Structural Analysis Fundamentals Explained

1
Theory of Structures by T.A.Majid, K.K.Choong, M.M.Yusof

TOPIC 1
BASIC CONCEPT OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

1.1 INTRODUCTION
A structure can be defined as a form or shape such as buildings, bridges, dams and walls,
which are designed to resist any applied loads without losing its own strength capacity and
any appreciable deformation. The fundamental purpose of structure is to transmit all applied
loads to the point of support systems and ultimately through the foundations to ground.

Structural analysis can be explained as a calculation process carried out on a structure with the
purpose of understanding the behavior of the structure under the action of a specified set of
loads. Before proceeding to learn about how calculation is carried out, types of structures,
their supports and the associated reactions will be first explained in this topic. Furthermore,
concepts of planar structures, principle of equilibrium, free body diagram and statical
determinacy will be also looked at.

1.2 TOPIC OUTCOMES

a) Able to identify and determine the reaction forces for different types of supports
b) Able to check for equilibrium and solve for reaction forces using the principle of
equilibrium for 2D problems by using free body diagram.

1.3 TYPES OF STRUCTURES
Structures can be categorized as those of framed types and mass types. Framed structures
resist the applied loads by virtue of their geometry, while mass structures are type of
structures which are able to resist the applied loads by virtue of their weight.
The most commonly structural elements are beams, columns, arches, wall, trusses and
foundations. Figure 1.1 (a) (f) show examples of these structural elements with typical
loading.

2

Figure 1.1: Some typical structural elements.
(f) Foundation (e) Truss
(d) Wall (c) Arch
(b) Column
(a) Beam

3

1.4 TYPES OF SUPPORTS
As mentioned earlier, structures could be understood as an assemblage of structural members.
A structure must be properly supported and joined together so that the structure is stable and
able to carry loads. It is impossible to construct a structure solely from one solid piece of
materials. Structures are in almost all cases made from structural members which must be
joined using connections. These connections can be used to join member to member as well
as member to support. Three types of most commonly used connections are:
(a) Pin connection;
(b) Fixed or Rigid connection; and
(c) Roller connection.

Figure 1.2 shows two sketches of pinned connections which include connections at (a)
support; and (b) between members

Figure 1.2: Non-zero relative rotation of pinned connections:
(a) at support; and (b) between members

One important characteristic of pinned connection is that relative rotation between
connecting members or between member and supporting point is permitted. It is noted that
relative rotation as depicted in Figure 1.2 has been highly magnified for clarify purpose.
In actual structures, rotation is normally very small.

On the other hand, a fixed connection differs from a pinned one is the sense that relative
rotation between connecting members or between member and support is not permitted.
Figure 1.3 show examples of fixed connection.

(b) (a)

4

Figure 1.3: Zero relative rotation of fixed connections:
(a) at support; and (b) between members

In the process of analysis, standard symbols are generally used to represent pin and fixed
connections. They are shown in Figure 1.4 where symbols used to denote pin and fixed
connections at support are shown in Figure 1.4 (a) and those for connections at joints between
members in structures are shown in Figure 1.4 (b).

Figure 1.4: Symbols commonly used in analysis model to represent connections:
(a) at supports and (b) between members

Pinned Fixed
(b) Connections between members
Pinned
Fixed
(a) Connections at supports
(b)
(a)

5

The third type of commonly used connection is roller connection. Symbols used
for roller connection are as shown in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: Symbols for roller connections

Comparing with pin connections, rollers are:

(a) similar to pin connections since relative rotation is permitted; and

(b) different from pinned connections since only translation in the direction perpendicular
to the supporting plane is not allowed. Translation in the direction parallel to
supporting plane is allowed.

1.5 REACTION FORCES

All applied loading on a framed structure will be transferred to the support systems which will
then provide the reacting force (or reactions) to maintain equilibrium. Some structures are
constrained by supports that do not allow any rigid-body movement. Other support systems
resist translational movement but no resistance to rotation. The behavior of the supports can
have a critical effect on the structure proper and therefore cannot be ignored at the design
stage.

In actual practice, it is necessary to make certain idealized simplifications regarding the nature
of supports. The common types of support are fixed, pinned and rollers. Figure 1.6 shows
various support conditions with standard symbols.

Type of Support Reactions No. of
Unknown

3
R
y
R
X
M
z
Fixed
(a)

6

2

1

Figure 1.6: Types of Support Systems and Reactions

At point of roller support, the corresponding structure is not free to translate in the direction
perpendicular to the supporting plane. As for the case of pinned supports, the translation is not
allowed in directions parallel and perpendicular to the supporting plane. For the third type of
rigid supports, apart from no freedom to translate in directions parallel and perpendicular to
the supporting plane, the rotation of structure at the point of support is also not allowed.

Due to the above restraints provided by the different types of supports, different types and
number of reaction forces will occur at the supports. As shown in Figure 1.6 (a), at the point
of rigid support, apart from reaction forces in directions parallel and perpendicular to the
supporting plane, moment will also occur at the support point since the rotation of structure at
the point of rigid support is restrained.

For the case of pinned support (Figure 1.6 (b)), reaction forces in directions parallel and
perpendicular to the supporting plane will occur due to the restraints provided by the support
in these two directions.

As shown in Figure 1.6 (c), since at a point of roller support, translation in the direction
perpendicular to the supporting plane is restrained, reaction force will occur in that direction.

1.6 EQUATION OF EQUILIBRIUM

A body will move when subjected to a force or moment applied to it. If many forces and
moments are applied to such a body, the resultant of all forces ( F) and all moment ( M)
will cause the body to move.

A body is said to be in equilibrium if, initially at rest, it remains at rest when subjected to a
system of forces and moments. If a body is in equilibrium, then all its members and parts are

R
y
R
y
Roller
(c)

R
X
R
y
R
X
R
y
Pinned
(b)

7

also in equilibrium. Figure 1.7 shows a general 2D object which is acted upon by
a series of loading F
1
, F
2
, , F
4
and moments M
1
, M
2
, , M
3
. The object is lying in x-y plane.

Figure 1.7: A general planar structure acted upon by a series of loads

For the planar structure shown in Figure 1.7 to be in equilibrium, the following three
equations must be satisfied:

= 0
x
F ;
= 0
y
F ;
= 0
z
M (1.1)

The three equations given in Eq. (1.1) have the following meanings:

= 0
x
F : Algebraic sum of the x-component of all forces acting on the structure is zero.

= 0
y
F : Algebraic sum of the y-component of all forces acting on the structure is zero.

= 0
z
M : Algebraic sum of the moments of all forces about any point in the plane of the
structure and the moment of any couple acting on the structure is zero.

In general, the structure mechanics involves determination of unknown forces on the
structures. Some of these structures can be completely analyzed by using these equations.
These structures are known as statically determinate where it requires the number of
independent reaction components to be equal or not exceeding the number of applicable
independent equations of equilibrium.

On the other hand, if there are extra or redundant reaction components, then the structure is
said to be statically indeterminate, i.e. the number of independent reaction is greater than the
number of equilibrium equations available.

1.7 FREE BODY DIAGRAM

When writing down equilibrium equations as given in Eq. (1.1), we need the aid of a useful
tool, namely free body diagram. Free body diagram (FBD) could be understood as a
M
1
M
2
M
3
F
1
F
2
F
3
F
4
x

y

8

diagram representing the structure (members or the whole structure) where all
supports have been removed and replaced with all forces and moment (including reactions)
that act on the structure. Figure 1.8 shows a simple example of FBD for a beam subjected to a
load P acting at the mid-length of the beam.

Figure 1.8: Example of FBD for a beam

A
x
, A
y
and B
y
in Figure 1.8 represent reaction forces at supports A and B, respectively. These
reaction forces are considered as external forces acting on the beam as shown in the
accompanying FBD diagram. FBD could also be usefully employed to show forces which are
internal to the structure. Figure 1.9 shows another example of FBD of a beam.

Figure 1.9: Example of FBD for a segment of a beam

In Figure 1.9 (a), the beam is imaginary cut at section a-a. The corresponding FBD diagram
for this segment is shown in Figure 1.9 (b). In this figure, A
x
and A
y
are again reactions at
P

A

B

A

A
y
A
x
(a)
(b)
a

a

M

N

S

P

P

A

B

A

B

A
y
A
x
B
y

(a) The structure
(b) FBD

9

support A while N, S and M acting are called internal forces. FBDs as shown in
Figure 1.8 and 1.9 will be extensively used later in the calculation of forces.

1.8 STATICAL DETERMINACY

One of the purposes of structural analysis is to determine the unknown forces. In the process
of calculating the unknown forces, equilibrium equations are used. In relation to the use of
equilibrium equations in the calculation of unknown forces, an important concept called
statical determinacy needs to be understood.

Statical determinacy is an important concept in structural analysis. It is a concept which is
used to determine whether equilibrium equations alone are sufficient for the purpose of
calculating all the unknown forces in a given structure. Statical determinacy could be
explained as follows:

If all unknown forces can be determined by using only equilibrium equations, then that
structure is called a statically determinate structure. On the other hand, a structure where the
number of unknown forces is more than the number of equilibrium equations is called a
statically indeterminate structure.

In order to elaborate further the concept of statical determinacy and its determination,
example of a beam structure as shown in Figure 1.10 shall be looked at.

Figure 1.10: A cantilever beam subjected to point load.

The corresponding free body diagram for the beam shown in Figure 1.10 is shown in Figure
1.11.

Figure 1.11: Free Body Diagram for the cantilever beam in Figure 1.10
P

A
y
B

A
x
M
A
P

A

B

10

A
x
, A
y
and M
A
are the three unknown reactions at support A due to load P applied
at the mid span. These three reactions are to be calculated. In order to calculate A
x
, A
y
and M
A
,
the three equilibrium equations as given in Eq. (1.1) will be used. Using the three equilibrium
equations, the three unknown reactions could then be calculated. In this example, it can be
seen that the number of equilibrium equations is the same as the number of unknown. And all
the unknown forces could be determined.

Lets look at next example shown in Figure 1.12.

Figure 1.12: A beam fixed at both ends subjected to point load.

The difference between example in Figure 1.12 and the one in Figure 1.10 is that the other
end of the beam is fixed. Free body diagram for the beam shown is Figure 1.12 could be
drawn as shown is Figure 1.13.

Figure 1.13: Free body diagram for the beam shown in Figure 1.12

Again, in order to calculate the unknown forces as shown in Figure 1.13, the set of three
equilibrium equations can be used. However, compared to the number of equilibrium
equations available which is 3, the number of unknown forces in this case has become 6, i.e.
A
x
, A
y,
M
A
, B
x
, B
y
and M
B
. There is no other equilibrium equation which can be used. As a
consequence, not all the unknown forces can be solved. Three extra equations are needed in
order to determine all the six unknown reaction forces.

P

A
y
A
x
M
A
M
B
B
x
B
y
P

A

B

11

From the above two examples, it can be seen that:

i. In example shown in Figure 1.10 and 1.11, the set of three equilibrium equations alone
is sufficient to determine all the unknown forces. Thus, this is an example of statically
determinate structure.
ii. In example shown in Figure 1.12 and 1.13, the set of three equilibrium equations alone
is not sufficient to determine all the unknown forces. Thus, this is an example of
statically indeterminate structure. Three extra equation (= 6 3) are required in order
that all unknown forces in the example shown in Figure 1.12 can be determined. These
extra numbers of equations are given the name of degree of indeterminacy.

The procedures to check for statical determinacy of a given structure can be summarized as
follows:

1. Draw free body diagram of the structure.
2. Compare the number of unknown forces with the number of equilibrium equations.

Let:

= number of unknown forces
= number of equilibrium equations

Then if = : Statically determinate structure
> : Statically indeterminate structure .. (1.2)

3. For planar structure, the maximum number of equilibrium equation available is 3.
Hence condition as given in Eq. (1.2) could be further simplified as follows:

If 3 = : Statically determinate structure
3 > : Statically indeterminate structure .. (1.3)

4. If a structure is statically indeterminate, the difference between and as give below:

= i .. (1.4)

is called degree of statical indeterminacy. It could be understood as the number of additional
equations required together with the use of equilibrium equations in order that all unknown
forces could be determined.

In order to further understanding of the concept of statical determinacy and its determination,
two more examples will be looked at.

12

Example 1.1

Figure 1.14 shows a two-span continuous beam. Support A is a fixed support, support B is a
pinned support whereas support C is a roller support. Check for the statical determinacy of
the beam.

Figure 1.14: A two-span continuous beam
Solution:
1. Draw free body diagram.

Figure 1.15: Free body diagram.
2. Count the number of unknown forces in Figure 1.15.
The unknown forces are: A
x
, A
y
, M
A
, B
y
, B
x
and C
y
.
Hence the number of unknown forces = 6

3. Compare with the number of equilibrium equation, .

= 3, for planar structure.
Hence, > . Beam is a statically indeterminate structure.

4. Degree of statical indeterminacy.

3 3 6 = = = i

P
1
P
2
P
3
P
4

A
y
A
x
M
A
B
x
B
y
C
y
P
1

A

C
B

P
2
P
3
P
4

13

Example 1.2

Figure 1.16 shows a simply supported planar truss structure. Support A is a pinned support
and support B is a roller support. Check the statical determinacy of the truss.

Figure 1.16: A simply supported truss

Solution:


Figure 1.17: Free body diagram

2. Count the number of unknown forces .

x
, A
y
and B
y
.
Hence, = 3

3. Compare with the number of equilibrium equation, .

= 3, for planar structure.
Hence, = . Truss is a statically determinate structure.


0 3 3 = = = i

P
1
P
2
P
3
P
4
P
5

A
y
A
x
B
y
A

B

P
1
P
2
P
3
P
4
P
5

14

Example 1.3

Figure 1.18 shows two beams which are pin jointed at B. The support at A is a fixed support,
whereas at C and D are pinned support. Check the statical determinacy of the truss.

Figure 1.18: Two beams with pinned jointed

Solution:


2. Count the number of unknown forces.

x
, A
y
, M
A
, B
x
, B
y
, C
x
, C
y
, D
x
and D
y
.
Hence, = 9

3. Compare with the number of equilibrium equations .
Since, there are two beams.

= 2 (3) = 6
Hence, > . Beam is a statically indeterminate structure.


3 6 9 = = = i

P
1
P
2

A
y
A
x
M
A
C
x
C
y
D
x
D
y
B
y
B
x
B
y
B
x
P
1

A
C

B

P
2

D

15

1.9 COMPUTATION OF REACTIONS USING EQUATIONS OF
EQUILIBRIUM

After reviewing basics about supports such as restraints and corresponding reaction in Section
1.5, how to actually compute reactions will be next looked at. The set of equilibrium
equations to be used is as follows:

= 0
x
F : Algebraic sum of the x-component of all forces acting on the structure is zero.

= 0
y
F : Algebraic sum of the y-component of all forces acting on the structure is zero.

= 0
z
M : Algebraic sum of the moments of all forces about any point in the plane of the
structure and the moment of any couple acting on the structure is zero.

Since ability to formulae correctly the above set of equilibrium equations is essential for the
computation of reaction forces, it is useful at this point to review how to consider forces and
moment in equilibrium equations. For this purpose, it will good to start with Example 1.4 and
1.5.

Example 1.4

Compute the reaction forces for the cantilever beam shown in Figure 1.20.

Figure 1.20: Cantilever beam

Solution:


P
2
A

B

C

D

P
1

M
1

L
1

L
2

L

16


2. In Figure 1.21, there are three external loads acting on the beam:
i. Concentrated loads P
1
and P
2

ii. Concentrated moment M
1

3. Since the beam is fixed supported at D, there are three reactions at support D, i.e.
horizontal reaction force D
X
, vertical reaction D
y
and reaction moment M
D
, which
need to be determined by the use of equilibrium equations.

4. Formulation of equilibrium of forces in horizontal and vertical directions,
= 0
x
F
and
= 0
y
F will be first looked at. Referring to Figure 1.21, the corresponding
equations will be as follows:

+
= 0
x
F : 0 cos
1
=
x
D P

+
= 0
y
F : 0 sin
2 1
= +
y
D P P

In the above two equations, note that any force whose direction of action is neither in
horizontal or vertical directions has to be resolved into components in these two
directions, e.g. P
1
cos and P
1
sin.

5. The next equation to be formulated is equilibrium of moment. The following two
formulations of equilibrium of moment will be looked at:

+
M at A=0 : ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 sin
2 2 1 1 1
= + + L D L P L P M M
y D

+
M at D=0 : ( ) ( ) 0 sin
2 2 1 1 1
= + + L L P L L P M M
D

From the above two formulations, it can be seen that:
i. For concentrated loads: if their directions of action pass through the point
around which moment is taken, then these forces have no contribution to the
P
2
A

B

C

D

P
1

M
1

L
1

L
2

L
M
D
D
x
D
y

17

equilibrium of moment, e.g. D
y
, D
x
and P
1
cos in M at D =0 and
D
y,
P
1
cos in M at A =0.
ii. For concentrated moments: they will always contribute in equilibrium of
moment no matter which point is taken as reference for the formulation of the
equilibrium equation, e.g. M
D
and M
1
appear in both formulations of M at A
=0 and M at D =0. It is important to remember this fact as failure to consider
couple will result in wrong values being calculated for other reactions.

