Wind

Wind, from the TacuinumSanitatis

A breeze lifts a veil
Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale. On the surface of the Earth, wind consists of the bulk
movement of air. In outer space, solar wind is the movement of gases or charged particles from the sun
through space, while planetary wind is the outgassing of light chemical elements from a planet's
atmosphere into space. Winds are commonly classified by their spatial scale, their speed, the types of
forces that cause them, the regions in which they occur, and their effect. The strongest observed winds
on a planet in our solar system occur on Neptune and Saturn.
In meteorology, winds are often referred to according to their strength, and the direction from which
the wind is blowing. Short bursts of high speed wind are termed gusts. Strong winds of intermediate
duration (around one minute) are termed squalls. Long-duration winds have various names associated
with their average strength, such as breeze, gale, storm, hurricane, and typhoon. Wind occurs on a
range of scales, from thunderstorm flows lasting tens of minutes, to local breezes generated by heating
of land surfaces and lasting a few hours, to global winds resulting from the difference in absorption of
solar energy between the climate zones on Earth. The two main causes of large-scale atmospheric
circulation are the differential heating between the equator and the poles, and the rotation of the
planet (Corioliseffect). Within the tropics, thermal low circulations over terrain and high plateaus can
drive monsoon circulations. In coastal areas the sea breeze/land breeze cycle can define local winds; in
areas that have variable terrain, mountain and valley breezes can dominate local winds.
In human civilization, wind has inspired mythology, influenced the events of history, expanded the range
of transport and warfare, and provided a power source for mechanical work, electricity and recreation.
Wind powers the voyages of sailing ships across Earth's oceans. Hot air balloons use the wind to take
short trips, and powered flight uses it to increase lift and reduce fuel consumption. Areas of wind shear
caused by various weather phenomena can lead to dangerous situations for aircraft. When winds
become strong, trees and man-made structures are damaged or destroyed.
Winds can shape landforms, via a variety of aeolian processes such as the formation of fertile soils, such
as loess, and by erosion. Dust from large deserts can be moved great distances from its source region by
the prevailing winds; winds that are accelerated by rough topography and associated with dust
outbreaks have been assigned regional names in various parts of the world because of their significant
effects on those regions. Wind affects the spread of wildfires. Winds disperse seeds from various plants,
enabling the survival and dispersal of those plant species, as well as flying insect populations. When
combined with cold temperatures, wind has a negative impact on livestock. Wind affects animals' food
stores, as well as their hunting and defensive strategies.
Cause[edit]

See also: Atmospheric pressure


Surface analysis of Great Blizzard of 1888. Areas with greater isobaric packing indicate higher winds.
Wind is caused by differences in atmospheric pressure. When a difference in atmospheric pressure
exists, air moves from the higher to the lower pressure area, resulting in winds of various speeds. On a
rotating planet, air will also be deflected by the Corioliseffect, except exactly on the equator. Globally,
the two major driving factors of large-scale wind patterns (the atmospheric circulation) are the
differential heating between the equator and the poles (difference in absorption of solar energy leading
to buoyancy forces) and the rotation of the planet. Outside the tropics and aloft from frictional effects
of the surface, the large-scale winds tend to approach geostrophic balance. Near the Earth's surface,
friction causes the wind to be slower than it would be otherwise. Surface friction also causes winds to
blow more inward into low pressure areas.[1] A new, controversial theory, suggests atmospheric
gradients are caused by forest induced water condensation resulting in a positive feedback cycle of
forests drawing moist air from the coastline.[2]
Winds defined by an equilibrium of physical forces are used in the decomposition and analysis of wind
profiles. They are useful for simplifying the atmospheric equations of motion and for making qualitative
arguments about the horizontal and vertical distribution of winds. The geostrophic wind component is
the result of the balance between Coriolis force and pressure gradient force. It flows parallel to isobars
and approximates the flow above the atmospheric boundary layer in the midlatitudes.[3] The thermal
wind is the difference in the geostrophic wind between two levels in the atmosphere. It exists only in an
atmosphere with horizontal temperature gradients.[4] The ageostrophic wind component is the
difference between actual and geostrophic wind, which is responsible for air "filling up" cyclones over
time.[5] The gradient wind is similar to the geostrophic wind but also includes centrifugal force (or
centripetal acceleration).[6]
It is possible for wind to go in a downwards direction. This is known to cause serious injuries, in some
cases death.[citation needed]
Measurement[edit]



A windmill style of anemometer


An occluded mesocyclone tornado (Oklahoma, May 1999)
Wind direction is usually expressed in terms of the direction from which it originates. For example, a
northerly wind blows from the north to the south.[7] Weather vanes pivot to indicate the direction of
the wind.[8] At airports, windsocks indicate wind direction, and can also be used to estimate wind speed
by the angle of hang.[9] Wind speed is measured by anemometers, most commonly using rotating cups
or propellers. When a high measurement frequency is needed (such as in research applications), wind
can be measured by the propagation speed of ultrasound signals or by the effect of ventilation on the
resistance of a heated wire.[10] Another type of anemometer uses pitot tubes that take advantage of
the pressure differential between an inner tube and an outer tube that is exposed to the wind to
determine the dynamic pressure, which is then used to compute the wind speed.[11]
Sustained wind speeds are reported globally at a 10 meters (33 ft) height and are averaged over a 10
minute time frame. The United States reports winds over a 1 minute average for tropical cyclones,[12]
and a 2 minute average within weather observations.[13] India typically reports winds over a 3 minute
average.[14] Knowing the wind sampling average is important, as the value of a one-minute sustained
wind is typically 14% greater than a ten-minute sustained wind.[15] A short burst of high speed wind is
termed a wind gust, one technical definition of a wind gust is: the maxima that exceed the lowest wind
speed measured during a ten-minute time interval by 10 knots (19 km/h). A squall is a doubling of the
wind speed above a certain threshold, which lasts for a minute or more.
To determine winds aloft, rawinsondes determine wind speed by GPS, radio navigation, or radar
tracking of the probe.[16] Alternatively, movement of the parent weather balloon position can be
tracked from the ground visually using theodolites.[17] Remote sensing techniques for wind include
SODAR, Doppler LIDARs and RADARs, which can measure the Doppler shift of electromagnetic radiation
scattered or reflected off suspended aerosols or molecules, and radiometers and radars can be used to
measure the surface roughness of the ocean from space or airplanes. Ocean roughness can be used to
estimate wind velocity close to the sea surface over oceans. Geostationary satellite imagery can be used
to estimate the winds throughout the atmosphere based upon how far clouds move from one image to
the next. Wind Engineering describes the study of the effects of the wind on the built environment,
including buildings, bridges and other man-made objects.


