 0.80 X
X 0.80 X
sf
Total Area Total
Projected
Area
+
Total Floor Total Projected
Projected Area Area per
Area Square Foot
B. Load Collector Ratio
24 X +
Total Total
Heat Loss Projected
[Worksheet I] Area
C. Solar Savings Fraction
System
Solar Savings
Solar System Projected Fraction
Reference Code Area [Table F]
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
+
=
Total Total Solar
Projected Savings
Area Fraction
D. Auxiliary Heat Performance Level
[ 1- jx Btu/yr-sf
Solar Conservation
Savings Performance
Fraction Level [Worksheet I.
Step E]
E. Comparative Auxiliary Heat Performance (From Previous Calculation or from Table G)
Btu/yr-sf
Compare LmeDto LmeE
42
Worksheet III: Thermal Mass/Comfort
A. Heat Capacity of Sheetrock and Interior Furnishings
Floor Area
Rooms with Direct Gain
Spaces Connected to Direct Gain Spaces ______ _
x
X
Heat
Capacity
4.7
4.5
Unit
Heat
Capacity
Total
Total
B. Heat Capacity of Mass Surfaces Enclosing Direct Gain Spaces
Trombe WaJls
Mass Description
(include thickness)
Water Walls _______________ _
Exposed Slab in Syn _____________ _
Exposed Slab Not in Syn
Area
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Unit Heat
Capacity
[Table H)
8.8
10.4
13.4
1.8
Total Heat
Capacity
Total
C. Heat Capacity of Mass Surfaces Enclosing Spaces Connected to Direct Gain Spaces
Mass Description
(include thickness)
![Qmbil ltll5!.lill
ltllWi![ ltllaJl:I
D. Total Heat Capacity
E. Total Heat Capacity per Square Foot
F. Clear Winter Day Temperature Swing
Di[ilct G5!.in
Syn:lP5!.Cil:l Q[
Vented Trombil ltll5!.lI:I
Total
PrOjected Area
[Worksheet II]
X
X
Comfort
Factor
[Table I]
G. Recommended Maximum Temperature Swing
Area
Total Heat
Capacity
Total
X
X
X
X
X
..,..
Unit Heat
Capacity
[Table H)
3.8
4.2
Conditioned
Floor Area
Total
Heat
Capacity
Total Heat
Capacity
Btu/oF
Total
Btu/oF
(A+B+C)
Btu/OF-sf
of
Compare Line F to Line G
4;:S
Worksheet IV: Summer Coolin Performance Level
A. Opaque Surfaces
Radiant Barrier Absorp- Heat Gain
Heat Loss Factor tance Factor
Description [Worksheet I] [Table J] [Table K] [Table L] Load
Ceilings/roofs X X X
X X X
X X X
~
X na X
X na X
.D.Qw.
X na X
=
kBtu/yr
Total
B. Non-solar Glazing
Rough Frame Net Area Shade Factor Heat Gain
Description Area Factor [Table M] Factor [Table L] Load
North Glass X 0.80 X X
X 0.80 X X
East Glass X 0.80 X X
X 0.80 X X
W i l l t ~ l a l l l l
X 0.80 X X
X 0.80 X X
Slsllligbtll
X 0.80 X X
X 0.80 X X
kBtu/yr
Total
C. Solar Glazing
Solar System Rough Frame Net Area Shade Factor Heat Gain
Description Area Factor [Table M] Far,tor [Table L] Load
Piri!ct Gain X 0.80 X X
X 0.80 X X
StQ[agi! Walill X 0.80 X X
X 0.80 X X
SUDllL1al<i!
X 0.80 X X
X 0.80 X X
kBtutyr
Total
D. Internal Gain
+( X ) kBtutyr
Constant Variable Number of
Component Component Bedrooms
[Table N] [Table N]
E. Cooling Load per Square Foot
1,000 X + Btutyr-sf
(A+B+C+D) Floor Area
F. Adjustment for Thermal Mass and Ventilation
Btutyr-sf
[Table 0]
G. Cooling Performance Level
Btutyr-sf
(E -F)
H. Comparison Cooling Performance (From Previous Calculation or from Table P)
Btutyr-sf
Compare Line G to Line H
44
Table A-Equivalent Thermal
Performance of AaaembUes
R-values (hr-F-sf/Btu)
A 1-CeilingsiRoofs
Attic Insulation R-value
Construction R-30 R-38 R-49 R-60
27.9 35.9 46.9 57.9
Framed Insulation R-value
2xS at 16'oc 14.7 15.8 16.3
2x6 at 24'oc 15.3 16.5 17.1
2x8 at16'0c 17.0 18.9 20.6 21.1
2x8 at 24'oc 17.6 19.6 21.6 22.2
2xl0 at 16'oc 18.1 20.1 24.5 25.7
2xl0 at 24 'oc 18.4 20.7 25.5 26.8
2x12 atlS'oc 18.8 21.0 25.5 30.1
2x12 at 24'oc 19.0 21.4 27.3 31.4
A2-Framed Walls
Single
Wall Insulation R-value
Framing R-ll R-13 R-19 R-25
2x4 at 16'oc 12.0 13.6
2x4 at 24'oc 12.7 13.9
2x6 at16'0C 14.1 15.4 17.7 19.2
2x6 at 24'oc 14.3 15.6 18.2 19.8
Double
Wall Total Thickness (inches)
Framing 8 10 12 14
25.0 31.3 37.5 43.8
The R-value of insulating sheathing should be added to
the values in this table.
A3-Insulated Floors
Framing
2x6s at 16' oc
2x6s at 24'oc
2x8s at 16'oc
2x8s at 24 'oc
2xl0 at 16'oc
2x10 at 24'oc
2x12 at 16'oc
2x12 at 24'oc
Insulation R-value
R-ll R-19 R-30 R-38
18.2 23.8 29.9
18.4 24.5 31.5
18.8 24.9 31.7 36.0
18.9 25.4 33.1 37.9
19.3 25.8 33.4 38.1
19.3 26.1 34.4 39.8
19.7 26.5 34.7 39.8
19.6 26.7 35.5 41.2
These R-values include the buffering effect of a
ventilated crawlspace or uncondnioned basement.
A4-Windows
Air Gap
1/4 in. 1/2 in. 1/2 in. argon
standard Metal Frame
Single .9
Double 1.1 1.2 1.2
Low-e (e<=0.40) 1.2 1.3 1.3
Metal frame wnh thermal break
Double 1.5 1.6 1.7
Low-e (e<=0.40) 1.6 1.8 1.8
Low-e (e<:O.20) 1.7 1.9 2.0
Wood frame with vinyl cladding
Double 2.0 2.1 2.2
Low-e (e<:O.40) 2.1 2.4 2.5
Low-e (e<:O.20) 2.2 2.6 2.7
Low-e (e<:O.1 0) 2.3 2.6 2.9
These R-values are based on a 3 mph wind speed and
are typical for the entire rough framed opening.
Manufacture's data, based on National Fenestration
Rating Council procedures, should be used when
available. One half the R-value of movable insulation
should be added, when appropriate.
Table A-continued
A5-Doors
Solid wood w ~
Weatherstripping
Metal wnh rigid
foam core
2.2
5.9
Table B-Perimeter Heat Loss .
Factors for Slabs-on-Grade and
Unheated Basements (Btu/h-F-ft)
Heated Unheated Insulated
Perimeter
Insulation
Siabs-on- Base- Base- Crawl-
Grade ments ments spaces
None 0.8
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
1.3 1.1 1.1
R-5 0.8 0.7 0.6
R-7 0.7 0.6 0.5
R-ll
R-19
R-30
0.6 0.5 0.4
0.4 0.5 0.3
0.3 0.4 0.2
Table C-Heating Degree Days
(F-dayf
Cl-Heating Degree Days (Base 65F)
Los Angeles AP 1 ,595
Los Angeles Civic Glr. 1,204
Burbank 1 ,679
Canoga Park 1,885
Corona 1,795
Fontana
Long Beach
Pasadena
San Bernadino
Santa Ana
Santa Monica
C2-Heating Degree Day Multiplier
Heat Loss
per Square
Foot .00
12.00 1.32
11.50 1.30
11.00 1.27
10.50 1.24
10.00 1.21
9.50 1.18
9.00 1.15
8.50 1.11
8.00 1.07
7.50 1.03
7.00 0.98
6.50 0.93
6.00 0.87
5.50 0.81
5.00 0.72
4.50 0.62
4.00 0.50
3.50 0.38
3.00 0.25
2.50 0.14
2.00 0.03
Passive Solar
Glazing Area per
per Square Foot
.05 .10 .15
1.34 1.37 1.39
1.32 1.35 1.37
1.30 1.33 1.35
1.28 1.31 1.33
1.25 1.28 1.31
1.22 1.26 1.29
1.19 1.23 1.26
1.16 1.20 1.23
1.12 1.16 1.20
1.08 1.13 1.17
1.04 1.09 1.13
0.99 1.05 1.09
0.94 1.00 1.05
0.89 0.95 1.01
0.82 0.90 0.96
0.74 0.83 0.91
0.64 0.76 0.85
0.53 0.66 o.n
0.41 0.55 0.68
0.27 0.43 0.57
0.16 0.30 0.46
1,529
1,485
1,550
I,m
1,430
1,873
.20
1.40
1.39
1.37
1.35
1.33
1.31
1.29
1.27
1.24
1.21
1.18
1.14
1.10
1.06
1.02
0.97
0.92
0.86
0.79
0.70
0.60
Table D-Baae Cue
CODServation Performance (Btu/yr-
sf)
Base Case 19,893
Degrees off
True
South
o
5
10
15
20
25
30
Table E-Projected Area
Adjustment Factors
Solar System Type
DG, TW, SSA SSB,
WW, SSC SSD SSE
1.00 o.n 0.75
1. 00 0.76 0.75
0.98 0.75 0.74
0.97 0.74 0.73
0.94 0.72 0.70
0.91 0.69 0.68
0.87 0.66 0.65
Table F-801ar System Saving
Fractions
Fl-Direct Gain
Load DGCl DGC2 DGC3
Collector Double Low-e R-9 Night
Ratio Glazing Glazing Insulation
400 0.18 0.18 0.19
300 0.23 0.23 0.25
200 0.33 0.32 0.35
150 0.41 0.41 0.45
100 0.57 0.57 0.62
80 0.66 0.66 0.72
60 o.n o.n 0.82
50 0.82 0.83 0.88
45 0.85 0.86 0.90
40 0.88 0.89 0.92
35 0.90 0.92 0.94
30 0.93 0.94 0.96
25 0.95 0.96 0.97
20 0.96 0.98 0.98
15 0.97 0.99 0.98
F2-Trombe Walls
TWF3 TWA3 TWJ2 TWI4
Load Unvented Vented Unvented Unvented
Collector Non- Non- Selec- Night
Ratio selective selective tive Insulation
400 0.15 0.18 0.22 0.17
300 0.20 0.23 0.30 0.23
200 0.28 0.31 0.42 0.34
150 0.35 0.39 0.51 0.43
100 0.47 0.51 0.65 0.57
80 0.54 0.58 0.73 0.65
60 0.63 0.67 0.82 0.75
50 0.69 0.73 0.87 0.81
45 0.73 0.76 0.90 0.84
40 o.n 0.80 0.92 0.87
35 0.81 0.84 0.94 0.90
30 0.85 0.88 0.96 0.93
25 0.89 0.92 0.98 0.96
20 0.94 0.95 0.99 0.98
15 0.97 0.98 1.00 0.99
F3-Water Walls
Load WWA3 WWB4 WWC2
Collector No Night Night Selective
Ratio Insulation Insulation Surface
400 0.20 0.21 0.22
300 0.26 0.29 0.29
200 0.36 0.41 0.41
150 0.44 0.51 0.51
100 0.57 0.66 0.66
80 0.64 0.74 0.73
60 0.74 0.83 0.83
50 0.79 0.88 0.87
45 0.82 0.91 0.90
40 0.86 0.93 0.92
35 0.89 0.95 0.95
30 0.92 0.97 0.97
25 0.95 0.98 0.98
20 0.98 0.99 0.99
15 0.99 1.00 1.00
F 4-Sunspaces
Load
Collector Sunspace Type
Ratio SSAl SSBl SSCl SSDl SSEl
400 0.26 0.22 0.18 0.30 0.26
300 0.31 0.26 0.23 0.37 0.32
200 0.40 0.34 0.32 0.48 0.42
150 0.47 0.41 0.40 0.56 0.50
100 0.59 0.52 0.52 0.69 0.63
80 0.66 0.59 0.59 0.76 0.70
60 0.74 0.68 0.69 0.84 0.79
50 0.80 0.74 0.75 0.88 0.84
45 0.82 o.n 0.78 0.90 0.86
40 0.85 0.80 0.81 0.92 0.89
35 0.88 0.83 0.85 0.94 0.92
30 0.91 0.87 0.89 0.96 0.94
25 0.94 0.91 0.93 0.98 0.96
20 0.97 0.95 0.96 0.99 0.98
15 0.99 0.98 0.98 1.00 1.00
Table G-Base Case Auxiliary
Heat Performance (Btu/yr-st)
Base Case 15,709
Table H-Umt Heat Capacities
(Btu/F-st)
H1-Mass Surfaces Enclosing Direct Gain
Spaces
Thickness (inches)
Material 1 2 3 4 6 8 12
Poured Conc. 1.8 4.3 6.7 8.8 11.3 11.5 10.3
Conc. Masonry 1.8 4.2 6.5 8.4 10.2 10.0 9.0
Face Brick 2.0 4.7 7.1 9.0 10.4 9.9 9.0
Flag Stone 2.1 4.8 7.1 8.5 8.6 8.0 7.6
Builder Brick 1.5 3.7 5.4 6.5 6.6 6.0 5.8
Adobe 1.3 3.2 4.8 5.5 5.4 4.9 4.8
Hardwood 0.4 1.4 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.5
Water 5.2 10.4 15.620.831.2 41.6 62.4
H2-Rooms with no Direct Solar Gain
Thickness (inches)
Material 1 2 3 4 6 8
Poured Conc. 1.7 3.0 3.6 3.8 3.7 3.6
Conc. Masonry 1.6 2.9 3.5 3.6 3.6 3.4
Face Brick 1.8 3.1 3.6 3.7 3.5 3.4
Flag Stone 1.9 3.1 3.4 3.4 3.2 3.1
Builder Brick 1.4 2.6 3.0 3.1 2.9 2.7
Adobe 1.2 2.4 2.8 2.8 2.6 2.4
Hardwood 0.5 1.1 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0
Table I-Comfort Factors
(Btu/st)
Direct Gain
Suns paces and
Vented Trombe Walls
870
290
Table J-Radiant Barrier
Factors
Radiant Barrier 0.75
No Radiant Barrier 1.00
12
3.4
3.2
3.2
3.0
2.7
2.4
1.1
Table K-Solar Absorptances
Color
Gloss
Semi-gloss Whrte
Light Green
Kelly Green
Medium Blue
Medium Yellow
Medium Orange
Medium Green
Light Buff Brick
Bare Concrete
Red Brick
Medium Red
Medium Brown
Dark Blue-Grey
Dark Brown
Absorptance
0.25
0.30
0.47
0.51
0.51
0.57
0.58
0.59
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.80
0.84
0.88
0.88
45
Table L-Heat Gain Factors
Ceiiinglroofs 72.7
Walls and Doors 35.3
North Glass 30.8
East Glass 91.6
West Glass 83.5
Skylights 157.9
Direct Gain Glazing 67.2
Trombe Walls and 0.3
Water Walls
Sunspaces
SSAl 23.7
SSBl 23.7
SSCl 0.3
SSDl 23.7
SSEl 23.7
Table M-Sbading Factors
Projection
Factor
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
South
1.00
0.84
0.63
0.46
0.35
0.31
0.26
East
1.00
0.95
0.82
0.69
0.56
0.45
0.36
North
1.00
0.89
0.78
0.66
0.55
0.44
0.33
West
1.00
0.94
0.80
0.66
0.54
0.43
0.34
MuHiply by 0.8 for low-e glass, 0.7 for tinted glass and
0.6 for low-e tinted glass.
Table N-Intemal Gain Factors
Constant Component
kBtu/yr
Variable Component
kBtu/yr-BR
2,200
920
Table O-Thermal Mass and
Ventilation Adjustment (Btu/yr-st)
Total Heat Night Night No Night No Night
Vent wi Vent wi No Vent wi Vent wi No
per SF Ceil. Fan Ceil. Fan Ceil. Fan Ceil. Fan
0.0 7,430 5,030 7,280 4,160
1.0 9,060 6,590 8,900 5,730
2.0 9,860 7,490 9,710 6,620
3.0 10,260 8,000 10,100 7,130
4.0 10,460 8,290 10,300 7,420
5.0 10,550 8,450 10,400 7,590
6.0 10,600 8,550 10,440 7,680
7.0 10,620 8,600 10,470 7,730
8.0 10,640 8,630 10,480 7,760
9.0 10,640 8,650 10,490 7,780
10.0 10,640 8,660 10,490 7,790
Total heat per square foot is calculated on
Worksheet III, Step E.
Table P-Base Case Cooling
Performance (Btu/sf-yr)
Base Case 7,544
Los Angeles, CaUfornia
46
General
The Worksheets provide a
calculation procedure to estimate the
performance level of passive solar
building designs. It is recommended
that the results be compared to
Worksheet calculations for the builder's
typical house. Performance levels for the
NAHB Base Case House used in the
Guidelines are also provided for
comparison. A separate worksheet is
provided for the four separate
performance levels and associated base
cases.
The worksheets are supported by a
number of data tables. The tables are
given a letter designation and are
referenced next to each worksheet entxy.
when applicable.
The floor area used in the
calculations should not include
suns paces. garages or other
unconditioned spaces.
VVorksheetI-Conservation
Performance Level
This is an estimate of the amount of
heat energy needed by the building each
year from both the solar system and the
auxiliary heating system.
For Step A. it is necessary to
measure the net area of surfaces that
enclose conditioned space. For walls.
the net surface area is the gross wall
area less the window and door area.
Rough frame dimensions are
generally used to measure window area.
The R-values in Table A4 are for the
rough frame window area.
Heat loss from passive solar
systems is excluded. The surfuce area of
direct gain glazing. Trombe walls. water
walls and the walls that separate
suns paces from the house are ignored.
Step A includes consideration of
insulated floors over crawlspaces.
unheated basements or garages.
R-values are provided in Table A3 that
account for the buffering effect of these
unconditioned spaces. When insulation
is not installed in the floor assembly. but
rather around the perimeter of a
crawlspace or unheated basement. Step
B should be used.
The perimeter method of Step B is
used for slabs-on-grade. the below-grade
portion of heated basements. unheated
basements (when the floor is not
insulated). and perimeter insulated
crawlspaces (when the floor is not
insulated). Heated basement walls that
are above grade should be considered in
Step A.
Slab edge perimeter. unheated
basements or perimeter insulated
crawlspaces adjacent to sunspaces
should not be included.
The conservation performance level
is calculated as the product of the heat
loss per degree day per square foot [Step
DJ and the heating degree days. adjusted
for the heat loss and solar glazing per
square foot. The adjustment is taken
from Table C. based on data calculated
on Worksheet I. Step D and Worksheet II.
Step A.
Should the estimated conservation
performance level be greater than
desired. the designer should consider
additional building insulation or
reducing non-south glass area.
VVorksheet II-Auxiliary Heat
Performance Level
This is an estimate of the amount of
heat that must be provided each year
from the auxiliary heating system. It
accounts for savings due to solar energy.
In Step A . the user may enter the
rough frame area of solar glazing. since
it is generally easier to measure the
rough frame area than it is the net
glazing area. The worksheet includes a
net area factor of 0.80 to account for
window frames and mullions. If the
designer enters the net glass area, then
the net area factor is 1.00.
The projected area of the solar
energy systems may be calculated using
the adjustment factors in Table E or by
making a scaled elevation drawing of the
building facing exactly south and
measuring the glazing area from the
scaled drawing.
The projected area per square foot is
calculated as the last part of Step A.
This is used to determine the heating
degree days adjustment used on
Worksheet I, Step E.
The load collector ratio is calculated
in Step B. This is used to determine the
solar savings fractions in Step C.
The solar energy systems used in
Step C should be identical to those used
in Step A. The fIrst and last columns of
Step A are simply carried down.
The solar savings fraction is
determined separately for each type of
passive solar system by looking up
values in Tables F1 through F4. The
suns pace system types are shown
beneath Table F4.
If the auxiliary heat performance
level calculated in Step D is larger than
desired. the designer should consider
increasing the size of the solar energy
systems or adding additional solar
energy systems. i.e. thermal storage
walls.
VVorksheet III-Comfort
Performance Level
This is the temperature swing expected
on a clear winter day with the auxiliary
heating system not operating.
This worksheet requires that two
sub-areas be defined within the building:
those areas that receive direct solar
gains and those areas that are
connected to rooms that receive direct
solar gains. Rooms that are separated
from direct gain spaces by more than
one door should not be included in
either categOIY.
Thermal mass elements located in
unconditioned spaces such as sunspaces
are not included.
An exposed slab is one finished with
vinyl tile, ceramic tile or other highly
conductive materials. Carpeted slabs
should not be considered exposed. The
exposed slab area should be further
reduced by about 50 percent to account
for throw rugs and furnishings.
As a rule-of-thumb, exposed slab
area should be considered to be in the
sun only when it is located directly
behind south glazing. The maximum
slab area that is assumed to be in the
sun should not exceed 1.5 times the
adjacent south glass area.
In Step F. the projected area of solar
glazing calculated on Worksheet II is
used to calculate the comfort
performance level. The projected area of
water walls and unvented Trombe walls
is excluded in this step.
A high temperature swing indicates
inadequate thermal mass or too much
direct gain solar glazing. If the comfort
performance level is greater than desired
(l3F recommended). additional thermal
mass should be added to the building or
direct gain glazing should be reduced.
VVorksheet IV-Summer Cooling
Performance Level
This is an estimate of the annual cooling
load of the building-the heat that needs
to be removed from the building by an
air conditioner in order to maintain
comfort during the summer.
In Step A. only the envelope
surfaces that are exposed to sunlight are
to be included. For instance. floors over
crawlspaces and walls or doors adjacent
to garages are excluded.
Steps B and C of the worksheet
account for solar gains. They use the
rough frame area since this is easier to
measure. The worksheets include a net
area factor of 0.80 to account for window
frames and mullions. If the net window
area is used. the net area factor is 1.00.
Table M gives the shade factor for
windows with overhangs based on a
projection factor. The projection factor
is the ratio between the horizontal
projection of the overhang from the
surface of window and the distance from
the bottom of the window to the bottom
of the overhang. When windows have
sunscreens. tints or films. the shade
factors in Table M should not be used.
Instead. a shading coefficient should be
determined from manufacturers'
literature.
If the cooling performance level is
greater than desired. the designer
should consider reducing non-south
glass. providing additional shading or
increasing thermal mass.
Passive Solar
Design Strategies
EXAMPLE
With Support From:
Los Angeles,
California
The Worked
ExaDlple
47
48
The Worked Example
Description of
Example Bullding
A 1,504 square foot passive
solar, single-family home with
an 8.3 ft. average ceiling height
is used to illustrate how to fill in
the worksheets. See sketches
for the building layout. A
variety of design features have
been incorporated into the
house to help illustrate how to
handle different situations in
the worksheets.
The building seleCted has
good insulation as described on
Worksheet I.
The east portion of the
house is slab on grade. The
great room and master bedroom
are constructed over a
crawlspace.
r
20'
Garage
in