Example 1.5

The simply supported beam shown in Figure 1.22 is subjected to distributed loads. Compute
the reaction for the beam.

Figure 1.22: Simply supported beam

Solution:


B

C
D

L
1

L
2

L
3

L
4

L
E

w
1
w
2
w
3
A
y
A
x
F
y
A

B

C
D

L
1

L
2

L
3

L
4

L
E

F

w
1
w
2
w
3

18

2. In Figure 1.23, two types of distributed loads are present:
i. Uniformly distributed load : acting uniformly at intensity w
1

ii. Linearly distributed load : increasing from load intensity w
2
to w
3

It is noted that the intensity of distributed load is expressed in unit of force/length, e.g.
N/m of kN/m.

3. Since the support A is pinned, there are two reactions, i.e. A
x
and A
y
; support F is a
roller support, the reaction is F
y
.

4. Formulation of equilibrium equation of forces in horizontal and vertical directions,
= 0
x
F and
= 0
y
F will again looked at.

+
= 0
x
F : 0 =
x
A
+
= 0
y
F : ( ) ( )( )
3 4 3 2 1 2 1
2
1
L L w w L L w F A
y y
+ +

Since there is no forces with horizontal component, A
x
= 0. As for F
y
= 0, it can be
seen from the corresponding equation that, distributed load is considered as equivalent
to a point load with magnitude equal to the area under the distributed load diagram, e.g.
i. For uniformly distributed load: magnitude is equal to area of a rectangular
since the corresponding load diagram is a rectangular; and
ii. For linearly distributed load: magnitude is equal to the area of a
trapezium since the load diagram is a trapezium.

5. After
= 0
x
F and
= 0
y
F , equilibrium of moment is next looked at. A
formulation of
= 0 M will be studied. Taking moment at support A.

+
M at A=0 :
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
(
+
(
+
3 3 4 3 4 2 3 1 1 2 1 2 1
3
2
2
1
2
1
L L L L L w w L L L L L w
( ) ( ) ( ) 0
2
1
3 3 4 3 4 2
= +
(
+ L F L L L L L w
y

Moment is force X perpendicular distance to the point where moment is taken.
Keeping this in mind and by studying the formulation as shown above, it can be seen
that contribution by distributed load to moment equilibrium equation is equal to
equivalent load corresponding to the distribution load X distance of action of that load
L
2
-L
1
w
2
w
3
w
1
L
4
-L
3

19

to the point where moment is taken. Figures below show the individual
contribution from the distributed load to the moment equilibrium equation.

( ) ( )
(
+
1 1 2 1 2 1
2
1
L L L X L L w

( )( ) ( )
(
+
3 3 4 3 4 2 3
3
2
2
1
L L L X L L w w

( ) ( )
(
+
3 3 4 3 4 2
2
1
L L L X L L w
D

L
3

L
4

E

F

A
y
A
x
F
x
B

C

L
1

L
2

A
y
A
x

20

In the above illustration of how moment due to distributed load is considered, the sign of
moment has been omitted. The sign will depend of the positive sense which has been adopted
during the formulation of the moment equilibrium equation. It is again emphasized that
moment due to distributed load is:

Point load equivalent to area of distributed load diagram X distance of the equivalent point
load to point where moment is to be taken.

In the above illustration, point load equivalent to area of distributed load diagram has been
denoted using broken arrows.

Example 1.6

Determine the reaction components for the structure shown in Figure 1.24.

Figure 1.24

A

B

20 kN

10 kN

3m

3m

6m

D

L
3

L
4

E

F

A
y
A
x
F
x

21

Solution:


2. Reactions

There are three reactions to be determined: A
x
, A
y
and B
y
.

+
= 0
x
F : 0 20 = +
x
A
kN A
x
20 =

Taking moment at A

+
M at A=0 : ( ) 0 6 10 3 = +
y
B
kN B
y
5 =

+
= 0
y
F : 0 10 = +
y y
B A
0 10 5 =
y
A
kN A
y
15 =

It is noted that in the above calculation, the value B
y
is found to be negative. A
negative solution indicates that the direction of reaction assumed at the start of
solution process is incorrect.

3. The computed reactions.
A

B

20 kN

10 kN

3m

3m

6m

A
x
A
y
B
y

22

A

B

20 kN

10 kN

3m

3m

6m

20 kN

15 kN

5 kN

23

Exercise 1

For the frame shown in Figure 1.25(a), (b) and (c), check the statical determinacy.

Figure 1.25

Exercise 2

Obtain the reaction components of the beam shown in Figure 1.26.

Figure 1.26

24

Exercise 3

Determine the determinacy and the corresponding degree of indeterminacy where applicable
for the following structures.

Figure 1.27

25

TOPIC 2
ANALYSIS OF PLANE TRUSSES

2.1 INTRODUCTION
A truss is an assemblage of straight members connected at their ends by flexible connections
to form a rigid configuration. Because of their light weight and high strength, trusses are
widely used, and their applications are supporting bridges and roof of buildings.
In this topic, we will develop the procedures for analyzing statically determinate trusses. The
objective of analyzing the trusses is to determine the reactions and member forces. There are
many ways to do this. We will be using 2 methods to carry out the analysis where we will
consider the equilibrium equations of the whole or parts of the structures. By highlighting or
considering only parts of the structure, we will analyze the FBD (free body diagram) and
solve for the unknowns. The two methods that will be used:
a) Method of Joints
b) Method of Section

2.2 TOPIC OUTCOMES
a) Able to classify statical determinacy of plane trusses and check geometric stability.
b) Able to determine member forces using joints and section methods.

2.3 COMMON TYPES OF TRUSSES
Trusses are used to carry loads over relatively long spans compared to ordinary beams. They
are widely used for roofs over large open areas, such as in warehouses, sport centres, highway,
railroad bridges or industrial buildings as shown is Figure 2.1(a) and 2.1(b).

26

Figure 2.1(a): Roof truss

Figure 2.1(b): Truss bridge

2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANE TRUSSES
If all the members of a truss and the applied loads lie in a single plane, the truss is called a
plane trusses. For plane trusses, the applied loading acts on each truss in its own plane. A
typical forms of bridge and roof trusses, many of which have been named after their original
designers, are shown in Figure 2.2 below:

27

Figure 2.2: Common bridge and roof trusses

2.5 DETERMINANCY AND STABILITY OF PLANE TRUSSES
If all the members of a truss and the applied loads lie in a single plane, the truss is called a
plane trusses. Statical determinacy of a plane truss can be checked using equilibrium
equations.
A truss is considered to be statically determinate if all of its member forces of reactions can be
determined by using the equations of equilibrium. If a plane truss contains m members, j
joints, and is supported by r reactions, then if

j r m 2 < + the truss is statically unstable
j r m 2 = + the truss is determinate truss (2.1)
j r m 2 > + the truss is indeterminate truss

28

Statically indeterminate trusses have more members and/or external reactions than
the minimum required for stability. The excess members and reactions are called redundants,
and the number of excess members and actions is referred to as the degree of static
indeterminacy, i, which can be expressed as
( ) j r m i 2 + = (2.2)

Example 2.1
Classify each of the plane trusses shown in Figure 2.3 as statically unstable, determinate or
indeterminate.
Solution:
The truss shown in Figure 2.3(a) contains 20 members and 12 joints.
m = 20
2j = 24
r = 3

Hence, j r m 2 < + the truss is statically unstable

(a)

The truss shown in Figure 2.3(b) contains 21 members and 12 joints.
m = 21
2j = 24
r = 3

Hence, j r m 2 = + the truss is statically determinate.

29

(b)

The truss shown in Figure 2.3(c) contains 25 members and 12 joints.
m = 25
2j = 24
r = 3

Hence, j r m 2 > + the truss is statically indeterminate.

(c)

Figure 2.3

2.6 SIGN CONVENTION AND MEMBER FORCES REPRESENTATION
The sign convention used in the analysis of plane trusses are described in three equations of
equilibrium as shown in Figure 2.4:
= 0
x
F ; the summation of horizontal forces are equal to zero. The horizontal force is
assumed positive if it is to the left.
= 0
y
F . ; the summation of vertical forces are equal to zero. The vertical force is assumed
positive if it is upward.
= 0
Z
M ; the summation of moment at any point are equal to zero. The clockwise moment
is positive.

30

Figure 2.4: Sign convention.
The internal axial forces at any section of the truss member is equal in magnitude but opposite
in direction to the resultant of the components in the direction parallel to the axis of the truss
of all the external loads. A tensile member axial force is always represent by an arrows
pulling away from the joint and compressive member axial force by an arrows pushing
towards the joint as shown in Figure 2.5. It is usually convenient to assume the unknown
member forces to be tensile.

Figure 2.5: Internal axial member forces.

2.7 METHOD OF JOINTS
The following step-by-step procedure can be used for the analysis of statically determinate
simple plane trusses by the method of joints.
1. Check the trusses for static determinacy, as discussed in preceding chapter. If the
truss is found to be statically determinate and stable, proceed to step 2. Otherwise,
end the analysis at this stage. (The analysis of statically indeterminate trusses is
considered in Part Four of this module)
2. Identify by inspection any zero-force member of trusses.
3. Determine the slopes of the inclined members (except the zero-force member) of
the trusses.
y, Positive

x, Positive

Counter-clockwise moment,
Positive

P
P
P
P
Tension (Positive)
Compression (Negative)

31

4. Draw the free-body diagram of the whole truss, showing all external loads
and reactions. Write zeros by the members that have been identified as zero-force
members.
5. Examine the free-body diagram of the truss to select a joint that has no more than two
unknown force (which must not be collinear) acting on it. If such a joint is found, then
go directly to the next step. Otherwise, determine reactions by applying the three
equations of equilibrium and equations of condition (if any) to the free body of the
whole truss; then select a joint with two or fewer unknowns, and go to the next step.
a. Draw a free-body diagram of the select joint, showing tensile force by arrows
pulling away from the joint and compressive force by arrows pushing into the
joint. It is usually convenient to assume the unknown member forces to be
tensile.
b. Determine the unknown force by applying the two equilibrium
equations

= 0
x
F and

= 0
y
F . A positive answer for a member force
means that the member is tension, as initially assumed, whereas a negative
answer indicates that the member is in compression.
6. If all the desired member forces and reactions have been determine, then go to the next
step. Otherwise, select another joint with no more than two unknown, and return to
step 6.
7. If the reaction were determine in step 5 by using the equations of equilibrium and
condition of the whole truss; then apply the remaining joint equilibrium equations that
have not been utilized so far to check the calculations.

IDENTIFICATION OF ZERO-FORCE MEMBERS
Because trusses are usually designed to support several different loading conditions, it is not
uncommon to find members with zero forces in them when a truss is being analysed for a
particular loading condition. Zero-force members are also added to trusses to brace
compression members against buckling and slender tension members against vibrating. The
analysis of trusses can be expedited if we can identify the zero-force members by inspection.
Two common types of member arrangements that result in zero-force members are the
following:
1. If only two non-collinear members are connected to a joint that has no external loads or
reactions applied to it, then the force in both members is zero. (Figure 2.6a)
2. If three members, two of which are collinear, are connected to a joint that has no external
loads or reactions applied to it, then the force in the member that is not collinear is zero.
(Figure 2.6b)

32

Figure 2.6: Identification of Zero-Force Member

Example 2.2
Using method of joints, determine the force in each member trusses shown in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7

Solution:
B
A
E
C
D
L
L
L L
L
L L
60 kN
120 kN
y
x
F
AB
F
AB
(a)
y
x
F
AB
F
AC
(b)
F
AD

33

Free Body Diagram

+ M
A
= 0 = D
y
(2L) - 60 (2L L cos ) - 120 (L)
2D
y
= 120 60 cos + 120
D
y
= 60 30 cos + 60
But = 60 D
y
= 120 30 x 0.5
D
y
= 105 kN

+ F
y
= 0 = A
y
120 -60 + D
y

A
y
= 120 + 60 + D
y

A
y
= 75 kN

+ F
x
= 0 A
x
= 0

Joint A

F
y
= 0
75 + F
AB
cos 60 = 0
F
AB
= -86.6 kN

F
x
= 0
F
AE
+ F
AB
cos 60 = 0
F
AE
= + 86.6 x 0.5

F
AE
= + 43.3 kN
B
A
E
C
D
L
L
L L
L
L L
60 kN
120 kN
Ay
Ax
Dy

2L L cos
F
AB
F
AE
75 kN

A

34

F
BC
F
BE
B

86.6

Joint B

F
y
= 0
-F
BE
sin 60 + 86.6 sin 60 = 0
F
BE
= 86.6 kN

F
x
= 0
F
BC
+ 86.6 cos 60 + 86.6 cos 60 = 0
F
BC
= -86.6(0.5) x 2
F
BC
= -86.6 kN

Joint D

F
y
= 0
105 + F
DC
sin 60 = 0
F
DC
= -121.24 kN

F
x
= 0
-F
DE
+ 121.24 cos 60 = 0
F
DE
= 62.2 kN

Joint C
F
y
= 0
-60 + 121.24 sin 60 - F
CE
sin 60 = 0
F
CE
= 51.96 kN

F
DC
F
DE
105 kN

D
121.24 kN

F
CE

86.6

kN
60

kN
C

35

Checking Joint E
F
x
= 0
-43.3 + 60.62 86.6 cos 60 + 51.96 cos 60
= 0 ok

F
y
= 0
86.6 sin 60 + 51.96 sin 60 - 120
= 0 ok

Member Force (kN) Condition (+/-)
AB 86.6 - Compression
BC 86.6 - Compression
CD 121.24 - Compression
DE 60.62 + Tension
EA 43.3 + Tension
BE 86.6 + Tension
CE 51.96 + Tension

Final Diagram

B
A
E
C
D
86.6
60 kN
120 kN
86.6
51.96 121.24
60.62
43.3
86.6
75 kN 75 kN
120 kN

E 60.62 kN
43.3 kN

86.6 kN

51.96 kN

36

Example 2.3
Using method of joints, determine the force in each member trusses shown in Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8

Solution:
Free Body Diagram

+ M
A
= 0 = -10(3) - 15(3) - 30(6) - 15(9) + E
y

E
y
= 43.33 kN

10 kN
A
E
D
C
B
F
G
3m 3m
4m
3m
A
x

A
y
E
y
15 kN 30 kN 15 kN
53.13
53.13 53.13
10 kN/m
10 kN
A E
D
C
B
F
G
3m 3m
4m
3m

37

+ F
y
= 0 = A
y
10 15 30 15 + 43.33

A
y
= 26.67 kN

+ F
x
= 0 A
x
= 0

Joint A

F
y
= 0
26.67 +
5
4
F
AB
= 0
F
AB
= -33.33 kN

F
x
= 0
F
AG
33.33
|
\
|
5
3
= 0
F
AG
= 20 kN

Joint G

F
y
= 0
F
GB
10 = 0
F
GB
= 10 kN

F
x
= 0
-20 + F
GF
= 0
F
GF
= 20 kN

Joint B

F
y
= 0

33.33
|
\
|
5
4
- 15 10 F
BF

|
\
|
5
4
= 0
F
BF
= 2.08 kN

F
x
= 0

33.33
|
\
|
5
3
+ 2.08
|
\
|
5
3
F
BC
= 0
F
BC
= -21.246 kN
F
AB
F
AG
26.67 kN

A

0

F
GB
F
GF
10 kN

G

20 kN

15 kN

F
BC
10 kN

B

33.33 kN

F
BF

38

Joint D

F
y
= 0
-15 - F
DE
= 0
F
DE
= -15 kN

F
x
= 0
F
DC
= 0

Joint E

F
y
= 0

|
\
|
5
4
F
EC
- 15 + 43.33 = 0
F
EC
= -35.413 kN

F
x
= 0
- F
EF
+ 35.413
|
\
|
5
3
= 0
F
EF
= 21.248 kN

Joint F

F
y
= 0
2.08
|
\
|
5
4
+ F
CF
= 0
F
CF
= -1.664 kN

15 kN

F
DE
D

F
DC
15 kN

43.33 kN

E

F
EF
F
EC
21.248 kN

F

20 kN

F
CF
2.08 kN

39

Checking Joint C

F
y
= 0
-30 + 1.664 + 33.413
|
\
|
5
4
= 0 OK

F
x
= 0
21.246 35.413
|
\
|
5
3
= 0 OK

Member Force (kN) Condition (+/-)
AB 33.33 - Compression
BC 21.25 - Compression
CD 0
DE 15 - Compression
EF 21.25 + Tension
FG 20 + Tension
GA 20 + Tension
BG 10 + Tension
BF 2.08 + Tension
CF 1.67 - Compression
CE 35.42 - Compression

Final Diagram

10 kN
A
E
D
C
B
F
G
3m 3m
4m
3m
26.67 kN 43.33 kN

10 kN/m
20

20

21.25
33.33

10

1.67

15

2.08

35.42

21.25

0

30 kN

1.664 kN

C

0 kN

21.246 kN

35.413 kN

40

2.8 METHOD OF SECTIONS

This method is an effective method when the forces in some members of a truss are to be
determined. Often we need to know the force in just one member with the greatest force in it,
for example and the method of sections will yield the force in a particular member without the
labour of working out the forces in the rest of truss.