Climate change
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For current and future climatological effects of human influences, see global warming. For the study of
past climate change, see paleoclimatology. For temperatures on the longest time scales, see geologic
temperature record.
Page semi-protected
Atmospheric sciences
ShipTracks MODIS 2005may11.jpg
Atmospheric physics
Atmospheric dynamics (category)
Atmospheric chemistry (category)
Meteorology
Weather (category) (portal)
Tropical cyclone (category)
Climatology
Climate (category)
Climate change (category)
Global warming (category) (portal)
v t e
Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over
periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions, or
in the distribution of weather around the average conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme weather
events). Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation
received by Earth, plate tectonics, and volcanic eruptions. Certain human activities have also been
identified as significant causes of recent climate change, often referred to as "global warming".[1]
Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical
models. A climate record extending deep into the Earth's past has been assembled, and continues
to be built up, based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles, cores removed from
deep accumulations of ice, floral and faunal records, glacial and periglacial processes, stable-isotope and
other analyses of sediment layers, and records of past sea levels. More recent data are provided by the
instrumental record. General circulation models, based on the physical sciences, are often used in
theoretical approaches to match past climate data, make future projections, and link causes and effects
in climate change.


Ocean
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Ocean (disambiguation).


Surface of the Atlantic ocean meeting the Earth's planetary boundary layer and troposphere.


Waves on an ocean coast.
File:The Ocean - a driving force for Weather and Climate.ogv

This animation uses Earth science data from a variety of sensors on NASA Earth observing satellites to
measure physical oceanography parameters such as ocean currents, ocean winds, sea surface height
and sea surface temperature.
View of the Earth where all five oceans visible
Earth's oceans
Arctic
Pacific
Atlantic
Indian
Southern (proposed)
World Ocean
v t e
An ocean (from Ancient Greek (Okeanos); the World Ocean of classical antiquity[1]) is a body of
saline water that composes much of a planet's hydrosphere.[2] On Earth, an ocean is one or all of the
major divisions of the planet's World Ocean which are, in descending order of area, the Pacific,
Atlantic, Indian, Southern (Antarctic), and Arctic Oceans.[3][4] The word sea is often used
interchangeably with "ocean" in American English but, strictly speaking, a sea is a body of saline water
(generally a division of the World Ocean) that land partly or fully encloses.[5]
Earth is the only planet that is known to have an ocean (or any large amounts of open liquid water).
Saline water covers approximately 72% of the planet's surface (~3.6x108 km2) and is customarily divided
into several principal oceans and smaller seas, with the ocean covering approximately 71% of the Earth's
surface.[6] The ocean contains 97% of the Earth's water, and oceanographers have stated that only 5%
of the World Ocean has been explored.[6] The total volume is approximately 1.3 billion cubic kilometres
(310 million cu mi)[7] with an average depth of 3,682 metres (12,080 ft).[8]
The ocean principally comprises Earth's hydrosphere and therefore is integral to all known life, forms
part of the carbon cycle, and influences climate and weather patterns. It is the habitat of 230,000 known
species, although much of the ocean's depths remain unexplored, and over two million marine species
are estimated to exist.[9] The origin of Earth's oceans remains unknown; oceans are believed to have
formed in the Hadean period and may have been the impetus for the emergence of life.
Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds. The only
confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, although there is
evidence for the existence of oceans elsewhere in the Solar System. Early in their geologic histories,
Mars and Venus are theorized to have had large water oceans. The Mars ocean hypothesis suggests that
nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water, and a runaway greenhouse effect may
have boiled away the global ocean of Venus. Compounds such as salts and ammonia dissolved in water
lower its freezing point, so that water might exist in large quantities in extraterrestrial environments as
brine or convecting ice. Unconfirmed oceans are speculated beneath the surface of many dwarf planets
and natural satellites; notably, the ocean of Europa is believed to have over twice the water volume of
Earth. The Solar System's gas giant planets are also believed to possess liquid atmospheric layers of yet
to be confirmed compositions. Oceans may also exist on exoplanets and exomoons, including surface
oceans of liquid water within a circumstellar habitable zone. Ocean planets are a hypothetical type of
planet with a surface completely covered with liquid.[10][11]
Contents [hide]
1 Earth's global ocean
1.1 Divisions
1.2 Physical properties
1.3 Zones and depths
1.4 Exploration
1.5 Climate
1.6 Biology
1.7 Economic value
2 Extraterrestrial oceans
2.1 Planets
2.2 Natural satellites
2.3 Dwarf planets and trans-Neptunian objects
2.4 Extrasolar
3 See also
4 References
5 Further reading
6 External links
Earth's global ocean[edit]

Divisions[edit]
Further information: Borders of the oceans
Rotating series of maps showing alternate divisions of the oceans