Co
C\I
Master

Bedroom
The house has a semi-
enclosed sunspace with vertical
glazing. The sunspace floor has
a four-inch thick slab-on-grade
with quarry tile set in a mortar
bed. The sunspace is separated
from the conditioned portion of
the house by sliding glass doors
and a masonry fireplace wall.
Sunspace ventilation is provided
to the outside by awning
windows located. at the top and
bottom of the south wall.
South facing windows
provide direct gain solar heating
to the dining area, kitchen and
master bedroom. The south
glazing in the kitchen and
dining area provides heat to an
exposed slab-on-grade finished
with ceramic tile to provide
direct gain heat storage.
The house faces 10 degrees
to the east of true south.
T
22'
4040
Great Room
8088
....
FLOOR PLAN
WORKED EXAMPLE
The house is equipped with
a ceiling fan to help reduce the
air-conditioning load. North
windows have an overhang with
a projection factor of 0.30. East
and west windows are small and
have no effective overhang
because of the gable roof. South
windows, including the
sunspace windows, have an
overhang with a proj ection
factor of 0.20.
Take-offs from the house are
given in the worksheets. Refer
to the circled values in the
worksheet tables to locate where
the various values which show
up in the worksheets come from.
Performance is found to be
satisfactory on all four
worksheets.
Bedroom
24'
o 2 4 8 12
......
PASSIVE SOLAR DE$IGN STRATEGIES 49
SOUTH ELEVATION
NORTH ELEVATION
o 2 4 8 12
----
ABOVE GRADE SECTION
o 2 4 8 12
----
Los Angeles. CaHfornia
50
Insulation

. .
.' II .' &
SLAB-ON-GRADE CRAWLSPACE
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
WORKED EXAMPLE
1'1iH''--,,''I- Insulation
4,
....
= 1111 1111 1111 1111 I
.....
.