The method of sections involves cutting the truss into two portions by passing an imaginary
section through the members whose forces are desired. The desired member forces are then
determined by considering the equilibrium equations of one of the two portions of the truss.
There are only three equilibrium equations available, so they cannot be used to determine
more than three unknown force. Thus, in general, section should be chosen that do not pass
through more than three members with unknown force.

Procedure for Analysis
The following step-by-step procedure can be used for determining the member forces of
statically determinate plane trusses by the method of sections.
1. Select the section that passes through as many members as possible whose forces are
desired, but not more than three members with unknown forces. The section should
cut the truss into two parts.
2. Although either of the two portions of the truss can be used for computing the member
forces, select the portion that will require the lease amount of computational effort in
determining the unknown forces. To avoid the necessity for the calculation of
reactions, if of the two portions of the truss does not have any reactions acting on it,
then select this portion for the analysis of members force and go to the next step. If
both portions of the truss are attached to external supports, then calculate reaction by
applying the equations of equilibrium and condition (if any) to the free body of the
entire truss. Next, select the portion of the truss for analysis of member forces that has
the least number of external loads and reactions applied to it.
3. Draw the free-body diagram of the portion of the truss selected, showing all external
loads and reactions applied to it and the forces in the members that have been cut by
the section. The unknown member forces are usually assumed to the tensile and are,
therefore, shown on the free-body diagram by arrows pulling away from the joints.
4. Determine the unknown forces by applying the equations of equilibrium. This can be
achieved by applying the of equilibrium equations 0 , 0 ( = =
y x
F F
= ) 0 M at
any joint location either of the two portions of the truss.
5. Apply an alternative equilibrium equation, which was not use to compute member
forces, to check the calculations. This alternative equation should preferably involve
all three member forces determined by the analysis. If the analysis has been perform
correctly, and then this alternative equilibrium equation must be satisfied.

41

Example 2.4

Using method of sections, determine the force in members AB, AG, HG, BC, CF and EF for
the truss shown in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9

Solution:

Free Body Diagram

4m

B

C

D

E

F

G

3m

3m

3m

5 kN

5 kN
5 kN
20kN

15 kN
10 kN

H
y
A
x
A
y
a

a

b

b

4m

A

H

B

C

D

E

F

G

3m

3m

3m

5 kN

5 kN
5 kN
20kN

15kN
10 kN

42

+ M
A
= 0 = -10(3) - 15(6) - 20(9) - 5(3) - 5(6) - 5(9) +
4 H
y

H
y
= 97.5 kN

+ F
y
= 0 = A
y
+ 97.5

A
y
= -97.5 kN

+ F
x
= 0 = A
x
+ 10 + 15 + 20 + 5 + 5 + 5
A
x
= -60 kN

Section a-a

+ M
A
= 0 = 97.5 (4) + F
HG
(4)
F
HG
= -97.5 kN

+ F
y
= 0 = F
AB
(4) + 60 (3) 97.5 (4)

F
AB
= 52.5 kN

+ F
x
= 0 = -60 + F
AG |
\
|
5
4

F
AG
= 75 kN

A

G

H

B

F
AG
F
AB
F
HG
60 kN

97.5 kN 97.5 kN
3m

4m

43

Section b-b

+ M
F
= 0 = -20 (3) - 5 (3) + F
CB
(4)
F
CB
= 18.75 kN

+ M
C
= 0 = -20 (3) - 5 (3) - F
EF
(4)
F
EF
= -18.75 kN

+ M
B
= 0 = -15 (3) - 20 (6) - 5 (6) - F
CF
(3) + 18.75 (4)
F
CF
= -40 kN

3m

3m

20kN

15kN

5kN

D E

C

F

B

G
F
CB
F
CF
F
EF
4m

44

2.9 INTRODUCTION TO OTHER TYPES OF PLANAR STRUCTURES
Although a great majority of trusses can be analyzed as plane trusses, there are some truss
systems such as transmission towers and lattice domes (Figure 2.10) that cannot be treated as
plane trusses because of their shape, arrangement of members, or applied loading.

Figure 2.10: Lattice dome

2.9.1 Planar trusses: Compound and Complex
Compound trusses are constructed by connecting two or more simple plane trusses to form a
single rigid body as shown in Figure 2.11. Analysis of compound trusses can usually be
expedited by using a combination of the method of joints and method of sections described in
the preceding sections.

Figure 2.11: Compound Trusses

Trusses that can be classified neither as simple trusses nor as compound trusses are referred to
as complex trusses. Two examples of complex trusses are shown in Figure 2.12. From an

45

analytical viewpoint, the main difference between simple or compound trusses
and complex trusses stems from the fact that the methods of joints and sections, as described
previously, cannot be used for the analysis of complex trusses.

Figure 2.12: Complex trusses

2.9.2 Space trusses
Space trusses, because of their shape, arrangement of members, or applied loading, cannot be
subdivided into plane trusses for the purposes of analysis and must, therefore, be analyzed as
three-dimensional structures subjected to three-dimensional force system. To simplify the
analysis of space trusses, it is assumed that the truss members are connected at their ends by
frictionless ball-and-socket joints, all external loads and reactions are applied only at the
joints, and the centriodal axis of each member coincides with the line connecting the centres
of the adjacent joints. Because of these simplifying assumptions, the members of spaces
trusses can be treated as axial forces members.

m = 17 , j =10, r=3
m + r = 2j
(b)
m = 9 , j =6, r=3
m + r = 2j
(a)

46

Figure 2.13: Space trusses

47

Exercise 1

a) Figure 2.14 (a) shows four different types of plane trusses. Check for the statical
determinacy of the trusses.
b) Figure 2.14 (b) shows a plane trusses with pinned supports at A and G. Find the
reactions at supports A and G. Identify any zero force member.
c) Determine the force in member BC, Ac and BD for the truss shown in figure 2.14 (b)
by using method of sections and classify whether they are in tension or compression.
d) Determine the forces in member GF and FD for the truss shown in Figure 2.14 (b) by
using method of joints. Classify whether they are in tension or compression.

Figure 2.14 (a)

48

Figure 2.14 (b)

Exercise 2

a) Figure 2.15 shows a pinned jointed truss with two supports at A and D where A is
roller and D is pinned. Check for the statical determinacy of the truss.
b) Determine forces in member BC, BE and DE for the truss shown in Figure 2.15 by
using method of sections and classify whether they are in tension or compression.
c) Determine forces in member CF, EF and CE by using method of joints and classify
whether they are in tension or compression.

Figure 2.15

49

Exercise 3

a) Describe briefly three characteristics of truss structures and the two methods of
analyzing the truss structure.
b) Determine the member forces DF, DE and CE for the truss shown in Figure 2.16 by
the method of sections and classify whether they are in tension or compression.
c) Find the member forces of AB, AC and BC using method of joints and classify
whether they are in tension or compression.

Figure 2.16

50

TOPIC 3
ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE BEAMS AND FRAMES

3.1 INTRODUCTION
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting
bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external
loads, own weight and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment. A
structural frame is complex of columns, and beams, girders, spandrels, and trusses connected
to one another and to the columns anchored in a foundation, as well as other components or
members necessary for the stability of a structure.

In this topic, the analysis of beams and frames will be looked at. Specifically, how to obtain
information about shear force and bending moment in beams and frames will be studied.

3.2 TOPIC OUTCOMES

a) Able to determine statical determinacy of structures.
b) Able to draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for statically determinate
beams and frames using equilibrium equations.
c) Able to draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for statically determinate
beams and frames using direct integration method.

3.3 INTERNAL FORCES IN BEAMS

Figure 3.1 shows an example of a simply supported beam.

Figure 3.1: A simply supported beam is subjected to point load P

When loads act on truss structures, members in the structure concerned will be in the state of
either axial compression or tension. On the other hand, when loads act on beams, members
will be bent as illustrated in Figure 3.2.

A

B

P

51

Figure 3.2: Bending deformation of a simply supported beam when subjected to point load P

In other words, beams can carry loads by means of bending action. Due to bending
deformations, forces will develop within the numbers of beam structures. Such forces are
called internal forces. Internal forces developed in members of beam are shear force and
bending moment which shall be denoted as S and M, respectively. Figure 3.3 shows the
internal forces in a beam.

Figure 3.3: Internal forces in a beam shear force (S) and bending moment (M)

S and M are defined with respect to section of a beam as follows:

i. S is defined to be acting parallel to a section and pointing in upward or downward
direction.
ii. M is defined to be acting around an axis perpendicular to the plane of the beams and
rotating counter-clockwise or clockwise.

Figure 3.4 shows the definition of shear S and bending moment M over a section beam. Axis
x in Figure 3.4 represents the axis of the beam.

P
A

M
S M S
A

B

P

Bending deformation

52

Figure 3.4: Definition of shear S and bending moment M on a section of a beam

3.4 SIGN CONVENTION AND COMPUTATION OF SHEAR AND BENDING
MOMENT

Before proceeding to explain the importance of sign convention, a simple calculation of
internal forces in a beam (Figure 3.5) is first looked at. For the purpose of calculation, the
concept of free body diagram as explained in Topic 1 is used.

The beam is first cut through section a-a and then separated into two parts as shown in Figure
3.5. Internal force S and M are then indicated on both sections belonging to the parts to the
right and left of the cut location. Making use of principle of equilibrium,F
x
=0 , F
y
=0 and
M
z
=0 , S and M could be then calculated. There are two choices of free body diagram
which could be used: the one on the left or right of the cut section. Results of calculation
using each of the free both diagram are shown. Values of S and M are found to be same for
both sets of calculation.

Figure 3.5: A simple example showing the computation of internal forces S and M in a beam
A

30 kN

B

a

a

3 m

3 m

(a) A cantilever beam
A
y

M
M M
S
S
(b) Free body diagram
180 kNm

M
S
30 kN

S = 30 kN
M = -90 kNm

30 kN

M
S
30 kN

S = 30 kN
M = -90 kNm

(c) Left section
(d) Right section
A

B

P

A

M

S

x

53

Before moving to the next section, an example illustrating the use of positive sign
convention in the calculation of internal forces in beam is shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6: Meaning of positive sign convention for S and M

Example 3.1

For the beam shown in Figure 3.7, calculate the internal forces S and M at the sections x-x,
y-y and z-z.

Figure 3.7

A B C D
X
X
y
y
z
z
1.5m 4.5m 1m
0.75 kN/m
x-x : just to the right of A
y-y : just to the left of B
z-z : just to the left of D
S
S
M M
Positive S:
Portion of the member to the left
of the section tends to be pushed
upward relative to the portion on
the right of the section
Positive M:
Beam tends to be bent concave
upwards, causing compression on
the upper fibres and tension in the
lower fibres of the beam at the
section

54

Solution:
1. Draw free body diagram and calculate the reaction forces.

+
= 0
x
F : 0 =
x
B

Take moment at C.

+
M at C=0 : ( ) [ ] 0 1
2
5 . 5
5 . 5 75 . 0 5 . 4 5 . 4 = |
\
|
+
y
B

kN B
y
604 . 1 =

+
= 0
y
F : ( ) 0 5 . 5 75 . 0 = +
y y
C B
kN C
y
521 . 2 =
2. Section x-x

Section y-y

M = 0
S =0
M
S
A
A
M
S
M = 0
S =0
A
B
y
C
y
D

X
X
y
y
z
z
1.5m 4.5m 1m
0.75 kN/m
B
x

55

Section z-z

This example shows that:
If appropriate portion after the cut is used, then evaluation of reactions is not necessary.
This will result in saving of calculation time.

Example 3.2

For the beam shown in Figure 3.8 below, compute the shear force and bending moment at
section x-x which is just to the left of support B. Note that reactions at supports have been
calculated and the values are as indicated in Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8

Solution:

Since the reactions had been calculated, we can directly compute the internal shear force and
bending moment using section AB.

S + 10(40) 100 = 0 M + 10(40)(20) 100(40) = 0
S = - 300 kN M = -4000 kNm

From the above two examples, general procedures for the computation of S and M could be
summarized as follows:
10 kN/m
A B
A
y
=100kN
20 m 20 m
M
S
6 kN/m
10 kN/m
A B C D
A
y
=100kN B
y
=482kN C
y
=298kN D
y
=60kN
20 m 20 m 50 m 20 m 20 m
x
x
M = 0
S =0
M
D
S

56

1. Compute reaction forces.
2. Pass an imaginary cut through the section where S and M are required. Draw the
corresponding free body diagram to be used. Indicate on the free body diagram the
positive sign convention for S and M.
3. Apply equilibrium of force in vertical direction and use it to compute S.
4. Apply equilibrium of moment at the cut section to compute M. Although equilibrium
of moment with respect to any other point could also be used, consideration of
moment at cut section will eliminate the necessity to consider moment caused by shear
S. This is to avoid mistake in value of m due to mistake in S.

3.5 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS FOR BEAMS

In the design of beams, the information on how S and M change with the change in the
location of section is required. Such information is conveniently provided by shear force
diagram (SFD) and bending moment diagram (BMD). In this section, computational
procedures to produce these two diagrams for beams will be looked at.

The general procedures are as follow:
i. Evaluate support reactions.
ii. Make necessary cut through section where equations for S and M are to be evaluated
(Depending on the structure and loading condition given, such cutting process might
need to be repeated). After choosing suitable free body diagram to be used, apply
a) Equilibrium condition for vertical force in order to obtain equation for S; and
b) Equilibrium equation of moment at cut section in order to obtain equation for
M.
iii. Making use of the equations for S and M obtained in step (ii) above, draw the
corresponding SFD and BMD.

The following examples will help to illustrate the process of drawing shear force and bending
moment diagrams.

Example 3.3

Determine shear force and bending moment at the section which is located distance x from
the fixed end A. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams.

Figure 3.9: A cantilever beam subjected to point load.

200 kN
A

B

x
4 m

57

x
200 kN
800 kNm

M
S
Solution:

1. Draw the free body diagram and determine the reaction forces.

+
= 0
x
F : 0 =
x
A

+
= 0
y
F : 0 200 =
y
A
kN A
y
200 =
+
A
M
: ( ) 0 4 200 =
A
M
kNm M
A
800 =

2. Computation of S and M

= 0
y
F kN S 100 =

M at cut section = 0;
0 200 800 = + x M
800 200 = x M

If the above computational process is examined, it can be seen that S and M at section located
at a distance x from point A is expressed in terms of known forces and the distance x. Since
this distance x can be anywhere between A and B, equations for S and M are actually
equations representing the variation of S and M on sections between A and B. This variation
could be seen by changing the value of x between 0 and 4m. If a graph of S (y axis) versus x
(x axis) is drawn by using equation S above, the following shear force diagram will be
obtained:

200 kN
B

x
4 m
A
y

M
A
A
x

58

Similarly, the graph of M versus x is plotted based on equation M above, the following
bending moment diagram will be obtained.

Example 3.4

Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the simply supported beam shown in
Figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10

Solution:

1. Draw the free body diagram and calculate the reaction forces.
100 kN

A

B

2 m

5 m
C

M (kNm)

-800 kNm

0

8 m

BMD (drawn at compression side)

x

S (kN)

-200 kN

0

8 m

SFD

x

59

100 kN

A

2 m
A
Y
x

M
S
x

C
Y
M
S

+
A
M
: 0 ) 2 ( 100 7 =
y
C
kN C
y
571 . 28 =

+
= 0
y
F : 0 100 = +
y y
C A
kN A
y
429 . 71 =
2. Computation of D and M.

-Portion AB

= 0
y
F
y
A S =
kN S 429 . 71 =

x A M
y
=
x M 429 . 71 =

-Portion BC

= 0
y
F 100 =
y
A S
kN S 571 . 28 =

( ) 2 100 = x x A M
y

200 571 . 28 + = x M

-Portion BC (Alternative)

= 0
y
F
y
C S =
kN S 571 . 28 =

x C M
y
=
x M 571 . 28 =
100 kN

A

B

2 m

5 m

A
Y
C
Y
C

A

x

A
Y
M
S

60

100 kN

A

B

2 m

5 m

A
Y
B
Y
71.429

142.858
SFD (kN)

BMD(kNm)

-28.571
SFD (kN)

142.858
BMD(kNm)

3. SFD and BMD

-Portion AB

S = 71.429 kN
M = 71.429x kN

0 x 2m

-Portion BC

S = -28.571 kN
M = -28.571x + 200 kNm

2m x 7m

Note that if the results of alternate
calculation for portion BC as follow:

S = -28.571 kN
M = 28.571x kNm

0m x 5m

Are used, the same diagram will be
obtained.