Various ways to divide the World Ocean
Though generally described as several separate oceans, these waters comprise one global,
interconnected body of salt water sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean.[11][12]
This concept of a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of
fundamental importance to oceanography.[13]
The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other
criteria. See the table below for more information; note that the table is in descending order in terms of
size.[11][14]
Rank Ocean Notes
1 Pacific Ocean Separates Asia and Oceania from the Americas[14]
2 Atlantic Ocean Separates the Americas from Eurasia and Africa
3 Indian Ocean Washes upon southern Asia and separates Africa and Australia[14][15][16]
4 Southern Ocean Sometimes considered an extension of the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian
Oceans,[11][17] which encircles Antarctica
5 Arctic Ocean Sometimes considered a sea of the Atlantic, which covers much of the Arctic
and washes upon northern North America and Eurasia
The Pacific and Atlantic may be further subdivided by the equator into northern and southern portions.
A smaller region of the ocean can be called other names, such as sea, gulf, bay, and strait.
Physical properties[edit]
Further information: Seawater
The total mass of the hydrosphere is about 1,400,000,000,000,000,000 metric tons (1.51018 short
tons) or 1.41021 kg, which is about 0.023 percent of the Earth's total mass. Less than 3 percent is
freshwater; the rest is saltwater, mostly in the ocean. The area of the World Ocean is 361 million square
kilometres (139 million square miles),[18] and its volume is approximately 1.3 billion cubic kilometres
(310 million cu mi).[7] This can be thought of as a cube of water with an edge length of 1,111 kilometres
(690 mi). Its average depth is 3,790 metres (12,430 ft), and its maximum depth is 10,923 metres (6.787
mi).[18] Nearly half of the world's marine waters are over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) deep.[12] The vast
expanses of deep ocean (anything below 200 metres (660 ft)) cover about 66% of the Earth's
surface.[19] This does not include seas not connected to the World Ocean, such as the Caspian Sea.
The bluish color of water is a composite of several contributing agents. Prominent contributors include
dissolved organic matter and chlorophyll.[20]
Sailors and other mariners have reported that the ocean often emits a visible glow, or luminescence,
which extends for miles at night. In 2005, scientists announced that for the first time, they had obtained
photographic evidence of this glow.[21] It is most likely caused by bioluminescence.[22][23][24]
Zones and depths[edit]
Drawing showing divisions according to depth and distance from shore

The major oceanic divisions
Oceanographers divide the ocean into different zones by physical and biological conditions. The pelagic
zone includes all open ocean and comprises further regions of depth and light abundance. The photic
zone falls two-hundred meters below the oceanic surface and is where photosynthesis can occur and
therefore the most biodiverse. Plants require photosynthesis: deeper life relies on material sinking from
above (see marine snow) or another energy source. Hydrothermal vents are the primary source in what
is known as the aphotic zone (depths exceeding 200 m). The pelagic part of the photic zone is known as
the epipelagic.
The pelagic part of the aphotic zone comprises regions that descend in vertical order according to
temperature. The mesopelagic is the uppermost region. Its lowermost boundary is at a thermocline of
12 C (54 F), which, in the tropics generally lies at 7001,000 metres (2,3003,300 ft). Next is the
bathypelagic lying between 10 and 4 C (50 and 39 F), typically between 7001,000 metres (2,300
3,300 ft) and 2,0004,000 metres (6,60013,000 ft) Lying along the top of the abyssal plain is the
abyssopelagic, whose lower boundary lies at about 6,000 metres (20,000 ft). The last zone includes the
deep oceanic trench, and is known as the hadalpelagic. This lies between 6,00011,000 metres (20,000
36,000 ft) and is the deepest oceanic zone.
The benthic zones are aphotic and correspond to the three deepest zones of the deep-sea. The bathyal
zone covers the continental slope down to about 4,000 metres (13,000 ft). The abyssal zone covers the
abyssal plains between 4,000 and 6,000 m. Lastly, the hadal zone corresponds to the hadalpelagic zone,
which is found in oceanic trenches. The pelagic zone comprises two subregions: the neritic zone and the
oceanic zone. The neritic encompasses the water mass directly above the continental shelves whereas
the oceanic zone includes all the completely open water. Whereas the littoral zone covers the region
between low and high tide and represents the transitional area between marine and terrestrial
conditions. It is also known as the intertidal zone because it is the area where tide level affects the
conditions of the region.
Exploration[edit]
Main article: Ocean exploration
False color photo

Map of large underwater features (1995, NOAA)
Ocean travel by boat dates back to prehistoric times, but only in modern times has extensive
underwater travel become possible.
The deepest point in the ocean is the Mariana Trench, located in the Pacific Ocean near the Northern
Mariana Islands. Its maximum depth has been estimated to be 10,971 metres (35,994 ft) (plus or minus
11 meters; see the Mariana Trench article for discussion of the various estimates of the maximum
depth.) The British naval vessel, Challenger II surveyed the trench in 1951 and named the deepest part
of the trench, the "Challenger Deep". In 1960, the Trieste successfully reached the bottom of the trench,
manned by a crew of two men.
Much of the ocean bottom remains unexplored and unmapped. A global image of many underwater
features larger than 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) was created in 1995 based on gravitational distortions of the
nearby sea surface


