Be-104 (Beee)

Basic Electrical & Electronics Lab
2014

LAB MANNUAL
BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING(BE-104)

Submit By
Name-..
Roll no-
Session -.
Submit to
Prof. Prof. Prateek Mishra
Asst. professor HOD
EC Dept. GNCSGI EC Dept. GNCSI

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONI CS & COMMUNI CATI ON ENGI NEERI NG, GNCSGI

2014
GLOBAL NATURE CARE SANGATHANS GROUP
OF INSTITUTION, JABALAPUR
BASI C ELECTRI CAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGI NEERI NG(BE-104)
List of Experiments

1. Verifications of Thevenins Superposition theorem.
2. Study of Transformer, name plate rating, determination of rayio and polarity.
3. Determination of equivalent circuit parameters of a single phase
transformer by O.C. and S.C. tests and estimation of voltage regulation and
efficiency at various loading conditions and verification by load test.
4. Separation of resistance and inductance of choke coil.
5. Measurement of various line & phase quantities for a 3-phase circuit.
6. Identification of different Electronics components.
7. Observing input and output waveforms of rectifiers.
8. Transistor application as amplifier and switch.
9. Verification of truth table for various gates.

2014

Unit I

Electrical circuit analysis- Voltage and current sources,
dependent and independent sources, source conversion, DC circuits
analysis using mesh & nodal method, Thevenins & superposition
theorem, star-delta transformation.
1-phase AC circuits under sinusoidal steady state, active, reactive
and apparent power, physical meaning of reactive power, power
factor, 3-phase balanced and unbalanced supply, star and delta
connections.

Unit II

Transformers-Review of laws of electromagnetism, mmf, flux,
and their relation, analysis of magnetic circuits. Single-phase
transformer, basic concepts and construction features, voltage, current
and impedance transformation, equivalent circuits, phasor diagram,
voltage regulation, losses and efficiency, OC and SC test.

Unit III

Rotating Electric machines- Constructional details of DC
machine, induction machine and synchronous machine, Working
principle of 3-Phase induction motor, Emf equation of 3-Phase
induction motor, Concept of slip in 3-Phase induction motor,
Explanation of Torque-slip characteristics of 3-Phase induction
motor, Classification of self excited DC motor and generator.

Unit IV

Digital Electronics-Number systems used in digital electronics,
decimal, binary, octal, hexadecimal, their complements, operation and
conversion, floating point and signed numbers, Demorgans theorem,
AND, OR, NOT, NOR, NAND, EX-NOR, EX-OR gates and their
representation, truth table, half and full adder circuits, R-S flip flop, J-
K flip flop.

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Unit V

ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND CIRCUITS- Introduction to
Semiconductors, Diodes, V-I characteristics, Bipolar junction
transistors (BJT) and their working, introduction to CC, CB & CE
transistor configurations, different configurations and modes of
operation of BJT, DC biasing of BJT.

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Experiment detail
S no. Object Pg no
1
Verificatiions of Thevenins Superposition theorem.

2
Studyof Transformer, name plate rating, determination of
rayio and polarity.

3
Determination of equivalent circuit parameters of a single
phase transformer by O.C. and S.C. tests and estimation of
voltage regulation and efficiency at various loading
conditions and verification by load test.

4
Seperation of resistance and inductance of choke coil.

5
Measurement of various line & phase quantities for a 3-
phase circuit.

6
Identification of different Electronics components.

7
Observing input and output waveforms of rectifiers.

8
Transistor application as amplifier and switch.

9
Verification of truthtable for various gates.

10 To study KVL & KCL

11 Constructional Features of D.C machine

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Experiment : 1

A.VERIFICATION OF THEVENINS THEOREM

AIM:

To verify Thevenins theorem and to find the current flowing through the load resistance.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Model no. TVS NET -01

THEORY:

Thevenin`s theorem:
Any linear active network with output terminals can be replaced by a single voltage source V
th
in series with
a single impedance Z
th
. V
th
is the Thevenin`s voltage. It is the voltage between the terminals on open circuit
condition, Hence it is called open circuit voltage denoted by V
oc.
Z
th
is called Thevennin`s impedance. It is the
driving point impedance at the terminals when all internal sources are set to zero too.
If a load impedance Z
L
is connected across output terminals, we can find the current through it I
L
= V
th
/ (Z
th

+ Z
L
).

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Check your connections before switch on the supply.
3. Find the Thevenins voltage (or) open circuit voltage.
4. Replace voltage source by internal resistor.
5. Determine the Thevenins resistance.
6. Find I
L
by using Thevenins formula.
7. Compare the observation reading to theoretical value.
8. switch off the supply
9. Disconnect the circuit.

Circuit
diagram

XMM
1
5V
2.2k

Rt
h
2.7

To
find
Rth

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To find
Vth
To find I
L

v

5V

5V
2.7k
+
2.7

A (0-5)mA
-

Equivalent ciruitI
1

R
th
R
L

V
th
+
A (0-5)mA
-

Tabulation

Vth Rth I
L
(mA)

theoretical practical theoretical practical theoretical practical

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Calculation:

RESULT:
Thus the Thevenins theorem was verified.

Theoretical:
V
th
=
R
th
=
I
L
=
Practical:
V
th
=
R
th
=
I
L
=

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B.SUPER POSITION THEOREM

AIM:

To verify the superposition theorem and determine the current following through the load resistance.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

MODEL NO. NET- 02

Superposition theorem

In a linear circuit containing more than one source, the current that flows at any point or the voltage
that exists between any two points is the algebraic sum of the currents or the voltages that would have been
produced by each source taken separately with all other sources removed.

PROCEDURE:

3. Determine the current through the load resistance.
4. Now one of the sources is shorted and the current flowing through the resistance I
L
measured
by ammeter.
5. Similarly, the other source is shorted and the current flowing through the resistance I
L
measured
by ammeter.
6. Compare the value obtained with the sum of I
1
&I
2
should equal to I
8. switch off the supply
9. Disconnect the circuit.

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Circuit diagram

Superposition

220 ohm

470 ohm
12V
1
K
10
V

TO find I
2
When 10V source is
acting alone

220
ohm 470 ohm

10
V

1 K
+
A (0-20)mA
-

Tabulation:

To find I
1
when 12V source is
acting alone
220
ohm
470
ohm

12V
1 K

+

A (0-
20)mA
-

To find I when two sources are
acting

220
ohm 470 ohm
12V
10 V

1 K
+

A (0-
20)mA
-

V(volt
) I
1
(mA) I
2
(mA) I(mA)

V1 V2 theoretical practical theoretical practical theoretical practical

Calculation:

RESULT: Thus the superposition theorem was verified

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Experiment ; 2

OBECT:
1. Name plate rating of single phase transformer

2. Determination of transformation ration.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO. Name of equipment Quantity Range Type
1. 1- Transformer 1 230/115V,1KVA Shell type
2. Auto Transformer 1 0-270,10A Variac type
3. Voltmeter 1 0-300 V Moving iron

THEORY:

Study & construction of single phase transformer: The main elements
of a transformer are two copper coils & laminated silicon steel core.A
transformer is a static device or a machine that transforms electrical
energy from one circuit to another electrical circuit through the medium
magnetic flux. And without a change in frequency. The electrical
circuit which receive energy from the supply mains is called primary
winding and the other circuit which ,which delivers electrical energy to
the load ,is called secondary winding .Theoretically it may seem that
transformers may be built to handle any voltage or current. But in
reality there are limits to both the voltage & current.

The name plate rating of a power transformer : The name plate
rating of a power transformer usually contains

Volt ampere rating of transformer in
KVA
.

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Voltage ratio or turn ratio in V
1
/V
2
....
Frequency of 1- or 3-
.
Equivalent impedance of a
transformers in %
.