FULL BASEMENT
Los Angeles,
California
51
NOTE: These worksheets are completed
for the example house described on the
previous pages. Also the reference tables
are marked up showing how the numbers
are selected.
Worked ExaDlple
52
WORKED EXAMPLE WORKSHEETS
Construction R-value Heat
Description Area [Table A] Loss
1-:ID , .. S1't\L
+

'"'U
+
U5J =
2.3
1t-l1
'l.. .. n

+ ,2..0 = 83
u-\\ t

+ 11..0 = 11-
+ =
+ =
'1C\A .... 5z. + \l = ""1
.. "J\nlL.. ''''-. CAP + =
.Q.Qw. boOQ... '-'Q
+ 2..2...
= 18
+ =
2..%'2... Btu/oF-h
Total
B. Foundation Perimeter Heat Loss
Heat Loss
Factor Heat
Description Perimeter [Table B] Loss
X D.Ha

X =

X =

X =

Btu/oF-h
Total
X o.SD X .018 =
\\2. Btu/oF-h
Building Air Changes
Volume per Hour
24 X
L\""e
+
\ So'"" =

Btu/DD-sf
Total Heat Loss Floor Area
(A+B+C)
'.l\.\.
X lSQS X
=
\1..CW:l Btulyr-sf
Total Heat Heating Degree Heating Degree
Loss per Days [Table C] Day Multiplier
Square Foot [Table C]
F. Comparison Conservation Performance (From Previous Calculation or from Table 0)
\'it'l
Btulyr-sf
53
Worksheet II: Auxiliar Heat Performance Level

se
X 0.80 X

\S

1.QS X 0.80 X
et.q
=
X 0.80 X
X 0.80 X =
X 0.80 X =
X 0.80 X =
X 0.80 X =
2..9.& sf
Total Area Total
Projected
Area
2.3.'2..
-;-

=
O.\S
Area Square Foot
24 X

+ = L\ob
Total Total
Heat Loss Projected
[Worksheet I] Area
Solar Savings Fraction
System
Solar System Projected
Solar Savings
Fraction

X

l&.:l
X =
X =
X =
X
X =
X
+
=
Total Total Solar
Projected Savings
Area Fraction
D. Auxiliary Heat Perfonnance Level
[ 1- X
\'].'\Sl
= 2..'1'-' Btulyr-sf
Solar Conservation
Savings Performance
Fraction Level [Worksheet I,
Step E]
E. Comparative Auxiliary Heat Perfonnance (From Previous Calculation or from Table G)
\S1ocr. Btulyr-sf
Com are Line D to Line E
54
WORKED EXAMPLE WORKSHEETS
Worksheet III: Thermal Mass Comfort
A. Heat Capacity of Sheetrock and Interior Furnishings
Unit Total
Heat Heat
Floor Area Capacity Capacity
Rooms with Direct Gain
'""""'
X 4.7
'L"e'
Spaces Connected to Direct Gain Spaces ______ _ X 4.5 =
,",z..",,\ \
,'-'S2. Btu/OF
Total
Trombe Walls
Mass Description
.. (include thickness)
Water Walls _______________ _
Exposed Slab in Syn ____________ _
Exposed Slab Not in Syn
Area
X
X
\D.3 X
\:\'1 X
X
X
X
Unit Heat
Capacity Total Heat
[Table H] Capacity
8.8
10.4
13.4 =
1.8 =
'lJ.\'
=
=
=
H."Z..'
Btu/OF
Total
Trombe Walls
Mass Description
(include thickness)
Water Walls ..__----------=-------
rAtA- "'-""'" '"" ..
Total Comfort
Projected Area Factor
[Worksheet II] [Table I]
D:!::n

X

X Q[
:!limted I[QlDb!2 lOlall!:;!
=
Area
\\\
94'\0
Total Heat
Capacity

&.\:11.'D
10'1""
Total
Unit Heat
Capacity Total Heat
[Table H] Capacity
X 3.8
X 4.2
X =

X =
X =

Btu/OF
Total
Btu/OF
(A+B+C)
+ \S\.4

Btu/OF-sf
Conditioned
Floor Area
+ =
\1...,
OF
Total
Heat
Capacity
\1 of
Com are Line F to Line G
PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN STRATEGIES 55
A. Opaque Surfaces
Heat Loss Factor tance Factor
Description [Worksheet I] [Table J] [Table K] [Table L] Load

X ,.OC> X
D.'"'J
X -''L::l =

13
X 1.00 X X
"'2.."
=
l"-
X X X =

f).l
X nfa C.JO X

1.oS1
X nfa X =
Q.QQ.r..
q
X nfa 0.'30 X

L\'l-'S
kBtu/yr
Total
Shade Factor Heat Gain Rough Frame Net Area
Description Area Factor [Table M] Factor [Table L]
-
Load
"'-Q
X 0.80 X
"13
X
=
O,C
X 0.80 X X =

I; X 0.80 X 10&> X
q\.,
= &..\'"'0
X 0.80 X X
=

,
X 0.80 X \.00 X
=
X 0.80 X X
X 0.80 X X
X 0.80 X X =

kBtu/yr
Total
C. Solar Glazing
Oi[!il!<t !:a5!.iD 8S
X 0.80 X X '-1.'2- =
,:lCI.,,,,
X 0.80 X X
=
X 0.80 X X
=
X 0.80 X X =
l.D X 0.80 X D. 0,'-' X =
&.\"2-
X 0.80 X X
=
kBtu/yr
Total
D. Internal Gain
+( X ) =
L\ctLO kBtu/yr
[Table N] [Table N]
1,000 X
,"''\00 +
1 SO"" =
"qOl Btu/yr-sf

'-1
lQ'"\1..3 Btu/yr-sf
[Table 0]
,.S" Btu/yr-sf
(E -F)
'S",,,,* Btu/yr-sf
Com are Line G to Line H
56
Table A-Equivalent Thermal
Performance of AssembUes
R-values (hr-F-sf/Btu)
A 1-CellingsiRoofs
Allie Insulation R-vatue
(!ff) 35.9 46.9 57.9
2x6 at 16"oc 14.7 15.8 16.3
2x6 at 24'oc 15.3 16.5 17.1
2x8 at 16'oc 17.0 18.9 20.6 21.1
2x8 at 24'oc 19.6 21.6 22.2
2xl0 at 16'oc

20.1 24.5 25.7
2xl0 at 24'oc .4 20.7 25.5 26.8
2x12 at 16'oc 18.8 21.0 25.5 30.1
2x12 at 24 'oc 19.0 21.4 27.3 31.4
A2-Framed Walls
Single
Wall Insulation R-value
Framing

R-13 R-19 R-25
2x4 at 16'oc 12 13.6
2x4 at 24"oc .7 13.9
2x6 at 16"oc 14.1 15.4 17.7 19.2
2x6 at 24'oc 14.3 15.6 18.2 19.8
Double
Wall Total Thickness (inches)
Framing 8 10 12 14
25.0 31.3 37.5 43.8
- The R-value of insulating sheathing should be added to
the values in this table.
A3-Insulated Floors
Insulation R-value
Framing R-ll R-19 R-30 R-38
2x6s at 16'oc 18.2 23.8 29.9
2x6s at 24'oc 18.4 24.5 31.5
2x8s at 16'oc 18.8 24.9 31.7 36.0
2x8s at 24'oc 18.9 25.4 33.1 37.9
2xl0 at 16'oc 19.3 25.8 33.4 38.1
2xl0 at 24'oc 19.3 26.1 34.4 39.8
2x12 at 16'oc 19.7 26.5 34.7 39.8
2x12 at 24'oc 19.6 26.7 35.5 41.2
These R-values include the buffering effect of a
ventilated crawlspace or basement.
A4-Wlndows
Air Gap
1/4 in. 1/2 in. 1/2 in. argon
Standard Metal Frame
Single
qf
1.2 Double 1.2
Low-e (e<=0.40) 1.3 1.3
Metal frame with thermal break
Double 1.5 1.6 1.7
Low-e (e<=0.40) 1.6 1.8 1.8
Low-e {e<=0.20} 1.7 1.9 2.0
Double 2.0 2.1 2.2
Low-e {e<=0.40} 2.1 2.4 2.5
Low-e {e<=0.20} 2.2 2.6 2.7
Low-e (e<=O.l O) 2.3 2.6 2.9
These R-values are based on a 3 mph wind speed and
are typical for the entire rough framed opening.
Manufacture's data, based on National Fenestration
Rating Council procedures, should be used when
available. One half the R-value of movable insulation
should be added, when appropriate.
Table A-continued _.
AS-Doors
Solid wood
Weatherstripping
Metal rigid
foam core
5.9
Table B-Perimeter Heat Loss
Factors for Slabs-on-Grade and
Unheated Basements (Btu/h-F-ft)
Heated
Base-
ments
Unheated Insulated
Perimeter
Insulation
Siabs-on-
Grade
Base- Crawl-
I'Qn

ments spaces
None 1.3
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.4
0.3
1.1 1.1
R-5 0.7 0.6
R-7 0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.6 0.5
R-ll
R-19
R-30
0.5 0.4
0.5 0.3
0.4 0.2
Table C-Heating Degree Days
(F-day)
C1-Heating Degree Days (Base
Los Angeles AP 1,59
Los Angeles Civic Clr. , 04
Burbank 1,679
Canoga Park 1,885
Corona 1,795
Fontana
Long Beach
Pasadena
San Bernadino
Santa Ana
Santa Monica
Heat Loss
per Square
Foot .00
12.00 1.32
11.50 1.30
11.00 1.27
10.50 1.24
10.00 1.21
9.50 1.18
9.00 1.15
8.50 1.11
8.00 1.07
c!
1.03
7' 0.98
.50 0.93
6.00 0.87
5.50 0.81
5.00 0.72
4.50 0.62
4.00 0.50
3.50 0.38
3.00 0.25
2.50 0.14
2.00 0.03
Passive Solar
Glazing Area per
per Square Foot
.05 .10 .15
1.34 1.37 1.39
1.32 1.35 1.37
1.30 1.33 1.35
1.28 1.31 1.33
1.25 1.28 1.31
1.22 1.26 1.29
1.19 1.23 1.26
1.16 1.20 1.23
1.12 1.16
1.08 1.13 .
1.04 1.09
0.99 1.05 1.09
0.94 1.00 1.05
0.89 0.95 1.01
0.82 0.90 0.96
0.74 0.83 0.91
0.64 0.76 0.85
0.53 0.66 o.n
0.41 0.55 0.68
0.27 0.43 0.57
0.16 0.30 0.46
1,529
1,485
1,550
1,m
1,430
1,873
.20
1.40
1.39
1.37
1.35
1.33
1.31
1.29
1.27
1.24
1.21
1.18
1.14
1.10
1.06
1.02
0.97
0.92
0.86
0.79
0.70
0.60
WORKED EXAMPLE TABLES
Table D-Base Case Conservation
Performance
Base Case 19,8
Table E-Projected Area Adjustment
Factors
Degrees off System Type
True SSA SSB,
South SS SSD SSE
o 1. o.n 0.75
5 0.76 0.75
10 0.9 0.75 0.74
15 . 0.74 0.73
20 0.94 0.72 0.70
25 0.91 0.69 0.68
30 0.87 0.66 0.65
Table F-Solar System Saving
Fractions
Load
Collector
Ratio
400
300
200
150
100
80
(!)
40
35
30
25
20
15
F1-Dlrect Gain
DGCl DGC2
Double Low-e
Glazing Glazing
0.18 0.18
0.23 0.23
0.33 0.32
0.41 0.41
0.57 0.57
0.66 0.66
o.n o.n
4iP
0.83
O. 0.86
.88 0.89
0.90 0.92
0.93 0.94
0.95 0.96
0.96 0.98
0.97 0.99
F2-Trombe Walls
DGC3
R-9 Night
Insulation
0.19
0.25
0.35
0.45
0.62
0.72
0.82
0.88
0.90
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.97
0.98
0.98
TWF3 TWA3 TWJ2 TWI4
Load Unvented Vented Unvented Unvented
Collector Non- Non- Selec- Night
Ratio selective selective tive Insulation
400 0.15 0.18 0.22 0.17
300 0.20 0.23 0.30 0.23
200 0.28 0.31 0.42 0.34
150 0.35 0.39 0.51 0.43
100 0.47 0.51 0.65 0.57
80 0.54 0.58 0.73 0.65
60 0.63 0.67 0.82 0.75
50 0.69 0.73 0.87 0.81
45 0.73 0.76 0.90 0.84
40 o.n 0.80 0.92 0.87
35 0.81 0.84 0.94 0.90
30 0.85 0.88 0.96 0.93
25 0.89 0.92 0.98 0.96
20 0.94 0.95 0.99 0.98
15 0.97 0.98 1.00 0.99
F3-Water Walls
Load
Collector
Ratio
400
300
200
150
100
80
WWA3
No Night
Insulation
WWB4
Night
Insulation
0.21
0.29
0.41
0.51
0.66
0.74
0.83
0.88
0.91
0.93
0.95
0.97
0.98
0.99
1.00
WWC2
Selective
Surface
60
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
Load
Collector
Ratio SSAI
400 0.26
300 0.31
200 0.40
150 0.47
100 0.59
80 0.66
60 0.74
Cfo
0.80
0.82
o 0.85
35 0.88
30 0.91
25 0.94
20 0.97
15 0.99
0.20
0.26
0.36
0.44
0.57
0.64
0.74
0.79
0.82
0.86
0.89
0.92
0.95
0.98
0.99
F4-Sunspaces
Sunspace Type
SSBI SSCI SSDI
0.22 0.18 0.30
0.26 0.23 0.37
0.34 0.32 0.48
0.41 0.40 0.56
0.52 0.52 0.69
0.59 0.59 0.76
0.68 0.69 0.84
0.74 0.88
o.n ("Q.Zi' 0.90
0.80 0.81 0.92
0.83 0.85 0.94
0.87 0.89 0.96
0.91 0.93 0.98
0.95 0.96 0.99
0.98 0.98 1.00
0.22
0.29
0.41
0.51
0.66
0.73
0.83
0.87
0.90
0.92
0.95
0.97
0.98
0.99
1.00
SSEI
0.26
0.32
0.42
0.50
0.63
0.70
0.79
0.84
0.86
0.89
0.92
0.94
0.96
0.98
1.00
Table G-Base Case Auxiliary Heat
Performance
Base Case 15,709
Table H-Unit Heat Capacities
(Btu/F-sf)
HI-Mass Surfaces Enclosing Direct Gain
Spaces
Thickness (inches)
Material 23468 12
Poured Conc. 1.8 4.3 6.7 8.8 11.3 11.5 10.3
Conc. Masonry 1.8 4.2 6.5 8.4 10.2 10.0 9.0
Face Brick 2.0 4.7 7.1 9.0 10.4 9.9 9.0
Flag stone 2.1 4.8 7.1 8.5 8.6 8.0 7.6
Builder Brick 1.5 3.7 5.4 6.5 6.6 6.0 5.8
Adobe 1.3 3.2 4.8 5.5 5.4 4.9 4.8
Hardwood 0.4 1.4 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.5
Water 5.2 10.4 15.620.8 31.2 41.6 62.4
Thickness (inches)
Material 1 2 3 4 6 8
Poured Conc. 1.7 3.0 3.6 3.8 3.7 3.6
Conc. Masonry 1.6 2.9