61

The computed SFD and BMD
are lastly shown together with the structure
analysed. It is important to indicate the title
SFD and BMD and the corresponding units
used. Note that the BMD is drawn on
compression side.

Example 3.5

For the beam shown is Figure 3.11, draw the corresponding shear force and bending moment
diagrams.

Figure 3.11

Solution:

1. Draw free body diagram and calculate reactions.

10 kN

A

B

2 m

5 m

2 m

5 kN/m

C

D

100 kN

A

B

2 m

5 m

A
Y
B
Y
71.429

142.858
SFD (kN)

BMD(kNm)

-28.571

62

10 kN

2 m

C

D

x

M
S
x

D

M
S

+
B
M
: ( ) ( )( ) ( ) 0 2 10 5 . 2 5 5 5 = +
y
A
kN A
y
5 . 8 =

+
= 0
y
F : ( ) 0 10 5 5 = +
y y
B A
kN B
y
5 . 26 =
2. Computation of S and M
-Portion AB

= 0
y
F x A S
y
5 =
x S 5 5 . 8 =

0
2
5 5 . 8 = +
|
\
|
+ M
x
x x
x x M 5 . 8 5 . 2
2
+ =
-Portion BC

= 0
y
F kN S 10 =

( ) 2 10 = x M
20 10 + = x M

-Portion CD

= 0
y
F 0 = S

0 = M

10 kN

2 m

5 m

2 m

5 kN/m

C

D

A
Y
B
Y
x

5 kN/m

A
Y
M
S

63

3. Draw SFD and BMD by using equations obtained at above.

3.6 FRAME

Frame composed of straight members connected either rigid (moment-resistant) connections
or hinged connection to form stable configurations. Figure 3.12 shows an example of frame.

Figure 3.12: A structural frame subjected to both vertical and lateral loads.
Under the action of external loads, the members of a frame may be, in general subjected to
Bending Moment, Shear and Axial (Tension or Compression) forces. Figure 3.13 below
a

a

b

b

10 kN

2 m

5 m

2 m

5 kN/m

C

D

A
Y
B
Y
8.5

-16.5

10

0

SFD (kN)

7.225

-20

BMD (kNm)

64

shows the internal forces of section a-a and b-b in the structural frame as shown in
Figure 3.12.

Figure 3.13: Internal forces of a structural frame.

3.7 STATICAL DETERMINACY OF FRAMES

A frame is considered to be statically determinate if the bending moment, shears and axial
forces in all its members, as well as all the external reactions, can be determined by using the
equations of equilibrium and condition. For better understanding, the example below will give
a better idea.

Example 3.6
Check the statical determinacy of the frame shown in Figure 3.14.

Figure 3.14

Solution:
1. Draw the free body diagram.
x

y

A

B

C

D

P
1
P
2
P
3
w

M
V
M
V
N N
a
b a
b

65

2. No. of external reactions : A
x
, A
y
, D
y
= 3
No. of equilibrium equations: 3

Statically determinate frame.

Once A
x
, A
y
and D
y
are determined, bending moment, shears and axial forces in all members
AB, BC and CD could be determined.

Equation of condition are used whenever there are hinged or roller-type joints in a frame.
Figure 3.15 shows frames with hinged and roller joints in a frame.

Figure 3.15: Frames with hinged and roller joints

Hinged joint

Roller joint

Rigid joint

x

y

A
x
B

C

D
y

P
1
P
2
P
3
w

A
y

66

For frames with only rigid joints, statical determinacy could be determine by
using:
i) the equation:
j r m 3 3 = +
where m = no. of members
r = no. of external reactions
j = no. of rigid joints

eg. m = 3
j = 4 (including the supports)
r = 6

( ) 15 6 3 3 3 = + = + r m
( ) 12 4 3 3 = = j
j r m 3 3 > + , statically indeterminate structure
Degree of indeterminacy,
3 12 15 = = i

ii) Alternative approach
- To cut enough members of the frame by passing imaginary sections and/or to
remove enough supports to render the structure statically determinate.
- The total number of internal or external restraints thus removed equals the
DEGREE OF STATICAL INDETRMINACY.

For one imaginary section:
Part ABe and DCe become statically determinate.
Degree of Statical Indeterminacy, 3 = i (= no. of internal restraint removed)

A

A

B

B

C

C

D

D

e

e

M
S
M
S
Q Q
(a)

(b) 3 internal restraints:
M, S, Q are removed

67

In order for the frame above to become statically determinate, 3 external restraints are needed
to be removed.

External restraints to be removed: D
x
, D
y
and M
D
.
ABCD become statically determinate.

Degree of statical indeterminacy = no. of external restraint removed
3 = i

3.8 ANALYSIS OF PLANE FRAMES

In the design of frames, the information on how S and M change with the change in the
location of section is required. Such information is conveniently provided by shear force
diagram (SFD) and bending moment diagram (BMD). In this section, determination of
member end forces, shears, bending moments and axial forces in plane statically determinate
frames will be looked at. The general procedures of computing the shears and bending
moment are almost the same as the beams. Example 3.7 gives an idea how to analyze a plane
frame.

Example 3.7

Draw the shear, bending moment and axial force diagrams and the quantitative deflected
shape for the frame shown in Figure 3.16.

A

B

C

D
y (c)

D
x
M
D

68

Figure 3.16
Solution:

1. Check the statical determinacy

Total no. of internal restraints = 1 x 3 = 3
Total no. of external reactions = 2 + 1 = 3
Total no. of unknown forces = 3 + 3 = 6
Total no. of equilibrium equations = 2 x 3 = 6
Statically Determinate

2. Compute the reactions.

5 kN/m

10m

7 m

10m

10 kN
A

B
C

D

69

= 0
x
F : kN A
x
10 = , kN A
x
10 =

+ 0 =
A
M : 0 10 ) 5 )( 10 ( 5 ) 10 ( 10 = +
y
D
kN D
y
35 =

+
= 0
y
F : ( ) 0 5 10 = +
y y
D A
kN A
y
15 =
3. Shear and bending moment in the members.
- Shear and bending moment are defined w.r.t. sections which are perpendicular to
member axis.

- Member AB
5 kN/m

10m

7 m

10m

10
10 kN

B

C

15kN

35 kN

A

D

a

a

b

b

c

c

5 kN/m

10m

7 m

10m

10 kN
A
y
A
x
D
y
B

C

70

= 0
x
F : kN S 10 =
0 =
a a
M : xkNm M 10 =
m x 10 0

The corresponding SFD and BMD for this section.

- Member BC

10

100

A

A

B

B

(a) SFD (kN)

(b) BMD (kNm)

10 kN

15 kN

A

x

x

S

M

5 kN/m

10m

10 kN
10 kN

B

15 kN

A

x

M

S

x

71

= 0 Fy : 0 5 15 = + x S
x S 5 15 =
0 =
b b
M : ( ) ( ) 0 10 20 15
2
5 = |
\
|
+ x
x
x M
200 15 5 . 2
2
+ + = x x M
m x 10 0


- Member CD

B

B

C

C

-35

15

222.5

200

100

(a) SFD (kN)

(b) BMD (kNm)

5 kN/m

10m

x

10m

10 kN
10 kN

B

C

15 kN

A

S

M

x

72

= 0
x
F : 0 10 10 = + S
0 = S
0 =
c c
M : ( )( ) ( ) 0 150 10 10 10 5 10 5 = + x x M
0 150 10 10 10 250 = + + x x M
0 = M

Alternative:

= 0
x
F : 0 = S
0 =
c c
M : 0 = M


D

D

C

C

(a) SFD (kN)

(b) BMD (kNm)

x

15 kN

D

x

S

M

73

The shear force and bending moment diagram.

5 kN/m

10m

7 m

10m

10 kN
10

A

B

C

-35

D

B

C

222.5

200

100

15

100

A

D

SFD (kN)

BMD (kNm)

74

15

A

B

C

D

Axial Force (kN)

35

Quantitative Deflected Shape
(Based on BMD)

75

Example 3.8

Draw the shear, bending moment, and axial force diagrams and the quantitative deflected
shape for the frame shown in Figure 3.17.

Figure 3.17

Solution:

1. Statical determinacy

no. of reactions = 3
no. of equilibrium equations = 3
Statically determinate frame.

2. Reactions
- If we choose to proceed our calculation from C, there is no need to calculate the
reactions A
x
, A
y
and M
A
at A.

3. Shear and bending moment in the members.
- Shear and bending moment are defined w.r.t. sections which are perpendicular to
member axis.

A

B

C

20 kN/m

80 kN
10m

B

C

M
A
A
y
A
x

76

- Portion / Member CB

= 0
y
F : kN S 80 =
k

0
a a
M : x M 80 =

m x 7 0

80
C

B

C

B

560
(b) BMD (kNm)

(a) SFD (kN)

A

B

C

20 kN/m

80 kN
10m

a

a

b

b

C

80 kN
M

S

x

77

- Portion / Member BA

= 0
x
F : x S 20 =

0
b b
M
( )
|
\
|
=
2
20 7 80
x
x M
2
10 560 x M =
m x 10 0

The shear force and bending moment diagram.

A

A

200

-1560

-560

(a) SFD (kN)

(b) BMD (kNm)

80
C

B

C

B

560
B

B

A

A

200

-1560

-560

(a) SFD (kN)

(b) BMD (kNm)

B

C

20 kN/m

80 kN
x

M

S

78

A

(c) Axial Force (kN)

(d) Qualitative Deflected Shape

-80

A

B
C

20 kN/m

80 kN

79

Exercise 1

Figure 3.18 shows a frame with an internal hinge at C. It is supported by two hinge supports
at A and E. Draw the corresponding shear force and bending moment diagrams. Sketch also
the qualitative deflected shape.

Figure 3.18

Exercise 2

Figure 3.19 shows a rigidly jointed frame with pinned and roller support at A and D, respectively. A
horizontal point load of magnitude 40kN acts at joints B and a uniformly distributed load with
intensity of 3 kN/m acts along portion C to D of the horizontal member BCD. Draw the corresponding
shear and bending moment diagrams.

Figure 3.19

80

Exercise 3

Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the frame shown in Figure 3.20.

Figure 3.20

81

TOPIC 4
ANALYSIS OF CABLES

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Cables constructed of high-strength steel wires are completely flexible and have a tensile
strength four to five times greater than structural steel. Because of their strength-to-weight
ratio, engineers use cables to construct long-span structures, including suspension bridges and
roofs over large arenas and convention halls. Figure 4.1 shows an example of cable stayed
bridge, which is the longest bridge in Malaysia Penang Bridge.

Figure 4.1: Penang Bridge a cable stayed bridge.

A cable is a form of structure which is unable to resist bending moments. A structural
parabolic arch which is carries a uniformly distributed load is subjected to a very small
bending moment at any point on the arch. Therefore, an economical bridge can be constructed
as shown in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2

Girder on the columns is supported by the structural arch. In this case, the structural arch and
the columns are in compression.
Girder
Column
Structural
Arch

82

Since a member in tension requires lesser cross-sectional area if compared to a
member in compression, both carrying equal amount of load, therefore it is more economical
if the above structure is changed to be a suspended bridge as shown is Figure 4.3. In this case,
the cable and hangers are in tension.

Figure 4.3

4.2 TOPIC OUTCOME

a) Able to calculate reactions and tension in cables using equilibrium equations.

4.3 SCOPE OF ANALYSIS

In this analysis, the cable is considered perfectly flexible in bending so that the bending
moment on any section of the cable must be zero, and the cable can only transmit load to
the supports by means of tension action along its length.

It should be noted that:

1. Maximum tension occurs at maximum reaction point.
2. Minimum tension occurs at the lowest point of the cable.

The bending flexibility of a cable will be intuitively understood by a comparison with a cotton
thread from which small weight are hung as shown in Figure 4.3 below.

Girder
Hanger
Cable

83

Figure 4.3: Suspended cable subjected to concentrated loads.

Clearly, the thread has no resistance to bending forces and, since the weight of the thread will
be insignificant in comparison with the loads, it will assume a shape consisting of a series of
straight line and between the applied loads. It is such as an idealization which has been
assumed for the cable in figure 4.3 above.

As the applied loads are all vertical, the horizontal reactions at A and B must be equal and
opposite (since they are only horizontal force acting on the structure) and these are denote by
A
x
and B
x
. Simple equilibrium will confirm that the horizontal component of the tensile force
at any section will also of value A
x
or B
x
(A
x
= B
x
). See Figure 4.4 below.

Figure 4.4

Using
= 0
B
M for the whole structure.
L
C (x,y)
w
1
w
2
w
3
x
1
x
2
x
3
A
y
B
y
A
x
B
x
L
C (x,y)
w
1
w
2
w
3
x
1
x
2
x
3
A

B

84

( ) ( ) ( ) 0
3 3 2 2 1 1
= x L W x L W x L W L A
y

( ) [ ]
L
x L W
A
n n
y

=

Consider any typical point C(x,y) and in this case positioned between the concentrated loads
W
1
and W
2
. As the bending moment at C is zero, taking moments of all the forces to the left
(refer to Figure 4.5) of C gives:

Figure 4.5

( ) 0
1 1
= y A x x W x A
x y

( ) [ ]
( )
1 1
x x W
L
x L W x
y A
n n
x

=

4.4 TYPES OF CABLES

There are two types of cable that will be considered:

1. Symmetrical cable which is supported at the same level.
2. Unsymmetrical cable which is supported at different levels.

4.5 SYMMETRICAL CABLE SUBJECTED TO UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD

In many practical structures, the suspension bridge for example, the dead load of the
suspended superstructure is carried at such numerous positions along the span so that it is
sufficiently accurate to consider the load on the cable as uniformly distributed across the span.

Figure 4.6 illustrates the typical problem.

The symmetry of the arrangement demonstrates that

a) The vertical relative forces at the supports are
2
L
and
b) The tensile force in the cable at the mid span section is A
x
or B
x
(A
x
= B
x
).
C (x,y)
w
1
x
1
x

A
y
A
x
W
2
y

Note: The sum of the moments of all
forces to one side of a point must be zero
as the cable cannot sustain an internal
bending moment.

85

For the whole structure.

wL B A
y y
= +

For symmetrical cable,

2
wL
B A
y y
= =
And, H B A
x x
= =

Figure 4. 6

Where,

L = horizontal distance (span between two supports)
h = vertical distance from the lowest point to supports

Consider a point at mid span (as shown in Figure 4.7).

For equilibrium;
= 0
c
M
Hh
L L
W
L wL
+ |
\
|
|
\
|
= |
\
|
4 2 2 2

8 4
2 2
wL wL
Hh =

8
2
wL
=

h
wL
H
8
2
=
Figure 4.7

Consider a general point, C (x,y), as shown in Figure 4.8.

+ 0 =
c
M
( ) 0
2 2
=
|
\
|
+ x
wL x
wx Hy

2 2
2
wx wLx
Hy =

Figure 4.8

A

B

h

L

w/unit length

B
x
B
y
A
x
A
y
A

L/2
w

H

2
wL
h

H

2
wL

2
wL

c

A

x

w

H

2
wL
y

H

2
wL

v
c(x,y)

86

Substituting the previous value of H and rearranging:-

( )
( )
2 8
2
x L wx
y
h
wL
=

2
2
) ( 8
L
x L hx
y

=

2
) ( 4
L
x L hx
y

=
Where y = vertical distance from any point on the cable to supports

This is a parabolic equation and defines the shape of the cable when subjected to a load
distributed uniformly with respect to the horizontal projection of the cable.

4.6 FORCES IN CABLE SUBJECTED TO UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD

Refer to the Figure 4.9 below.

The tensile force T, in the cable at any position can be
obtained from knowledge of the horizontal and vertical
components at the position.

Figure 4.9

For example, at point C (refer to Figure 4.9) in the cable subjected to a uniformly distributed
load, where:

Horizontal equilibrium shows that,

h
wL
H
8
2
= and

Vertical equilibrium for the forces to the left of C gives

wx
wl
v =
2
and acts in the direction shown.

The tensile force T, in the cable C is the resultant of H and v.

Where
2 2 2
v H T
x
+ =
A

x

w

H

2
wL
y

H

2
wL

v
c

T

87

2 2
v H T
x
+ =

2
2
2
2 8
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
= wx
wL
h
wL
T
x
(4.1)

Maximum tensile force in the cable occurs at 0 = x , i.e., at supports, and is given by

2
2
2
max
2 8
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
=
wL
h
wL
T (4.2)

Minimum tensile force in the cable occurs at
2
L
x = , substitute into (4.1)

2 2
2
min
2 2 8
|
|
\
|
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
=
L
w
wL
h
wL
T
H
h
wL
T = =
8
2
min
(4.3)

Example 4.1

Figure 4.10 shows a cable subjected to both point load and uniformly distributed load.
Determine
a) the reactions at A and B
b) T
min
and T
max

c) size of the cable if the allowable stress is 660 kN/m
2
.