A typical name plate of a 1- transformer is as follows:

230 Volts/115Volts, 50 Hz, 1KVA, Shell type,10 Amp.

Here 1 KVA is the rated output at output terminals.230/115means
when 230V. is the applied to the primary ,the secondary voltage on
full load at specified power factor is 115volts.The ratio of V
1
& V
2
is
not exactly equal to N
1
/N
2,
because of voltage drop in primary &
secondary. Rated primary & secondary current can be calculated
from the rated KVA and corresponding rated voltage thus

Rated (Full load ) primary current = KVA /V
1
= 1000/230 = 4.35
Amps
Rated (Full load ) secondary current = KVA /V
2
= 1000/115 = 4.35
Amps
Rated frequency is the frequency for which the transformer is designed to
operate.

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TRANSFORMATION RATIO:

The turn ratio of the single phase transformer can be found by
measuring the primary & secondary voltage. Let V
1
&V
2
is the primary
and secondary voltage at on load.
1/K = V
1
/ V
2 =
N
1
/N
2 =
I
2
/I
1
= Turn Ratio

Induced E.M.F. in primary
winding, Induced E.M.F. in
secondary winding, For ideal
transformer

Hence, Transformation Ratio

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per figure & set up auto transformer to zero
position.
2. Switch on A .C. supply and adjust the Auto
transformer till a suitable voltage.
3. Record voltage, V
1
across the primary and
V
2
across the secondary winding.

4. Vary the Auto transformer and repeat above
step,take at least 3 readings.

5. switch off the supply.

OBSERVATION:

S.NO. Primary Voltage V
1
Secondary Voltage V
2
K = V
2
/ V
1

1.

2.

3.

E
1
=4.44f N
1

Volts E
2
=4.44f N
2

Volts E
1
= V
1
and E
2

= V
2

K = V
2
/ V
1
= N
2
/ N
1
=
I
1
/ I
2

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CIRCUIT
DIAGRAM:

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RESULT:

The transformation ratio of given transformer is ..

PRECAUTION:
1. Connection should be tight.
2. Do not touch on live wire.
3. Load on the transfer should not increase beyond its
capacity.

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Experiment :3

OBECT:

1. To calculate the complete parameter of the equipment of 1-
transformer.

2. To determine iron & copper losses.

3. To calculate efficiency & voltage regulation at 1/4, 1/3, 1/2,
3/4 full load and 1.25times full load at 0.8 P.F. lagging.
4. To plot the efficiency curve v
s
load.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO.
Name of
equipment Quantity Range Type
1. 1- Transformer 1 230/115V,1KVA Shell type
2. Auto Transformer 1 0-270,10A Variac type
4. Ammeter 1 0-0.5A Moving iron
5. Ammeter 1 0-0.10A Moving iron
6. Wattmeter 1
2.5/0.5A,125/250/50
0V
Dynamomete
r
7. Connecting leads 10-12 . .

THEORY:

These two test on transformer help to determine-

1. The parameters of equipments circuit of 1- transformer.

2. The voltage regulation of 1- transformer.

3. The efficiency of 1- transformer.

OPEN CIRCUIT TEST OR NO LOAD TEST:

In this test voltmeter, Ammeter & Wattmeter are connected on low
voltage side of transformer.The high voltage is left open circuited.The
rated voltage applied to the primary.The ammeter reads no load current,

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or the exciting I
0
.Since I
0
is quite small (2 to 6% of rated current) the
primary leakage impedance drop is almost negligible and for all
practical purpose the applied voltage V
1
,is equal to induced E.M.F
V
1
.The input power (iron loss) is given by wattmeter reading,consist of
core loss and ohmic loss.Since the exciting current is very small, the
ohmic losses during open circuit test is negligible as compared to
normal core loss.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: -

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CALCULATION:
Applied rated voltage on low
voltage side = V
1

Exciting Current or no load current = I
0

Wattmeter reading, W
o
/ Iron loss,
P
C

= V
O
I
O
Cos
o

No load power factor, Cos
o

= P
C
/
V
O
I
O

Working component , I
W
= I
O
Cos
o

Magnetizing component, I = I
O
Sin
o

Core loss Resistance, R
C
= P
c
I
2
W
=
V
1
/I
W
=V
1
/I
0
Cos
0

Magnetising reactance, X = V
1
/I = V
1
/I
o
Sin
o

Thus open circuit test gives the following information:

1. Core loss at rated voltage & frequency.
2. The shunt branch parameter of equivalent circuit i.e., X & R
C
.

SHORT CIRCUIT TEST:

The low voltage side of the transformer of the transformer is short
circuited & instrument are placed on H.V. side. Apply the low voltage
on H.V. side & with the help of autotransformer go on increasing the
applied voltage till the rated current starts flowing in the short
circuited winding(L.V. side).The primary voltage 10% to 12% of its
rated value is sufficient to circulate the rated current in short circuited
winding. Since the core flux induces the voltage, which is 1% to 6% of
its rated value hence core loss can be neglected. The wattmeter records
only the ohmic loss is both, the primary & secondary winding.

CALCULATION:
V
sc,
I
sc
& P
sc
are the voltmeter ammeter & wattmeter reading

ZSC = VSC /ISC

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R
SC
= P
SC
/I
2
SC

X
SC
= Z
2
SC
R
2
SC

Thus the short circuit test gives the following information

1. Ohmic loss at rated current and frequency.

2. Equivalent resistance and leakage reactance and leakage
impedance.

Load x P.F.

The efficiency at any load,
=
X 100
%

Load x P.F.+ W
o
+ I
o
2
R
o

PROCEDURE FOE OPEN CIRCUIT TEST:

1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in figure and set up the
autotransformer at zero position .
2. Adjust the supply voltage with the help of autotransformer to
230 volts with secondary winding terminal open.

3. Record the ammeter, voltmeter ,wattmeter reading.

4. Vary the supply voltage with the help of the auto transformer and
enter the reading in observation table.

OBSERVATION TABLE FOR OPEN CIRCUIT TEST

S.NO. Primary Voltage Input Current
Input power in
watts
Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading Wattmeter reading
1.
2.
3.

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PROCEDURE FOE SHORT CIRCUIT TEST:

1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in figure and set up the
autotransformer at zero position .

2. Adjust the supply voltage with the help of autotransformer (keep in
mind that 10-12% of rated voltage is sufficiency) with secondary
winding terminal short circuited and circulate full rated current in short
circuited winding.

3. Record the ammeter, voltmeter ,wattmeter reading.

4. Vary the supply voltage with the help of the auto transformer and enter
the reading in observation table.
5. Three readings adjust at 50% ,86.6% & 100% rated full load current.

OBSERVATION TABLE FOR SHORT CIRCUIT TEST

S.NO. Primary Voltage Input Current
Input power in
watts

Voltmeter
Reading Ammeter Reading Wattmeter reading
1.
2.
3.
RESUL
T:

PRECAUTION:

1. In open circuit test, the H.V. side should be open circuited(left side).

2. In open circuit test, low voltage should be apply to the H.V. side &
it should be increased gradually to circulate the rated current in

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H.V. side.

3. Connection should be tight.

4. Do not touch on livewire.

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Experiment :4

Aim: - To determine resistance and inductance of Choke.

APPARATUS:-
1) 1 phase, 230 V dimmerstat -1 no.
2) 0-1 Amp, AC Ammeter - 1 No.
3) 0-300 V , AC Voltmeter - 1 No
4) 0-300 V ,1 A, Wattmeter -1 No
5) Choke 230 V 50 Hz, 0.675 A -1 No.