3.6 3.4
Face Brick 1.8 3.1 3.6 . 3.5 3.4
Flag stone 1.9 3.1 3.4 .4 3.2 3.1
Builder Brick 1.4 2.6 3.0 3.1 2.9 2.7
Adobe 1.2 2.4 2.8 2.8 2.6 2.4
Hardwoo.d 0.5 1.1 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0
Table I-Comfort Factors (Btu/sf)
Direct Gain
Suns paces and
Vented Trombe Walls
@

Table J-Radiant Barrier Factors
Radiant Barrier 0.75
No Radiant Barrier
Color
Gloss WhITe
Semi-gloss WhITe
Light Green
Kelly Green
Medium Blue
Medium Yellow
Medium Orange
Medium Green
Light Buff Brick
Bare Concrete
Red Brick
Medium Red
Medium Brown
Dark Blue-Grey
Dark Brown
Absorptance
0.51
0.57
0.58
0.59
0.60

'5:?0'
0.84
0.88
0.88
12
3.4
3.2
3.2
3.0
2.7
2.4
1.1
57
Table L-Heat Gain Factors
Ceilinglroofs
Walls and Doors
North Glass
East Glass
West Glass
Skylights

Direct Gain Glazing 67.
Trombe Walls and .3
Water Walls
Sunspaces
SSAI 23.7
SSBI

SSCI
SSDI
SSEI 23.7
Table M-Shading Factors
Projection
Factor South

North
0.00
<I
1.00
0.20 .95

. 4
0.40 0.82 0.80
0.60 0.46 0.69 0.66 0.66
0.80 0.35 0.56 0.55 0.54
1.00 0.31 0.45 0.44 0.43
1.20 0.26 0.36 0.33 0.34
...... Multiply by 0.8 for low-e glass, 0.7 for tinted glass and
0.6 for low-e tinted glass.
Table N-Internal Gain Factors
Constant Component
Variable Component
Table O-Thermal Mass and
Ventilation Acljustment (Btu/yr-sf)
CapacITY Vent wi Vent wi No Vent wi Vent wi No
0.0 7,430 5,030 7,280 4,160
1.0 9,060 6,590 8,900 5,730
2.0 9,860 7,490 9,710 6,620
3.0 10,260 8,000 10,100 7,130
40 10,460 8,290 10 7,420
10,550 8,450 ,40 7,590
10,600 8,550 10,44 7,680
7.0 10,620 8,600 ,0 7,730
8.0 10,640 8,630 10,480 7,760
9.0 10,640 8,650 10,490 7,780
10.0 10,640 8,660 10,490 7,790
Total heat capacITy per square foot is calculated on
Worksheet III, Step E.
Table P-Base Case Cooling
Performance (Btu/sf-yr)
Base Case
58 WORKED EXAMPLE TABLES
Any town ,
USA
59
Note: This is a generic example to explain how to
fill out the worksheets. For an example specific to
this book, refer to the worked example on the
prior pages. The actual house design used for both
examples is the same, but specific numerical
values will be different.
Anytown, USA
60
Introduction
Purpose
The purpose of the Any Town,
USA section is to explain how to
use the passive solar
worksheets in the Passive Solar
Design Strategies: Guidelines for
Home BUilding. Separate
Worksheets booklets are
available for specific locations
throughout the continental
USA. Each booklet contains
detailed technical data for a
specific location. Although the
example presented in this
booklet is for a moderate mid-
Atlantic climate, the procedure
is presented in a general
manner and is intended to be .
used for all locations.
General Description
of Worksheets
The Worksheets booklet for each
location provides an easy-to-use
calculation procedure, allowing
the designer to estimate the
performance level of a particular
building design and compare it
against a base-case performance
level or against the performance
of the builder's more
conventional house.
Anytown, USA
A separate worksheet is
provided for each of four
separate performance levels
level and
associated target. These are
deSCribed below:
Worksheet I: Conservation
Performance Level: the
estimated heat energy needed by
the building each year from both
the solar and auxiliary heating
systems. The units are
Btu/yr-sf.
Worksheet II: Auxiliary Heat
estimated heat that must be
provided each year by the
auxiliary heating system. This
worksheet accounts for the solar
savings. The units are
Btu/yr-sf.
Worksheet III: Thermal
Mass / Comfort: the temperature
swing expected on aclear winter
day with the auxiliary heating
system not operating. The units
are OF.
Worksheet N: Summer Cooling
estimated annual cooling load of
the building. The units are
Btu/yr-sf.
INTRODUCTION
The estimates from
Worksheets I and II are based on
a heating thermostat setting of
70F. The .estimates from
Worksheet IV are based on a
cooling thermostat setting of
78F with no ceiling fans and
82F with ceiling fans.
The worksheets are
supported by a number of data
tables. The data tables are given
a letter deSignation and are
referenced when applicable next
to each worksheet entry.
A description and drawings
of the example building are
provided below, followed by
completed worksheets. Data
tables have also been included
when appropriate.
Each step of the worksheets
is then explained in detail.
\
( )
\
Description of
Example Building
A 1.504 square foot passive
solar. single-family home with
an 8.3 ft. average ceiling height
is used to illustrate how to use
the worksheets. A floor plan.
building elevations. building
sections and details are shown
below.
The building has an
attached sunspace. The
sunspace floor has a four-inch
thick slab-on-grade with quarry
tile set in a mortar bed. The
sunspace is separated from the
conditioned portion of the house
by sliding glass doors and a
masonry fireplace wall. Awning
windows located at the top and
bottom of the south wall provide
outside ventilation for the
sunspace.
61
South facing windows
provide direct gain solar heating
to the dining area. kitchen and
master bedroom. The south
glazing in the kitchen and
dining area provides heat to an
exposed slab-on-grade.
The east portion of the
house is slab-on-grade
construction. The great room
and master bedroom suite are
raised floor construction. The
slab-on-grade floor in the
kitchen and dining area is
finished with ceramic tile so that
the floor may function as
thermal mass.
The exterior doors are metal
with a foam core center.
__ ...... .... .............. g4.' ............ : ............. ..
;..
.,...
Garage
Master
Bedroom
14'
8088
4040
Bedroom
Great Room
Suns pace
8088
o 2 4 8 12
FLOOR PLAN
----
AnytOWD, USA
62
I nsulation,.---i''ti"*t:=;::::::l I
. .,
. .... . .. ' :
""""!1rf"'_'11IT'nl-.LA .' .'
1111 III I;, : ..... : .
1I11 1111 ., .. ". 1I111Il1t='
. ' :." . 1I111II"
. : .' 1111"
", "II ", 111'
.... . ....
. . '" ..... . " . ",'.' .
. . -... '. -. . '
... ", .. ' ... " . ,' .
' II' .' II'
SLAB-ON-GRADE
Anytown, USA
SOUTH ELEVATION
NORTH ELEVATION
024 B 12
----
' ....... .
. ........................ ::::::::::::::J
"r
ABOVE GRADE SECTION
02 4 B 12
......
CRAWLSPACE
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
INTRODUCTION
FULL BASEMENT
)
\
/

I
General Information

1504 sf
Construction
Description
B-;36 io 8!liQ
B-;3Q io Qrull!!Qml Q!!iliog
B-l!:! B-Z SIl!!iillIliog io BigiQ
B-1!:! io
B-1!:! io EIQQ[ Qll!![
OQ!Jbl!! !:aliilZ!!Q WQQQ E[iillD!! liZ' iili[ giill2
- L.QY:l-i; (!!:;;- 4Q)
M!!!iilllI:li!1l EQiillD QQ[!!
B. Foundation Perimeter Heat.Loss
Description
B-Z
H!!iilis!Q BiilS!!ID!!O!S
Uoll!!ru!!Q
E!![iID!!t!![
1246;3
Building
Volume
24
H!2
Total Heat
Loss per
Square Foot
X
X
X
Area
]Q64
42Q
!:!!:!2
14Q
Z64
f22
4Q
Perimeter
62
Q f2Q
Air Changes
per Hour