Figure 4.10

10kN

10kN

5m
A

B

5m 5m 5m
2.5m

5kN/m

88

Solution:

1. Draw free body diagram and calculate reactions.

= 0
x
F : H B A
x x
= =

= 0
y
F : ( ) 10 10 20 5 + + = +
y y
B A
kN B A
y y
120 = +
Since it is symmetrical kN B A
y y
60 = =

To prove:

+ 0 =
A
M : ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( ) 0 10 20 5 15 10 5 10 20 =
y
B
kN B
y
60 =
kN A
y
60 60 120 = =

2. To determine:

T
min
(Minimum tension)

Consider a point at mid span, x=10m.

10kN

10kN

5m
A

B

5m

5m

5m

2.5m

5kN/m
A
x
A
y
B
x
B
y
10kN

5m
A

5m
2.5m

H

60kN

H

V

C

5kN/m

89

+ 0 =
C
M : ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( ) 0 10 60 5 10 5 10 5 5 . 2 = + + H
kN H 120 =

+
= 0
y
F : ( ) 0 10 5 10 60 = V
0 = V

T
min
occurs at mid span = H.

Or

2 2
min
V H T + =

2 2
min
0 120 + = T
kN T 120
min
=

To determine T
max
(Maximum tension) which occurs at support A.

2 2
max
V H T + =

2 2
max
60 120 + = T
kN T 16 . 134
max
=

3. To determine the area of cable.

4
2
d
A

= and
A
F
=

Therefore,
660
16 . 143
4
2
=
d

m d 509 . 0 =

90

4.7 UNSYMMETRICAL CABLE SUBJECTED TO UNIFORMLY
DISTRIBUTED LOAD

Figure 4.11: Unsymmetrical cable subjected to uniformly distributed load

Figure 4.11 above shows on unsymmetrical cable (supported at different level) where

C = lowest point of the cable.
d
1
= vertical distance from the lowest point to support A.
d
2
= vertical distance from the lowest point to support B.
l
1
= horizontal distance from A to C.
l
2
= horizontal distance from C to B.

Consider the whole structure

= 0
x
F where H B A
x x
= =
And
= 0
y
F where wL B A
y y
= +

Consider left hand side (AC), as shown in Figure 4.12.

Figure 4.12
l

A

d
1
A
x
A
y
H

V

C

w

A

B

C

d
1
d
2
l
1
l
2
L

A
x
A
y
B
x
B
y
w

91

= 0
x
F where H A
x
=
And
= 0
y
F where
1
wl A
y
=

Also + 0 =
A
M : 0
2
1
1 1
=
|
\
|
l
wl Hd

1
2
1
2d
wl
H =

Consider right hand side (BC), as shown in Figure 4.13.

Figure 4.13

= 0
x
F where H B
x
=
And
= 0
y
F where
1
wl B
y
= where
1 2
l L l =
( )
1
l L w B
y
=

Also + 0 =
B
M : 0
2
2
2
2
=
|
\
|
Hl
l
wl

2
2
2
2d
wl
H =

Equate right hand side = left hand side

2
2
2
1
2
1
2 2 d
wl
d
wl
=
Or
2
1
2
1
d
d
l
l
= ..(4.4)

B
C
d2
l
2
Bx
By
H
w

92

Example 4.2

For the cable shown in Figure 4.14, find H.

Figure: 4.14

Solution:

Given that: m L 40 = ; m d 5
1
= ; m d 15
2
=

0 =
y
F ; ( ) kN B A
y y
80 40 2 = = +

2
2
2
1
2
1
2 2 d
wl
d
wl
H B A
x x
= = = +
But
3
1
15
5
2
1
2
2
2
1
= = =
d
d
l
l

Therefore
1 2
3l l =
And 40
2 1
= + l l
Hence 40 3
1 1
= + l l
m l 641 . 14
1
=
m l 359 . 25
2
=

We know that
1
2
1
2d
wl
H =
Therefore
( )( )
( )
kN H 87 . 42
5 2
641 . 14 2
2
= =

To check
( )( )
( )
kN
d
wl
H 87 . 42
15 2
358 . 25 2
2
2
2
2
2
= = =

A

B

5m

10m

40m

A
x
A
y
B
x
B
y
2 kN/m

93

4.8 LENGTH OF CABLES (S)

4.8.1 CABLES LOADED WITH POINT LOADS

For the cable loads, it is assumed that point loads, it is assumed that the self weight is
negligible. Hence the length is the sum of the length of each segment, as shown in Figure 4.15.

Figure 4.15: Cable loaded with point loads

Length of cable,
4 3 2 1
s s s s S + + + =

Each segment is assumed to be straight.

4.8.2 SYMMETRICAL CABLES

For cables loaded with uniformly distributed load we can show that for symmetrical cables:

L
d
L S
3
8
2
+ =

Figure 4.16

To proof, refer to Figure 4.16,
A

B

d

L

w/unit length

B
x
B
y
A
x
A
y
L
w
1
w
2
w
3
A

B

s
1
s
2
s
3
s
4

94

If s = length of a small segment

S = total length of cable

2 2 2
y x s + =
Rearrange
(
(
\
|
+ =
2
2 2
1
x
y
x s

But ( )
2
2
2 2
4 4 4
L
dx
L
dxL
x L
L
dx
y = =
Therefore
2
8 4
L
dx
L
d
dx
dy
=
Hence

(
(
\
|
+ = =
L L
dx
dx
dy
ds s
0
2
1
2
0
1

Expanding this by the binomial theorem produces the following expression (neglecting higher
order terms).

We will get
L
d
L S
3
8
2
+ =

4.8.3 UNSYMMETRICAL CABLES

For cables supported at different level, we can show that

Length of cable,
2
2
2
1
2
1
2 1
3
2
3
2
l
d
l
d
l l S + + + =

Figure 4.17

A

B

C

d
1
d
2
l
1
l
2
A
x
A
y
B
x
B
y
s
s
y
x

95

Example 4.3

For the Figure 4.18 shown below, find:
a) Force (tension) in segments AC, CD, DE and EB.
b) The length of cable, S.

Figure 4.18

Solution:

1. Draw free body diagram and calculate the reactions.

Consider the whole structure:

+
= 0
y
F : 0 15 10 10 = +
y y
B A
kN B A
y y
35 = +
+
= 0
x
F : 0 = +
x x
B A
+ 0 =
A
M : ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 50 15 30 10 10 10 60 = +
y
B
kN B
y
17 . 19 =
kN A
y
83 . 15 =

A
B

10 kN

10 kN

15 kN

C

D

E

5 m

10 m

10 m
20 m

20 m

A
x
A
y
B
x
B
y
A

B

10 kN

10 kN

15 kN

C

D

E

5 m

10 m

10 m
20 m

20 m

96

B

5 m

10 m

H

19.17kN

E

2. To calculate H.
Consider segment BE.

+ 0 =
E
M
( ) ( ) 0 10 17 . 19 5 = + H
kN H 34 . 38 =

a) To calculate forces in segments of the cable.
Consider segment AC.

To calculate y
c
.

+ 0 =
C
M
( ) 0 10 83 . 15 34 . 38 =
c
y
m y
c
13 . 4 =

To calculate force in T
AC
.

13 . 4
10
tan =
= 56 . 67
+
= 0
y
F : 0 6 . 67 cos 83 . 15 =
AC
T
kN T
AC
47 . 41 =

Consider segment AD.
To calculate y
D
.

+ 0 =
D
M
( ) ( ) 30 83 . 15 34 . 38 20 10 = +
D
y
m y
D
17 . 7 =

A

C

10 m

15.83 kN

38.34 kN

T
AC

4.13m

A

D

10 kN

C

10 m
20 m

15.83 kN

38.34 kN

y
D
A

C

10 m

y
c
15.83 kN

38.34 kN

97

To calculate tension in CD.

20
04 . 3
tan =
= 64 . 8
+
= 0
y
F : 0 64 . 8 cos 10 83 . 15 =
CD
T
kN T
CD
79 . 38 =

To calculate force in EB.

5
10
tan =
= 43 . 63

+
= 0
y
F : 0 43 . 63 cos 17 . 19 =
EB
T
kN T
EB
86 . 42 =

Consider segment BED.

B

E

5 m

10 m

38.34kN

19.17kN

5 m

10 m

T
EB
A

D

10 kN

C

10 m
20 m

15.83 kN

38.34 kN

7.17m

T
CD
4.13m

C

D

3.04m

20 m

B

15 kN

D

E

7.17 m

10 m
20 m

T
ED

38.34kN

19.17kN

E

D

20 m

2.17 m

98

20
17 . 2
tan =
= 2 . 6
+
= 0
y
F : 0 2 . 6 cos 15 17 . 19 =
DE
T
kN T
EB
61 . 38 =

b) To find the length of the cable.

S = length of segment AC + length of segment CD + length of segment DE
+ length of segment EB

Therefore
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
10 5 17 . 2 20 04 . 3 20 13 . 4 10 + + + + + + + = S
18 . 11 12 . 20 23 . 20 82 . 10 + + + = S
m S 35 . 62 =

4.9 SUPPORT CONDITIONS

1. Pinned-support, say support B as shown in Figure 4.19.

Figure 4.19

T T T
B B
= = '

+
= 0
y
F : 0 cos cos ' =
B B By
T T R
( ) cos cos + = T R
By

+
= 0
x
F : 0 sin sin ' = +
B B Bx
T T R
sin ' sin
B B Bx
T T R + =
( ) sin sin = T R
Bx

B
R
Bx
R
By
T
B
T
B

A

C

C

D

D

E

E

B

10

4.13

20

20

10

3.04

2.17

5

99

2. Roller support, say support B as shown in Figure 4.20.

Figure 4.20

'
B B
T T

+
= 0
y
F : 0 cos cos ' =
B B By
T T R
cos cos '
B B By
T T R + =

+
= 0
x
F : 0 sin sin ' = +
B B
T T
sin ' sin
B B
T T =

sin
sin '
=
B
B
T
T

There is no horizontal reaction for roller support.

Example 4.4

The cable system in Figure 4.21 shown in below is loaded with a uniformly distributed load of
10 kN/m between the roller supports. The horizontal distance between supports is 80m and
the vertical distance between the lowest point and the left hand support is 3m. The right hand
support is 6m higher than the left support.

Determine:
a) the total length of cable, S
b) the maximum and minimum tension between A and B (T
A
and T
B
),
c) the tension in anchor cables (T
A

and T
B
),
d) vertical and horizontal reactions at supports (pressure on tower).

B
R
By
T
B
T
B

100

Figure 4.21

Solution:

a) Length of unsymmetrical cable is given by

2
2
2
1
2
1
2 1
3
2
3
2
l
d
l
d
l l S + + + =
We know that,

2
1
2
1
d
d
l
l
= where, m d 3
1
= ; m d 9
2
=

3
1
9
3
2
1
= =
l
l

3
1 2
l l =

Where m l l 80
2 1
= +
80 3
1 1
= + l l
m l 282 . 29
1
=
And m l 718 . 50 282 . 29 80
2
= =

Therefore
|
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
+ + =
718 . 50
9
3
2
282 . 29
3
3
2
718 . 50 282 . 29
2 2
S
m S 270 . 81 =

b) To calculate T
min
(which occurs at the lowest point).
Consider the whole structure.

A
B
6m
80m
3m
10 kN/m
45
30
l
1
l
2

101

+
= 0
y
F : ( ) 0 80 10 = +
y y
B A
kN B A
y y
800 = +
+
= 0
x
F : H B A
x x
= =

Consider left hand side (portion AC, where C is the lowest point).

+ 0 =
A
M : ( ) ( ) 0
2
282 . 29
282 . 29 10 3 =
|
\
|
H
kN H 1 . 1429 =

Check with right hand side.

B
C
9m
50.72m

Bx
By
H
10 kN/m
29.282m

A

3m

H

A
y
H

C

10kN/m

A
B
6m
80m
3m
10 kN/m
A
x

A
y

B
y

B
x

102

A

292.82 kN

1429.1 kN

T
A

+ 0 =
B
M : ( ) ( ) 0
2
72 . 50
72 . 50 10 9 =
|
\
|
H
kN H 1 . 1429 =
Hence kN T 1 . 1429
min
=

( ) 282 . 29 10
1
= = wl A
y
and ( ) 72 . 50 10
2
= = wl B
y

kN A
y
82 . 292 = kN B
y
2 . 507 =

To calculate T
max.

kN T
A
8 . 1458 82 . 292 1 . 1429
2 2
= + =

kN T
B
4 . 1516 2 . 507 1 . 1429
2 2
= + =

Hence, kN T T
B
4 . 1516
max
= =

c) To calculate tension in anchor cables.
Consider support A

+
= 0
x
F : 0 45 cos ' 1 . 1429 =
A
T
kN T
A
1 . 2021 ' =
Tension in anchor cable at support A.

A
45
1429.1 kN

T
A
292.82 kN

R
Ay
T
A

R
Ay
= vertical reaction
(pressure) on support A
B

T
B
1429.1 kN

507.2 kN

103

Consider support B.

+
= 0
x
F : 0 1 . 1429 30 cos ' =
B
T
kN T
A
2 . 1650 ' =
Tension in anchor cable at support B.

d) To calculate vertical reaction at support.
Refer to figure in section c).
At support A.

+
= 0
y
F : 0 45 sin ' 82 . 292 =
A Ay
T R
kN R
Ay
9 . 1721 =

At support B.

+
= 0
y
F : 0 30 sin ' 18 . 507 =
B By
T R
kN R
Ay
3 . 1332 =

There are no horizontal reactions since these are roller supports.

0 = =
Bx Ax
R R

B
30
T
B
T
B
1429.1 kN

507.18 kN

R
By
R
By
= vertical reaction
(pressure) on support B

104

Exercise 1

A symmetrical cable system shown in Figure 4.22 carries a uniformly distributed load of 3
kN/m and point loads of 20kN and 40kN between the support A and B with a span of 40m.
The lowest point of the cable is located at a distance of 8m vertically from the supports.
Determine:
i. the horizontal distance of the lowest point of the cable from supports.
ii. the maximum and minimum tension between A and B (T
min
and T
max
).
iii. the tension in anchor cable (T
A
and T
B
) and vertical and horizontal reactions
at supports (R
Ay
, R
Ax
and R
By
, R
Bx
). Repeat the calculations if the angle of
anchor cable is reduced to 30. State the relation between change in angle of
anchor cable and tension in anchor cable.
iv. the allowable stress of the cable if the diameter of the circular cable is 0.1m.

Figure 4.22

105

Exercise 2

The cable system shown in Figure 4.23 loaded with uniformly distributed load of 6 kN/m
between the pinned supports. The horizontal distance between supports is 60m and the
vertical distance between the lowest point and the left hand support is 3m. The right hand
support is 6m higher than the left support. Determine:

i. the total length of cable, given
2
2
2
1
2
1
2 1
3
2
3
2
l
d
l
d
l l S + + + = and
2
1
2
1
d
d
l
l
=
ii. the maximum and minimum tension between A and B.
iii. the tension in anchor cables.
iv. size of the cable, if the allowable stress = 14000 kN/m
2
.

Figure 4.23

106

Exercise 3

The cable system shown in Figure 4.24 carries a uniformly distributed load of 5 kN/m
between the supports and three point loads of 10 kN, 15 kN and 20 kN at 15 m interval. The
horizontal distance between supports is 60m and the vvertical distance between the lowest
point and the left support is 3m. The right support is 6m higher than the left support.
Determine:

i. the lowest point of the cable (x)
ii. the maximum and minimum tension between A and B (T
min
and T
max
)
iii. the tension in anchor cable (T
A
and T
B
)
iv. vertical and horizontal reactions at supports (R
Ay
, R
Ax
and R
By
, R
Bx
)
v. size of the cable, if the allowable stress = 14000kN/m
2
.

Figure 4.24

107

TOPIC 5
ANALYSIS OF THREE HINGED ARCH

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Arches have been used for a very long time to span large distance. Bridges, building, etc. have
been used the ability of the arch to carry transverse loading efficiently.

The arch carries most of the load axially with bending moment greatly reduced due to the
curvature of the arch. In this section, we are going to consider only three hinged arch, which
is similar to three hinged portal frame.

The restraints at both ends reduce horizontal thrusts which are in the opposite direction to the
loading and thus reduce the bending moments.

Bridges are often constructed as three-hinged arches. This type of construction is particularly
suitable when compression-proof building materials are available. Horizontal thrust occurs in
the arch at the supports. It permits much lower bending moments in the arch than in the case
of a beam on two supports with the same span. A significant longitudinal compressive force is
active in the arch to produce this effect. The Sydney Harbour Bridge shown in Figure 5.1 is an
example of arch bridge.

Figure 5.1: Sydney Harbour Bridge

5.2 TOPIC OUTCOMES

a) Able to calculate reactions of the three hinged arch.
b) Able to draw shear force, thrust and bending moment diagrams for three hinged
arch.

108

5.3 COMPARISON BETWEEN A BEAM AND ARCH

For the arch the loads give their usual downward bending effect but are counteracted by the
upward bending of the thrusts at the ends to reduce the bending moment. Figure 5.2 shows a
sketch of reactions for beam and arch.

