In natura

methane
Biogenic
transfer l
estimated
fuels on E
small (7.4
Fig. 1 sh
determin
(BSRs). T
higher-ve
the signa
studies to


F
K
al settings, su
and dissolve
cally produce
limitations. O
d at 2.1 10
Earth. The a
4 10
14
SCM
ows world h
ned by indire
These seism
elocity barrie
al. Substantia
o determine
Fig. 1Hydr
Kvenvolden)
Gas
uch as the oc
es in water,
ed methane i
Over geolog
0
16
standard c
amount of hy
M), within th
hydrate depo
ect evidence
mic signals ar
er, such as a
al efforts are
the geograph
rate deposit
)
hydra
cean bottom,
clathrates fo
in dissolved
ic time, the t
cubic meters
ydrated meth
he error mar
osits in the de
such as seism
re caused by
a hydrate dep
e currently un
hic extent.

t locations i
ates in
, when burie
orm at tempe
water forms
total enclath
s (SCM)tw
hane in the n
rgin of ocean
eep ocean an
mic reflectio
velocity inv
posit. The hy
nderway to p
n the deep o
n natu
ed organic m
eratures grea
s hydrates ve
hrated metha
wice the ener
northern latitu
n hydrate est
nd permafro
ons called bo
versions beca
ydrates contr
perform mul
ocean and p
ure
matter decom
ater than 277
ery slowly, b
ane in the oce
rgy total of a
ude permafr
timates.
st, most of w
ottom simula
ause of gas b
ribute only in
ltidimension
permafrost(
mposes to
7 K (4C or 3
because of m
eans has bee
all other foss
rost is relativ
which were
ating reflecto
beneath som
n a minor w
nal seismic

after
39F).
mass-
en
sil
vely
ors
me
ay to

Seaflo
Significa
such as p
Fig. 2, oc
as much
as large a
decompo
meeting p
the secon
safety co
technolog

F
d
Because
years ago
dissociat
evolution
likely to
oor stab
ant ocean-hy
platforms, m
ccurred abou
as 4%. Rece
as 2 in., have
osing. The ef
point for the
nd with hydr
oncerns will p
gies for seaf
Fig. 2Seafl
decompositio
the atmosph
o), there is ev
ion caused a
nary process
occur in cur
bility
ydrated-sedim
anifolds, and
ut 15,000 ye
ent subsea ex
e survived th
ffect of subsi
e two energy
rates in man-
positively im
floor hydrate
floor sedime
on(after Dil
here warmed
vidence for t
a large green
es. Atmosph
rrent times b
ment slumps
d pipelines.
ars ago and
xperiments h
he 2.5-mile t
idence on su
y communitie
-made produ
mpact the lon
es.
ent slump of
llon et al.
d by 4F with
the hypothes
nhouse-gas w
heric-induce
ecause deep
can jeopard
The single in
increased th
have shown t
trip from the
ubsea structu
es: the first c
uction system
nger range d
ff the Carol
h shallow oc
sis of Dicken
warming of 1
d changes in
er oceans ef
dize the foun
ncident off t
he Earths ex
that natural m
e ocean botto
ures and foun
concerned w
ms. The inve
development
ina coast as
ceans in the L
ns et al. that
14F, signific
n the ocean-f
ffectively con
ndation of su
the Carolina
xtant atmosph
methane-hyd
om to the sur
ndations rep
with hydrates
estigation of
of energy-re
ssociated wi
Late Paleoce
ocean meth
cantly impac
floor temper
nstrain temp
ubsea structu
coast, show
heric methan
drate particl
rface before
resents the i
s in the Earth
seafloor-hyd
ecovery