Total Heat Loss
(A+B+C)
nQ;3
Heating Degree
Days [Table C]
+
+
..,...
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
X
X
X
X
X
+
X
R-value
[Table A]
;3f2!:!
24f2
24Z
lZZ
2f26
16
f2!:!
Heat Loss
Factor
[Table B]
Q;3Q
.018
lf2Q4
Floor Area
Qn
Heating Degree
Day Multiplier
[Table C]
F. Comparison Conservation Performance (From Previous Calculation or from Table O)
63
Heat
Loss
= ;3Q
=
]I
= 4Q
6
= ;3Q
=
2!:!
= Z
=
1121
Btu/OF-h
Total
Heat
Loss
2f2
=
=
=
2f2
Btu/oF-h
Total
112
Btu/OF-h
= 4Z!2
Btu/DD-sf
= lZQn Btu/yr-sf
2f2 ;3!2Q Btu/yr-sf
Anytown, USA
64
Worksheet I:
Conservation
Performance Level
Worksheet I is essentially a heat
loss calculation, similar to the
type of calculation made to size
heating and cooling equipment.
The major difference is that the
calculation does not consider
heat loss through any of the
passive solar systems. The
following building corriponents
in the example building are not
considered in the calculation:
Heat loss through direct gain
solar glazing.
Heat loss through walls and
windows that separate the
house from the sunspace.
If the example building had
Trombe walls or water walls,
heat loss through these passive
solar systems would also be
excluded from the calculation.
Heat loss from the passive
solar energy systems is excluded
since the solar savings fractions
in Worksheet II take these losses
into account.
Anytown, USA
CONSERVATION PERFORMANCE LEVEL
Step A. Envelope Heat Loss
The first step is to calculate the
heat loss through the building
envelope. The building envelope
consists of all walls, roofs,
floors, non-solar windows and
doors that enclose the
conditioned space of the house.
Heat loss for each envelope
component is calculated by
dividing the surface area of the
component by the total R-value.
The total envelope heat loss is
the sum of the heat loss for all
of the envelope components.
Table A in the Worksheets
booklet contains R-values that
may be used in the calculation.
There are actually five separate
tables labeled AI, A2, A3, A4
and A5. A separate table is
provided fQr ceilings/roofs,
walls, floors, windows and
doors. The R-values' in these
tables include the thermal
resistance of both the insulation
and other materials that
typically make up the
construction assembly such as
exterior sheathing and
sheetrock. They also account
for framing members that
penetrate the insulation and
reduce the effectiveness.
Ceilings/Roofs
There are two types of
ceiling/roof construction in the)
example building. R-38 mineral \
insulation is located in an attic
space, and R-30 insulation is
located in the framed cathedral
ceiling. The total R-value is
selected from Table Al for each
ceiling/ roof component. The
values in Table Al account for
the buffering effect of the attic
(when applicable), the ceiling
material (sheetrock) and the
effect of framing.
A 1-Ceilings/Roofs
Attic Insulation R-value
Construction
R-30 I!1J
R-49 R-60
27.9 35 46.9 57.9
2x6 at 16"oc 14.7 15.8 16.3
-
2x6 at 24'oc 15.3 16.5 17.1 -
2x8 at 16"oc 17.0 18.9 20.6 21.1
2x8 at 24"oc 17.6
1 9 6 ~
22.2
2x10 at 16"oc 18.1 20.1 24. 25.7
2x10 at 24"oc 18.4 20.7 . 26.8
2x12 at 16"oc 18.8 21.0 25.5 30.1
2x12 at 24 'oc 19.0 21.4 27.3 31.4
The area and R-value of the )
two different types of
construction are entered on two
lines of the table under
"ceilings/roofs" and the heat
loss is calculated by dividing the
surface area by the total .
R-value. Note that the ceiling
over the sunspace is not
included in this calculation.
'\
)
\
/
Walls
There are two types of wall
construction in the example
building. The typical exterior
wall is of 2x6 wood frame
construction with R-19 mineral
insulation in the cavity. An
insulating sheathing with an R-
7 rating is attached to the
exterior surface of the framing.
The wall is finished with 1/2
inch sheetrock on the inside
and a brick veneer on the
outside.
The second type of wall
construction separates the
house from the garage. This
wall is also of 2x6 wood frame
construction With R-19 in the
cavity, but it does not have the
insulating sheathing or the
brick veneer. Note that the
walls that separate the house
from the sunspace are not
included.
It is necessary to measure
the surface area of each type of
wall construction. The surface
area may be determined by
multiplying the length of wall by
the average height and
subtracting the area of doors
and windows.
The R-value of each wall
type is detennined from Table
A2 in the Worksheets booklet.
The R-value of both wall types is
17.7 from the table, but since
the first wall type has R-7
insulating sheathing, this is
added to the value from the
table so that 24.7 is used in the
calculations. These R-values
along with the associated areas
are entered on two lines of the
table and the heat loss is
calculated by dividing each
surface area by the
corresponding R-value.
Single Wall
Framing
2x4 at 16"oc
2x4 at 24"oc
2x6 at 16"oc
2x6 at 24"oc
Double
Wall
Framing
A2-Framed Walls
Insulation Rvalue
R-11 R-13 R-19 R-25
12.0 13.6
12.7 13.9 ~ -
14.1 15.4 17. 19.2
14.3 15.6 . 19.8
Total Thickness (inches)
8 10 12 14
25.0 31.3 37.5 43.8
..... The Rvalue of insulating. sheathing should be
added to the values in this table.
Floors
Only the raised floor is
considered in this step of the
heat loss calculation; heat loss
from the slab-on-grade floor is
conSidered in Step B. There is
one type of raised floor
construction in the example
building. R-19 mineral
insulation is placed between
2xlO floor joists at 16 inches on
center; the crawlspace beneath
is ventilated.
65
The total R-value is selected
from Table A3, which considers
the buffering effect of the
crawlspace as well as framing
and the floor materials. The
area and R-value is entered on
one line of the table and the
heat loss is calculated by .
dividing the area by the R-value.
A3-lnsulated Floors
Framing
2x6s at 16"oc
2x6s at 24"oc
2x8s at 16"oc
2x8s at 24"oc
2x10 at 16"oc
2x10 at 24"oc
2x12 at 16"oc
2x12 at 24"oc
Insulation Rvalue
R-11 R-19 R-30 R-38
18.2 23.8 29.9
18.4 24.5 31.5
18.8 24.9 31.7 36.0
18.9 4W 33.1 37.9
19.3 25.8 33.4 38.1
19.3 .1 34.4 39.8
19.7 26.5 34.7 39.8
19.6 26.7 35.5 41.2
These Rvalues include the buffering effect of a
ventilated crawlspace or unconditioned basement.
Had there been different
insulation conditions for the
raised floor, an additional line of
the table would be completed for
each condition.
insulated floors over a garage or
unheated basement, these
components would also be
included in this step.
As an alternative to
insulating between the floor
joists, the perimeter walls of the
crawlspace could have ~ e n
insulated and floor insulation
eliminated. When this
technique is used, the perimeter
heat loss method in Step B
should be used. Step A only
includes floors when insulation
is placed in the floor assembly.
Anytown, USA
66
Non-solar Glazing
Next, heat loss from the non-
solar glazing is calculated. Note
that the passive solar direct gain
glazing is not included. Also the
windows that separate the
house from the sunspace are
not included.
The rough frame opening of
each window is generally used
for the window area. This is
because the R-values presented
in Table A4 and most heat loss
data presented by window
manufacturers is for the rough
frame opening. Using the rough
frame opening also makes it
easier to estimate window areas
since windows are usually
specified on the plans in terms
of the rough frame dimensions.
A4-Windows
Air Gap
1/4 in. 1/2 in. 1/2 in. argon
Slandar'd Metal Frame
Single .9
Double 1.1
Low-e (e<=0:40) 1.2
Metal frame with thermal break
1.2
1.3
Double 1.5 <t.!>
Low-e le<=0.40} 1.6 '.
Low-e e<=0.20} 1.7
Double 2.0
Low-e (e<=0.40l 2.1
Low-e le<=0.20 2.2
Low-e e<=0.10 2.3
2.1
2.4
2.6
2.6
1.2
1.3
1.7
I.S
2.0
2.2
2.5
2.7
2.9
These R-values are based on a 3 mph wind speed
and are typical for the entire rough framed opening.
Manufacture's data, based on National
Fenestration Rating Council procedures, should be
used when available. One half the R-value of
movable insulation should be added, when
appropriate.
Anytown, USA
Windows in the example
building are all double-pane
wood windows with a 1/2 inch
air space between the panes.
The R-value for this window
type is 2.1, selected from Table
A4.
The non-solar window area
is taken from the building plans.
These values are entered in the
table and the heat loss is
calculated by dividing the
window area by the window
R-value. If the example building
had more than one window type
(different R-values), then
additional lines of the table
would be completed.
Doors
The doors are the last
component of the envelope to
consider. The example building
has two exterior doors: the main
entrance and an additional door
to the garage. These have a
total surface area of 40 square
feet and an R-value is selected
from Table A5. Note that the
door that separates the garage
from the exterior is not included
since the garage is
unconditioned.
AS-Doors
Solid wood with 2.2
Weatherstripping
Metal with rigid C1i)
foam core
These values are entered in
the table and the heat loss is
calculated by dividing the door
areas by the R-value. If the
example building had more than
one door type (different
R-values), then additional lines
of the table would be completed.
Total
The heat loss of all components
of the building envelope is
summed at the bottom of the
table and this completes Step A
of the worksheet.
)
Step B. Foundation
Perimeter Heat Loss .
Foundation heat loss from
slabs-on-grade. basements and
insulated crawispaces is
estimated by multiplying the
length of perimeter times an
appropriate heat loss factor
taken from Table B.
The dining area, kitchen and
secondary bedrooms in the
example house have slab-on-
grade construction. R-7
insulation is installed around
the perimeter.
The heat loss factor for the
slab edge is 0.3, selected from
Table B. The heat loss factor is
multiplied by the perimeter to
calculate the heat loss. The
units of heat loss, using the
perimeter method, are the same
as for the building envelope
calculated in the previous step.
Note that sunspace slab is not
The slab edge perimeter
adjacent to the crawlspace and
the sunspace is also excluded.
Table B-Perimeter Heat Loss Factors
for SlabsonGrade and Unheated
Basements (BtuthFft)
Heated Unheated Insulated
Perimeter Siabs-on- Base Base- Crawl
Insulation Grade ments ments spaces
None 0.8 1.3 1.1 1.1
R 5 0.8 0.7 0.6
R:7 0.3 0.7 0.6 0.5
R11 . 0.6 0.5 0.4
R-19 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.3
R-30 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.2
When a raised floor assembly is
not insulated, for instance, over
crawlspaces insulated at the
perimeter or basements, heat
loss occurs primarily at the
perimeter.
The example house does not
have a basement or a heated
crawlspace, but if it did, the
foundation heat loss would be
calculated by multip1ying the
perimeter of these elements by a
heat loss factor selected from
Table B.
When houses have heated
basements, heat loss from ,
basement walls located above
grade would be included in
Step A.
Step C. Infiltration Heat Loss
The heat loss from infiltration or
air leakage is estimated by
multiplying the building volume
times the air changes per hour
times a heat loss factor of 0.018.
The example building is
estimated to have an infiltration
rate of 0.50 based on local
building experience.
67
The building volume is
calculated by multiplying the
average ceiling height by the
conditioned floor area. In this
example the average ceiling
height is 8.3 ft. The conditioned
floor area is 1,504 sf which does
not include the garage or the
sunspace. The resulting
building volume is 12,483 cubic
feet.
The units of infiltration heat
loss are Btu;oF-h, the same as
for the building envelope and
the foundation perimeter.
Step D. Total Heat Loss per
Square Foot
The total building heat loss is
the sum of the heat loss for the
building envelope (Step A), the
foundation perimeter (Step B)
and infiltration (Step C). For
residences this value will range
between 200 and 500. It
represents the Btu of heat loss
from the building envelope over
the period of an hour when it is
one OF colder outside than
inside. This total heat loss, of
course, does not include heat
loss from the solar systems,
including direct gain glazing.
The result of Step D,
however, is the annual heat loss
per degree day per square foot.
This value is calculated by
mUltiplying the total heat loss
by 24 hours/ day and dividing
by the conditioned floor area.
Anytown, USA
68
Step E. Conservation
Performance Level
Once the total heat loss per
square foot is calculated, the
conservation perfonnance level
may be calculated by
multiplying the total heat loss
per square foot (Step D) by the
heating degree days times the
heating degree day multiplier.
C1-Heating Degree Days ~ 65F)
RaleighDurham ~
This value is from TMY weather tapes and
should be used for Worksheet Calculations.
It will vary from long term averages.
Anytown; USA
The heating degree days are
selected from Table C 1 and
based on specific locations. The
heating degree day multiplier is
selected from Table C2 and is
based on the total heat loss per
square foot (Step D) and the
passive solar glazing area per
square foot of floor area
(Worksheet II, Step A).
Passive Solar
Heat Loss Glazing Area per
per Square per Square Foot
Foot .00 .05 .10 .15 .20
8.00 1.03 1.05 1.07 1.09 1.11
7.50 1.01 1.04 1.06 1.07 1.10
7.00 0.99 1.02 1.04 1.06 1.08
6.50 0.97 1.00 1.02 1.04 1.06
6.00 0.94 0.97 1.00 1.03 1.05
~
0.90 0.94 0 9 8 ~ 1.03
.00 0.86 0.91 0.95 . 1.01
~ 5 Q ~ Q ~ Q ~ Q9 Q ~
. 0 0.77 0.83 0.88 . 2 0.96
3.50 0.72 0.78 0.83 0.88 0.93
The conservation
perfonnance level for the
example building is compared to
the base case conservation
perfonnance level in the next
step.
Step F. Comparison
Conservation Performance
The conservation performance
level for the proposed design
may be compared to the base
case perfonnance level for the
area, given in Table D.
Table D-Base Case Conservation
Performance (Btu/v.
Base Case 25,38
Alternatively, the
conservation perfonnance level
may be compared to other
building designs considered by
the builder to be typical of the
area. In this case, the
worksheets would first be
completed for the typical design
and the results of these
calculations would be entered in
Step F.
If the conservation
per.(onnance level of the
proposed building (Step E) is
greater than the base case or
typical-design conservation
perfonnance level. the designer
should conSider additional
building insulation or reduced
non-solar glass area.
)
Worksheet II: Auxili Heat Performance Level
/
)
I.
ee
X 0.80 X
SSQI 2Qe X 0.80 X
X 0.80 X
X 0.80 X =
X 0.80 X =
X 0.80 X
=
X 0.80 X =

sf
Total Area Total
Projected
Area

-;-
jf!Q4 = jf!
Area Square Foot
24 X + =
Total Total
Heat Loss Projected
[Worksheet I] Area
C. Solar Savings Fraction
) System
/ Solar Savings
Solar System Projected Fraction

X 44
SSQl X 4f! =
X =
X =
X =
X =
X =
Zj + Q 4f!
Total Total Solar
Projected Savings
Area Fraction
D. Auxiliary Heat Performance Level
[1 - Q4f! jx = Btu/yr-sf
Solar Conservation
Savings Performance
Fraction Level [Worksheet I,
Step E]
E. Comparative Auxiliary Heat Performance (From Previous Calculation or from Table G)
23 Q99 Btu/yr-sf
Com are Line D to Line E
,
Anytown, USA
70
Worksheet II:
Auxiliary Heat
Performance Level
Worksheet II is used to estimate
the savings from passive solar
systems and to estimate the
auxiliary heat performance level..
This is the amount of heat that
must be provided to the building
each year after the solar savings
have been accounted for.
The example building has
two solar systems: direct gain
south glazing and a sunspace.
Step A. Projected Area of
Passive Solar Glazing
The first step is to calculate the
projected area of the solar
glazing. The proj ected area of
passive solar glazing is the area
projected on a plane facing true
south (the actual glazing may be
oriented slightly east or west of
true south). The projected solar
glazing also accounts for sloped
glazing in certain types of
sunspaces.
For most solar systems the
projected area may be calculated
by multiplying the actual glazing
area times an adjustment factor
taken from Table E.
Alternatively. the projected
area may be determined by
making a scaled elevation
drawing of the building. looking
exactly north. Surface areas
may then be measured from the
scaled elevation drawing. This
concept is illustrated in the
figure below.
Anytown, USA
AUXILIARY HEA T PERFORMANCE LEVEL
South
Projection
Projected Area of Passive Solar Glazing
The solar savings fraction is based on the
projected area of solar glazing.
The worksheet allows the
user to enter the rough frame
area of solar glazing. since it is
generally easier to measure this.
The rough frame area is
multiplied by a net area factor of
0.80 to account for window
framing and mullions. If the net
glass area is entered. the net
area factor is 1.00.
The example building has
two separate passive solar
systems: direct gain and a
sunspace. This means that two
lines of the table must be
completed. If the example
building had other types of solar
systems. for instance Trombe
walls or water walls. additional
lines in the table would be
completed.
In the first column. the
reference code for each type of
solar system is entered along
with a description of the system.
The reference codes are shown
on Tables FI through F4 for
various types of solar systems.
More information about the
system types is provided in the
discussion under Step C of this
worksheet. The reference code
for the direct gain system is
"DGC 1" because night
insulation is not proposed. The
reference code for the sunspace
is "ssc 1" since all the sunspace
glazing is vertical.
The south wall of the
example building actually faces
10 east of south because of site
conditions. The adjustment
factor is therefore 0.98 for both
solar systems as selected from
Table E. Each solar system area
is multiplied by the net area
factor and the appropriate
adj ustment factor to calculate
the projected area. Both the
total projected area and the total .
area are summed at the bottom
of the table.
Table E-ProJected Area
Adjustment Factors
Degrees off ~ s o l r System Type
True D SSA SSB,
South ,S SSD SSE
o 1.00 0.77 0.75
5 c$? 0.76 0.75
10 0.98 0.75 0.74
15 . 0.74 0.73
20 0.94 0.72 0.70
25 0.91 0.69 0.68
30 0.87 0.66 0.65
The last part of Step A is to
divide the total projected area by
the conditioned floor area. giving
the total projected area per
square foot. This value is used
in Worksheet I. Step E to
determine the heating degree
day multiplier.
,
./
)
Step B. Load Collector Ratio
The load collector ratio is
calculated by taking the total
heat loss from Worksheet I, Step
D and multiplying this value
times 24 (hours/ day) and
dividing by the total projected
area of the solar glazing
calculated in the previous step.
Step C. Solar Savings Fraction
The next step is to calculate the
solar savings fraction for the
building. This is calculated as a
weighted average of the solar
savings fraction for the separate
passive solar systems. The
weightings are based on
projected area.
The solar systems used in
this step should be identical to
those used above in Step A. The
first two columns are simply
carried down from the first and
last columns in Step A.
The solar savings fraction for
e9-ch individual system is taken
from Tables F1 through F4
based on the load collector ratio
calculated in Step B and the
type of solar system. Table F1 is
for direct gain systems, Table F2
for thermal storage walls, Table
F3 for water walls and Table F4
for sunspaces. There are
multiple columns in each table
that account for system design
features such as night
insulation or selective surfaces.
A reference code, for
instance "DGC 1 ", is also
provided for each solar system
variation. These references are
entered on the worksheet "Solar
System Reference Code". They
are also a key to additional
information about each solar
system as provided in Passive
Solar Heating Analysis and
other reference manuals.
F1-Direct Gain
Load DGCI DGC2 DGC3
Collector Double Low-e R-9 Night
Ratio Glazing Glazing Insulation
200 0.10 0.11 0.13
155 0.13 0.14 0.17
100 0.18 0.20 0.24
80 0.22 0.25 0.30
60 0.28 0.31 0.38
50 0.32 0.36 0.44
45 0.34 0.39 0.47
40 0.37 0.43 0.51
ar
0.47 0.56