Figure 5.5

At any point, the bending moment in the arch is equal to the bending moment of point on the
equivalent beam minus Hy.
Now, Hy is proportional to y, since H is constant there for Hy is parabola.
If we draw M
beam
and Hy separately as shown in Figure 5.3.
P
V
1
V
2
(a) Beam
L
(b) Arch
L
V
1 V
2
P
H
1
H
2
h
y

109

Figure 5.3
Advantage of the Arch
It has been pointed earlier that the bending moments in the arch rib have been considerably
reduced by the action of the horizontal thrust at the abutments. In conclusion, the arch rib
experiences a high thrust with small moments for which a much smaller section is required
that for a corresponding beam. Arch spans therefore can be much longer than the span of
beams.

5.4 DETERMINATE AND INDETERMINATE ARCHES
The method for determining the determinacy of a structure is discussed in Topic 1. To
determine the statical determinacy of an arch, the following example will give a clearer idea.

Example 5.1
Classify each of the arches shown in Figure 5.4 as statically determinate or indeterminate.
Solution:
The arch shown in Figure 5.4 (a) contains 1 member, 6 reaction forces.
Number of equilibrium equation available = 3
Number of reaction forces = 6
Statically indeterminate arch.

P
V1=P/2
V2=P/2
(a) Beam
L
(b) Arch
L V1 V2
P
H1 H2
h
+
PL
M
beam
PL-Hh

110

(a)
The arch shown in Figure 5.4 (b) contains 1 member, 4 reaction forces.
Statically indeterminate arch.

(b)
The arch shown in Figure 5.4 (c) contains 2 members, 6 reaction forces.
Statically determinate arch.
A

B

A
y
A
x
B
x
B
y
A

B

A
y
A
x
M
A
M
B
B
x
B
y

111

(c)
Figure 5.4

5.5 EQUATION OF A PARABOLIC ARCH

There are two types of equation for arch, namely:

a) Parabolic arch (as shown in Figure 5.5)

c bx ax y + + =
2
OR
( )
2
4
L
x L hx
y

=

Figure 5.5

b) Semi circle arch (as shown in Figure 5.6)

2 2 2
R y x = +
A
y
A
x
B
x
B
y
C

x

y

h

L/2

L/2

(0,0)

A

B

A
y
A
x
B
x
B
y
C

C
y
C
x
C
x
C
y

112

Figure 5.6

Since there are four reactions, A
x
, A
y
, B
x
, B
y
and four equations of equilibrium (including one
at the third hinge). Therefore all unknown reactions can be found.
+
= 0
x
F ; +
= 0
y
F ; + 0 =
A
M ; + 0 =
C
M

The most common arch curve is the parabolic shape. An arch shown in Figure 5.7 below
referred to x and y axes since the forces and moments in an arch depend upon its shape it is
necessary to know the equation.

Figure 5.7

Consider a point A (0,0), any point P (x,y), C (L/2,h) and B (L,D).
By using parabolic equation c bx ax y + + =
2

C (L/2,h)

x

y

H = height of arch

L

A (0,0)

B(L,0)

P(x,y)

x

y

2
A
y
A
x
B
x
B
y
L/2 L/2

R

R

R

C

(0,0)

(-Rsin
1
,Rcos
1
)

(Rsin
2
,Rcos
2
)

113

At point C; y = h; x =L/2
2 4
2
bL aL
h + = .. (1)
At point B; y=0; x=L
bL aL + =
2
0
L
b
a = .. (2)
Substituting (2) into (1)
2 4
bL bL
h + =
L
h
b
4
=
Therefore,
( )
2
4
L
x L hx
y

= equation for a parabolic arch.
It is also important to know the angle, the arch make with the horizontal.

dx
dy
slope = where
( )
2
4
L
x L hx
y

=
( )
2
2 4
L
x L h
dx
dy
=

( )
2
2 4
L
x L h
slope

=
Where ) arctan(slope =
) ( tan
1
slope
=

Example 5.2

Calculate the reaction for the three hinged arch shown in Figure 5.8 below.

114

Figure 5.8

Solution:

2. To calculate the reactions:
+
= 0
y
F : 0 150 140 130 = +
y y
B A

+ 0 =
A
M : ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 15 150 10 140 5 130 40 =
y
B
kN B
y
5 . 107 =
kN A
y
5 . 312 =
+
= 0
x
F : 0 =
x x
B A
Consider right hand side.
5m

5m

5m

5m

130 kN

140 kN

150 kN

20m

20m

8m

C

A
y
A
x
B
x
B
y
5m

5m

5m

5m

130 kN

140 kN

150 kN

20m

20m

8m

A

B

C

115

+ 0 =
C
M
( ) ( ) 20 5 . 107 8 =
x
B
kN B
x
75 . 268 =
kN B A
x x
75 . 268 = =

Example 5.3

Calculate the reaction for the three hinged arch shown in Figure 5.9 below.

Figure 5.9
Solution:

C
8 kN/m

30m

70m

60m

40m

20m

A
y
A
x
B
x
B
y
C

A
B

8 kN/m

30m

70m

60m

40m

20m

20m

8m

C

B
x
107.5 kN

116

+
= 0
y
F : ( ) 0 200 8 = +
y y
B A

+ 0 =
A
M : ( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) 0 85 170 8 15 30 8 130 = +
y
B
kN B
y
54 . 861 =
kN A
y
46 . 738 =
+
= 0
x
F : 0 =
x x
B A

Consider left hand side.

+ 0 =
C
M : ( )( ) ( ) ( ) 0 70 46 . 738 20 50 100 8 = +
x
A
kN A
x
61 . 584 =
kN B A
x x
61 . 584 = =

5.6 THE BENDING MOMENT IN THE ARCH RIB

Bending moments in an arch, though much lesser than those in a beam of the same span. They
are never less significant and need to be calculated.

Consider Figure 5.10 below.

C

8 kN/m

30m

70m

738.46kN

A
x
20m

117

Figure 5.10

+ 0 =
p
M : M
arch
+ A
x
y A
y
x + (moment of loads) = 0
M
arch
+ A
x
y = A
y
x - (moment of loads)

But for normal beam moment. (Refer to Figure 5.11)

Figure 5.11

+ 0 =
p
M : M
beam
A
y
x + (moment of loads) = 0
M
beam
= A
y
x - (moment of loads)

When M
arch
+ A
x
y = beam moment
M
arch
= beam moment - A
x
y

This shows that the bending moment in as ach is very much less than bending moment
in a beam.

5.7 THE THRUST (N) AND SHEAR FORCE (Q) IN THE ARCH RIB

The thrust and shear maybe found simply resolving the forces on the arch in the correct
direction. Care needs to be taken in calculating their values at the position of a point load. The
fact is that there is an abrupt change in value of the thrust and shear either side of a point load.
Hence the trust and shear need to be calculated both sides of a point load.
P

M
beam
w
1
w
2
w
3
A

A
y
x

y

w
1
w
2
w
3
P

A

A
x
A
y
M
arch

118

Example 5.4

Determine the variation in thrust (N) and shear force (Q) at 10m centres across the arch
shown in Figure 5.12.

Figure 5.12

Solution:


+
= 0
y
F : ( ) 0 40 15 = +
y y
B A

+ 0 =
A
M : ( ) ( )( ) 0 20 40 15 40 =
y
B
C

15 kN/m

40 m

8 m

A
y
A
x
B
x
B
y
A

B

C

15 kN/m

40 m

8 m

119

kN B
y
300 =
kN A
y
300 =
+
= 0
x
F : 0 =
x x
B A


+ 0 =
C
M : ( )( ) ( ) ( ) 0 8 20 300 10 20 15 = +
x
B
kN B
x
375 =
kN B A
x x
375 = =

At every 10m,

D

150 kN = 15(10)

10 m

Y
D
=6m
300 kN

375 kN

N

Q

M

C

15 kN/m

20 m

8 m

B
x
300kN

120

( )
( )( )
( ) m x L
L
hx
Y
D
6 10 40
40
10 8 4 4
2 2
= = =

( )
( )
( ) [ ] 4 . 0 10 2 40
40
8 4
2
4
2 2
= = = x L
L
h
Slope
) ( tan
1
slope
=
) 4 . 0 ( tan
1
=
= 8 . 21

Resolving in N direction.

+ 0 sin 150 sin 300 cos 375 = + N
kN N 89 . 403 =

Resolving in Q direction.

+ 0 cos 150 cos 300 sin 375 = + + Q
0 = Q

+ 0 =
D
M : ( ) ( ) ( )( ) 0 5 10 15 6 375 10 300 = + +
D
M
kNm M
D
0 =

Continue to calculate shear forces and thrusts at 20m, 30m and 40m.

Example 5.5

Draw shear force, bending moment and axial thrust diagram for the arch shown in Figure
5.13 below.

Figure 5.13

50m

16 m

50m

25m
25m

100 kN

A

B

C

D

E

121

Solution:


+
= 0
y
F : 0 100 = +
y y
B A

+ 0 =
A
M : ( ) ( ) 0 25 100 100 =
y
B
kN B
y
25 =
kN A
y
75 =
+
= 0
x
F : 0 =
x x
B A

+ 0 =
C
M : ( ) ( ) 0 16 25 50 =
x
B
kN B
x
125 . 78 =
kN B A
x x
125 . 78 = =
16 m

50m

C

E

B
x
25 kN

50m

16 m

50m

25m
25m

100 kN

C

D

E

A
y
A
x
B
x
B
y

122

3. To calculate N and Q.

at x=25m, point D

( )
( )( )
( ) m x L
L
hx
Y
D
12 25 100
100
25 16 4 4
2 2
= = =

( )
( )
( ) [ ] 32 . 0 25 2 100
100
16 4
2
4
2 2
= = = x L
L
h
Slope
) ( tan
1
slope
=
) 32 . 0 ( tan
1
=
= 74 . 17

Without loading


+ 0 sin 75 cos 125 . 78 = N
kN N 262 . 97 =


+ 0 cos 75 sin 125 . 78 = + Q
kN Q 629 . 47 =

Y
D
25m

D

N

Q

M

78.125 kN

75 kN

123

With 100kN loading


+ 0 sin 100 sin 75 cos 125 . 78 = + N
kN N 79 . 66 =


+ 0 cos 100 cos 75 sin 125 . 78 = + + Q
kN Q 61 . 47 =

at x=50m, point C


+ kN N 125 . 78 =

50m

25m

100 kN

C

D

75 kN

78.125 kN

N

Q

Y
D
25m

D

N

Q

M

78.125 kN

75 kN

100kN

124


+ 0 75 100 = + Q
kN Q 25 =

at x=0m, point A

( )
( )
( ) [ ] 64 . 0 0 2 100
100
16 4
2
4
2 2
= = = x L
L
h
Slope
) ( tan
1
slope
=
) 64 . 0 ( tan
1
=
= 62 . 32


+ 0 sin 75 cos 125 . 78 = N
kN N 232 . 106 =


+ 0 cos 75 sin 125 . 78 = + Q
kN Q 055 . 21 =

at x=100m, point B


N
Q
78.125 kN
25 kN
B
=32.62
A

N

Q

75 kN

78.125 kN

125

+ 0 sin 25 cos 125 . 78 = N
kN N 278 . 79 =


+ 0 cos 25 sin 125 . 78 = + Q
kN Q 055 . 21 =

at x=75m, point E


+ 0 sin 25 cos 125 . 78 = N
kN N 027 . 82 =

+ 0 cos 25 sin 125 . 78 = + Q
kN Q 0 =
4. To calculate bending moment on the arch.

0 =
A
M ; 0 =
B
M ; 0 =
C
M

at x=25m (from left hand side)

12 m

25m

E

N
Q

25 kN

78.125 kN
=17.74

126

+ 0 =
D
M : ( ) ( ) 0 12 125 . 78 25 75 = +
D
M
kNm M
D
5 . 937 = (sagging)

at x=25m (from right hand side)

+ 0 =
E
M : ( ) ( ) 0 12 125 . 78 25 25 = +
E
M
kNm M
E
5 . 312 = (hogging)


12 m

25m

25 kN
78.125 kN
M
E
E

Y
D
=12m
25m

D

M
D
78.125 kN

75 kN

127

( )
( )( )
( ) m x L
L
hx
Y
F
24 . 10 20 100
100
20 16 4 4
2 2
= = =
+ 0 =
F
M : ( ) ( ) 0 24 . 10 125 . 78 20 75 = +
F
M
kNm M
F
700 = (sagging)


( )
( )( )
( ) m x L
L
hx
Y
G
36 . 15 40 100
100
40 16 4 4
2 2
= = =
+ 0 =
G
M : ( ) ( ) ( ) 0 15 100 36 . 15 125 . 78 40 75 = +
G
M
kNm M
G
300 = (sagging)


40m

25m

100 kN

G

D

75 kN

78.125 kN

Y
G

M
G
Y
F

20m

F

M
F
78.125 kN

75 kN

128

+ 0 =
H
M : ( ) ( ) 0 36 . 15 125 . 78 40 25 = +
H
M
kNm M
H
200 = (hogging)


+ 0 =
I
M : ( ) ( ) 0 24 . 10 125 . 78 20 25 =
I
M
kNm M
I
301 = (hogging)

10.24m

20m

25 kN
78.125 kN
M
I
I

15.36m

40m

25 kN
78.125 kN
M
H
H

129

5. Draw bending moment diagram, thrust diagram and shear force diagram.

50m

16 m

100 kN

A

B

C

D

E

20 m

15 m

10 m

10 m

15 m
20 m

5 m

5 m

F

G

H

I

700.0

937.5

300.0

200.0

312.5

301.3

BMD (kNm)

106.2

97.3

66.8

78.1

82.0

79.3

Thrust
Diagram(kN)

21.1
47.6
-47.6
-25
21.1
SFD (kN)

sagging

hogging

130

Exercise 1

Unsymmetrical three hinged arch shown in Figure 5.14 is in the form of
( )
2
4
L
x L hx
y

= ,
where m L 40 = and m h 8 = . Support A is 2.88m lower than support E. It is designed to carry
a uniformly distributed load of 5 kN/m spanning 26m on span BCDE. A horizontal uniformly
distributed load of 2 kN/m is applied from A to B. Joint A, C and E are hinged.

Determine:
i. Support reactions at A and E.
ii. Bending moment at B and D.
iii. Shear force, Q and thrust, N at point B and D (with loading).
iv. Sketch the bending moment diagram of the arch.

Figure 5.14

131

Exercise 2

Al three hinged arch shown in Figure 5.15 is in the form of
( )
2
4
L
x L hx
y

= . It is designed to
carry a uniformly distributed load of 2 kN/m spanning 30m on span ABCD and a point load
of 8 kN and 5 kN at point B and D respectively. Joint A, C and E are hinged.

Determine:
iii. Shear force, Q and thrust, N at point B and D.

Figure 5.15

132

Exercise 3

Unsymmetrical three hinged arch shown in Figure 5.16 is in the form of
( )
2
4
L
x L hx
y

= ,
where m L 40 = and m h 10 = . Support A is 3.6m lower than support E. It is designed to carry
a uniformly distributed load of 2 kN/m spanning 26m on span ABCD and a point load of 8 kN
and 5 kN at point B and D respectively. Joint A, C and E are hinged.

Determine:
iii. Shear force, Q and thrust, N on the right hand side of point C and D (with loading).

Figure 5.16

133

TOPIC 6
DEFLECTION

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Structures, like all other physical bodies, deform and change shape when subjected to forces.
Other common causes of deformations structures include temperature changes and support
settlements. If the deformations disappear and the structure regains its original shape when the
actions causing the deformations are removed, the deformations are termed elastic
deformation. In this topic, we will focus our attention on linear elastic deformation.

The methods that have been developed for computing deflections can be broadly classified
into two categories, (1) geometric methods and (2) work energy methods. In this topic, we
will study geometric methods commonly used for determining the slopes and deflections of
statically determinate beams. There are two branches in geometric method, which are
moment-area method and conjugate-beam method.

6.2 TOPIC OUTCOMES

a) Able to understand the elastic beam theory.
b) Able to calculate deflection of simple beam using moment-area method and the
conjugate beam method.

6.3 ELASTIC-BEAM THEORY

To derive the deflection equation, we look at an initially straight beam that is elastically
deformed by loads applied perpendicular to beams x-axis & lying in x-y plane of symmetry
(Figure 6.1 (a)). Due to loading, the beam deforms under shear & bending. When M deforms
the element of beam, the angle between the cross sections becomes d (Figure 6.1 (b)).

134

Figure 6.1

The arc dx that represent a portion of the elastic curve intersects the neutral axis. The radius of
curvature for this arc is defined as the distance, R, which is measured from centre of curvature
O to dx. Any arc on the element other than dx is subjected to normal strain. The strain in arc
ds located at position y from the neutral axis is
ds
ds ds
=
'

However,
Rd dx ds = =
And
( ) d y R ds = '
From
ds
ds ds
=
'

So
( )
Rd
Rd d y R
=
y R
=
1

If the material is homogeneous and behaves in a linear manner, then Hookes Law applies
E
=
w

P

A

B

y

dx

x

(a)

y

dx

ds

dx

ds

y

d

O

R R
M

M

(b)

After deformation

Before deformation

135

The flexure formula also applies
I
My
=
Combining these two equations, we have:
EI
M
R
=
1

Where,

R = the radius of curvature at specific point on the elastic curve.
M = the internal moment in the beam at the point where R is to be determined
E = the materials modulus of elasticity
I = the beams moment of inertia

The product EI in the equation is referring to flexural rigidity.