CONNECTION DIAGRAM:

WATTMETER
300 V,1A

THEORY:-

The theory should cover details about following points. 1)Ideal Choke coil
2)Quality factor of inductor

PROCEDURE:-

1) Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
2) Ensure that the dimmerstat is at zero position.
3) Switch on 1-phase ac supply.
4) Increase the output voltage of the dimmerstat slowly.

11

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5) Note down the readings of ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter for
various values of output voltages of dimmerstat.

PRECAUTIONS :-
1) All connections should be perfectly tight.
2) Do not switch on the supply until and unless the connections are checked
by the teacher.
3) Ensure the dimmer stat at zero position and all rheostats to
maximum resistance position before switching the supply ON.
4) Avoid error due to parallel while reading the meters.
5) The current flowing through the rheostat should not exceed their ratings.

OBSERVATION & CALCULATION:

Sr. Voltmeter Ammeter Wattmeter Resistance Z=V/I X
L
=
No. Reading Reading Reading R = W/I
2
Z
2
R
2
L(H)
V I W

CONCLUSION:
The calculated values of resistance and inductance of choke coil are
found _______

DISCUSSION :- ( Answer any 02 as told by your teacher)

1. What are various losses of choke.
2. What are application of choke.
3. Draw the phasor diagram of choke.
4. If you apply d.c supply instead of a.c supply to the choke, the resistance
offered by choke will be same or not. Explain.

REFERENCES:
1. Electrical Technology Vol. I by B.L. Thereja.
2. A text book on laboratory experiments in Electrical Engg .
by Kharbanda & Tarnekar .

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Experiment :5

AIM: - Verification of relationship between line voltage and phase voltage in a 3-
Phase star connected balanced load.

APPARATUS:-
6) 3 phase, 440 volt dimmerstat -01 no.
7) 0-5 Amp, AC Ammeter -03 no.
8) 0-600 V , AC Voltmeter- 01 No
9) 0-300 V , AC Voltmeter-01 No
10) 0-100 ohm, 5 Amp rheostat 03 no.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

The theory should cover details about following points.

Explanation about star connection with neat labeled diagram.
Relationship between and line quantities for star connection.
Expressions for 3 phase active, reactive, and apparent power in terms of line and
phase quantities.
Phasor diagram of balanced star connected resistive load.

PROCEDURE:-
1.Connect the circuit as shown below.
2.Ensure that the dimmerstat is at zero output position and all rheostats are at
maximum resistance position
3.Switch ON the 3-phase AC supply.
4.Increase the output voltage of the dimmerstat slowly up to 150 V ( L-L)
5.Adjust the rheostat position such that all ammeters show same readings that is
creating a balanced load condition.

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6.Note the meter readings.
7.Repeat the above procedure for different values of line voltages.

PRECAUTIONS :-

1.All connections should be perfectly tight.
2.Do not switch on the supply until and unless the connections are checked by the
teacher.
3.Ensure the dimmer stat at zero position and all rheostats to maximum
resistance position before switching the supply ON.
4.Avoid error due to parallel while reading the meters.
5.The current flowing through the rheostat should not exceed their ratings.

OBSERVATION & CALCULATION:

Sr.No Line current Measured Phase Calculated Three phase
= Phase line voltage Voltage line Voltage Power
current V
L
Vph 3 Vph P= 3 Vph Iph
I
L
= Iph
1)
2)
3)

CONCLUSION:
The calculated values of line voltage are closely equal to their
measured values . Hence the relation V
L
= 3 Vph for a star connected
balanced load is verified .

DISCUSSION :- ( Answer any 03 as told by your teacher)
Q.1 Draw phasor diagram for a 3 phase balanced star connected
inductive load.
Q.2 Draw phasor diagram for a 3- phase star connected capacitive load.
Q.3 A 3- phase balanced delta connected source having Line voltage
of 440 V is supplying power to a 3-phase star connected load if
the per phase impedance of load is 200 ohm . What will be the
total power consumed by the load ?

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Experiment : 6

LAB #1: IDENTIFICATION OF CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

Breadboards:

In order to temporarily construct a circuit without damaging the
components used to build it, we must have some sort of a platform that will
both hold the components in place and provide the needed electrical
connections. In the early days of electronics, most experimenters were
amateur radio operators. They constructed their radio circuits on wooden
breadboards. Although more sophisticated techniques and devices have
been developed to make the assembly and testing of electronic circuits
easier, the concept of the breadboard still remains in assembling
components on a temporary platform.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 1: (a) A typical Breadboard and (b) its connection details

A real breadboard is shown in Fig. 1(a) and the connection details on its
rear side are shown in Fig. 1(b). The five holes in each individual column
on either side of the central groove are electrically connected to each other,
but remain insulated from all other sets of holes. In addition to the main

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columns of holes, however, you'll note four sets or groups of holes along
the top and bottom. Each of these consists of five separate sets of five holes
each, for a total of 25 holes. These groups of 25 holes are all connected
together on either side of the dotted line indicated on Fig.1(a) and needs an
external connection if one wishes the entire row to be connected. These
breadboard sockets are sturdy and rugged, and can take quite a bit of
handling. However, there are a few rules you need to observe, in order to
extend the useful life of the electrical contacts and to avoid damage to
components. These rules are:

Always make sure power is disconnected when constructing or modifying
your experimental circuit. It is possible to damage components or incur
an electrical shock if you leave power connected when making changes.
Never use larger wire as jumpers. #24 wire (used for normal telephone
wiring) is an excellent choice for this application. Observe the same
limitation with respect to the size of component leads. Whenever possible,
use watt resistors in your circuits. watt resistors may be used when
necessary; resistors of higher power ratings should never be inserted directly
into a breadboard socket. Never force component leads into contact holes on
the breadboard socket. Doing so can damage the contact and make it useless.
Do not insert stranded wire or soldered wire into the breadboard socket. If
you must have stranded wire (as with an inductor or transformer lead),
solder (or use a wire nut to connect) the stranded wire to a short length of
solid hookup wire, and insert only the solid wire into the breadboard.

If you follow these basic rules, your breadboard will last indefinitely, and
your experimental components will last a long time.

Resistors

Most axial resistors use a pattern of colored stripes to indicate resistance. A
4 band identification is the most commonly used color coding scheme on all
resistors. It consists of four colored bands that are painted around the body
of the resistor. Resistor values are always coded in ohms (). The color
codes are given in the following table in Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1: Color codes of
Resistor

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Capacitors:

You will mostly use electrolytic and ceramic capacitors for your
experiments.

Electrolytic capacitors

An electrolytic capacitor is a type of capacitor that uses an electrolyte, an
ionic conducting liquid, as one of its plates, to achieve a larger capacitance
per unit volume than other types. They are used in relatively high-
current and low-frequency electrical circuits.
However, the voltage applied to these
capacitors must be polarized; one specified
terminal must always have positive potential
with respect to the other. These are of two
types, axial and radial capacitors as shown
in adjacent figure. The arrowed stripe
indicates the polarity, with the arrows
pointing towards the negative pin.

Fig. 2:Axial and Radial Electrolytic
capacitors

Warning: connecting electrolytic capacitors in reverse polarity can easily
damage or destroy the capacitor. Most large electrolytic capacitors have the
voltage, capacitance, temperature ratings, and company name written on
them without having any special color coding schemes.

Axial electrolytic capacitors have connections on both ends. These are most
frequently used in devices where there is no space for vertically mounted
capacitors.

Radial electrolytic capacitors are like axial electrolytic ones, except both
pins come out the same end. Usually that end (the "bottom end") is mounted
flat against the PCB and

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the capacitor rises perpendicular to the PCB it is mounted on. This type of
capacitor probably accounts for at least 70% of capacitors in consumer
electronics.