0.52 0.62
. 9 0.58 0.69
20 0.55 0.65 0.77
15 0.62 0.74 0.85
F4-Sunspaces
Load
Collector sunsEace Type
Ratio SSAI SSBI SCI SSDI SSEI
200 '0.17 0.14 0.11 0.19 0.15
155 0.20 0.17 0.14 0.23 0.19
100 0.26 0.22 0.19 0.30 0.26
80 0.30 0.25 0.23 0.35 0.30
60 0.35 0.30 0.28 0.42 0.36
50 0.39 0.34 0.32 0.46 0.40
45 0.42 0.36 0.35 0.49 0.43
40 0.44 0.39 0.38 0.52 0.46

0.48 0.42 0.56 0.49
0.52 0.46

0.60 0.54
0.56 0.50 .0 0.65 0.59
20 0.62 0.56 0.57 0.72 0.65
15 0.70 0.64 0.65 0.79 0.73
71
The solar savings fraction for
each system is multiplied by the
projected area and totaled at the
bottom of the table. This total is
then divided by the total
projected area from Step A to
calculate the weighted average
solar savings fraction for the
whole building.
The solar savings fractions
are based on reference designs.
The assumptions made about
these reference designs are
summarized below.
Direct Gain
The direct gain reference
designs are all assumed to have
double-pane glass and sufficient
heat storage to limit the clear
day temperature swing to 13F.
For the case with night
insulation, the thermal
resistance is assumed to be R-9.
Trombe Walls
The Trombe wall reference
designs are all assumed to have
double-pane glass. The mass
wall is assumed to be 12 inches
thick and constructed of
masonry or concrete.
Water Walls
The water wall reference designs
are all assumed to have double-
pane glass. The water tank is
assumed to be nine inches
thick, extending continuously in
front of the glazing surface. The
space between the water tank
and the glazing is assumed to be
sealed.
Anytown
l
USA
72
Sunspaces
Data is provided for five
sunspace reference designs as
illustrated on the following
figure. Double glazing is
assumed for all reference
designs. Reference designs
SSAl, SSB 1 and SSD 1 are
assumed to have opaque end
walls. All are assumed to have a
concrete or masonry floor about
six inches thick and a masonry
or concrete common wall
separating the sunspace from
the living areas of the house.
The glazing for designs SSAI
and SSD 1 is assumed to be
sloped at an angle of 50 from
the horizon. The sloped glazing
in designs B and E is assumed
to be at an angle of 30.
Anytown, USA
AUXILIARY HEA T PERFORMANCE LEVEL
Sunspace Reference Designs
Data is provided for five types of sunspaces.
Step D. Auxiliary Heat
Performance Level
The auxiliary heat performance
level is calculated by multiplying
the conservation performance
level from Worksheet I, Step E,
times one minus the solar
savings fraction, calculated in
the previous step. This value
represents the amount of heat
that must be provided to the
building by the auxiliary heating
system(s).
Step E. Comparative Auxiliary
Heat Performance
The calculated auxiliary heat
performance level may be
compared to the performance
level for a typical basecase
building in the area. This may
be taken from Table G and is
23,099 Btu/yr-sf.
Alternatively, the
compared to a previous
worksheet calculation made for
a typical builder house.
If the auxiliary heat
performance level calculated in
Step D were larger than the base
case auxiliary heat performance,
the designer should conSider
increasing the size of the solar
systems, adding additional solar
systems or increasing insulation
levels.
\
)
I
\
/
Worksheet III: Thermal Mass/Comfort
(
\ A. Heat Capacity of Sheetrock and Interior Furnishings
'\
)
Unit Total
Heat Heat
Floor Area Capacity Capacity
BQQIDl! lIlli!b !:aiilie 424 X 4.7
!Q !:aiilie X 4.5 = 42Z1
2452
Btu/OF
Total
Unit Heat
Mass Description
Total Heat
(include thickness) Area [Table ] Capacity
WslIIl! X 8.8
,
X 10.4 =
Qliilb ie Que lQa X 13.4 = laaQ
Qliilb IlIQ! ie Que laZ X 1.8 = 24Z
X =
X =
X =
122Z
Btu/OF
Total
Unit Heat
Mass Description Capacity Total Heat
(include thickness) Area [Table H] Capacity
WslIIl! X 3.8

.
X 4.2 =
)
6[iQis 4" III X 3,Z = 4ll
X =
X =
4ll
Btu/OF
Total

Btu/OF
(A+B+C)
+ 15Q4 = 52
Btu/OF-sf
Total Heat Conditioned
Capacity Floor Area
Total Comfort
Projected Area Factor
[Worksheet II] [Table I]
!:aiilie
X
a22 =
Q[ 12a
X
= 4a zaz
WslIIl! lQa + = 12 a
OF
Total Total
Heat
Capacity
13 OF
) Com are Line F to Line G
Anytown, USA
74
Worksheet III:
Thermal
Mass/Comfort
This worksheet is used to
calculate the thermal
mass/comfort performance level,
which is the temperature swing
expected on a clear winter day
with the auxiliary heating
system not operating. A high
temperature swing would
indicate that inadequate thermal
mass is provided in the building
design, which not only creates
discomfort but decreases solar
heating performance.
The general procedure of the
worksheet is to calculate the
effective heat capacity of mass
elements located within the
conditioned space of the
building. The total effective heat
capacity is then combined with
the direct gain projected area to
estimate the clear winter day
temperature swing. Note that
thermal mass elements located
within unconditioned spaces
such as the sunspace are not
Anytown, USA
Step A. Heat Capacity of
Sheetrock and Interior
Furnishings
The first step is to estimate the
effective heat capacity
associated with low-mass
construction and interior
furnishings. To complete this
step it is necessary that two
sub-areas be identified within
the building: those areas that
receive direct solar gains and
those areas that are connected
to rooms that receive direct solar
gains. This is because the mass
of sheetrock and furnishings
located in direct gain rooms is
more effective. Rooms that are
separated from direct gain
spaces by more than one door
should not be included in either
category.
COMFORT PERFORMANCE LEVEL
In the example building, the
master bedroom, dining area
and kitchen are all direct gain
space.s. The secondary
bedrooms, bathrooms and
master bedroom closet are
directly connected to the direct
gain spaces. The utility room
and entry foyer are not
conSidered in this calculation
since they are not connected to
a direct gain space. These areas
are illustrated for the example
building.
The direct gain space is
multiplied by 4.7 and the spaces
connected to direct gain spaces
are multiplied by 4.5. These
products are summed and
represent the effective heat
capacity associated with the
sheetrock and interior
furnishings.
Unconditioned
Garage
1i)))1 Direct Gain Spaces
I,l@ililm Spaces Connected to Direct Gain Spaces
moo Spaces Not Connected to Direct Gain Spaces
Suns pace
Building Sub-areas for Calculating Effective Heat Capacity
Worksheet 11/ requires that the building be divided into sub-areas.
)
()
)
Step B. Heat Capacity of Mass
Surfaces Enclosing
Direct Gain Spaces
The heat capacity of thermal
mass elements (other than
sheetrock and furnishings) that
enclose the direct gain spaces is
conSidered in this step. The
surface area of each element is
measured from the building
plans and multiplied by the unit
heat capacity. The unit heat
capacity is printed directly in
the table for Trombe walls. water
walls. and exposed slabs-on-
grade. The unit heat capacity
for other mass elements is
selected from Table H 1. Note
that thermal mass located in the
sunspace is not included in this
calculation.
H1-Mass Surfaces Enclosing
Direct Gain Spaces .
Material
Poured Conc.
Conc. Masonry
Face Brick
Flag Stone
Builder Brick
Adobe
Hardwood
Water
Thickness (inches)
1 2 3' 4 6 8 12
1.8 4.3 6.7 8.8 11.311.5 10.3
1.8 4.2 6.5 8.4 10.210.0 9.0
2.0 4.7 7.1 9.0 10.49.9 9.0
2.1 4.8 7.1 8.5 8.6 8.0 7.6
1.5 3.7 5.4 6.5 6.6 6.0 5.8
1.3 3.2 4.8 5.5 5.4 4.9 4.8
0.4 1.4 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.5
5.2 10.415.6 20.8 31.241.6 62.4
Exposed slabs-on-grade
include those with a surface of
vinyl tile. ceramic tile or other
materials that are highly
conductive. Slabs that are
covered with carpet should not
be considered to be exposed.
The exposed slab area should be
further reduced. when
appropriate. to account for
throw rugs and furnishings.
The exposed slab area is
then subdivided into two areas:
that which is expected to be in
the sun and that which is not.
As a rule-of-thumb. slab area
should be considered in the sun
only when it is located directly
behind south glazing. In any
event. the slab area assumed to
be in the sun should not exceed
1.5 times the south glass area.
In the example building. the
slabs-on-grade located in the
kitchen and dining room are
located within direct gain
spaces. Some of this area is
considered to De in the sun and
the remainder not. These
surface areas are entered in the
table and multiplied by the
appropriate unit heat capacity.
The products are then summed
at the bottom of the table.
75
Step C. Heat Capacity of Mass
Surfaces Enclosing Spaces
Connected to Direct Gain
Spaces
The same type of calculation is
performed for mass surfaces
that enclose spaces connected
to direct gain spaces. The
primary difference is the unit
heat capacity figures taken from
Table H2 instead of Table H 1.
In the example building. the
fireplace wall and hearth are
considered in this category.
This area and the unit heat
capacity is entered in the table
and multiplied by each other.
This represents the total
effective heat capacity of mass
elements that enclose the
spaces connected to direct gain
spaces.
Material
Poured Conc.
Conc. Masonry
Face Brick

Builder Brick
Adobe
Hardwood
Thickness (inches)
1 2 4 6 8 12
1.7 3.0 3.6 3.8 3.7 3.6 3.4
1.6 2.9 3.5 3.4 3.2
1.8 3.1 3.6 3.7 .5 3.4 3.2
1.9 3.1 3.4 . 3.2 3.1 3.0
1.4 2.6 3.0 3.1 2.9 2.7 2.7
1.2 2.4 2.8 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.4
0.5 1.1 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.1
Anytown, USA
76
Step D. Total Heat Capacity
The total heat capacity is the
sum of the heat capacity from
Steps A, B and C. This
represents the effective heat
capacity of all thermal mass
within the building.
Step E. Total Heat Capacity
per Square Foot
The total heat capacity
calculated in Step D is divided
by the total floor area of the
building to get the total heat
capacity per square foot. The
floor area used in this
calculation should not include
the sunspace or other
unconditioned spaces. This
value is calculated here for
convenience, but it is not used
until Worksheet IV is completed.
Anytown, USA
Step F. Clear Winter Day
Temperature Swing
The clear winter day
temperature swing is calculated
in Step F. The projected area of
all direct gain glazing is entered
in the first row. This includes
all direct gain systems either
with or without night insulation.
In the second row, the projected
area of sunspace glazing and
Trombe walls vented to the
indoors is entered. Unvented
Trombe walls and water walls
are not included in this
calculation since solar gain from
these systems does not
contribute to the temperature
swing of the conditioned space.
The appropriate comfort
factor is entered in the second
column, selected from Table I.
,(he projected areas are
multiplied by the appropriate
comfort factors and summed.
This sum is then divided by the
total heat capacity from Step D
to yield the clear winter day
temperature Swing.
Table I-Comfort a c t ~ r Btu/sf)
Direct Gain
Suns paces and 99
Vented Trombe Walls
COMFORT PERFORMANCE LEVEL
Step G. Recommended
Maximum Temperature Swing
The comfort performance target '\
for all locations is 13F. If the )
comfort performance level
calculated in Step F had been
greater than 13F, additional
thermal mass should be added
to the building or direct gain
glazing should be reduced.
'\
!
)
'\
A. Opaque Surfaces
j Heat Loss Factor tance Factor
Description [Worksheet I] [Table J] [Table K] [table L] Load
Q!2i1iDg:!lrQQf:! X j QQ X Q !lZ X !lZQ =
lZ
X j QQ X Q!I:Z X !lZQ =
X X X =
WII:! !lQ X na QZQ X =
X na X =
OQQ[:! X na X = 2a
kBtu/yr
Total
Rough Frame Net Area Shade Factor Heat Gain
t!/Q[tb !lQ X 0.80 X Q !2Z X =
X 0.80 X X =
ESI:!t !:a lSi:!:! !2
X 0.80 X Q aQ X
!2a =
X 0.80 X X =
!2 X 0.80 X QaQ X =
X 0.80 X X =
Slsllligbt:! X 0.80 X X =
X 0.80 X X =
j!2ZZ kBtu/yr
Total
C. Solar Glazing
\
)
Oi[!2Qt aa
X 0.80 X Q X fifiQ =
X 0.80 X X =
X 0.80 X X
X 0.80 X X =
2Qa X 0.80 X X j22 = j!2afi
X 0.80 X X =
kBtu/yr
Total
D. Internal Gain
22fiQ +( X = fiQZQ kBtu/yr
[Table N] [Table N]
1,000 X + jfiQ!I
Btu/yr-sf
No night vent with no ceiling fan
Btu/yr-sf
[Table 0]
a2Q!2 Btu/yr-sf
(E -F)
9Z!2!2 Btu/yr-sf
Com are Line G to Line H
Anytown, USA
78
Worksheet IV:
Summer Cooling
Performance Level
Worksheet IV is used to
calculate the summer cooling
performance level. This is the
heat that would need to be
removed from the bUilding by an
air conditioner in order to
maintain comfort during the
summer.
The worksheet accounts for
four sources of cooling load:
opaque surfaces exposed to the
sun, non-solar windows, passive
solar systems, and internal gain.
These loads are then adjusted to
account for ventilation and
thermal mass ..
Step A. Opaque Surfaces
Not all opaque surfaces
contribute to the cooling load of
the building: only those surfaces
exposed to sunlight
(ceilings/roofs and walls) are
included in the calculation. For
each ceiling and wall surface
listed on Worksheet I and
exposed to the sun, the heat
loss should be carried over to
this worksheet along with a
consistent description. This
heat loss is then multiplied by a
radiant barrier factor when
appropriate (from Table J), the
absorptance (from Table K) and
a heat gain factor (from Table L).
The end product of this
calculation is an estimate of the
annual cooling load that is
associated with each suIface in
thousands of Btu per year
(kBtu/yr).
Anytown, USA
SUMMER COOLING PERFORMANCE LEVEL
Table J-Radiant Barrier Factors
Radiant Barrier
No Radiant Barrier .0
Color
Gloss White
Semi-gloss White
Light Green
Kelly Green
Medium Blue
Medium Yellow
Medium Orange
Medium Green
Light Buff Brick
Bare Concrete
Red Brick
Medium Red
Medium Brown
Dark Blue-Grey
Dark Brown
Ceiling/roofs
Walls and Doors
North Glass
East Glass
West Glass
Skylights
Direct Gain Glazing
Trombe Walls and
Water Walls
Sunspaces
SSAl
SSBl
SSCl
SSDl
Absorptance
I
0.51
0.57
0.5B
0.59
0.60