Water is a chemical compound with the chemical formula H
2O. A water molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms that are connected by covalent
bonds. Water is a liquid at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but it often co-exists on Earth
with its solid state, ice, and gaseous state, steam (water vapor).
Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface,[1] and is vital for all known forms of life.[2] On Earth, 96.5% of
the planet's water is found in seas and oceans, 1.7% in groundwater, 1.7% in glaciers and the ice caps of
Antarctica and Greenland, a small fraction in other large water bodies, and 0.001% in the air as vapor,
clouds (formed of solid and liquid water particles suspended in air), and precipitation.[3][4] Only 2.5% of
the Earth's water is freshwater, and 98.8% of that water is in ice and groundwater. Less than 0.3% of all
freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere, and an even smaller amount of the Earth's freshwater
(0.003%) is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products.[3]
Water on Earth moves continually through the water cycle of evaporation and transpiration
(evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, usually reaching the sea. Evaporation and
transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land.
Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other lifeforms even though it provides no calories or
organic nutrients. Access to safe drinking water has improved over the last decades in almost every part
of the world, but approximately one billion people still lack access to safe water and over 2.5 billion lack
access to adequate sanitation.[5] There is a clear correlation between access to safe water and GDP per
capita.[6] However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world
population will be facing water-based vulnerability.[7] A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that
by 2030, in some developing regions of the world, water demand will exceed supply by 50%.[8] Water
plays an important role in the world economy, as it functions as a solvent for a wide variety of chemical
substances and facilitates industrial cooling and transportation. Approximately 70% of the fresh water
used by humans goes to agriculture.[9]
Contents [hide]
1 Chemical and physical properties
2 Taste and odor
3 Distribution in nature
3.1 In the universe
3.2 Water and habitable zone
4 On Earth
4.1 Water cycle
4.2 Fresh water storage
4.3 Sea water
4.4 Tides
5 Effects on life
5.1 Aquatic life forms
6 Effects on human civilization
6.1 Health and pollution
6.2 Human uses
6.2.1 Agriculture
6.2.2 As a scientific standard
6.2.3 For drinking
6.2.4 Washing
6.2.5 Transportation
6.2.6 Chemical uses
6.2.7 Heat exchange
6.2.8 Fire extinction
6.2.9 Recreation
6.2.10 Water industry
6.2.11 Industrial applications
6.2.12 Food processing
7 Law, politics, and crisis
8 In culture
8.1 Religion
8.2 Philosophy
8.3 Literature
9 See also
9.1 Other topics
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Chemical and physical properties

Main articles: Properties of water, Water (data page), and Water model


Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules of water


Impact from a water drop causes an upward "rebound" jet surrounded by circular capillary waves.


Snowflakes by Wilson Bentley, 1902


Dew drops adhering to a spider web


Capillary action of water compared to mercury
Water is the chemical substance with chemical formula H
2O: one molecule of water has two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to a single oxygen atom.
Water appears in nature in all three common states of matter (solid, liquid, and gas) and may take many
different forms on Earth: water vapor and clouds in the sky, seawater in the oceans, icebergs in the
polar oceans, glaciers in the mountains, fresh and salt water lakes, rivers , and aquifers in the ground.
The major chemical and physical properties of water are:
Water is a liquid at standard temperature and pressure. It is tasteless and odorless. The intrinsic colour
of water and ice is a very slight blue hue, although both appear colorless in small quantities. Water
vapour is essentially invisible as a gas.[10]
Water is transparent in the visible electromagnetic spectrum. Thus aquatic plants can live in water
because sunlight can reach them. Infrared light is strongly absorbed by the hydrogen-oxygen or OH
bonds.
Since the water molecule is not linear and the oxygen atom has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen
atoms, it carries a slight negative charge, whereas the hydrogen atoms are slightly positive. As a result,
water is a polar molecule with an electrical dipole moment. Water also can form an unusually large
number of intermolecular hydrogen bonds (four) for a molecule of its size. These factors lead to strong
attractive forces between molecules of water, giving rise to water's high surface tension[11] and
capillary forces. The capillary action refers to the tendency of water to move up a narrow tube against
the force of gravity. This property is relied upon by all vascular plants, such as trees.[12]
Water is a good polar solvent and is often referred to as the universal solvent. Substances that dissolve
in water, e.g., salts, sugars, acids, alkalis, and some gases especially oxygen, carbon dioxide
(carbonation) are known as hydrophilic (water-loving) substances, while those that are immiscible with
water (e.g., fats and oils), are known as hydrophobic (water-fearing) substances.
All of the components in cells (proteins, DNA and polysaccharides) are dissolved in water, deriving their
structure and activity from their interactions with the water.
Pure water has a low electrical conductivity, but this increases with the dissolution of a small amount of
ionic material such as sodium chloride.
The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is dependent on the barometric pressure. For example,
on the top of Mt. Everest water boils at 68 C (154 F), compared to 100 C (212 F) at sea level at a
similar latitude. Conversely, water deep in the ocean near geothermal vents can reach temperatures of
hundreds of degrees and remain liquid.
At 4181.3 J/(kgK), water has a high specific heat capacity, as well as a high heat of vaporization (40.65
kJmol1), both of which are a result of the extensive hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These
two unusual properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in
temperature.
The density of liquid water is 1,000 kg/m3 (62.43 lb/cu ft) at 4 C. Ice has a density of 917 kg/m3 (57.25
lb/cu ft).


