INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS PUBLISHING JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICS AND ENGINEERING

J. Geophys. Eng. 3 (2006) 114121 doi:10.1088/1742-2132/3/2/002

Exploration of a geothermal reservoir
using geoelectrical resistivity inversion:
case study at Hammam Mousa, Sinai,
Egypt
Gad El-Qady
National Research Institute of Astronomy and Geophysics (NRIAG), 11722 Helwan, Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: gadosan@yahoo.com
Received 13 September 2005
Accepted for publication 21 February 2006
Published 21 March 2006
Online at stacks.iop.org/JGE/3/114
Abstract
Geoelectrical resistivity is a pioneer geophysical technique used in geothermal exploration.
With the advent of computing technology, it has become convenient to apply sophisticated
data analysis and inversion to geoelectrical resistivity eld data. In this work, a geoelectrical
resistivity survey was conducted in the Hammam Mousa area to explore the geothermal
resources and groundwater aquifer. The survey comprises 19 vertical electrical soundings
(VES) using the well-known Schlumberger array with AB/2 up to 1000 m. Interpretation of
one-dimensional (1D) inversion gave a layered-earth resistivity model using a nonlinear
least-squares method. However, some resistivity sections of the 1D inversion were not fully
resolved for the complicated geologic structure. Therefore, we carried out a two-dimensional
(2D) inversion based on the ABIC least-squares method for the same data set. The general
distribution of resistivity shows a very low value near Hammam Mousa Hot Spring. The 2D
resistivity cross section clearly elaborates the subsurface structure in the spring area and it
elucidates and gives an explanation for the hot water source in the area. It is concluded that the
hydrothermal system in the Hammam Mousa area is adequately delineated from the 1D and
2D inversions of vertical electric sounding data using a Schlumberger electrode array.
Accordingly, a proposal for geothermal drilling in the study area is recommended.
Keywords: geothermal, resistivity, 2D inversion, Hammam Mousa, Sinai
1. Introduction
Geophysical, mainly geoelectrical, methods are frequently
employed in exploration for geothermal resources.
Geoelectrical methods, in particular, have been employed
in the study of most geothermal elds. Reviews as well as
some characteristic examples are discussed by Thanassoulas
(1991). High temperatures and hot thermal uid circulation
in geothermal systems have a severe impact on the electrical
properties of geologic formations encountered in the areas.
The use of these methods is justied from the fact that the
electrical conductivity of ionic conductors greatly increases
with temperature. The conductivity of the host rock of
the geothermal eld increases due to wall-rock alteration
and hydrothermal mineral deposition in fracture zones. On
the other hand, thermoelectric and electrokinetic coupling
mechanisms generate self-potential anomalies of several tens
of millivolts over geothermal uid ow paths (fracture zones
in the basement rock). A large decrease in resistivity of the
rocks is observed due to saline hot waters that circulate in the
permeable paths. Consequently, geothermal and geoelectrical
methods are probably the most useful and widely used
in geothermal research. Several case studies for locating
geothermal aquifers using dc resistivity are discussed, for
example Flovenz and Georgsson (1982), Thanassoulas et al
(1987), Majumdar et al (2000) and El-Qady et al (2000).
1742-2132/06/020114+08$30.00 2006 Nanjing Institute of Geophysical Prospecting Printed in the UK 114
Geothermal exploration using resistivity, Egypt
G
u
l
f
o
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S
u
e
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Port
Gebel Hammam
Saydena Mousa
El-Tor
City
T
o
S
u
e
z
T
o
S
h
a
r
m
S
h
e
i
k
h
1
3
4
5
6
7
2
8
9
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
0 1 Km
1
VES No.1
Hot spring
241
(40)
(40)
(30)
(30)
(
3
0
)
(20)
(20)
(
2
0
)
(10)
(10)
(10)
28
15`
33 35`
33 35`
28
15`
Topography