Ceramic capacitors are generally non-polarized and almost
as common as radial electrolytic capacitors. Generally, they
use an alphanumeric marking system. The number part is the
same as for SMT resistors, except that the value represented
is in pF. They may also be written out directly, for instance,
2n2 = 2.2 nF.
Fig. 3: Ceramic
capacitors

Diodes:

A standard specification sheet usually has a brief description of the diode.
Included in this description is the type of diode, the major area of
application, and any special features. Of particular interest is the specific
application for which the diode is suited. The manufacturer also provides a
drawing of the diode which gives dimension, weight, and, if appropriate, any
identification marks. In addition to the above data, the following information
is also provided: a static operating table (giving spot values of parameters
under fixed conditions), sometimes a characteristic curve (showing how
parameters vary over the full operating range), and diode ratings (which are
the limiting values of operating conditions outside which could cause diode
damage). Manufacturers specify these various diode operating parameters
and characteristics with "letter symbols" in accordance with fixed
definitions. The following is a list, by letter symbol, of the major electrical
characteristics for the rectifier and signal diodes.

RECTIFIER DIODES
DC BLOCKING VOLTAGE [VR]the maximum reverse dc voltage that
will not cause breakdown.
AVERAGE FORWARD VOLTAGE DROP [VF(AV)]the average
forward voltage drop across the rectifier given at a specified forward current
and temperature.
AVERAGE RECTIFIER FORWARD CURRENT [IF(AV)]the average
rectified forward current at a specified temperature, usually at 60 Hz with a
resistive load.
AVERAGE REVERSE CURRENT [IR(AV)]the average reverse current

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at a specified temperature, usually at 60 Hz.
PEAK SURGE CURRENT [ISURGE]the peak current specified for a
given number of cycles or portion of a cycle.
SIGNAL DIODES
PEAK REVERSE VOLTAGE [PRV]the maximum reverse voltage that
can be applied before reaching the breakdown point. (PRV also applies to
the rectifier diode.) REVERSE CURRENT [IR]the small value of direct
current that flows when a semiconductor diode has reverse bias.
MAXIMUM FORWARD VOLTAGE DROP AT INDICATED FORWARD
CURRENT [V F@IF] the maximum forward voltage drop across the
diode at the indicated forward current.
REVERSE RECOVERY TIME [trr]the maximum time taken for the
forward-bias diode to recover its reverse bia
The ratings of a diode (as stated earlier) are the limiting values of operating
conditions, which if exceeded could cause damage to a diode by either
voltage breakdown or overheating.
The PN junction diodes are generally rated for: MAXIMUM AVERAGE
FORWARD CURRENT, PEAK RECURRENT FORWARD CURRENT,
MAXIMUM SURGE CURRENT, and PEAK REVERSE VOLTAGE

Maximum average forward current is usually given at a special
temperature, usually 25 C, (77 F) and refers to the maximum amount of
average current that can be permitted to flow in the forward direction. If this
rating is exceeded, structure breakdown can occur.

Peak recurrent forward current is the maximum peak current that can be
permitted to flow in the forward direction in the form of recurring pulses.
Maximum surge current is the maximum current permitted to flow in the
forward direction in the form of nonrecurring pulses. Current should not
equal this value for more than a few milliseconds.

Peak reverse voltage (PRV) is one of the most important ratings. PRV
indicates the maximum reverse-bias voltage that may be applied to a diode
without causing junction breakdown. All of the above ratings are subject to
change with temperature variations. If, for example, the operating
temperature is above that stated for the ratings, the ratings must be
decreased.

2014

There are many types of diodes varying in size from the size of a pinhead
(used in subminiature circuitry) to large 250-ampere diodes (used in high-
power circuits). Because there are so many different types of diodes, some
system of identification is needed to distinguish one diode from another.
This is accomplished with the semiconductor identification system shown in
Fig. 4. This system is not only used for diodes but transistors and many other
special semiconductor devices as well. As illustrated in this figure, the
system uses numbers and letters to identify different types of semiconductor
devices. The first number in the system indicates the number of junctions in
the semiconductor device and is a number, one less than the number of
active elements. Thus 1 designates a diode; 2 designates a transistor (which
may be considered as made up of two diodes); and 3 designates a tetrode (a
four -element transistor). The letter "N" following the first number indicates
a semiconductor. The 2- or 3-digit number following the letter "N" is a
serialized identification number. If needed, this number may contain a suffix
letter after the last digit. For example, the suffix letter "M" may be used to
describe matching pairs of separate semiconductor devices or the letter "R"
may be used to indicate reverse polarity. Other letters are used to indicate
modified versions of the device which can be substituted for the basic
numbered unit. For example, a semiconductor diode designated as type
1N345A signifies a two -element diode (1) of semiconductor material (N)
that is an improved version (A) of type 345.

2014

When working with different types of diodes, it is also necessary to
distinguish one end of the diode from the other (anode from cathode). For
this reason, manufacturers generally code the cathode end of the diode with
a "k," "+," "cath," a color dot or band, or by an unusual shape (raised edge or
taper) as shown in Fig. 5. In some cases, standard color code bands are
placed on the cathode end of the diode. This serves two purposes:
(1) it identifies the cathode end of the diode, and (2) it also serves to identify
the diode by number.

Transistors:
Transistors are identified by a Joint Army-Navy (JAN) designation printed
directly on the case of the transistor. If in doubt about a transistor's
markings, always replace a transistor with one having identical markings, or
consult an equipment or transistor manual to ensure that an identical
replacement or substitute is used.

There are three main series of transistor codes used:

Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108, BC478
The first letter B is for silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The
second letter indicates the type; for example C means low power audio
frequency; D means high power audio frequency; F means low power high
frequency. The rest of the code identifies the particular transistor. There is
no obvious logic to the numbering system. Sometimes a letter is added to the
end (eg BC108C) to identify a special version of the main type, for example
a higher current gain or a different case style. If a project specifies a higher
gain version (BC108C) it must be used, but if the general code is given
(BC108) any transistor with that code is suitable.

2014
or transistor tester. PRECAUTIONS should
be
taken when working with transistors since
they
are susceptible to damage by electrical
overloads, heat, humidity, and radiation.
TRANSISTO
R LEAD IDENTIFICATION
plays an important part in transistor
maintenance because before a transistor can
be
tested or replaced, its leads must be
identified.
Since there is NO standard method of
identifying transistor leads, check some
typical
lead identification schemes or a transistor
manual before attempting to replace a
transistor. Identification of leads for some
Fig.
6

common case styles is shown in Fig.
6.

Testing a transistor
Transistors are basically made up of two Diodes connected together back-to-
back (Fig. 7). We can use this analogy to determine whether a transistor is of
the type PNP or NPN by testing its Resistance between the three
different leads, Emitter, Base and Collector.

Testing with a multimeter
Use a multimeter or a simple tester
(battery, resistor and LED) to check each
pair of leads for conduction. Set a digital
multimeter to diode test and an analogue
multimeter to a low resistance range.

Test each pair of leads both ways (six
tests in total):
Fig. 7: Testing an NPN
transistor

2014
The base-emitter (BE) junction should
behave like a diode and conduct one
way only.
The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and
conduct one way only.
The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.

The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The
diodes are reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be
used.

Transistor Resistance Values for the PNP and NPN transistor types

Between Transistor Terminals PNP NPN
Collecto
r Emitter RHIGH
RHI
GH
Collecto
r Base RLOW
RHI
GH
Emitter Collector RHIGH
RHI
GH
Emitter Base RLOW
RHI
GH
Base Collector RHIGH
RLO
W
Base Emitter RHIGH
RLO
W
6

2014
Experiment : 7

AIM: To study the input & output waveforms of rectifier.