ADR label for transporting goods dangerously reactive with water
The maximum density of water occurs at 3.98 C (39.16 F).[13] Most known pure substances become
more dense as they cool, however water has the anomalous property of becoming less dense when it is
cooled to its solid form, ice. During cooling water becomes more dense until reaching 3.98 C. Below this
temperature, the open structure of ice is gradually formed in the low temperature water; the random
orientations of the water molecules in the liquid are maintained by the thermal motion, and below 3.98
C there is not enough thermal energy to maintain this randomness. As water is cooled there are two
competing effects: 1) decreasing volume, and 2) increase overall volume of the liquid as the molecules
begin to orient into the organized structure of ice. Between 3.98 C and 0 C, the second effect will
cancel the first effect so the net effect is an increase of volume with decreasing temperature.[14] Water
expands to occupy a 9% greater volume as ice, which accounts for the fact that ice floats on liquid
water, as in icebergs.
Water is miscible with many liquids, such as ethanol, in all proportions, forming a single homogeneous
liquid. On the other hand, water and most oils are immiscible, usually forming layers with the least
dense liquid as the top layer, and the most dense layer at the bottom.
Water forms an azeotrope with many other solvents.
Water can be split by electrolysis into hydrogen and oxygen.
As an oxide of hydrogen, water is formed when hydrogen or hydrogen-containing compounds burn or
react with oxygen or oxygen-containing compounds. Water is not a fuel, it is an end-product of the
combustion of hydrogen. The energy required to split water into hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis or
any other means is greater than the energy that can be collected when the hydrogen and oxygen
recombine.[15]
Elements which are more electropositive than hydrogen such as lithium, sodium, calcium, potassium
and caesium displace hydrogen from water, forming hydroxides. Being a flammable gas, the hydrogen
given off is dangerous and the reaction of water with the more electropositive of these elements may be
violently explosive.
Property Remarks Importance to the Environment
Physical State Only substance occurring naturally in all three phases as solid, liquid, and gas on Earth's
surface Transfer of heat between ocean and atmosphere by phase change
Dissolving Ability Dissolves more substances in greater quantities than any other common liquid
Important in chemical, physical, and biological processes
Density: mass per unit volume Density is determined by (1) temperature, (2) salinity, and (3) pressure,
in that order of importance. The temperature of maximum density for pure water is 4C. For seawater,
the freezing point decreases with increasing salinity Controls oceanic vertical circulation, aids in heat
distribution, and allows seasonal stratification
Surface Tension Highest of all common liquids Controls drop formation in rain and clouds; Important in
cell physiology
Conduction of Heat Highest of all common liquids Important on the small scale, especially on
cellular level
Heat Capacity Highest of all common solids and liquids Prevents extreme range in Earth's temperatures
(i.e., great heat moderator)
Latent Heat of Fusion Highest of all common liquids and most solids Thermostatic heat-regulating
effect due to the release of heat on freezing and absorption on melting
Latent Heat of Vaporization Highest of all common substances Immense importance: a major
factor in the transfer of heat in and between ocean and atmosphere, driving weather and climate
Refractive Index Increases with increasing salinity and decreases with increasing temperature
Objects appear closer than in air
Transparency Relatively great for visible light; absorptioin high for infrared and ultraviolet
Important for photosynthesis
Sound Transmission Good compared with other fluids Allows for sonar and precision depth
recorders to rapidly determine water depth, and to detect subsurface features and animals; sounds can
be heard great distances underwater
Compressibility Only slight Density changes only slightly with pressure/depth
Boiling and Melting Points Unusually high Allows water to exist as a liquid on most of Earth
Taste and odor

Pure H2O is tasteless and odorless.
Water can dissolve many different substances, giving it varying tastes and odors. Humans, and other
animals, have developed senses that enable them to evaluate the potability of water by avoiding water
that is too salty or putrid.
The taste of spring water and mineral water, often advertised in marketing of consumer products,
derives from the minerals dissolved in it. The advertised purity of spring and mineral water refers to
absence of toxins, pollutants, and microbes, not to the absence of naturally occurring minerals.
Distribution in nature

In the universe
Much of the universe's water is produced as a byproduct of star formation. When stars are born, their
birth is accompanied by a strong outward wind of gas and dust. When this outflow of material
eventually impacts the surrounding gas, the shock waves that are created compress and heat the gas.
The water observed is quickly produced in this warm dense gas.[16]
On 22 July 2011 a report described the discovery of a gigantic cloud of water vapor containing "140
trillion times more water than all of Earth's oceans combined" around a quasar located 12 billion light
years from Earth. According to the researchers, the "discovery shows that water has been prevalent in
the universe for nearly its entire existence".[17][18]
Water has been detected in interstellar clouds within our galaxy, the Milky Way. Water probably exists
in abundance in other galaxies, too, because its components, hydrogen and oxygen, are among the most
abundant elements in the universe. Interstellar clouds eventually condense into solar nebulae and solar
systems such as ours.
Water vapor is present in
Atmosphere of Mercury: 3.4%, and large amounts of water in Mercury's exosphere[19]
Atmosphere of Venus: 0.002%
Earth's atmosphere: ~0.40% over full atmosphere, typically 14% at surface
Atmosphere of Mars: 0.03%
Atmosphere of Jupiter: 0.0004%
Atmosphere of Saturn in ices only
Enceladus (moon of Saturn): 91%
exoplanets (HD 189733 b[20] and HD 209458 b[21] are examples).
Liquid water is present on
Earth: 71% of surface.
Enceladus: under the surface.
Europa: 100 km deep subsurface ocean.
Mars
Water ice is present on
Earth mainly as ice sheets.
Mars
Moon
Titan
Europa
Enceladus
Saturn's rings[22]
Pluto and Charon[22]
Comets and related (Kuiper belt and Oort cloud objects).
Recent evidence points to the existence of water ice at the poles of Mercury.[23] Water ice may also be
present on Ceres and Tethys. Water and other volatiles probably comprise much of the internal
structures of Uranus and Neptune and the water in the deeper layers may be in the form of ionic water
in which the molecules break down into a soup of hydrogen and oxygen ions, and deeper down as
superionic water in which the oxygen crystallises but the hydrogen ions float around freely within the
oxygen lattice.[24]
Some of the Moon's minerals contain water molecules. For instance, in 2008 a laboratory device which
ejects and identifies particles found small amounts of the compound in the inside of volcanic rock
brought from Moon to Earth by the Apollo 15 crew in 1971.[25] NASA reported the detection of water
molecules by NASA's Moon Mineralogy Mapper aboard the Indian Space Research Organization's
Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft in September 2009.[26]
Water and habitable zone
Further information: Water distribution on Earth
The existence of liquid water, and to a lesser extent its gaseous and solid forms, on Earth are vital to the
existence of life on Earth as we know it. The Earth is located in the habitable zone of the solar system; if
it were slightly closer to or farther from the Sun (about 5%, or about 8 million kilometers), the
conditions which allow the three forms to be present simultaneously would be far less likely to
exist.[27][28]
Earth's gravity allows it to hold an atmosphere. Water vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
provide a temperature buffer (greenhouse effect) which helps maintain a relatively steady surface
temperature. If Earth were smaller, a thinner atmosphere would allow temperature extremes, thus
preventing the accumulation of water except in polar ice caps (as on Mars).
The surface temperature of Earth has been relatively constant through geologic time despite varying
levels of incoming solar radiation (insolation), indicating that a dynamic process governs Earth's
temperature via a combination of greenhouse gases and surface or atmospheric albedo. This proposal is
known as the Gaia hypothesis.
The state of water on a planet depends on ambient pressure, which is determined by the planet's
gravity. If a planet is sufficiently massive, the water on it may be solid even at high temperatures,
because of the high pressure caused by gravity, as it was observed on exoplanets Gliese 436 b[29] and
GJ 1214 b.[30]
There are various theories about origin of water on Earth.
On Earth