32 34
28
30 30
32
Cairo Sinai
Med.
Sea
Red
Sea
G
u
l
f
o
f
S
u
e
z
30 32
34
10
VESs stations in N-S spread direction.
VESs stations in E-W spread direction.
Shallow borehole
Figure 1. Location map for the study area, VES stations and surroundings. Topographic contours in metres.
The Sinai Peninsula is both a bridge and barrier between
the Asian and African continents. The traditional Sinai
economy, based on shing and trading in small coastal towns
and nomadic herding by the Bedouin of the interior, is in
profound change. Recently, new projects to settle the Bedouin
have begun, and development is transforming several coastal
areas. Tectonically, the Sinai area is considered as an unstable
shelf due to frequent earthquake activity and its geologic
setting, which is controlled by tectonic activity at the Red
Sea, Gulf of Suez and Gulf of Aqaba (Said 1962). This
tectonic activity has been accompanied by thermal activity
represented by a cluster of thermal surface manifestations
along the eastern shore of the Gulf of Suez. Among these
thermal manifestations, Hammam Mousa (Mosess Bath) is
one of the best known hot springs along the Gulf of Suez, at
El-Tor City, the capital of south Sinai (gure 1).
Consequently, the main goal of this study is to investigate
the geothermal eld and groundwater aquifer at Hammam
Mousa Hot Spring using a geoelectrical resistivity survey. In
this study, we have carried out one-dimensional (1D) and two-
dimensional (2D) inversion based on the least-squares method
for a Schlumberger VES data set measured in the Hammam
Mousa area.
2. Geologic context
The geology of the Sinai Peninsula is complicated and
represents almost all of geologic time. Many authors have
studied the geology of Sinai (for example, Said 1962, 1990,
Hume 1912, 1965, Omara 1956, 1965, Ghorab and Marzouk
1967, Beadnell 1927). The Hammam Mousa area is located
on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Suez (gure 1). The surface
area near the hot spring is composed of sabkha deposits.
Far to the east, alluvial deposits dominate and occupy the
surface of the El-Qaa plain. Figure 2 shows the surface
geology of the study area and its surroundings. The subsurface
geologic section is represented by Cretaceous (Campanian to
Cenomanian) up to Miocene rocks (Said 1962). During the
Early Cretaceous, the study area was a shallow sea, and sandy
sediment of the Nubian facies is represented. This is overlain
by Cenomanian beds, which are brownish and varicoloured
marls, with a clastic content of sand and shale (Kostandi 1959,
Said 1961). Above the Cenomanian beds rest lower Turonian
beds represented by the Rudayes Formation of soft marl and
shale (Beadnell 1927). Lower Eocene beds of limestone with
int and marls of Thebes formation rest with unconformity
above the Rudayes Formation. This is followed by the Esna
Formation of the upper Paleocene. The Esna Formation is
composed of laminated green and grey shale (Said 1962).
At the top, Quaternary sediments are represented by clastics
known as the El-Tor Group. They consist mainly of gravel,
sand, clay and silt.
During the early Tertiary Period (Oligocene to Miocene),
at the opening of the Red Sea Rift, some volcanic activity
took place. In western and central Sinai, there are many
basaltic bodies mostly of doleritic dykes, sills, plugs and ows
(Meneisy 1990). Also, to this episode of deformation belongs
the great syncline area of the El-Qaa Plain that lies to the east
115
G El-Qady
Figure 2. Geologic map for the study area and its surroundings (modied after Geological Survey of Egypt 1994).
of our study area. Similarly, a series of anticlines and synclines
lies on both sides of the Gulf of Suez. The major structural
features are well-dened NNWtrending fault blocks, which tilt
strongly eastward on their west side (El-Shinnawi and Sultan
1973, Said 1962).
3. Geothermal regime
At a distance of 100 km from Sharm El-Sheikh, Mosess
Bath (Hammam Mousa) is just 3 km from the centre of
El Tor City. Basically, it has ve springs categorized into
two groups. The rst group issues into a bathhouse with
a temperature of 33