(a): HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT WITHOUT AND WITH
FILTER

Objectives:

1. To construct a half-wave rectifier circuit and analyze its output.

2. To analyze the rectifier output using a capacitor in shunt as a filter.

Overview:

The process of converting an alternating current into direct current is known as
rectification. The unidirectional conduction property of semiconductor diodes (junction
diodes) is used for rectification. Rectifiers are of two types: (a) Half wave rectifier and
(b) Full wave rectifier. In a half-wave rectifier circuit (Fig. 1), during the positive half-
cycle of the input, the diode is forward biased and conducts. Current flows through the
load and a voltage is developed across it. During the negative half-cycle, it is reverse
bias and does not conduct. Therefore, in the negative half cycle of the supply, no current
flows in the load resistor as no voltage appears across it. Thus the dc voltage across the
load is sinusoidal for the first half cycle only and a pure a.c. input signal is converted
into a unidirectional pulsating output signal.

2014

Fig.1: Half-wave rectifier circuit

Since the diode conducts only in one half-cycle (0-), it can be verified that the d.c.
component in the

output is Vmax/, where Vmax is the peak value of the voltage. Thus,
V
dc

Vmax
0.318V
max

The current flowing through the
resistor,
I
d
c
V
dc
and power consumed by the load, P
I
dc

2
R
.
R
Ripple factor:

As the voltage across the load resistor is only present during the positive half of
the cycle, the resultant voltage is "ON" and "OFF" during every cycle resulting in a low
average dc value. This variation on the rectified waveform is called "Ripple" and is an
undesirable feature. The ripple factor is a measure of purity of the d.c. output of a
rectifier and is defined as
r
V
a
c

V
rms
2
V
dc
2

V
rms
2

0.5
2

1 1 1.21

V
d
c
V
dc
2

V
dc
2

0.31
8

outpu
t

In case of a half-wave rectifier Vrms = Vmax/2 = 0.5Vmax. (How?)

Rectification Efficiency:

Rectification efficiency, , is a measure of the percentage of total a.c. power input
converted to useful d.c. power output.

d .c. power delivered to load a.c. power at input
V
dc
I
dc
V
ac
I
ac

I
dc
2
R

0.318V
max

2 0.40
5

I 2 (r R) 0.5V
max
2

r
d

r
d

2014

a
c d

1

1

R

R
Here rd is the forward resistance of diode. Under the assumption of no diode loss
(rd<<), the rectification efficiency in case of a half-wave rectifier is approximately
40.5%.
Filters:

The output of a rectifier gives a pulsating d.c. signal (Fig.1) because of presence
of some a.c. components whose frequency is equal to that of the a.c. supply frequency.
Very often when rectifying an alternating voltage we wish to produce a "steady" direct
voltage free from any voltage variations or ripple. Filter circuits are used to smoothen
the output. Various filter circuits are available such as shunt capacitor, series inductor,
choke input LC filter and -filter etc. Here we will use a simple shunt capacitor filter
circuit (Fig. 2). Since a capacitor is open to d.c. and offers low impedance path to a.c.
current, putting a capacitor across the output will make the d.c. component to pass
through the load
resulting in small ripple voltage.

Smoothing
Capacitor

C Charges C Disharges

(With capacitor)

Fig.2: Half-wave rectifier circuit with capacitor filter

The working of the capacitor can be understood in the following manner. When

2014
the rectifier output voltage is increasing, the capacitor charges to the peak voltage Vm.
Just past the positive peak the rectifier output voltage tries to fall. As the source voltage
decreases below Vm , the capacitor will try to send the current back to diode making it
reverse biased. Thus the diode separates/disconnects the source from the load and hence
the capacitor will discharge through the load until the source voltage becomes more than
the capacitor voltage. The diode again starts conducting and the capacitor is again
charged to the peak value Vm and the process continues. Although in the output
waveform the discharging of capacitor is shown as a straight line for simplicity, the
decay is actually the normal exponential decay of any capacitor discharging through a
load resistor. The extent to which the capacitor voltage drops depends on the
capacitance and the amount of current drawn by the load; these two factors effectively
form the RC time constant for voltage decay. A proper combination of large capacitance
and small load resistance can give out a steady output.

Circuit components/Equipments:

(i) A step-down transformer, (ii) A junction diode, (iii) 3 Load resistors, (iv) 3
Electrolytic Capacitors, (v) Oscilloscope, (vi) Multimeters, (vii) Connecting
wires, (viii) Breadboard.

2014
Circuit Diagram: (As shown in Figs. 1 and 2)

Procedure:

i) Configure the half-wave rectifier circuit as shown in the circuit diagram. Note
down all the values of the components being used.
ii) Connect the primary side of the transformer to the a.c. Mains and secondary to the
input of the circuit.
iii) Measure the input a.c. voltage (Vac) and current (Iac) and the output a.c. (Vac),
d.c. (Vdc) voltages using multimeter for at least 3 values of load resistor (Be
careful to choose proper settings of multimeter for ac and dc measurement).
iv) Multiply the Vac at the input by 2 to get the peak value and calculate Vdc using
the formula Vdc

= Vmax/ . Compare this value with the measured Vdc at the output.

v) Feed the input and output (in DC coupling mode) to the two channels of
oscilloscope. We will use oscilloscope here only to trace the output waveform.
Save the data for each measurement using SAVE/LOAD or STORAGE button of
the oscilloscope.
vi) Calculate the ripple factor and efficiency.

vii) Connect an electrolytic capacitor (with ve terminal connected to ground)
across the output for each load resistor and measure the output a.c. and d.c.
voltages once again and calculate the ripple factor. Trace the input and output
waveforms in oscilloscope and notice the change.

viii) Repeat the above measurement foe all values of capacitors and study the output.

Observations:

3. Code number of diode = ________

4. Input Voltage: Vac = _________ Volt

Table(I): Half wave rectifier w/o
filter

2014

Sl. No Load Input Output Voltage Ripple Efficiency

R (k) Current

Factor (V
2
dc/R)/VacIac

Vac Vdc Vmax/
Iac (mA) (Volt) (Volt) (Volt) r (%)

1

2

Table(II): Half wave rectifier with filter (C = ____ F) (Make separate tables for
each capacitor)

Sl. No Load Output Voltage Ripple Factor

R (k)

r

Vac (Volt) Vdc (Volt)

1

2

3

(III) Input and output waveforms:

Waveforms without Filter:

R = ______ Input Output

(Paste data here)

Waveforms with Capacitor Filter: C = ______ F

R = ______ Input Output

(Paste data here)

2014

Discussions:

Precautions:

2014
(b): FULL-WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER CIRCUIT

WITHOUT AND WITH FILTER

Objectives:

1. To construct a full-wave bridge rectifier circuit and analyze its output.

2. To analyze the rectifier output using a capacitor in shunt as a filter.

Overview:

As you have seen already a half-wave rectifier circuit is unsuitable to
applications which need a "steady and smooth" dc supply voltage. One
method to improve on this is to use every half-cycle of the input voltage
instead of every other half-cycle. The circuit which allows us to do this is
called a Full-wave Rectifier. Here, unidirectional current flows in the output
for both the cycles of input signal and
rectifies it. The rectification can be done
either by a center tap full wave rectifier
(using two diodes) or a full wave bridge
rectifier (using four diodes). In this
experiment we will study a full wave bridge
rectifier.

The Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

Another type of circuit that produces the
same output as a full-wave rectifier is
that of the Bridge Rectifier (Fig. 1). This
type of single phase rectifier uses 4

Fig. 1: Full-wave Bridge
Rectifier

2014
individual rectifying diodes connected in
a "bridged" configuration to produce the
desired output but does not require
a special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing

its size and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of
the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown in figure.
The 4 diodes labeled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two
diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half
cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct inseries while diodes D3 and
D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below
(Fig. 2). During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4
conduct in series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch of as they are now reverse
biased. The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before.