Main articles: Hydrology and Water distribution on Earth


Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface; the oceans contain 96.5% of the Earth's water. The Antarctic
ice sheet, which contains 61% of all fresh water on Earth, is visible at the bottom. Condensed
atmospheric water can be seen as clouds, contributing to the Earth's albedo.
Hydrology is the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water throughout the Earth. The
study of the distribution of water is hydrography. The study of the distribution and movement of
groundwater is hydrogeology, of glaciers is glaciology, of inland waters is limnology and distribution of
oceans is oceanography. Ecological processes with hydrology are in focus of ecohydrology.
The collective mass of water found on, under, and over the surface of a planet is called the hydrosphere.
Earth's approximate water volume (the total water supply of the world) is 1,338,000,000 km3
(321,000,000 mi3).[3]
Liquid water is found in bodies of water, such as an ocean, sea, lake, river, stream, canal, pond, or
puddle. The majority of water on Earth is sea water. Water is also present in the atmosphere in solid,
liquid, and vapor states. It also exists as groundwater in aquifers.
Water is important in many geological processes. Groundwater is present in most rocks, and the
pressure of this groundwater affects patterns of faulting. Water in the mantle is responsible for the melt
that produces volcanoes at subduction zones. On the surface of the Earth, water is important in both
chemical and physical weathering processes. Water and, to a lesser but still significant extent, ice, are
also responsible for a large amount of sediment transport that occurs on the surface of the earth.
Deposition of transported sediment forms many types of sedimentary rocks, which make up the
geologic record of Earth history.
Water cycle
Main article: Water cycle


Water cycle
The water cycle (known scientifically as the hydrologic cycle) refers to the continuous exchange of water
within the hydrosphere, between the atmosphere, soil water, surface water, groundwater, and plants.
Water moves perpetually through each of these regions in the water cycle consisting of following
transfer processes:
evaporation from oceans and other water bodies into the air and transpiration from land plants and
animals into air.
precipitation, from water vapor condensing from the air and falling to earth or ocean.
runoff from the land usually reaching the sea.
Most water vapor over the oceans returns to the oceans, but winds carry water vapor over land at the
same rate as runoff into the sea, about 47 Tt per year. Over land, evaporation and transpiration
contribute another 72 Tt per year. Precipitation, at a rate of 119 Tt per year over land, has several forms:
most commonly rain, snow, and hail, with some contribution from fog and dew.[31] Dew is small drops
of water that are condensed when a high density of water vapor meets a cool surface. Dew usually form
in the morning when the temperature is the lowest, just before sunrise and when the temperature of
the earth's surface starts to increase.[32] Condensed water in the air may also refract sunlight to
produce rainbows.
Water runoff often collects over watersheds flowing into rivers. A mathematical model used to simulate
river or stream flow and calculate water quality parameters is hydrological transport model. Some of
water is diverted to irrigation for agriculture. Rivers and seas offer opportunity for travel and commerce.
Through erosion, runoff shapes the environment creating river valleys and deltas which provide rich soil
and level ground for the establishment of population centers. A flood occurs when an area of land,
usually low-lying, is covered with water. It is when a river overflows its banks or flood from the sea. A
drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply.
This occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation.
Fresh water storage
Bay of Fundy High Tide.jpgBay of Fundy Low Tide.jpg
The Bay of Fundy at high tide (left) and low tide (right)
Main article: Water resources
Some runoff water is trapped for periods of time, for example in lakes. At high altitude, during winter,
and in the far north and south, snow collects in ice caps, snow pack and glaciers. Water also infiltrates
the ground and goes into aquifers. This groundwater later flows back to the surface in springs, or more
spectacularly in hot springs and geysers. Groundwater is also extracted artificially in wells. This water
storage is important, since clean, fresh water is essential to human and other land-based life. In many
parts of the world, it is in short supply.
Sea water
Main article: Seawater
Sea water contains about 3.5% salt on average, plus smaller amounts of other substances. The physical
properties of sea water differ from fresh water in some important respects. It freezes at a lower
temperature (about 1.9 C) and its density increases with decreasing temperature to the freezing point,
instead of reaching maximum density at a temperature above freezing. The salinity of water in major
seas varies from about 0.7% in the Baltic Sea to 4.0% in the Red Sea.
Tides
Main article: Tide
Tides are the cyclic rising and falling of local sea levels caused by the tidal forces of the Moon and the
Sun acting on the oceans. Tides cause changes in the depth of the marine and estuarine water bodies
and produce oscillating currents known as tidal streams. The changing tide produced at a given location
is the result of the changing positions of the Moon and Sun relative to the Earth coupled with the effects
of Earth rotation and the local bathymetry. The strip of seashore that is submerged at high tide and
exposed at low tide, the intertidal zone, is an important ecological product of ocean tides.