Since
Rd dx =
Then
dx
EI
M
d
|
\
|
=

6.4 MOMENT-AREA METHOD

The initial ideas for the two moment-area theorems were developed by Otto Mohr and later
stated formally by Charles E. Greene in 1873. These theorems provide a semigraphical
technique for determining the slope of the elastic curve and its deflection due to bending. This
method also relates the geometry of the elastic curve of beam to its
EI
M
diagram.

The following procedure provides a method that may be used to determine the displacement
and slope at a point on the elastic curve of a beam using the moment-area theorem.

M/EI Diagram
Determine the support reactions and draw the beams M/EI diagram.
If the beam is loaded with concentrated forces, the M/EI diagram will consist of a
series of straight line segments, and the areas and their moments required for the
moment-area theorems will be relatively easy to compute.
Figure 6.2 shows example of M/EI diagram.

136

Figure 6.2

Elastic Curve
Draw an exaggerated view of the beams elastic curve. Recall that points of zero slope
occurs at fixed supports and zero displacement occurs at all fixed, pin, and roller
support.
If it becomes difficult to draw the general shape of the elastic curve, use the moment
(or M/EI) diagram. Realize that when the beam is subjected to a positive moment the
beam bends concave up, whereas negative moment bends the beam concave down.
The displacement and slope to be determined should be indicated on the curve.

Moment-Area Method
To develop the theorems, reference is made to Figure 6.3.
If we draw the moment diagram for the beam and then divide it by the flexural rigidity,
EI. The M/EI diagram is shown in Figure 6.3 (c).
By equation, dx
EI
M
d
|
\
|
=
d on either side of the element dx equal to the lighter shade area under the M/EI
diagram.
Integrating from point A on the elastic curve to point B, we have
/
dx
EI
M
B
A
A B

= .
This equation forms the basis for the first moment-area theorem.

2I I
M
-M
2

-M
3

M / EI
M
1
/ 2EI
-M
2
/ EI
-M
3
/ EI
BMD
2I I
M
M
M / EI
M

/ EI
M

/ 2EI
BMD

137

Figure 6.3

Theorem 1
The change in slope between any 2 points on the elastic curve equals to the area of the
M/EI diagram between the 2 points. (Refer to Figure 6.3)

Theorem 2
The second moment-area theorem is based on the relative derivation of tangents to the
elastic curve.
Shown in Figure 6.3 is a greatly exaggerated view of the vertical deviation dt of the
tangents on each side of the differential element, dx .
Since slope of elastic curve & its deflection are assumed to be very small, it is
satisfactory to approximate the length of each tangent line by x & the arc ds by dt
Using xd dt r s = =
Using equation d = (M/EI) dx
The vertical deviation of the tangent at A with respect to the tangent at B can be found
by integration, dx
EI
M
x t
B
A
B A

/

=

138

Theorem 2 - The vertical deviation of the tangent at a point (A) on the
elastic curve with respect to the tangent extended from another point (B) equals the
moment of the area under the M/EI diagram between the 2 points (A & B)

Figure 6.3

139

Example 6.1

Determine the slope at points B & C of the beam shown in Figure 6.4
Take
E = 200GPa
I = 360(10
6
)mm
4

Figure 6.4

Solution:

It is easier to solve the problem in terms of EI & substitute the numerical data as a last
step
The 10kN load causes the beam to deflect as shown in Figure 6.5 (b)
Here the tangent at A is always horizontal (no angle of rotation at A since A is fixed
support)
The tangents at B & C are also indicated
By construction, the angle between tan A and tan B (
B/A
) is equivalent to
B

A C C A B B / /
; = =
Applying Theorem 1, is equal to the area under the M/EI diagram between points A &
B
) 5 (
50 100
2
1
) 5 (
50
/
m
EI
kNm
EI
kNm
m
EI
kNm
A B
|
\
|
|
\
|
=
EI
kNm
A B
2
/
375
=
Substituting numerical data for E & I
rad
m m kN
kNm
B
00521 . 0
] ) 10 )( 10 ( 360 ][ / ) 10 ( 200 [
375
4 12 6 2 6
2
= =

The negative sign indicates that the angle is measured clockwise from A, Figure 6.5(b)
In a similar manner, the area under the M/EI diagram between points A & C equals
(
C/A
)
EI
kNm
m
EI
kNm
A C C
2
/
500
) 10 (
100
2
1
=
|
\
|
= =
Substitute numerical data for E and I

rad
m m kN
kNm
C
00694 . 0
] ) 10 )( 10 ( 360 ][ / ) 10 ( 200 [
500
4 12 6 2 6
2
=

10 kN

A

C

B

5 m

10 m

140

Figure 6.5: (a) M/EI diagram; (b) Elastic curve

Example 6.2

Determine the deflection at points B & C of the beam shown in figure below. Values for the
moment of inertia of each segment are indicated in the figure 6.6. Take E = 200GPa.

Figure 6.6

Solution:

By inspection, the moment diagram for the beam is a rectangle
We will construct the M/EI diagram relative to I
BC
, I
AB
= 2 I
BC
, Figure 6.7 (a)
Numerical data for EI
BC
will be substituted as last step
The couple moment at C causes the beam to deflect as shown in Figure 6.7 (b)
The tangents at A, B and C are indicated
We are required to find
B
and
C

These displacement can be related directly to the deviations between the tangents so
that from the construction,
B
= deviation of tan B relative to tan A
B
= t
B/A
and
C
= t
C/A
Applying Theorem 2, moment of the area under the M/EI
BC
diagram between A & B
computed about B

(b)

(a)

A

B

C

4m

3m

I
AB
=8(10
6
)mm
4
I
BC
=4(10
6
)mm
4

141

Hence from Figure 6.7 (b)
BC BC
A B B
EI
Nm
m m
EI
Nm
t
3
/
2000
) 2 ( ) 4 (
250
=
(
= =
Substituting the numerical data yields
)] ) 10 /( 1 ( ) 10 ( 4 ][ / ) 10 ( 200 [
2000
4 4 3 4 4 6 2 9
3
mm m mm m N
Nm
B
=
mm m
B
5 . 2 0025 . 0 = ==
Likewise for t
C/A
, we must compute the moment of the entire M/EI
BC
diagram from A
to C about point C

Since both answer are positive, they indicate that points B & C lie above tangent at A

Figure 6.7: (a) M/EI diagram; (b) Elastic curve

mm
m m N
Nm
EI
Nm
m m
EI
Nm
m m
EI
Nm
t
BC
BC BC
A C C
06 . 9 00906 . 0
)] ) 10 )( 10 ( 4 ][ / ) 10 ( 200 [
7250 7250

) 5 . 1 ( ) 3 (
500
) 5 ( ) 4 (
250
4 12 6 2 9
3 3
/
= =
= =
(
+
(
= =
(a)

(b)

142

6.5 CONJUGATE-BEAM METHOD

The conjugate-beam method was developed by H. Mller-Breslau in 1865. Essentially, it
requires the same amount of computation as the moment-area theorems to determine a beams
slope or deflection; however, this method relies only on the principles of statics, and hence its
application will be more familiar. Figure 6.8 below shows the example of real beam and
conjugate beam.

Figure 6.8: (a) real beam; (b) comjugate beam

The basic for the method comes from similarity of equations shown below.

EI
M
dx
d
=

EI
M
dx
v d
=
2
2

w
dx
dV
= w
dx
M d
=
2
2

Or integrating,

dx
EI
M
|
\
|
= dx dx
EI
M
v
(
\
|
=
wdx V = [ ]dx wdx M =

Here the shear V compares with the slope, the moment M compares with the displacement v
and the external load w compares with the M/EI diagram. To make use of this comparison we
will now consider a beam having the same length as the real beam but referred to as the
conjugate beam, as shown in Figure 6.8 above. The conjugate beam is loaded with the M/EI
diagram derived from the load w on the real beam. From the above comparisons, we can state
2 theorems related to the conjugate beam. When drawing the conjugate beam, it is important
A

B

w

A

B

M/EI

(a) real beam

(b) conjugate beam

143

that the shear & moment developed at the supports of the conjugate beam account
for the corresponding slope & displacement of the real beam at its supports.

Theorem 1
The slope at a point in the real beam is numerically equal to the shear at the
corresponding point in the conjugate beam.
dx
EI
M
|
\
|
=
wdx V =

Theorem 2
The displacement of a point in the real beam is numerically equal to the moment at the
corresponding point in the conjugate beam.
dx dx
EI
M
v
(
\
|
=
[ ]dx wdx M =

Conjugate-Beam Support

When drawing the conjugate beam it is important that the shear and moment developed at the
supports of conjugate beam account for the corresponding slope and displacement of the real
beam at its support, a consequense of Theorem 1 and 2. For example, a pin or roller support at
the end of a real beam provides zero displacement but the beam has a non-zero slope.
Consequently from Theorem 1 and 2, the comjugate beam must be supported by a pin or
roller since this support has zero moment but has a shear or end reaction. When the real beam
is fixed supported, both beam has a free end since at this end there is zero shear and moment.
Examples of real and conjugate beam support are shown in Table 6.1.

Table 6.1
Real Beam Conjugate Beam

V
M
(d) fixed

(d) free

V=0
M=0

(c) free

=0
=0

(c) fixed

V
M=0
(b) roller

=0
(b) roller

V
M=0
(a) pin

=0
(a) pin

144

Figure 6.9 below show some examples of real and conjugate beams.

Figure 6.9

The following procedure provides a method that may be used to determine the displacement
and slope at a point on the elastic curve of a beam using the conjugate-beam method.

Conjugate Beam
Draw the conjugate beam for the real beam.
In general, if a real support allows a slope, the conjugate support must develop a shear;
and if the real support allows a displacement, the conjugate support must develop a
moment.
The conjugate beam is loaded with real beams M/EI diagram. This loading is assumed
to be distributed over the conjugate beam and is directed upward when M/EI is
positive and downward when M/EI is negative. In other words, the loading always acts
away from the beam.

Equilibrium
Using the equations of equilibrium, determine the reactions at the conjugate beams
support.
Real beam

Conjugate beam

V
M
(g) internal roller

(g) hinged

V
M=0

(f) hinged

=0

(f) internal roller

V
M=0

(e) hinged

=0

(e) internal pin

145

Section the conjugate beam at the point where the slope and
displacement of the real beam are to be determined. At the section show the
unknown shear V and moment MI acting in their positive sense.
Determine the shear and moment using the equations of equilibrium. V and M equal
and , respectively, for the real beam. In particular, if these values are positive, the
slope is counter clockwise and the displacement is upward.

Example 6.3

Determine the slope & deflection at point B of the steel beam shown in Figure 6.10 below.
Take E = 200GPa and I = 475(10
6
)mm
4
.

Figure 6.10

Solution:

Draw the free body diagram and compute the reactions.

The conjugate beam is shown in figure below.
The supports at A and B correspond to supports A and B on the real beam.
Real beam

20 kN

5 m

5 m

A

B

Real beam

20 kN

5 m

5 m

20 kN

100 kNm

A

B

146

The M/EI diagram is negative, so the distributed load acts downward, away from the
beam.
Since
AB
and
B
are to be determined, we must compute V
B
and M
B
in the conjugate
beam, refer to figure below.

+
= 0
y
F : 0
250
0
'
2
= =
B y
V
EI
kNm
F
EI
kNm
V
B B
2
'
250
= =
rad
m m kN
kNm
B
00263 . 0
] ) 10 )( 10 ( 475 ][ / ) 10 ( 200 [
250
4 12 6 2 6
2
=
==

The negative signs indicates the slope of the beam is measured clockwise, refer figure
below

With counter clockwise moments as positive

+ 0
'
=
B
M
) 33 . 8 (
250
2
'
m
EI
kNm
M
B
=
But
' B B
M =
] ) 10 )( 10 ( 475 ][ / ) 10 ( 200 [
2083 2083
4 12 6 2 6
3 3
m m kN
kNm
EI
kNm
B
= =
mm m
B
9 . 21 0219 . 0 = =

Conjugate beam

5 m

5 m

EI
100
A

B

Reaction

1.67 m

8.33 m

EI
250
V
B
M
B

147

The negative sign indicates the displacement is downward.

Example 6.4

Determine the maximum deflection of the steel beam shown in Figure 6.11 below. Take
E=200GPa and I=60(10
6
)mm
4
.

Figure 6.11

Solution:

Draw the free body diagram and compute the reactions.

The conjugate beam loaded with the M/EI diagram is shown in figure below

B
Deflection

Real beam

9m

3 m

A

B

8 kN

9m

3 m

A

B

8 kN

2 kN

6 kN

Conjugate beam

9m

3 m

A

B

EI
18

148

Since M/EI diagram is positive, the distributed load acts upward
The external reactions on the conjugate beam are determined first and are indicated on
the free-body diagram in figure below

Max deflection of the real beam occurs at the point where the slope of the beam is
zero
Assuming this point acts within the region 0 x 9m from A we can isolate the
section

Note that the peak of the distributed loading was determined from proportional
triangles

9
18
|
\
|
=
EI
x
w

0 ' = V

+
= 0
y
F ; 0
2
2
1 45
= |
\
|
+ x
EI
x
EI

) 9 0 ( 71 . 6 m x m x = ok.

6m

2 m

A

B

4m

EI
81

EI
27

EI
45

EI
63
External Reaction

Internal reaction

x

A

EI
45

EI
x x
EI
2
9
18
= |
\
|

V=0

M

149

Using this value for x, the max deflection in the real beam corresponds to
the moment M

Hence, with counter clockwise moments as positive,

+ 0 =
M : 0 ' ) 71 . 6 (
3
1
71 . 6
) 71 . 6 ( 2
2
1
) 71 . 6 (
45
= +
(
\
|
M
EI EI

Where,
max
= M

)] ) 10 /( 1 ( ) 10 ( 60 ][ / ) 10 ( 200 [
2 . 201 2 . 201
'
4 4 3 4 4 6 2 6
3 3
mm m mm m kN
kNm
EI
kNm
M

= =
mm m 8 . 16 0168 . 0 = =

The negative sign indicates the deflection is downward.

150

Exercise 1

Sketch the qualitative deflected shape for the beams shown in Figure 6.12 (a) and (b). The
corresponding bending moment diagram is shown directly beneath each beam.

Figure 6.12

Exercise 2

Figure 6.13 shows a cantilever beam ABC with span L loaded with a point load P at B.
Flexural rigidities of portions AB and BC are 2EI and EI, respectively. Determine the slope
and deflection at point B by using moment-area method.

Figure 6.13

151

Exercise 3

Figure 6.14 shows a cantilever beam ABC with span L loaded with a point load P at B, P/2 at
C and uniformly distributed load w along AB. Flexural rigidities of portions AB and BC are
2EI and EI, respectively. Determine the slope and deflection at point B by using conjugate
beam method.

Figure 6.14

152

TOPIC 7
INFLUENCE LINES

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Influence lines have important application for the design of structures that resist large live
loads. In this topic, we will discuss how to draw the influence line for a statically determinate
structure.

7.2 TOPIC OUTCOMES

Able to draw influence lines of reaction forces, shear force and bending moment for
beams.
Able to determine location of moving load which produces maximum reaction forces,
shear force and bending moment for beams using influence lines.

7.3 INFLUENCE LINES

If a structure is subjected to a moving load, the variation of shear and bending moment is best
described using the influence line. One can tell at a glance, where the moving load should be
placed on the structure so that it creates the greatest influence line at a specified point. The
magnitude of the associated shear, moment or deflection at the point can then be calculated
using the ordinates of the influence-line diagram. One should be clear between the differences
between influence line and shear or moment diagram. Influence line represents the effect of a
moving load only at a specific point. Shear or moment diagrams represent the effect of fixed
loads at all points along the axis of the member.

7.4 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

Either of the following two procedures can be used to construct the influence line at a specific
point P in a member for any function (reaction, shear or moment).

Tabulate Values
Place a unit load at various location, x, along the member, and at each location use
statics to determine the value of the function (reaction, shear or moment) at the
specified point.
If the influence line for a vertical force reaction at a point on a beam is to be
constructed, consider the reaction to be positive at the point when it acts upward on
the beam.
If a shear or moment influence line is to be drawn for a point, take the shear or
moment at the point as positive according to the same sign convention used for
drawing shear and bending moment diagrams.
All statically determine beams will have influence lines that consist of straight line
segments.

153

12 m

A
y
B
y
x = 3m

1

12 m

A
y
B
y
x = 6m

1

Influence-Line Equations
The influence line can also be constructed by placing the unit load at a variable
position x on the member and then computing the value of R, V, or M at the point as a
function of x. In this manner, the equations of the various line segments composing the
influence line can be determined and plotted.