C, and the second, nearby, ows into
a trench with a temperature of 31

C. For a long time,
the springs water has been considered highly effective in
treating skin diseases and healing wounds especially resulting
from diabetes. Additionally, it helps in reducing tension and
increasing relaxation; so it has been used for tourist purposes
for many years.
Compositionally, the Hammam Mousa thermal waters
seem to be TiberiasFaraun waters that dissolved additional
salts from the Neogene rocks, being enriched in SO
4
and
HCO
3
along with Mg and Ca. The relative abundances of
the dissolved ions in the water of the two spring groups are
almost identical, the bathhouse springs being a little saltier
(Mazor et al 1973, Sturchio et al 1996).
The heat source for these springs is probably derived
from high heat ow and deep circulation controlled by faults
associated with the opening of the Red Sea and Gulf of Suez
Rifts. The springs water is presumably a mixture of brine and
water contained in the Nubian sandstone aquifer that inltrated
outcrops on the highland of Sinai and emerged along the fault
lines bordering the Sinai Peninsula. However, the springs issue
from Neogene rocks (Magaritz and Issar 1973).
4. Geophysical exploration
The geophysical survey described in this work was carried
out by dc resistivity sounding using a Schlumberger array.
Nineteen VES stations were measured (gure 1) using an
electrode spacing starting from AB/2 = 2 up to 1000 m, in
successive steps. The VES sites were chosen according to the
accessibility and applicability of the Schlumberger method.
With (2D) processing in mind, the Schlumberger line was
oriented parallel to the prole direction. Apparent resistivity
slice maps at different AB/2 values are illustrated in gure 3.
The apparent resistivity has relatively high values in the
shallow parts (AB/2 = 4 and 20 metres respectively) as well
as in deeper parts (AB/2 = 1000 m). This can be due to the
effect of a surface layer of gravel at the top and the geoelectrical
basement below. Relatively low resistivity values characterize
the central and southwestern parts of the study area. This can
be due to either the effect of geothermal water circulation or
the effect of seawater intrusion into the area. The eld curves
of all the stations have been inverted one-dimensionally, as
will be explained in the following section.
116
Geothermal exploration using resistivity, Egypt
1
1
1 2
1 3
1 4
1 5
1 6
1 7
1 8
1 9
1 1
0
1 1
1
1 1
2
1 1
3
1 1
4
1
1
1
1 2
1 3
1 4
1 5
1 6
1 7
1 8
1 9
1 1
0
1 1
1
1 1
2
1 1
3
1 1
4
1
1
1
1 2
1 3
1 4
1 5
1 6
1 7
1 8
1 9
1 1
0
1 1
1
1 1
2
1 1
3
1 1
4
1
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e)
( f )
Figure 3. Horizontal slice maps of apparent resistivity ( m) at different AB/2. AB/2 = 4, 20, 120, 400, 800 and 1000, for images (a)
through ( f ), respectively.
4.1. One-dimensional interpretation
A 1D interpretation using the least-squares method has
been conducted (Zohdy 1989). A general overview of the
interpreted VES curves reveals that the number of interpreted
layers varies from ve to eight layers through the study area.
The true resistivity of these layers varies from 2.0 to 500 m,
while the thickness varies from 0.9 to 177 m. Figure 4(a)
illustrates a correlation between the 1D interpretation of
VES 9 and a lithologic column for a shallow borehole nearby.
The true resistivity starts relatively higher due to the surface
clastics layer and erosion effects. Then, it decreases gradually
for the 2nd, 3rd and 4th layers, emphasizing the effect of
groundwater in the shallow water-bearing layer at a depth
of 35 m. Figure 4(b) shows the apparent resistivity and the
calculated 1D model for VES 17. The calculated 1D model
correlates well with the observed curve. However, at the end
of the curve (at large offsets) the curve starts to deviate, as far
as the depth increase. This deviation can be due to the effect of
deep-seated three-dimensional (3D) structure. Although the
deduced information fromthe 1Dinterpretation was correlated
with the geologic studies and surface thermal manifestations,
it is still not fully understood for the 3D geologic structure. To
get a realistic solution, we have applied 2D inversion for the
same data set, as discussed in the following section.
4.2. Two-dimensional interpretation
In this work, we present a 2D inversion for the same data set
using Uchidas algorithm(El-Qady et al 1999). This algorithm
is based on the ABIC (Akaike Bayesian information criterion)
to converge to optimum smoothness using a nite element
calculation mesh (Akaike 1980). The algorithm considers a
2DEarth model, whose resistivity varies along the x and z axes
while it does not change along the y axis. In as much as the
current is injected at a point on the surface, however, it ows
three-dimensionally in the Earth; the response in a 2D Earth
is given by Poissons equation as
[(x, z)V(x, y, z)] = I (x, y, z), (1)
where (x, z) is the conductivity, V(x, y, z) is the electric
potential, and I (x, y, z) represents the source current intensity.
By applying the Fourier transform to equation (1) with respect
117
G El-Qady
(b)
(a)
Figure 4. Correlation of VES interpretation with the borehole
information. (a) Inverted 1D model of VES 9 with the lithologic
log. (b) Apparent and calculated 1D resistivity model of VES 17.
to the y coordinate, we obtain
[(x, z)

V (x, k
y
, z)] + k
2
y
(x, z)

V(x, k
y
, z)
=

I(x, k
y
, z), (2)
where is the Fourier transform and k
y
is the Fourier transform
variable. Then, applying the inverse Fourier transform,
V (x, 0, z) = (1/)