0.B4
O.BB
O.BB
39.3

SSEl 39.3
In the example building, four
lines of the table are completed,
two for the ceiling/roof types,
one for the exterior walls with
brick veneer and one for the
entrance door. The wall that
separates the house from the
garage and the door in this wall
are not included, since they are
not exposed to sunlight.
The heat loss from each of
these elements is carried over
from Worksheet I. Note that the
door heat loss is reduced by half .
since one of the two doors does
not receive sunlight. The
proposed building does not have
a radiant barrier in the attic, so
the radiant barrier factor is 1.00.
Absorptances are selected based
on the exterior building colors
and the heat gain factors are
from Table L.
Step B. Non-solar Glazing
Cooling load associated with the
windows that do not face south,
i.e. those that are not part of one
of the solar systems, is
calculated by multiplying the
surface area in each orientation
times the net area factor, a
shade factor (from Table M) and
a heat gain factor (from Table L).
This calculation gives the
annual cooling load for each
non-solar glazed surface. The
total for the building is the sum
of the cooling load for each
surface.
Table M-Shading Factors
Projection
Factor South
0.00
0.20 .
0.40 . 3
0.60 0.49
O.BO 0.35
North 21
. 1.00 .
.93 .93 .
0.B1
1
9' O.Bl c;1JC7
0.71 0.7 '67 0.6B
0.60 0.6f 0.56
1.00 0.30 0.50 0.54 0.45
1.20 0.24 0.40 0.46 0.3B
-... Multiply by O.B for low-e glass, 0.7 for tinted glass
and 0.6 for low-e tinted Qlass.
The rough frame area is
generally entered in the table
and adjusted by the net area
factor. If the net glazing area is
entered instead, then the net
area factor is 1.00.
)
\
Table M gives the shade
factor for overhangs. The
overhang shade factor depends
on the orientation of the window
and the projection factor. The
proj ection factor is the overhang
projection divided by the
distance from the bottom of the
window to the bottom of the
overhang. as illustrated below.
A
Overhang Projection Factor
The projection factor is the overhang
projection divided by the distance between the
bottom of the window and the bottom of the
overhang.
The north windows have a
height of four feet and the
bottom of the overhang is about
six inches above the window
head. The overhang projection
is 1.5 feet. The projection factor
is calculated by dividing the
overhang projection by the
distance from the bottom of the
window to the bottom of the
overhang. This is about 0.33. A
shade factor of 0.84 is used in
the calculations. which is
interpolated between the values
for a projection factor of 0.2 and
0.4
tinted glazing. glazing films or
external shading devices. the
shade factors from Table M
should not be used. Sunscreen
and glass manufacturers
usually rate the shading effect of
their devices by publishing a
shading coefficient. The
shading coefficient is a number
between zero and one that
indicates how much solar heat
makes it through the window
compared to an unshaded 1/8
inch clear pane. This shading
coefficient may be used in the
calculation instead of the value
from Table M.
The overhang on the east
and west is at the eave. well
above the window. and does not
provide any useful shading. For
these windows. the shade factor
is 1.00.
Each glazing area is
multiplied by the net area factor
and the appropriate shade
factor. The products are
summed at the bottom of the
table.
79
Step C. Solar Glazing
The solar systems addressed on
Worksheet II reduce heating
energy. but they also can
increase cooling energy. The
cooling energy impact of the
solar systems is calculated in
this step. Each solar system
listed on Worksheet II should be
carried over to this worksheet.
The cooling energy for each
system is calculated by
multiplying the total surface
area (not the projected area)
times the net area factor. the
appropriate shade factor (as
discussed above) and a heat
gain factor (from Table L). This
calculation gives the annual
cooling load for each passive
solar system.
A shade factor of 0.83 is
used because of south
overhangs. This is based on a
projection factor of about 0.2 as
discussed above.
The annual cooling load
associated with all the passive
solar systems is summed at the
bottom of the table.
Anytown, USA
80
Step D. Internal Gains
The last component of cooling
load is from internal gain.
Internal gain is heat given off by
lights, appliances and people.
Some of the cooling load
associated with internal gain is
considered to be constant for all
houses regardless of the number
of bedrooms or size. This is
because all houses have a
refrigerator and at least one
occupant. Another component
of cooling load from internal
gain is considered to be variable
and depends on the number of
bedrooms. These components
are accounted for separately in
the calculation.
Both the constant
component and the variable
component are taken from Table
N. The variable component is
multiplied by the number of
bedrooms in the house and
added to the constant
component to yield the total
cooling load from internal gain.
Constant Component
Variable Component
Step E. Cooling Load per
Square Foot
This step sums the cooling load
associated with opaque
surfaces, non-solar glazing,
passive solar systems and
internal gain (Steps A, B, C and
D). The sum is then divided by
the floor area of the building
and multiplied by 1,000 to
convert the cooling energy into
terms consistent with the base
case cooling performance.
Anytown, USA
SUMMER COOLING PERFORMANCE LEVEL
Step F. Adjustment for
Thermal Mass and Ventilation
The total cooling load calculated
in Step E is adjusted in this step
to account for the effects of
thermal mass and ventilation.
The adjustment depends on
the total heat capacity per
square foot calculated on
Worksheet III, Step E, but also
depends on whether or not the
building has night ventilation or
ceiling fans. The adjustment is
entered in the blank in Step F.
Table 0-Thermal Mass and Ventilation
Adjustment (Btu/yr-sf)
Capacity Vent wI Vent wI No Vent wI Vent wI N
0.0 4,250 400 2,320 -1,600
1.0 5,550 1,480 3,620 -520
2.0 6,240 2,080 4,310 080
3.0 6,610 2,420 4,680 410
dP
6,800 2,600 4,8 600
. 6,910 2,700 ,0 700
6.0 6,960 2,760 5,0 760
. 6,990 2,790 , 60 790
8.0 7,010 2,810 5,080 810
9.0 7,010 2,820 5,080 820
10.0 7,020 2,820 5,090 820
Total heat capacity per square foot is calculated on
Worksheet III Ste E.
The example building has a
total heat capacity per square
foot of 5.6. It has neither night
ventilation nor ceiling fans.
Night ventilation is a
building operation strategy
where windows are opened at
night when the air is cooler.
The cool night air allows heat to
escape from the thermal mass
elements in the building. The
cooler thermal mass elements
help keep the building
comfortable the following day
when air temperatures rise.
Step G. Cooling
Performance Level
The summer cooling \
performance level is calculated' )
by subtracting the adjustment
in Step F from the cooling load
per square foot calculated in
Step E. This is an estimate of
the amount of heat that must be
removed from the building each
year by the air conditioner.
Step H. Comparison Cooling
Performance
The cooling performance level
for the proposed design may be
compared to the base case
cooling performance level for the
area, given in Table P.
Alternatively, the cooling
compared to other building
designs conSidered by the )
builder to be typical of the area.
In this case, the worksheets
would first be completed for the
typical design and the results of
these calculations would be
entered in Step H.
If the cooling performance
level of the proposed building
(Step G) is greater than the base
case or typical-design
conservation performance level,
the designer should conSider
measures to reduce the cooling
performance leveL Such
measures might include
reducing non-solar glass,
providing additional shading or
increasing thermal mass.
Passive Solar
Design Strategies
APPENDIX
With Support From:
Glossary
Auxiliary Heating System: a term for
the system (gas. electric. oil. etc.) which
provides the non-solar portion of the
house's heating energy needs. referred to
as the "auxilary heat."
British Thermal Unit (Btu): a unit used
to measure heat. One Btu is about equal
to the heat released from burning one
kitchen match.
Conservation: in addition to energy
conservation in the general sense. the
term is used to refer to the non-solar.
energy-saving measures in a house
which are primarily involved with
improving the building envelope to guard
against heat loss -- the insulation. and
air infiltration reduction measures.
Direct Gain: a passive solar energy
system in which the sunlight falls
directly into the space where it is stored
and used.
Glazing: often used interchangeably with
window or glass. the term actually refers
to specifically just to the clear material
which admits sunlight. and so can also
be plastic. Double and triple glazing
refer to two or three panes.
Indirect Gain: a passive solar system in
which the sunlight falls onto thermal
mass which is positioned between the
glazing and the space to be heated. i.e. a
Thermal Storage Wall or Trombe Wall.
Low-Emissivity: the term refers to a
surface's ability to absorb and re-radiate
heat. A material with a low emissivity
absorbs and re-radiates relatively small
amounts of heat. Low-emissivity or 'low-
e" glass sandwiches a thin layer of
metallic film or coating between two
panes of glass. The low-e glass blocks
radiant heat. so it will tend to keep heat
energy inside the house during the
winter. and keep heat energy outside the
house during the summer.
Passive Solar: a whole building design
and construction techniques which help
a building make use of solar energy by
non-mechanical means. as opposed to
active solar techniques which use
equipment such as roof-top collectors.
Phase-Change Materials: materials such
as salts or waxes which store and release
energy by changing "phase". Most store
energy when they turn liquid at a certain
temperature and release energy when
they turn solid at a certain temperature:
some remain solid but undergo chemical
changes which store and release energy.
Phase change materials can be used as
thermal mass. but few products are
commercially available at this time ..
Purchased Energy: although the terms
are often used interchangably. a house's
"purchased energy" is generally greater
than its "auxilruy heat" because heating
systems are seldom 1 00% efficient. and
more energy is purchased than is
actually delivered to the house.
R-Value: a unit that measures the
resistance to heat flow through a given
material. The higher the R-va1ue. the
better insulating capability the material
has. The R-value is the reciprocal of the
U-factor.
Radiant Barrier: reflective material used
in hot climates to block radiant heat.
particularly in a house's roof.
ShadiDg Coefficient: a measure of how
much solar heat will be transmitted by a
glazing material, as compared to a single
pane of clear uncoated glass. which has
a shading coefficient (SC) of 1. For
example. clear double-pane glass might
have an SC in the range of .88.
Reflective glass might have SC's of .03-
.06. In general. lower shading
coefficients are desirable when heat gain
is a problem.
Sunspace: passive solar energy system
sometimes also referred to as an isolated
gain system. where sunlight is collected
and stored in a space separate from the
living space. and must be transferred
there either by natural convection or by
fans.
81
Suntempering: an increase of south-
facing glass to about 7 percent of a total
floor area. without additional thermal
mass beyond the "free" mass already in a
typical house -- gypsum wall board.
framing. conventional furnishings and
floor coverings.
Temperature Swing: a measure of the
number of degrees the temperature in a
space will vary during the course of a
sunny winter day without the furnace
operating; an indicator of the amount of
thermal mass in the passive solar
system.
Thermal Mass: material that stores
energy. although mass will also retain
coolness. The thermal storage capacity
of a material is a measure of the
material's ability to absorb and store
heat. Thermal mass in passive solar
buildings is usually dense material such
as brick or concrete masonry. but can
also be tile, water. phase change
materials, etc.
Thermal Storage Wall: a passive solar
energy system also sometimes called
Trombe Wall or indirect gain system; a
south-facing glazed wall. usually made of
masonry but can also be made of
containers of water.
Trombe Wall: a thermal storage wall.
referred to by the name ofits inventor.
Dr. Felix Trombe.
U-Factor: a unit representing the heat
loss per square foot of surface area per
degree OF of temperature difference (see
R-value above).
82
Example Tables
Added Insulation
Base
Case 20% 40%
R-values
Ceiling/Roof 26 28 33
Walls 14 14 18
Slab Edge 0 0 0
Glass .9 1.8 1.8
Air ChangesIHour 0.75 0.74 0.68
West 3.0% 2.0% 2.0%
North 3.0% 4.0% 4.0%
East 3.0% 4.0% 4.0%
South 3.0% 3.0% 3.0%
21% 24% 28%
Conservation 19,893 16,921 13,573
Auxiliary Heat 15,709 12,853 9,706
Cooling 7544 4114 1588
Suntempered
Base
Case 20% 40%
R-Values
Ceiling/Roof 26 24 26
Walls 14 12 13
Slab Edge 0 0 0
Glass .9 1.8 1.8
Air ChangesIHour 0.75 0.69 0.46
West 3.0% 2.0% 2.0%
North 3.0% 4.0% 4.0%
East 3.0% 4.0% 4.0%
South 3.0% 5.9% 6.7%
South Glass 45 88 100
21% 36% 45%
Conservation -19,893 20,287 17,629
Auxiliary Heat 15,709 12,855 9,698
Cooling 7,544 5,540 3,543
60%
41
22
1
1.8
0.51
2.0%
4.0%
4.0%
3.0%
35%
10,173
6,549
1098
60%
33
18
0
1.8
0.69
2.0%
4.0%
4.0%
6.7%