Example 7.1

Construct the influence line for the vertical reaction at A of the beam in Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1

Solution:

Tabulate Values. A unit load is placed on the beam at each selected point x and the value of
A
y
is calculated by summing moments about B. For example, when x=3m and x=6m. The
result is entered in the table. A plot of these values yields the influence line for the reaction at
A.

+ 0 =
B
M : ( ) ( ) 0 9 1 12 = +
y
A
75 . 0 =
y
A

+ 0 =
B
M : ( ) ( ) 0 6 1 12 = +
y
A
5 . 0 =
y
A

x(m) A
y

0 1
3 0.75
6 0.5
9 0.25
12 0
12 m

A

B

154

12 m

A
y
B
y
x

1

Influence-line Equation. When the unit load is placed a variable distance x from A. The
reaction A
y
as a function of x can be determined from

+ 0 =
B
M : ( ) ( ) 0 12 1 12 = + x A
y

x A
y
12
1
1 =

Example 7.2

Construct the influence line for the moment at point C of the beam in Figure 7.2.

Figure 7.2

Solution:

Tabulate Values. At each selected position of the unit load the value of M
c
is calculated using the
method of sections. For example for x=2.5m.
A

B

10 m

5m

C

1

12

A
y
x

Influence line for A
y
x A
y
12
1
1 =

155

C

2.5m

1

0.75

0.25

C

0.75

M
C
V
C
5m

+ 0 =
C
M : ( ) 0 5 25 . 0 = +
C
M

25 . 1 =
C
M

Influence-Line Equation. The two line segments for the influence line can be determined
using 0 =
C
M along with the method of section shown in figure below.

+ 0 =
C
M : ( ) ( ) 0 5
10
1
1 5 1 = |
\
|
+ x x M
C

x M
C
2
1
= m x 5 0

x(m) M
c

0 0
2.5 1.25
5 2.5
7.5 1.25
10 0 10

M
C
x

Influence line for M
C
5

2.5

x M
C
2
1
5 =

x M
C
2
1
=
C

x

1

V
C
M
C
x A
y
10
1
1 =

156

+ 0 =
C
M : 0 5 )
10
1
1 ( = x M
C

2
1
5 x M
C
= m x m 10 5 <

7.5 INFLUENCE LINES FOR BEAMS

Once the influence line for a function has been constructed, it will be possible to position live
loads on the beam which will produce the max value of the function. Two types of loadings
will be considered
Concentrated load
Uniform load

Concentrated force
For any concentrated force, F acting on the beam, the value of the function can be
found by multiplying the ordinate of the influence line at position x by magnitude of F
Consider Fig below, influence line for A
y

For unit load, A
y
=
For a force of F, A
y
= () F
Refer to Figure 7.3 below

Figure 7.3

A

B

L

F

L x
2
1
=

L

1
L
2
1
0.5
A
y
x

y
x

1

V
C
M
C
x A
y
10
1
1 =
B
y

157

Uniform load
Each dx segment of this load creates a concentrated force of dF = w
o
dx
If dF is located at x, where the influence line ordinate is y, the value of the function is
(dF)(y) = (w
o
dx )y
The effect of all concentrated force is determined by integrating over the entire length of the
beam

= ydx w ydx w
o o

Since
ydx is equivalent to the area under the influence line, in general:

value of the function caused by a uniform load = (the area under the influence line) x
(intensity of the uniform load)
Refer to Figure 7.4 below

Figure 7.4

Example 7.3

Determine the maximum positive live shear that can be developed at point C in the beam
shown in Figure 7.5 (a) below due to:
A concentrated moving load of 4 kN
And a uniform moving load of 2 kN/m
The influence line for shear at C is given and shown in Figure 7.5 (b).

x

dx w dF
0
=
dx

dx

x

y

Influence line for function

158

Figure 7.5

Solution:

Concentrated force
The max positive shear at C will occur when the 4kN force is located at x = 2.5m
The ordinate at this peak is +0.75, hence:
kN
kN V
C
3
) 4 ( 75 . 0
=
=

Uniform load
The uniform moving load creates the max positive influence for V
C
when the loads
acts on the beam between x = 2.5m and x = 10m
The magnitude of V
C
due to this loading is:
kN
m kN m m V
C
625 . 5
) / 2 ( ) 75 . 0 )( 5 . 2 10 (
2
1
=
(
=

A

B

10 m

2.5m

C

2 kN/m

4 kN

A

B

10 m

2.5m

C

2.5

-0.25

0.75

V
c
x

(a)

(b)

159

Total maximum shear at C:

kN
kN kN V
C
625 . 8
625 . 5 3 ) (
max
=
+ =

7.6 QUALITATIVE INFLUENCE LINES

Vertical Reaction

The Muller-Breslau Principle states that the influence line for a function is to the same scale
as the deflected shape of the beam when the beam is acted upon by the function. Consider the
beam in Figure 7.6 (a), if the shape of the influence line for the vertical reaction at A is to be
determined, the pin is first replaced by a roller guide as shown in Figure 7.6 (b). When the
positive force A
y
is applied at A, the beam deflects to the dashed position which represent the
general shape of the influence line.

Figure 7.6

Shear

If the shape of the influence line for shear at C is to be determined, Figure 7.7 (a), the
connection at C may be symbolized by a roller guide as shown in Figure 7.7 (b). Applying a
positive shear force V
c
to the beam at C and allowing the beam to deflect to the dashed
position, the influence line shape as shown in Figure 7.7 (c).

C

(a)

A

A
y
Deflected shape
(b)

A
y
x

y
(c)

(a)

160

Figure 7.7

Moment

If the shape of influence line for the moment at C Figure 7.8 (a) is to be determined, an
internal hinge or pin is placed at C. Applying positive moment M
c
to the beam, the beam
deflects to the dashed line which is the influence line as shown in Figure 7.9 (c).

Figure 7.8

V
C
V
C

x

Influence line for V
C
(c)

deflected shape

V
C
C

(b)

C

(a)

M
C
M
C

x

C
(c)

C

M
C
Deflected shape

(b)

161

The proof of the Muller-Breslau Principal can be established using the principle
of virtual work.

Work = a linear displacement x force in the direction of displacement

Or

Work = rotational displacement x moment if the direction of the displacement

If a rigid body is in equilibrium, the sum of all the forces and moments on it must be equal to
zero. If the body is given an imaginary or virtual displacement, work done by all these forces
and couple moments must also be equal to zero. Consider Figure 7.9 (a). If the beam is given
a virtual displacement y at the support A, Figure 7.9 (b), then only A
y
& unit load do virtual
work. A
y
does positive work.

Work = A
y
y

The unit load does negative work.

Work = -1 y
Since the beam is in equilibrium, the virtual work sums to zero.
0 ' 1 = y y A
y

If 1 = y , then ' y A
y
=

The value of A
y
represents the ordinate of the influence line at the position of the unit load.
Since this value is equivalent to the displacement y at the position of the unit load, it shows
that the shape of the influence line has been established.

Figure 7.9

If the beam is sectioned at C, the beam undergoes a virtual displacement y at this point,
Figure 7.10 (a), and then only the internal shear at C and the unit load do work. The virtual
work equation is:

C

(a)

A

B

1

C

(b)

A

B

1

y

162

0 ' 1 = y y V
c

If 1 = y , then ' y V
c
=

The shape of the influence line for shear at C has been established. Assume a hinge or pin is
introduced into the beam at point C, Figure 7.10 (b). If a virtual rotation is introduced at
the pin, virtual work will be done only by the internal moment and unit load.

0 ' 1 = y M
c

If 1 = y , then ' y M
c
=

This indicates that the deflected beam has the same shape as the influence line for the internal
moment at point C.

Figure 7.10
Example 7.4

Determine the maximum positive moment that can be developed at point D in the beam shown
in Figure 7.11 due to a concentrated moving load of 16kN, a uniform moving load of 3kN/m
and a beam weight of 2kN/m.

Figure 7.11
2m

2m

2m

4m

A B
C

D
E

V
C
A

V
C
y

1

y

B

(a)

A

B

1

y

M
C
M
C

C

(b)

163

Solution:

A hinge is placed at D and positive moments M
D
is applied to the beam.
The deflected shape & corresponding influence line are shown in figure below.

The concentrated moving load of 16kN creates a maximum positive moment at D
when it is placed at D.
The uniform moving load of 3kN/m must extend from C to E in order to cover the
region where the area of the influence line is positive.
The uniform weight of 2kN/m acts over the entire length of the beam.
The loading is shown on the beam in figure below.

Knowing the position of the loads, we can determine the max moment at D using
statics.
In figure below, the reactions on BE have been computed.

2m

2m

2m

4m

A B
C

D
E

2kN/m

5kN/m

16kN

2m

2m

2m

4m

A C

D E

B

M
D M
D
M
D
h

h

Deflected shape

D

164

Sectioning the beam at D and using the segment DE, refer figure below, we have:
0 =
D
M
0 ) 4 ( 19 ) 2 ( 20 = +
D
M
kNm M
D
36 =

This problem can also be worked using numerical values for the influence line
By inspection of figure below, only the peak value h at D must be computed
This requires placing a unit load on the beam at D in figure below and then solving for
internal moment in the beam at D
Show that the value obtained is h = 1.333

2m

2m

2m

4m

A C

D
E

B

M
D M
D
M
D
h

h

Deflected shape

D
4m

16kN

20kN

2m

E
y
=19k
N
D

M
V
D
2m

2m

2m

4m

A
y
=2k
N
16kN

30kN

3m

4kN

1m

B
y
=2k
N
B
y
=2k
N
C
y
=33k
N
E
y
=33k
N
B
x
=0k
N
A
x
=0k
N
4kN

1m

165

By proportional triangles,
( ) ( ) 4 6
333 . 1
2 4
'
h
333 . 1 ' = h

Hence, using the loading on beam, using the areas and peak values of the influence
line, we have:

kNm M
D
36 ) 333 . 1 )( 4 (
2
1
2 ) 333 . 1 ( 16 ) 333 . 1 )( 4 10 (
2
1
5 =
(
+
(
=

7.7 MAXIMUM INFLUENCE AT A POINT DUE TO A SERIES OF
CONCENTRATED LOAD

Once the influence line of a function has been established for a point in a structure, the max
effect caused by a live concentrated force is determined by multiplying the peak ordinate of
the influence line by the magnitude of the force. In some cases, for example, wheel loadings,
several concentrated loadings must be placed on structure. Trial-and-error procedure can be
used or a method that is based on the change in function that takes place as the load is moved.
In order to get a clearer idea, refer to the example below.

Example 7.5

Determine the maximum positive shear created at point C in the beam shown in Figure 7.12
due to the series of point loads.

Figure 7.12

Solution:

Shear
Consider the simply supported beam with associated influence line for shear at point C,
Figure 7.13 (a) below.
The maximum positive shear at C is to be determined due to the series of concentrated
loads moving from right to left.
Critical loading occurs when one of the loads is placed just to the right of C.
By trial & error, each of the three possible cases can therefore be investigated, Figure
7.13 (b) below.
kN V
C
63 . 23 ) 5 . 0 ( 18 ) 625 . 0 ( 18 ) 75 . 0 ( 5 . 4 ) ( : 1 Case
1
= + + =
3m

9m

1.5m

1.5m

4.5kN

18kN

18kN

B
A C

166

kN V
C
19 . 24 ) 625 . 0 ( 18 ) 75 . 0 ( 18 ) 125 . 0 ( 5 . 4 ) ( : 2 Case
2
= + + =
kN V
C
25 . 11 ) 75 . 0 ( 18 ) 125 . 0 ( 18 ) 0 ( 5 . 4 ) ( : 3 Case
3
= + + =

Figure 7.13
Case 2 yields the largest value for V
C
and therefore represent the critical loading
3m

9m

1.5m

1.5m

4.5kN

18kN

18kN

B
A C

V
c
0.75

-0.25

B
A
C

4.5kN

18kN

18kN

1.5m

1.5m

0.5

B
A
C

4.5kN

18kN

18kN

0.625

B

A
C

4.5kN
18kN

18kN

V
c
0.75

-0.25

-0.125

Influence line for V
c
Case 1

Case 2

Case 3

(c)

(a)

(b)

167

Investigation of Case 3 is unnecessary since by inspection such an
arrangement of loads would yield (V
C
)
3
< (V
C
)
2

Trial-and-error can be tedious at times
The critical position of the loads can be determined in a more direct manner by finding
V which occurs when the loads are moved from Case 1 to 2, then from Case 2 to 3
As long as computed V is positive, the new position will yield a larger shear
Each movement is investigated until a negative V is computed

) (
1 2
x x Ps V =

If the load moves past a point where there is a discontinuity in the influence line, as
point C in Figure 7.13 (b), the change in shear is:

) (
1 2
y y P V =

Use of above equation will be illustrated with reference to the beam, loading and
influence line for V
c
as shown in Figure 7.13 (b) and (c).
0833 . 0 ) 9 /( 75 . 0 ) 3 12 /( 75 . 0 slope, = = = s
1 25 . 0 75 . 0 C at jump = + =
Consider the loads moving 1.5m
When this occurs, the 4.5kN load jumps down (-1) and all the loads move up the slope
of the influence line
This causes a change of shear
Since is V
1-2
positive, Case 2 will yield a larger value for V
c
than case 1

kN V 563 . 0 ) 5 . 1 )( 0833 . 0 ]( 18 18 5 . 4 [ ) 1 ( 5 . 4
2 1
+ = + + + =

Since is V
2-3
negative, Case 2 is the position of the critical loading

kN V 94 . 12 ) 5 . 1 )( 0833 . 0 ]( 18 18 5 . 4 [ ) 1 ( 18
3 2
= + + + =

Example 7.6

Determine the critical position of maximum internal moment at point C in the beam shown in
Figure 7.14 due to the series of point loads.

Figure 7.14

3m

9m

1.2m

1.8m

9kN

18kN

13.5kN

B

A C

168

Solution:

Moment

) (
1 2
x x Ps M =

Consider the beam, loading & influence line for the moment at point C in Figure 7.15
(a).
If each of the 3 concentrated forces is placed on the beam, coincident with the peak of
the influence line, the greatest influence from each force would be obtained.
The 3 cases of loading are shown in Figure 7.15 (b).
When the loads of case 1 are moved to case 2, it is observed that the 9kN load
decreases M
1-2

Likewise, the 18kN and 13.5kN forces cause an increase of M
1-2

) 2 . 1 (
3 12
25 . 2
) 5 . 13 18 ( ) 2 . 1 (
3
25 . 2
9
2 1
|
\
|
+ + |
\
|
=

M
kNm 35 . 1 =
Since is M
1-2
positive, we computed for loads moved from case 2 to 3
) 8 . 1 (
3 12
25 . 2
5 . 13 ) 8 . 1 (
3
25 . 2
) 18 9 (
3 2
|
\
|
+ |
\
|
+ =

M
kNm 38 . 30 =
M
1-2
negative, the greatest moment at C will occur when the beam is loaded as
shown in Case 2, Figure 7.15 (b).
The max moment at C is therefore,
kNm M
c
0 . 77 ) 18 ( 5 . 13 ) 25 . 2 ( 18 ) 35 . 1 ( 9 ) (
max
= + + =

3m

9m

1.2m

1.8m

9kN

18kN

13.5kN

B

A

C

2.25

M
c
(a)

169

Figure 7.15

B

A
C

9kN

18kN

13.5kN

1.2m

1.8m

B

A
C

9kN

18kN

13.5kN

1.2m

1.8m

B

A C

9kN

18kN

13.5kN

1.2m

1.8m

2.25

M
C
1.80
1.35

Case 1

Case 2

Case 3

(b)

(c)

170

Exercise 1

Draw the influence lines diagram for the vertical reaction at B and D, and bending moment at
C of the beam shown in Figure 7.16 (a) due to the moving loads which travel from A and E.
The beam are supported by pinned at B and roller at D. Determine the maximum positive
bending moment at C if the beam is subjected to the series of concentrated moving load as
shown in Figure 7.16 (b). Show all important value and equations of influence lines in the
diagram.

(a)

(b)

Figure 7.16

171

Exercise 2

Figure 7.17 shows a beam ABCDE with roller supports at B, D and pinned support at E. The
beam is composed of two rigid parts, AC and CE, which are connected by a hinge joint at C.
Draw the influence line for

i. The vertical reaction at support E.
ii. The shear just to the right of support D.
iii. The bending moment at point B of the overhang portion BA.

Figure 7.17
Exercise 3

Figure 7.18 shows a bridge frame which is constructed to allow a moving truck travel on it.
Draw the influence lines for:

i. The vertical reaction at support E.
ii. The shear just to the right of support D.
iii. The bending moment at point B of the overhang portion BA.

Figure 7.18

Structural Analysis Fundamentals Explained

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Structural Analysis Fundamentals Explained

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

Theory of Structures by T.A.Majid, K.K.Choong, M.M.Yusof

= 0 M will be studied. Taking moment at support A.

ydx is equivalent to the area under the influence line, in general:

You might also like