V(x, k
y
, z) dk
y
, (3)
and the apparent resistivity for Schlumberger can be calculated
as

a
=
GV
I
, (4)
where G is a geometrical factor that depends on the electrode
arrangement and their spacing, and V is the calculated
potential difference between the receiving electrodes Mand N.
A detailed explanation of the nite-element discretization of
equation (2) is given in Sasaki (1981). Further details about the
algorithm and convergence criteria can be found in El-Qady
et al (1999).
0 2 4 6 8
Iterations
0
1
2
3
4
Line-1
RMS
Alfa
0 2 4 6 8
Iterations
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
2
Line-3
RMS
Alfa
0 2 4 6 8
Iterations
0
1
2
3
4
Line- 6
RMS
Alfa
0 2 4 6 8
Iterations
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
2
Line- 7
RMS
Alfa
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 5. The RMS and Alpha as a function of iteration numbers
for some selected proles.
4.2.1. Inversion results. For the least-squares inversion with
smoothness regularization, we seek a model that minimizes
both the data mist and model roughness. From a statistical
point of view, ABIC works as an index to determine the
maximum likelihood of the model. This means that a smaller
ABIC indicates a larger likelihood and higher entropy, hence
gives a best-t model. This also means that the optimum
smoothness is judged by minimizing ABIC, which makes
the convergence; however, the selection of the optimum
smoothness is objective.
Figure 5 shows the RMS mist and the smoothing factor
() as a function of the iteration number for some proles. In
gure 5(a), for line 1, the RMS clearly attains a minimumafter
the second iteration, while the smoothing factor () attains it at
the third iteration. For line 3, attains a minimum at the fth
iteration (gure 5(b)), and it does so at the third iteration for
line 6 (gure 5(c)), and fth iteration for line 7 (gure 5(d)).
In addition, to establish the degree of tting for each
sounding, the measured eld resistivity curves have been
correlated with the calculated model response. Figure 6 shows
the correlation between the observed data and the calculated
response from a 2D inversion for the same station. Generally,
for most VES data, the tting is acceptable, whereas there is a
mist at small and large offsets of the curve. This may result
from the effects of the arid conditions at the surface and from
deep-seated 3D structures, respectively. Figure 6(a) illustrates
the correlation of the calculated curve for VES 7 from the
2D inversion of the same VES on two different proles. The
difference is due to the inversion conditions for each prole
118
Geothermal exploration using resistivity, Egypt
1 10 100 1000
Distance (m)
10
100
1000
R
e
s
i
s
t
i
v
i
t
y

(
o
h
m
.
m
)
VES 12
Obs
Cal
1 10 100 1000
Distance (m)
10
100
R
e
s
i
s
t
i
v
i
t
y

(
o
h
m
.
m
)
VES 10
Obs
Cal
1 10 100 1000
Distance (m)
1
10
100
R
e
s
i
s
t
i
v
i
t
y

(
o
h
m
.
m
)
VES 8
Obs
Cal
1 10 100 1000
Distance (m)
1
10
100
R
e
s
i
s
t
i
v
i
t
y