ith hydrate
ene (55 milli
hanehydrate
cting
rature are not
perature chan
ures,
wn in
ne by
es,
nitial
h and
drate
ion
t
nges.
Such factors as geologic tectonism and warm-ocean-current circulation may contribute to
modern ocean-hydrate disruption.
The concern for seafloor safety is considerably impacted by the fact that BSR indications of
hydrates are not totally reliable. For example, on DSDP Leg 164 drilling off the Carolinas, close
to the slump (shown in Fig. 2) three holes were drilledone without a BSR, one with a weak
BSR, and one with a very strong BSR. Hydrates were found in all three wells. Such hydrated
sediments are fairly dispersedtypically 3.5 vol% in sediments. A more significant concern is
the fact that there is not a single clear BSR in the Gulf of Mexico while coring hydrates, one of
the most active oil/gas exploration and production regions in the western hemisphere.
Without a clear BSR, but with evidence of near-mudline hydrate deposits, the safety of subsea-
equipment foundations is of concern. Companies with subsea equipment typically obtain drop
cores in the area/route of interest to determine if hydrates are in the vicinity of the foundations.
The evidence to date in the Gulf of Mexico suggests that gases have percolated along salt diapirs
or geologic faults from deep within the Earth to form hydrates close to the ocean bottom. Gas
evolution from the seafloor marks a primary suspected seafloor-hydrate location.
Energy recovery
Because hydrates in ocean sediments are dispersed (typically <3.5 vol%), substantial ingenuity
is required for economic energy recovery. A recent workshop concluded that most critical in-situ
issues arise because hydrates are ill-defined in four respects in the geophysical/chemistry domain:
Detection
Distribution
Sediment properties
Hydrate controls
For example, sonic waves are the principal detection tool for ocean hydrate deposits, but sonic
quantification and frequently qualitative detection of hydrate is inaccurate, as suggested with
BSRs in the Gulf of Mexico. Field tests are required to bound the problem in the field, which
will be verified by laboratory experiments.
Pilot drilling, characterization, and production testing of hydrates have begun in permafrost
regions that have higher hydrate concentrations (e.g., 30 vol% in the 1998 Mallik 2L-38 well in
Canada), with a third Mallik well completed in March 2002. These permafrost-hydrate
exploration and production tests will aid the understanding of how to approach the more-
dispersed, but far larger, ocean resource in the future. Finite-difference reservoir recovery
models indicate that production is only economic at rates greater than 0.5 10
6
SCM/d.
There are three principal energy-recovery methods, as shown schematically in Fig. 3:
Depressurization
Thermal stimulation
Inhibitor injection


F
th
The most
reservoir
pressures
to slowly
permafro
the Siber
The seco
both of w
expensiv
is not via
stimulati
Productio
technical
funds in r
breakthro
Well-doc
probably
normal g
delta of C
recover t
from lean
J apanese
and the U

Fig. 3Thre
hemal simul
t producible
r, such that fr
s below the h
y replenish th
ost reservoir,
rian exceptio
ond and third
which have a
ve, relative to
able. Gas pro
on.
on from stan
lly feasible. B
research of h
oughs.
cumented ga
y begin in the
gas productio
Canada in th
the hydrated
ner hydrate d
e and other n
United States
ee principal
lation, and
permafrost
free-gas prod
hydrate stabi
he gas reserv
, was produc
on, no comm
d hydrate pro
also been trie
o depressuriz
oduction from
nd-alone hyd
Bil suggeste
hydrated-ene
as production
e Western he
on. A new M
he first quarte
gas. The obj
deposits off
national hydr
s) are curren
l energy-rec
inhibitor in
hydrate dep
duction cause
ility pressure
voir. Makog
ced for almo
mercial produ
oduction met
ed in the form
zation. Econ
m hydrates r
drates in the
ed that the be
ergy recover
n from hydra
emisphere du
Mallik 3L-38
er of 2002, w
bjective of th
the shore of
rate program
ntly seeking t
covery meth
njection.
osits are tho
es hydrate di
e. Heat from
on indicated
st a decade i
uction of hyd
thods are the
mer Soviet U
nomic estima
requires both
permafrost o
est course of
ry, until mor
ates close to
uring the nex
production t
with depressu
he well is to e
f J apan, and,
ms. Many nat
to find viabl
hods from hy
ose lying in d
issociation b
m the Earth a
d that the Me
in this mann
drates has oc
ermal stimul
Union. Howe
ates indicate
h depressuriz
or in the oce
f action is fo
re research is
conventiona
xt decade at
test well wa
urization an
extend those
as such, the
tional projec
le methods to
ydrates: dep
direct contac
by decreasin
allows hydrat
essoyakha, a
ner during the
ccurred.
lation and in
ever, both m
that depress
zation and th
an is much m
r the industr
s done to pro
al permafros
incremental
s drilled in t
d thermal sti
e findings to
e work is hea
ts (e.g., J apa
o recover ga

pressurizati
ct with a gas
g reservoir
te decompos
a Siberian
e 1970s. Wi
nhibitor injec
methods are v
surization alo
hermal/inhib
more costly
ry not to inve
ovide technic
st reservoirs
l costs over
the MacKenz
imulation to
recover gas
avily funded
an, India, Ko
as from hydr
ion,
sition
th
ction,
very
one
bitor
but
est
cal
will
zie


by
orea,
ates.