Fig. 2: Working of Full-wave bridge rectifier

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage
developed across the load is also unidirectional during both the half cycles.
Thus, the average dc output voltage across the load resistor is double that of
a half-wave rectifier circuit, assuming no losses.

2014
V
dc

2Vmax
0.637V
max

Ripple factor:

As mentioned in the previous lab the ripple factor is a measure of
purity of the d.c. output of a rectifier and is defined as

V
ac
(output
) V
rms
2
V
dc
2
V
rms
2
0.707 2
r
V
dc
(output
)

1

0.63
7
1 0.48
V
dc
2

V
dc
2

In case of a full-wave rectifier Vrms = Vmax/2 = 0.707Vmax. The ripple
frequency is now twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz
supply).

2014
Rectification Efficiency:

Rectification efficiency, , is given by

d .c. power delivered to load a.c. power at input
V
dc
I
dc
V
ac
I
ac

V
d
c
2 R
L

0.637V
max

2

0.811
2

r
d

V
s
(r
d

R
L
)

2

r
d

0.707V
max
1

1

R
L
R
L
where rd is the forward resistance of diode. Under the assumption of
no diode loss (rd<<), the rectification efficiency in case of a full-wave
rectifier is approximately 81.1%, which is twice the value for a half-wave
rectifier.

Filter:

Smoothing
Capacitor

C Charges C Disharges

(Output
waveform
without
capacitor)

2014

(With capacitor)

Fig.3: Full-wave rectifier circuit with capacitor filter

The full-wave rectifier circuit with capacitor filter is shown in Fig. 3.
The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the
rectifier into a smooth dc output voltage. The detailed description of its
filtering action is already explained in half-wave rectifier handout. Two
important parameters to consider when choosing a suitable a capacitor are its
working voltage, which must be higher than the no-load output

value of the rectifier and its capacitance value, which determines the amount
of ripple that will appear superimposed on top of the dc voltage.

Apart from rectification efficiency, the main advantages of a full-
wave bridge rectifier is that it has a smaller ac ripple value for a given load
and a smaller smoothing capacitor than an equivalent half-wave rectifier.
The amount of ripple voltage that is superimposed on top of the dc supply
voltage by the diodes can be virtually eliminated by adding other improved
filters such as a pi-filter.

Circuit components/Equipments:

(i) A step-down transformer, (ii) 4 junction diodes, (iii) 3 Load resistors,
(iv) Capacitor, (v) Oscilloscope, (vi) Multimeters, (vii) Connecting
wires, (viii) Breadboard.

Circuit Diagram: (As shown in Fig. 1 and 3)

2014
Procedure:

i) Configure the full-wave rectifier circuit as shown in the circuit
diagram. Note down all the values of the components being used.
ii) Connect the primary side of the transformer to the a.c. Mains and
secondary to the input of the circuit.
iii) Measure the input a.c. voltage (Vac) and current (Iac) and the output
a.c. (Vac) and d.c. (Vdc) voltages using multimeter for at least 3
values of load resistor (Be careful to choose proper settings of
multimeter for ac and dc measurement).
iv) Feed the input and output to the oscilloscope (we will use oscilloscope
here only to trace the output waveform) and save the data for each
measurement. MEASURE THE INPUT AND OUTPUT VOLTAGES
SEPARATELY.
v) Multiply the Vac at the input by 2 to get the peak value and calculate
Vdc Using the formula Vdc = 2Vmax/ . Compare this value with the
measured Vdc at the output.

2014
vi) Calculate the ripple factor and efficiency.

vii) Connect the capacitor across the output for each load resistor.
Measure the output a.c. and d.c. voltages once again and calculate the
ripple factor. Trace the input and output waveforms in oscilloscope
and notice the change. (If time permits you could also use different
values of capacitors and study the output)

Observations:

1. Code number of diode = ________

2. Input Voltage: Vac = _________ Volt

Table(I): Full-wave rectifier w/o filter

Sl. No Load Input Output Voltage Ripple Efficiency

RL (k) Current

Factor
(Vdc
2
/RL)/VacI
ac

Vac Vdc 2Vmax/
Iac (mA) (Volt) (Volt) (Volt) r (%)

1

2

3

2014
Table(II): Full-wave rectifier with filter (C = ____ F)

No Load Output Voltage Ripple Factor

RL (k)

r

Vac (Volt) Vdc (Volt)

1

2

3

2014

Experiment 6

Transistors as amplifiers and switches

Our final topic of the term is an introduction to the transistor as a discrete
circuit element. Since an integrated circuit is constructed primarily from dozens
to even millions of transistors formed from a single, thin silicon crystal, it might
be interesting and instructive to spend a bit of time building some simple
circuits directly from these fascinating devices.

We start with an elementary description of how a particular type of
transistor, the bipolar junction transistor (or BJT) works. Although nearly
all modern digital ICs use a completely different type of transistor, the
metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET), most of the
transistors in even modern analog ICs are still BJTs. With a basic
understanding of the BJT in hand, we design simple amplifiers
using this device. We spend a bit of time studying how to properly bias the
transistor and how to calculate an amplifiers gain and input and output
impedances.

Following our study of amplifiers, we turn to the use of the BJT as a switch, a
fundamental element of a digital logic circuit. Single transistor switches are
useful as a way to adapt a relatively low-power op-amp output in order to
switch a high-current or high-voltage device on and off. These switches are also
very useful to translate the output of an op-amp comparator to the proper 1 and
0 voltage levels of a digital logic circuit input. This discussion culminates with
the introduction of the LM311 comparator IC, a device whose output already
incorporates a BJT switch for just such a purpose.
Tansistor as an amplifier-

Consider the circuit fragment shown at right, which includes an NPN transistor
connected between two power supply rails V
CC
and V
EE
(with, naturally, V
CC

>V
EE
). Assume that some method has been used to bias the transistors base
terminal at the voltage V
B
>V
EE
so that the

V
E
E

2014

ways of biasing the transistor in a subsequent section). What we want to
determine are the relationships between the various voltages and currents, the
resistor values R
C
and R
E
, and the transistors .

We start the analysis by connecting the base and emitter voltages using the forward-
bias diode drop
V
BE
0.6V across the base-emitter PN junction. As we know from our previous
study of the semiconductor diode, this voltage will be a very weak function of the
base current I
B
, so we will use the working assumption that it is a fixed, constant
value. Consequently, if we know V
B
, then we also know V
E
, and vice versa.
Given V
E
, we now know the voltage drop across the resistor R
E
, so we also know
the current through it: I
E
= (V
E
V
EE
) R
E
.
Knowing I
E
and the transistors current gain immediately tells us the other two
transistor currents I
B
and I
C
, since the currents are related through as shown in
Figure 6-3. The value of R
C
then gives us the collector voltage V
C
, since I
C
=
(V
CC
V
C
) R
C
. Thus we have succeeded in relating the circuits state variables
(currents and voltages), as we set out to do. Note that there are some conditions
that must be met for our solution to be realistic: all the currents must flow in the
directions shown by the arrows in Figure 6-3, and it must be the case that V
EE
<
V
E
< V
B
V
C
<V
CC
. If one or more of these conditions is violated by our
solution, then our solution fails, and the transistor circuit is operating as a switch
rather than as an amplifier (well discuss transistor switch circuits in the next
section).
Now consider how V
E
and V
C
are affected by a small change dV
B
in the
transistors base voltage. If the solution we have found is perturbed by changing
the transistor base bias voltage from V
B
to V
B
+ dV
B
, then the emitter voltage will
change by the same amount, since

we assume that V
BE
is constant. Thus dV
E
= dV
B
, and the small-signal voltage gain
of the circuit in Figure 6-3 from the base to the emitter of the transistor is:

6. Emitter follower voltage gain: G dV
E
dV
B
=1

A transistor amplifier circuit used in this way is called an emitter follower,
analogous to the op-amp voltage follower circuit, since the voltage gain of the
circuit is 1.
The change dV
E
in the emitter voltage will change the emitter current as well
because the voltage drop across R
E
has changed, so dI
E
= dV
E
R
E
; this changes
the collector current to dI
C
= dI
E
(1 + 1 ) dI
E
, because 1 (the quantity dI
C
dI
E
= 1 (1 +1 ) is sometimes referred to as the transistors ; clearly for a good
transistor 1). Finally, dI
C
changes the voltage drop across R
C
; since the power

2014
supply voltage V
CC
is constant, the change in voltage drop across R
C
will change
the collector voltage by R
C
dI
C
, and the voltage gain of the circuit from the base
to the collector of the transistor is:

6.2 Common-emitter voltage gain (1): G dV
C
dV
B
= R
C
R
E

This output configuration of the circuit in Figure 6-3 is called a common-emitter
amplifier, an inverting amplifier whose gain formula resembles that of the op-
amp inverting amplifier circuit. Note that just as in the case of the op-amp
circuit, the ideal gain formula in (6.2) obtains as the transistor gain .