100
53%
13,926
6,531
2,746
Summary: The window area has been slightly decreased on the
west, increased slightly on the east and north, and increased
significantly on the south.
SUMMARY FOR LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA
Passive Solar-Direct Gain
Base
Case 20% 40% 60%
R-values
Walls 14 12 12 12
Slab Edge 0 0 0 0
Glass .9 1.8 1.8 1.8
Air ChangesIHour 0.75 0.69 0.60 0.52
West 3.0% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0%
North 3.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0%
East 3.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0%
South 3.0% 5.9% 8.6% 12.0%
Added Thermal Mass
Percent of Floor Area 0.0% 0.0% 9.7% 30.0%
Added Thermal Mass 0 0 145 450
21% 36% 50% 65%
Conservation 19,893 20,287 19,666 18,962
Auxiliary Heat 15,709 12,855 9,691 6,505
Cooling 7,544 5,540 4,656 5,947
Summary: South-facing glazing has been substantially increased.
For these examples, added mass area is assumed to be six times
the added south alass area.
Passive Solar-Sunspace
Base
Case 20% 40% 60%
R-Values
Walls 14 12 12 12
Slab Edge 0 0 0 0
Glass .9 1.8 1.8 1.8
West 3.0% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0%
North 3.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0%
East 3.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0%
South (windows) 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0%
Sunspace 0.0% 3.0% 6.5% 11.5%
Sunspace Glass 0 44 96 171
Sunspace Thermal Mass 0 134 290 515
21% 36% 51% 66%
Conservation 19,893 20,294 19,867 19,296
Auxiliary Heat 15,709 12,850 9,676 6,483
Cooling 7,544 5,203 3,724 4,538
Summary: Insulation and tightness (for the 60% case) have been
increased. North and east-facing glazing have been increased
slightly. The sunspace assumed here is semi-enclosed (surrounded
on three sides by conditioned rooms of the house, as in Figure SSC1
of the worksheets), with vertical south glazing. The common wall is a
thermal mass wall made of masonry. Sunspace glazing is assumed
to be double.
83
Passive Solar-Thermal Storage Wall
Base
Case 20% 40% 60%
R-Values
Walls 14 12 12 12
Slab Edge 0 0 0 0
Glass .9 1.8 1.8 1.8
West 3.0% 2.0% 2.0% 2.0%
North 3.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0%
East 3.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0%
South 3.0% 3.0% 3.0% 3.0%
Thermal Storage Wall 0.0% 2.4% 5.5% 10.3%
Thermal Storage Wall 0 35 82 154
21% 36% 52% 68%
Conservation 19,893 20,253 20,346 20,760
Auxiliary Heat 15,709 12,852 9,676 6,482
Cooling 7,544 4,499 2,205 2;056
Summary: In the case of a Thermal Storage Wall, south-facing
glazing and thermal mass are incorporated together. The estimates
here assume a 12-inch thick concrete Thermal Storage Wall with a
selective surface and single glazing.
Cooling Potential
Basecase 7,544 Btu/yr-sf
Energy
Savings Percent
Strategy (Btu/yr-sf) Savings
No Night Ventilation
1
without ceiling fans 0 0%
with ceiling fans 3,090 41
Night Ventilation
1
without ceiling fans 870 12
with ceiling fans 3,240 43
High Mass
2
without ceiling fans 660 9
with ceiling fans 380 5
1 With night ventilation, the house is ventilated at night when
temperature and humidity conditions are favorable.
2A 'high mass' building is one with a thermal mass area at least
eQual to the house floor area.
Los Angeles, Califomia
84
Technical 'Basis for
the Builder
Guidelines
How the Builder
Guidelines Were
Produced
The text of the Builder Guidelines book is
generated by merging two computer files.
The first is a word-processor file
containing the text; it does not change
from location to location. The second
contains numbers and text and is
location dependent. This second file is
produced by running a computer
program that calculates performance
numbers based on long-term monthly
weather and solar data compiled by the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration for a particular location.
The merge operation slots the numbers
and text in the second file into their
correct locations in the first file. This is
then laser printed to produce the
camera-ready manuscript.
More than a Decade lof
Experience
The concentrated effort of research.
design. construction. monitoring. and
evaluation of actual buildings that
started at the First Passive Solar
Conference in Albuquerque in 1976 has
continued up to the present. It is
estimated that more than 200.000
passive solar homes have been built in
the United States during this time. This
wealth of experience has been reviewed
by NREL. the Technical Committee of
PSIC. and by the Standing Committee on
Energy of the National Association of
Home Builders and is distilled into these
Guidelines.
Analysis Procedures
The analysis procedures used throughout
the Guidelines were developed using
simple. well-established methods for
estimating the performance of passive
solar heating and natural cooling
strategies. These procedures (described
below) were developed at the J.os Alamos
National Laboratory with funding from
the U.S. Department of Energy Solar
Buildings Program. See the references for
more information.
Annual Heat Loss
(Worksheet 1)
The heat-loss calculation is based on a
straightfOIward summation of the
traditional elements that make up the
building heat-loss coefficient (excluding
the solar components). The worksheet
procedure estimates the annual heat loss
by multiplying the heat-loss coefficient
by annual degree days (times 24 to
convert from days to hours). Degree days
for each month were determined using
an appropriate base temperature that
accounts for an assumed thermostat
setting of 70 degrees. an assumed
internal heat generation of 36 Btu/ day
per sq ft of floor area. and the total
building loss coefficient. This forms the
basis of the table of heating degree day
multipliers. The result of the worksheet
is an estimate of the annual heat
required to maintain comfort. exCluding
both positive and negative effects
resulting from the solar components. In
this estimate. no solar heating credit is
given to east. west. and north windows.
because it is assumed that these will be
protected by vegetation or other shading
in accordance with the Builder Guideline
recommendations. This is a conservative
assumption because there will always be
some solar gain through these windows.
Annual Auxiliary Heat
, (Worksheet II)
The tables of passive solar savings
fractions are calculated using the solar
load ratio (SLR) method (references 1 and
2). Monthly solar savings fraction (SSF)
values are determined using correlation
fits to the results of hourly computer
simulation calculations for a variety of
climates. These 12 values are converted
into an annual value and entered into
worksheet Tables FI-F4. The SLR method
gives answers that agree within about
5% of the hourly computer simulations
and within 11 % of the measured passive
solar performance of 55 buildings
monitored under the Solar Buildings
Program. The SSF estimates account
properly for both solar gains and heat
losses through the solar aperture and.
thus. correct for omitting the solar
components from the calculation of
annual heat loss.
1. J. Douglas Balcomb. Robert W. Jones.
Robert D. McFarland. and William O.
Wray. "Expanding the SLR Method".
Passive Solar Journal. Vol.!' No.2.
1982. pp. 67-90. Available from the
American Solar Energy Society. 2400
TECHNICAL BASIS
Central Ave. Unit B-1. Boulder. CO
80301.
2. J. Douglas Balcomb. Robert W. Jones.
Robert D. McFarland. and William O.
Wray. Passive Solar Heating Analysis.
American Society of Heating.
Refrigerating. and Air-Conditioning
Engineers. ,1984. Available from
ASHRAE. 1719 Tullie Circle. NE. Atlanta.
GA 30329.
3. J. Douglas Balcomb and William O.
Wray. Passive Solar Heating Analysis,
Supplement One, Thermal Mass Effects
and Additional SLR Correlations.
American Society of Heating.
Refrigerating. and Air-Conditioning
Engineers. 1987. See ASHRAE address
above.
Temperature Swing
(Worksheet III)
The temperature swing estimate on
worksheet III is based on the diurnal
heat capacity (dhc) method (reference 3).
The method is an analytic procedure in
which the total heat stored in the
building during one day is estimated by
summing the effective heat storage
potential of the all the various materials
in the building for a 24-hour periodic
cycle of solar input. Rooms with direct
gain are assumed to have radiative
coupling of the solar heat to the mass.
Rooms connected to rooms with direct
gain are assumed to have convective
coupling. which is rather less effective.
especially for massive elements. The dhc
of the sheetrock. framing. and furniture
is approximated as 4.5 or 4.7 Btu/OF per
sq ft of floor area. Worksheet Tables HI
and H2 list the increased value of diurnal
heat capacity for various conventional
materials that are often used to provide
extra heat storage. assuming these
materials replace sheetrock.
The only numbers in worksheet III
that are location dependent are the
comfort factors. taken from Table I. The
direct-gain comfort factor is 61 % of the
solar gain transmitted through vertical.
south-facing double glazing on a clear
January day. The driving effect of
sunspaces and vented Trombe walls is
assumed to result in one-third this value.
based on data from monitored buildings.
The origin of the 61 % factor is described
in the references.
Annual Auxiliary Cooling
(Worksheet IV)
The purpose of including the summer
cooling estimates in the Builder
Guidelines is to (1) determine if design
elements added to promote passive solar
heating will cause excessive summer
cooling loads and (2) provide a rough
estimate of the effectiveness of solar
shading and natural cooling strategies.
The analysis method is based on a
modified monthly degree-day procedure
in which the day is divided into day and
night periods (reference 4). All estimates
are derived from correlations based on
hourly computer simulations. Solar.
conduction. and internal gains are
estimated for each half-day period in
each month. Delay factors are used to
account for heat carryover from day.to
night and night to day. The results are
estimates of annual sensible cooling "
delivered by the air conditioner and do
not include latent loads.
Because the the original Los Alamos
monthly procedure is too complex to be
implemented in a worksheet. a simplified
procedure is adopted on worksheet IV.
Heat Gain Factors and Internal Gain
Factors in Tables L and N are the
calculated annual incremental cooling
loads resulting from a one-unit
incremental change in the respective
heat input parameter (that is. a one-unit
change in UA, glazing area. or number of
bedrooms). The combined heat load
resulting from all inputs is summed and
then adjusted for thermal mass and
ventilation. This correction includes a
constant required to match the
calculated cooling load of the base-case
building. This linearized procedure gives
accurate estimates for cooling loads that
are less than about 150% of the base-
case building; however. it underestimates
very large cooling loads in poorly
designed buildings.
The adjustment factors for
ventilation properly account for
maintaining comfort in hot and humid
climates. Ventilation is restricted to
times when the outside dew-point
temperature is less than 62 OF. This
restriction avoids ventilation when high
hUmidity might cause discomfort
4. Robert D. McFarland and Gloria
Lazarus. Monthly Auxiliary CooHng
Estimation for Residential BuDdings.
lA-11394-MS. Los Alamos National
Laboratory. NM 87545. 1989.
Notfor Sizing Equipment
All heating and cooling values given in
the Builder Guidelines Tables and
numbers calculated using the worksheets
are for annual heat delivered or removed
by the mechanical heating or cooling
system. You cannot directly use these
numbers for sizing the capacity of this
equipment. The methods developed by
the American Society of Heating.
Refrigerating. and Air Conditioning
Engineers for sizing equipment are well-
established and are recommended. The
purpose of the guidance provided in
these booklets is to minimize the
operating time and resources consumed
by this equipment.
Using the Worksheets in
Nearby Locations
The applicability of worksheets I and II
can be extended somewhat by using the
base-65 OF degree-day value for a site
which is close to the location for which
the worksheet tables were generated. We
recommend limiting such applications to
sites where the annual heating degree-
days are within plus or minus 10% of the
parent location and where it is
reasonable to assume that the solar
radiation is about the same as in the
parent location. The procedure is simple:
Use the measured base-65 OF degree-day
value in worksheet 1. line F. instead of
the degree-day value for the parent
location.
Worksheet III depends only slightly
on location. The only variables are the
Comfort Factors in Table I. which only
change with latitude. Thus. this
worksheet can be used anywhere within
4 degrees of latitude of the parent
location.
The cooling estimate obtained from
worksheet IV is specific to the location.
Within the same vicinity and within plus
or minus 20%. the result could be
adjusted. based on a ratio of cooling
degree days. However. this adjustment is
not done automatically within the
worksheet.
85
Getting Data
Heating and cooling data can
be obtained from the National Climatic
Center. Asheville. NC. Refer to
Climatography of the United States No.
81 which lists monthly normals for the
period 1951-1980 on a state-by-state
basis. More than 2400 locations are
listed in this data base.
Los Angeles, CaHfornia

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