The seabed (also known as the seafloor, sea floor, or ocean floor) is the bottom of the ocean.

Ocean structure[edit]

See also: Seafloor spreading
Drawing showing divisions according to depth and distance from shore

The major oceanic divisions
Most of the oceans have a common structure, created by common physical phenomena, mainly from
tectonic movement, and sediment from various sources. The structure of the oceans, starting with the
continents, begins usually with a continental shelf, continues to the continental slope which is a steep
descent into the ocean, until reaching the abyssal plain a topographic plain, the beginning of the
seabed, and its main area. The border between the continental slope and the abyssal plain usually has a
more gradual descent, and is called the continental rise, which is caused by sediment cascading down
the continental slope.
The mid-ocean ridge, as its name implies, is a mountainous rise through the middle of all the oceans,
between the continents. Typically a rift runs along the edge of this ridge. Along tectonic plate edges
there are typically oceanic trenches deep valleys, created by the mantle circulation movement from
the mid-ocean mountain ridge to the oceanic trench.
Hotspot volcanic island ridges are created by volcanic activity, erupting periodically, as the tectonic
plates pass over a hotspot. In areas with volcanic activity and in the oceanic trenches, there are
hydrothermal vents releasing high pressure and extremely hot water and chemicals into the typically
freezing water around it.
Deep ocean water is divided into layers or zones, each with typical features of salinity, pressure,
temperature and marine life, according to their depth. Lying along the top of the abyssal plain is the
abyssal zone, whose lower boundary lies at about 6,000 m (20,000 ft). The hadal zone which includes
the oceanic trenches, lies between 6,00011,000 metres (20,00036,000 ft) and is the deepest oceanic
zone.
Benthos[edit]

Main article: Benthos
Benthos is the community of organisms which live on, in, or near the seabed, the area known as the
benthic zone.[1] This community lives in or near marine sedimentary environments, from tidal pools
along the foreshore, out to the continental shelf, and then down to the abyssal depths. The benthic zone
is the ecological region on, in and immediately above the seabed, including the sediment surface and
some sub-surface layers. Benthos generally live in close relationship with the substrate bottom, and
many such organisms are permanently attached to the bottom. The superficial layer of the soil lining the
given body of water, the benthic boundary layer, is an integral part of the benthic zone, and greatly
influences the biological activity which takes place there. Examples of contact soil layers include sand
bottoms, rocky outcrops, coral, and bay mud.
Seabed features[edit]



Oceanic ridge with deep sea vent


Layers of the pelagic zone
Each area of the seabed has typical features such as common soil composition, typical topography,
salinity of water layers above it, marine life, magnetic direction of rocks, and sedimenting.
Seabed topography is flat where sedimenting is heavy and covers the tectonic features. Sedimenting
comes from various sources:
Land erosion sediments, brought mainly by rivers,
New "young rock" New magma of basalt composition, from the mid-ocean ridge.
Underwater volcanic ash spreading, especially from hydrothermal vents.
Microorganism activity.
Sea currents eroding the seabed itself,
Marine life: corals, fish, algae, crabs, marine plants and other biological created sediment.
Where sedimenting is avoided, such as in the Atlantic ocean especially in the northern and eastern
Atlantic, the original tectonic activity can be clearly seen as straight line "cracks" or "vents" thousands of
kilometers long.
Recently there has been the discovery of abundant marine life in the deep sea, especially around
hydrothermal vents. Large deep sea communities of marine life have been discovered around black and
white smokers hydrothermal vents emitting typical chemicals toxic to humans and most of the
vertebrates. This marine life receives its energy from both the extreme temperature difference (typically
a drop of 150 degrees) and from chemosynthesis by bacteria.
Brine pools are another seabed feature, usually connected to cold seeps.


Patterns of Ocean Circulation
By Alecia M. Spooner from Environmental Science For Dummies
Environmental scientists study ocean circulation because, along with patterns of air movement in the
atmosphere, the movement of water through the oceans helps determine weather and climate
conditions for different regions of the world. The three main patterns of ocean circulation are gyres,
upwelling, and thermohaline circulation.

Patterns of ocean circulation: Gyres
As the prevailing winds in earths atmosphere blow across the surface of the oceans, the winds push
water in the direction that theyre blowing. As a result, the surface water of the oceans moves in concert
with the air above it.

This dual movement creates large circular patterns, or gyres, in each of the planets oceans. The ocean
gyres move clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.

Ocean gyre circulation moves cold surface water from the poles to the equator, where the water is
warmed before the gyres send it back toward the poles. The waters temperature influences the
temperature of the air: Cold currents bring cooler air to the coastline as they move toward the equator,
and they bring warmer air to the continents they pass on their way back toward the poles.

Patterns of ocean circulation: Upwelling
Sometimes the movement of surface currents along a coastline leads to a circulation process called
upwelling. As a result of the Coriolis effect, upwelling commonly occurs on the west coast of continents,
where the surface waters moving toward the equator are replaced by deeper cold water that moves up
to the surface.

The deep water brings with it nutrients from the bottom of the ocean. These nutrients support the
growth of primary producers, which support the entire food web in the ocean.

Regions of the world where deep ocean upwelling occurs are often very productive with high numbers
of many different types of organisms living in them.