(
o
h
m
.
m
)
VES7
OBS/5
Cal/5
Obs/7
Cal/7
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 6. Correlation between the observed data and the calculated response of 2D inversion for some stations.
1
1.34
1.795
2.404
3.221
4.314
5.78
7.743
10.37
13.89
18.61
24.94
33.4
44.75
59.95
80.31
100
ohm.m
VES 1 VES 3
NW
Scale
0 0.5
1km
VES 4
VES 5
SE
Hot spring
-300
-200
-100
0
D
e
p
t
h
(
m
)
Figure 7. 2D geoelectrical cross section along line 1.
as well as neighbouring stations along the prole. Even so,
both curves have a good correlation with each other and to the
observed curve. Accordingly, the best model for each prole
is obtained and then displayed in 2D cross section form. This
will be explained in the following section.
1
1.484
2.202
3.267
4.847
7.191
10.67
15.83
23.49
34.86
51.72
76.74
113.9
168.9
250.7
371.9
500
ohm.m
N
Scale
0 0.5
1km
S
VES 15 VES 13
VES 16
VES 18
-300
-200
-100
0
D
e
p
t
h
(
m
)
Figure 8. 2D geoelectrical cross section along line 8.
4.2.2. 2D cross section. According to the results obtained
through the inversion process, we could construct the 2D
geoelectrical cross section for each prole. The cross section
represents the model of iteration that minimizes ABIC and
gets convergence. Figure 7 shows the 2D cross section of the
119
G El-Qady
-
3
0
0
-
2
0
0
-
1
0
0
0
D
e
p
t
h
(
m
)-
3
0
0
-
2
0
0
-
1
0
0
0
D
e
p
t
h
(
m
)
1
1.484
2.202
3.267
4.847
7.191
10.67
15.83
23.49
34.86
51.72
76.74
113.9
168.9
250.7
371.9
500
(ohm.m)
To Sharm Shiekh
To Suez
-
3
0
0
-
2
0
0
-
1
0
0
0
D
e
p
t
h
(
m
)
NW
SE
VES 19
VES 18
VES 16
VES 14
VES 17
VES 13
VES 15
VES 12
VES 11
VES 10
VES 9
VES 8
VES 7
VES 6
VES 2
V
E
S
1
V
E
S
3
S
c
a
l
e
0
0
.5
1
k
m
V
E
S
4
V
E
S
5
H
o
t
s
p
r
in
g
-
3
0
0
-
2
0
0
-
1
0
0
0
D
e
p
t
h
(
m
)
Figure 9. Integrated 2D geoelectrical cross sections for the Hammam Mousa Hot Spring area.
inverted model after the fth iteration for line 1. The initial
model is assumed to be a 30 m homogeneous Earth, and the
topography is incorporated into the modelling. The number of
the observed data sets used for the inversion is 140, while the
number of resistivity blocks is 66. The general feature of this
inverted section is a quite thick (up to 90 m) low resistive body
in the northwestern part of the prole (VES 1). That might be
correlated with the effect of the thermal water circulation in
this place, where it issues on the surface at the hot spring. This
low-resistivity layer extends along the shallower part of the
section, but with smaller thickness. This layer, which can be
correlated with the surface sabkha deposits, meanwhile may
reect seawater intrusion in the area.
Figure 8 illustrates the 2D cross section along line 4.
This line extends NS across the area, and it showed more
interesting geoelectrical features. There is relatively high
resistivity in the shallow part of the section at VES 13. This
high resistivity might be due to the surface clastic deposits
of the El-Tor Group that dominate in that area. At VES 18,
relatively low resistivity values exist. This could be due to the
presence of clay and silt deposits in this part. The presence
of different geoelectrical layers of variable resistivity values
is mainly governed by the variation of lithology composed of
alternations of sand, silt and clay of the El-Tor Group and the
Paleocene deposits. At a depth of nearly 100 m, a geoelectrical
layer with resistivity values up to 200 m was observed.
This layer represents a groundwater-bearing formation in the
shallow subsurface of the El-Tor area and south of the El-
Qaa Plain. At the bottom of the section, there is uplift at the
electrical basement at VES 15 and 13. This suggests that a
fault system dissects this area.
The integrated 2D geoelectrical cross section for the
HammamMousa area (gure 9) provides valuable information
which enables us to congure the subsurface structure of the
study area. The area seems to be affected by local structures
and major faults, which might have been reactivated after
the OligoceneMiocene rifting. The major faults take a
120
Geothermal exploration using resistivity, Egypt
direction parallel to the Gulf of Suez, while the minor ones are
perpendicular.
5. Conclusion
The present work aimed to delineate and elucidate the
geothermal reservoir at Hammam Mousa Hot Spring using
ABIC least-squares 1D and 2D inversion of Schlumberger
resistivity soundings measured in the area. In conclusion, the
inversion procedure can reduce the mist through iteration. In
addition, the 2D calculated response was highly correlated
with the observed data. The resulting 2D cross section
correlates with the 1D inversion. However, the 2D cross
section elaborates the geologic structure further in the study
area, which matches previously published geologic studies.
According to the 2D interpretation of this data set,
a promising area for geothermal drilling is recommended,
around the hot spring and its neighbourhood (VES 1, 2 and 3),
where there is considerable aquifer thickness. The 2D cross
section clearly elucidates and gives an explanation for the
origin of the hot water source in the study area, which is a
deep circulation of hot water on the fault system.
Although the results correlate well with the available
geologic information, some of the 2D cross sections still
show a rough spatial resistivity distribution of abrupt changes
of resistivity between adjacent blocks. Hence another
interpretation technique (for example, 3D) is recommended to
overcome this problem and give a more realistic solution. In
addition, a detailed geophysical survey is recommended using
different geophysical resistivity tools, such as magnetotelluric
and electromagnetic methods, which can overcome the
problem of seawater intrusion and arid condition in this area.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to express his deepest and sincere thanks
to the staff of the National Research Institute of Astronomy
and Geophysics (NRIAG), Egypt, for the facilities required
for data acquisition in this work. Sincere thanks to all the
staff of the Exploration Geophysics Lab of Kyushu University
for their continuous guidance and support during this work.
Sincere thanks to the anonymous reviewer and to Dr George
Moore of Oregon State University for the valuable comments
that enhanced the manuscript to the present form.
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