Next let us consider the input and output impedances of the transistor amplifier
circuit fragment of Figure 6-3. The input impedance presented by the base
terminal of the transistor is quite straightforward given the previous
calculations. Since Z
in
= dV
B
dI
B
, dV
E
= dV
B
, and ( + 1) dI
B
= dI
E
= dV
E
R
E
, we immediately see that the base input impedance is:
6.3 Base terminal input impedance: Z
in
= ( + 1) R
E
R
E

The output impedance at the terminal labeled V
C
in Figure 6-3 is likewise easy
to determine if we assume that the transistors is independent the collector-
emitter voltage difference V
CE
(in other words, if we assume that the
characteristic curves shown in Figure 6-2 are flat and horizontal, as they very
nearly are in that figure). In this case, since Z
out
= dV
C
dI
out
(where I
out
is the
change in the current drawn from the output terminal by some attached load),
changing the load current cannot affect the current flow into the transistors
collector, because that current is determined solely by I
B
. Thus any change in
output current must pass through the collector resistor R
C
, which therefore
must be the circuits output impedance (if the assumption regarding the
characteristic curves is relaxed, then the reciprocal of the slope of the
appropriate curve defines the collectors dynamic output impedance, and this
impedance must be combined in parallel with R
C
, slightly lowering the circuits
output impedance).

Finally, the emitter-follower output impedance at the terminal labeled V
E
in
Figure 6-3 must
be determined: Z
out
= dV
E
dI
out
. In this case, since dV
E
= dV
B
, a change in
the emitter voltage will cause a corresponding change in the base voltage,
which may in turn change the
base bias current, I
B
. Assume that the source of the bias for the transistor base

Common-emitter output impedance: Z
out
= R
C

2014
has output impedance Z
S
(the resistor shown in the base terminal circuit of
Figure 6-3 between it and the constant bias voltage source V). The relationship
between the base terminal current and voltage would then satisfy: Z
S
= dV
B
dI
B
, so that the current out of the transistors emitter would change as: dI
E
= (
+ 1) dI
B
= ( +1)dV
E
Z
S
. But this is not the whole story dV
E

will change the current through R
E

by dV
E

R
E
. Using Kirchhoffs current law, the
sum of
the change in current through
R
E

and at the output terminal dI
out
must equal the
change in
current supplied by the emitter of the transistor,
so:
dV

+1
= dI

1

dV
E

1

1
1

+ dV

= +

o
ut

E
Z
S

E

dI
out
R
E

Z
S

(
+1)

R
E
So the emitter followers output impedance is the parallel combination of the
circuits
embedding impedance seen by the transistors base divided
by
( + 1) and R
E
,
a
combination which could result in a reasonably small output impedance:

1

1

6.5 Emitter follower output impedance:

Zout = +

Z
S

R
E

Ways to design practical transistor amplifier circuits are discussed in a later
section.

High gain amplifiers: the dynamic emitter resistance r
e

It seems from equation 6.2 that the common-emitter amplifier gain could be
made arbitrarily large by reducing the emitter circuit resistor value R
E
to zero
(Figure 6-3). Of course, this turns out to be incorrect. One of the assumptions
leading to (6.2) is that the base-emitter diode forward voltage drop V
BE
is
constant (independent of the transistor currents); this is, of course, inaccurate
because it is an increase in V
BE
applied to the base-emitter PN junction which
drives an increase in the current through it. Returning to Experiment 3, page 3-
32, it explained how the diode equation relates the voltage and current through
a PN junction:

I
E
= I
0
(e
qe

VBE k B T
1)

2014
We use the emitter current I
E
in this equation because that quantity represents
the total current through the base-emitter PN junction. The characteristic current
I
0
10
10
mA ; at room temperature and with V
BE
0.6V , the exponential term is e
24
>10
10
, which is ridiculously larger than 1, so the 1 term in (6.6) may be
very safely ignored! Thus the dynamic emitter resistance, r
e
dV
BE
dI
E
, near
room temperature is:

Dynamic emitter resistance (300K):
r
=

dV
BE
=

k
B
T
=
26

e
dI
E

q
e
I
E

I
E
mA

So
if the emitter current is, for example,
2mA, then r
e
=13 . The
dynamic
emitter
resistance may be thought of as a small resistor added in series with the emitter
terminal just inside the transistor so that the junction V
BE
can still be treated as a
constant actual small variations in its value connected with changes in I
E
are
accounted for by a varying voltage drop across r
e
. Consequently, the common-
emitter amplifier gain when R
E
= 0 is:
Common-emitter voltage gain limit (R
E
= 0): G dV
C
dV
B
= R
C
r
e

An example of a high-gain common-emitter circuit will be presented later.

The transistor as a switch
If you apply a fairly large current to a
transistors base (a few mA, say), then I
C
=
I
B
could be quite large. Consider the circuit
in Figure 6-4, for example. The transistors
base-emitter junction is clearly forward-
biased by the +5V V
in
source; with V
BE

0.7V , the base current would be

V
CC
=
+5V

R
C
=1k
V
C

R
B
= 4.3k

I
B
= (5V 0.7V) 4.3k =1mA
V
in
= +5V

If the transistor 150 , then we would expect
a

collector current of I
C
150mA . But the
collector
power supply (V
CC
) is only +5V, so with R
C

=1k
the most current that could possibly flow into
the Figure 6-4: An NPN
switch circuit.

collector is 5V 1k = 5mA . In this case the
tran-

2014
sistor will be driven into saturation by the large base current, and it will reduce
its collector-emitter voltage drop (V
CE
) to a fraction of a volt as the collector
current is maximized (given the constraints imposed by V
CC
and R
C
). The
transistors operating state in this case is represented by the very right edge of
the graph of the characteristic curves in Figure 6-2 on page 6-4; this region has
been expanded in Figure 6-5. Note how a relatively small base current can drive
this particular transistors collector-emitter voltage drop to a very small value if
the collector current is limited by external components to much less than I
B
.

2014

EXPERIMENT: 9

AIM: To study and verify the truth table of logic gates

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
1. Identify various ICs and their specification.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Logic gates (IC) trainer kit.
Connecting patch chords.
IC 7400, IC 7408, IC 7432, IC 7406, IC 7402, IC 7404, IC 7486

THEORY:
The basic logic gates are the building blocks of more complex logic circuits. These
logic gates perform the basic Boolean functions, such as AND, OR, NAND, NOR,
Inversion, Exclusive-OR, Exclusive-NOR. Fig. below shows the circuit symbol,
Boolean function, and truth. It is seen from the Fig that each gate has one or two binary
inputs, A and B, and one binary output, C. The small circle on the output of the circuit
symbols designates the logic complement. The AND, OR, NAND, and NOR gates can
be extended to have more than two inputs. A gate can be extended to have multiple
inputs if the binary operation it represents is commutative and associative.