Patterns of ocean circulation: Thermohaline circulation
The largest circulation of water on the planet is a direct result of changes in temperature and salinity.
Salinity is the measure of dissolved salt in water. The pattern of ocean currents related to salinity and
temperature is called the thermohaline circulation (thermo = heat; haline = salt). This figure gives you a
general idea of what this pattern looks like.

[Credit: Illustration by Wiley, Composition Services Graphics]
Credit: Illustration by Wiley, Composition Services Graphics
Sometimes called the thermohaline conveyor belt, this circulation pattern moves cold water around the
globe in deep water currents and warmer water in surface currents. A single molecule of water being
transported by thermohaline circulation may take a thousand years to move completely throughout the
Earths oceans.

The conveyor is driven by changes in the density of water as a result of changes in both temperature and
salinity. Heres how this circulation pattern works:

Warm water in a shallow current near the surface moves toward the North Pole near Iceland. As this
water reaches the colder polar region, some of it freezes or evaporates, leaving behind the salt that was
dissolved in it. The resulting water is colder and has more salt per volume than it did before (and thus is
more dense).

The cold, dense, salty water sinks deeper into the ocean and moves to the south, as far as Antarctica.
After it makes its way near Antarctica, the cold, deep current splits, one branch moving up toward India
into the Indian Ocean and the other continuing along Antarctica into the Pacific Ocean.

Each branch of the cold, deep current is eventually warmed in the Indian Ocean or the northern part of
the Pacific Ocean. Although the water still contains the same amount of salt, its a little less dense
because its warmer than the cold water surrounding it; as a result, it moves upward, becoming a
surface current.

The warm, shallow, less dense surface current moves to the west, across the Pacific Ocean, and into the
Indian Ocean, where it rejoins the Indian Ocean branch. Both branches then continue into the Atlantic
Ocean and head back toward the North Pole.



Water cycle
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


The water cycle
File:Earth's Water Cycle.ogv

Earth's water cycle
The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the H2O cycle, describes the continuous
movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. The mass water on Earth remains
fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water,
saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables. The
water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the
atmosphere, by the physical processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff,
and subsurface flow. In so doing, the water goes through different phases: liquid, solid (ice), and gas
(vapor).
The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. For instance,
when water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment. When it
condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat exchanges influence climate. The
evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with freshwater. The flow
of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the
geological features of the Earth, through processes including erosion and sedimentation. The water
cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet.
Contents [hide]
1 Description
1.1 Processes
2 Residence times
3 Changes over time
4 Effects on climate
5 Effects on biogeochemical cycling
6 Slow loss over geologic time
7 History of hydrologic cycle theory
7.1 Floating land mass
7.2 Precipitation and percolation
7.3 Precipitation alone
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
File:The Water Cycle.ogv
As the Earth's surface water evaporates, winds move water in the air from the sea to the land,
increasing the amount of fresh water on land.
File:The Water Cycle Watering the Land.ogv
Water vapor is converted to clouds that bring fresh water to land in the form of rain or snow.
File:The Water Cycle - Following the Water.ogv
Precipitation falls on the ground, but what happens to that water depends greatly on the geography of
the land at any particular place.

Description[edit]

The Sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas. Water evaporates as water
vapour into the air. Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapour. Evapotranspiration is water
transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. Rising air currents take the vapour up into the
atmosphere where cooler temperatures cause it to condense into clouds. Air currents move water
vapour around the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the upper atmospheric layers as
precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow or hail, sleet, and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers,
which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Most water falls back into the oceans or onto land
as rain, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers in
valleys in the landscape, with streamflow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff and water emerging
from the ground (groundwater) may be stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers,
much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and
replenishes aquifers, which can store freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to
the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge.
Some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs. In river
valleys and flood-plains there is often continuous water exchange between surface water and ground
water in the hyporheiczone . Over time, the water returns to the ocean, to continue the water cycle.
Processes[edit]


Many different processes lead to movements and phase changes in water
Precipitation
Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface . Most precipitation occurs as rain, but also
includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and sleet.[1] Approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water
falls as precipitation each year, 398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it over the oceans.[2] The rain on land
contains 107,000 km3 (26,000 cu mi) of water per year and a snowing only 1,000 km3 (240 cu mi).[3]
Canopy interception
The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage, eventually evaporates back to the atmosphere
rather than falling to the ground.
Snowmelt
The runoff produced by melting snow.
Runoff
The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes both surface runoff and channel
runoff. As it flows, the water may seep into the ground, evaporate into the air, become stored in lakes
or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses.
Infiltration
The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once infiltrated, the water becomes soil
moisture or groundwater.[4]
Subsurface flow
The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers. Subsurface water may return to the
surface (e.g. as a spring or by being pumped) or eventually seep into the oceans. Water returns to the
land surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under the force of gravity or gravity induced
pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly, and is replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for
thousands of years.
Evaporation
The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the ground or bodies of water
into the overlying atmosphere.[5] The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation.
Evaporation often implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though together they are specifically
referred to as evapotranspiration. Total annual evapotranspiration amounts to approximately 505,000
km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water, 434,000 km3 (104,000 cu mi) of which evaporates from the oceans.[2]
Sublimation
The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water vapor.[6]
Deposition
This refers to changing of water vapor directly to ice.
Advection
The movement of water in solid, liquid, or vapor states through the atmosphere. Without
advection, water that evaporated over the oceans could not precipitate over land.[7]
Condensation
The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, creating clouds and fog.[8]
Transpiration
The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air. Water vapor is a gas that cannot be seen.
Percolation
Water flows horizontally through the soil and rocks under the influence of gravity
Plate tectonics
Water enters the mantle via subduction of oceanic crust. Water returns to the surface in via volcanism.