These basic logic gates are implemented as small-scale integrated circuits (SSICs) or as
part of more complex medium scale (MSI) or very large-scale (VLSI) integrated
circuits. Digital IC gates are classified not only by their logic operation, but also the
specific logic-circuit family to which they belong. Each logic family has its own basic
electronic circuit upon which more complex digital circuits and functions are
developed. The following logic families are the most frequently used.

TTL Transistor-transistor logic
ECL Emitter-coupled logic
MOS Metal-oxide semiconductor
CMOS Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor

TTL and ECL are based upon bipolar transistors. TTL has a well established popularity
among logic families. ECL is used only in systems requiring high-speed operation.
MOS and CMOS, are based on field effect transistors. They are widely used in large
scale integrated circuits because of their high component density and relatively low
power consumption. CMOS logic consumes far less power than MOS logic. There are
various commercial

2014

integrated circuit chips available. TTL ICs are usually distinguished by numerical
designation as the 5400 and 7400 series.

PROCEDURE:
1. Check the components for their working.
2. Insert the appropriate IC into the IC base.
3. Make connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
4. Provide the input data via the input switches and observe the output on output LEDs

2014

Experiment :

Object:-

Study of constructional features of D.C. machines.

Apparatus Required:-

D.C. Machines model.

Theory:-

A d.c. machine is an Electro-Mechanical energy conversion device .
It can convert mechanical power into d.c. electrical power and is
known as a d.c. generator. On the other hand, when it converts d.c.
electrical power into mechanical power it is known as d.c. motor.

Contructional Details:-

There are two main parts of a d.c. machine:-

(A) Field System: -

Electromagnetic Poles

Yoke

i) Field Winding

(B) Armature: -

6) Armature Core

7) Armature Winding

8) Commutator

(1) Magnetic Frame or Yoke :-

The outer cylindrical frame to which main poles and inter poles are
fixed and by means of which the machine is fixed to the foundation

2014
is called the Yoke. It serves two purposes:

6) It provides mechanical protection to the inner parts of the

machine.

5. It provides a low reluctance path for the magnetic flux.

The yoke is made of cast iron for smaller machines and larger
machines; it is made up of cast steel.

(2) Pole core and Pole shoes:-

The pole core and pole shoes are fixed to the magnetic frame or yoke
by bolts. They serve the following purpose:

5. They support the field or exciting coils.

6. They spread out the magnetic flux over the armature
periphery more uniformly.
7. Since pole shoes have large X-section , the reluctance of
magnetic path is reduced.

Usually, the pole core and pole shoes are made of thin cast steel.

(3) Field or Exciting coils:-

Anamelled copper wire is used for the construction of field or exciting
coils. The coils are wound on the former and then placed around the
pole core. When direct current is passed through the field winding, it
magnetizes the poles which produce the require flux. The field coils of
all the poles are connected in series in such a way that when current
flows through them, the adjacent poles attain opposite polarity.

(4) Armature core:-

It is cylindrical in shape and keyed to the rotating shaft. At the outer

2014
periphery slots are cut, which accommodate the armature winding. The
armature core serves the following purpose:

(ii) It houses the conductors in the slots. It provides an easy path
for magnetic flux.

Since armature is a rotating part of the machine, reversal of flux takes
place in the core, hence hysterisis losses are produced . To minimize
these losses silicon steel material is used for its construction. The
rotating armature cuts across the magnetic field which induces an e.m.f.
in it. The e.m.f circulates eddy currents which results in eddy current
losses in it. To reduce these losses armature core is laminated , in other
word we can say that about 0.3 to 0.5 mm thick stampings are used for
its construction. Each lamination or stamping is insulated from the
outer by varnish layer.

(5) Armature Winding:- The insulated conductors housed in the armature

slots are suitably connected. This is known as armature winding. The
armature winding is the heart of d.c. machine. It is a place where

conversion of power takes place i.e. in case of generator, mechanical
power is converted into electrical power and in case of motor, electrical
power is converted into mechanical power. On the basis of connections,
there are two types of armature winding names as:-

(a) Lap Winding (b) Wave Winding.

(5) Commutator:-

It is the most important part of d.c. machine and serves the following
purposes:-

(i) It connects the rotating armature conductors to the stationary
external circuit through brushes.

2014
vi) It convert the alternating current induced in the armature
conductor into unidirectional current in the external load circuit
in generator action whereas, it converts the alternating torque
into unidirectional torque produced in the armature motor action.

The commutator is of cylindrical shape and is made up of wedge-
shaped hard drawn copper segments. The segments are insulated from
each other by a thin sheet of mice. The segments are held together by
means of 2 V-shaped rings that fit into the V-grooves cut into the
segments. Each armature coil is connected to the commutator segment
through riser.

viii) Brushes:-

The brushes are pressed upon the commutator and from the
connecting link between the armature winding and the external
circuit. They are usually made of high grade carbon because carbon is
conducting material and the same time in powdered form provides
lubricating effect on the commutator surface. The brushes are held in
particular position around the commutator by brush holders.

ix) End housings:-

End housings are attached to the ends of the main frame and support
bearings. The front housing supports the bearing and the brush
assemblies whereas the rear housing usually supports the bearing
only.

x) Bearings:-

The ball or roller bearings are fitted in the end housings. The function
of the bearings is to reduce friction between the rotating and
stationary parts of the machine. Mostly high carbon steel is used for
the construction of bearings as it is very hard material.

2014

xi) Shaft :-

The shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking strength.
The shaft is used to transfer mechanical power from or to the
machine. The rotating parts like armature core, commutator, cooling
fan etc. are keyed to the shaft.
2014

2014

Experiment :

AIM:
To verify (i) kirchoffs current law (ii) kirchoffs voltage law

THEORY:

Kirchoffs current law:
The algebraic sum of the currents entering in any node is Zero.

The law represents the mathematical statement of the fact change cannot
accumulate at a node. A node is not a circuit element and it certainly cannot
store destroy (or) generate charge. Hence the current must sum to zero. A
hydraulic analog sum is zero. For example consider three water pipes joined
pn the shape of Y. we defined free currents as following into each of 3
pipes. If we insists that what is always

PROCEDURE:

7. Vary the regulated supply.
8. Measure the current using ammeter.
9. Note the readings in the tabulation.

ii) KIRCHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW:

THEORY:

(i) kirchoffs voltage law

The algebraic sum of the voltage around any closed path is zero.

PROCEDURE:

(i) KIRCHOFFS CURRENT LAW:
APPARATUS REQUIRED: NET-08

2014
4. Measure the voltage using voltmeter.

ii) KIRCHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW:

THEORY:

(ii) kirchoffs voltage law

The algebraic sum of the voltage around any closed path is zero.

PROCEDURE:

4. Measure the voltage using voltmeter.

1. krichoffs current law:

Kirchoff`s current law

3.3k

5V 4.7 K

2014

Practical measurement:

(0-20)mA
(0-
10)mA
+
A
-
+
A
-

4.7 K
5V
+

A (0-10)mA
-

Tabulation:

Voltage Total current I
1
(mA) I
2
(mA)
I(mA)

Krichoffs voltage law:

Kirchoff`s voltage law

2.7k

V1 V2
V
3

5V

2014
\
Practical measurement:

Practical measurement

2.7k

+
V
- +
V
- +
V
-
5V
(0-5)V (0-5)V
(0-
5)V

Tabulation:

Voltage V1 V2 V3
(V) (volts) (volts) (volts)

Calculation:

RESULT: Thus the kirchoffs current law and voltage law were verified.

2014

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