Qualitative Analysis to identify ions

By Emma Khazzam
11 grade, Chemistry
May 13, 2014

What is qualitative analysis? Qualitative analysis is when one measures the quality of
a sample rather then its quantity. Qualitative chemical analysis helps us identify an
element or grouping of elements present in a sample. It is an analysis that identies
elements, substances, ions and compounds of a sample and there are many different
ways to identify the ions found in a substance using qualitative analysis. Three
examples are the ame test, looking at the colour of the solution, and looking at the
formation of a precipitate.

The rst qualitative analysis to identify ions is the ame test. The ame test is a
qualitative analysis that allows us to identify different metal ions in a solution. When
metal ions are heated in a ame, they turn a unique colour, and when examining the
colour of the ame, one can try to identify the ions present in the solution. For example,
when lithium ions are heated they turn crimson red, but when potassium ions are
heated they turn lavender. One problem with ame tests is that they are very sensitive,
so when conducting an experiment, it is advised to only use tiny samples to increase
the tests accuracy. An extremely useful tool when conducting ame tests is the Bunsen
burner. The Bunsen burner was named for Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen
(1811-1899), a German chemist who contributed to its invention only in a minor way.

The Bunsen burner produces a clean, hot ame and is used along with a wire loop
(usually platinum or an alloy of nickel and chromium) to perform ame tests. When
using aqueous solutions, one must simply dip the wire into the solution and then place it
into the ame. When using solid solutions, one must rst combine the solution with
hydrochloric acid or nitric acid, then add it to the wire and nally place it into the ame.
The electrons of the solution absorb the energy of the ame and then re-emit that
energy as visible light, causing the ame to change colour. Because of the different
arrangements of electrons for each ion, the colours of the ames will be different, which
caused Bunsen to discover cerium and rubidium. Flame tests are a useful type of
qualitative analysis but they are very sensitive and can be inaccurate.

The second qualitative analysis that is used to identify ions, is by observing the
colours of the ions in an aqueous solution. Aqueous solutions that have compounds of
certain cations, positively charged ions, and anions, negatively charged ions, have
unique colours. The colours of these aqueous solutions can help us identify some of the
ions in a sample. For example, aqueous solutions that contain chromium (III) cations
are green, whereas if they contain chromium (II) cations they are blue. If an aqueous
solution is purple, then it might contains permanganate anions, but if it is yellow then it
may contain chromate anions.

The last qualitative analysis to identify ions is by the formation of precipitation
reactions. By adding a known reactant to an unknown solution we can nd the unknown
ion by observing whether a precipitate forms. Precipitates can form when two soluble (a

substance that is able to dissolve) salts react to form one or more insoluble (a
substance that is unable to dissolve) products. When the insoluble product separates
from the liquid, it is called a precipitate. One can use solubility guidelines (rules that help
us nd which elements are soluble and which are not) to deduce the unknown ions that
are present in the solution. To nd the ions in a solution, one must remove all the ions
each time a precipitate forms. After the precipitate is ltered out, one must add other
reactants to the ltrate (ltered solution). The colour of the solution after each reaction
can help identify the ions present. For example, when copper sulphate and sodium
hydroxide react, a product is a blue precipitate of copper hydroxide.

Qualitative analysis helps us identify different components in a sample using data
that cannot be measured, such as texture, smell, taste, appearance, and colour. We
perform qualitative chemical analysis by observing the colour of ames in ame tests,
the colour of aqueous solutions, or by the coloration of a solution after a precipitation
reaction. By doing this we can try to identify certain ions present in solutions.

Harmful substances in water from natural sources
By Emma Khazzam
11 grade, Chemistry
May 13, 2014

Water on earth cycles; from the land to the sky and back again. As natural, fresh
water rises into the sky, turning into rain and snow, the water mixes with the gases in
the atmosphere and turns acidic. When these precipitants fall from the sky down to
earth, the acidic water reacts with the basic elements of the soil. These elements, such
as arsenic ions, uoride ions, calcium ions and magnesium ions leach into the ground
water and are harmful to humans.

As the natural water cycle reaches the atmosphere, carbon dioxide gases dissolve
into the rain water or snow, and produce diluted carbonic acid. When the water falls
down to earth, the acid reacts with different elements and ions, such as calcium,
magnesium, iron (III), iron (II), carbonate, and sulphate. Some of these ions, when the
concentration is high enough, are harmful to human health. For example, arsenic ions
are found naturally in the ground water of river deltas. In Canada, regulations have been
placed that say that arsenic has to be less than 5 ppb (parts per billion) for it to be safe
to sell and consume. But in Bangladesh, which is a delta land, the drinking water for
more than 35 million people has more than 50 ppb of arsenic! Long-term exposure to
arsenic has been linked to cancer of the bladder, lungs, skin, kidney, nasal passages,

liver, and prostate. Other effect can include thickening and discolouration of the skin,
nausea, stomach pain, diarrhoea, vomiting, partial paralysis and blindness.

Another element that is found in drinking water is uoride, which has both risks and
benets. One of the risks of uoride in drinking water is dental uorosis, which causes
teeth to stain if they are in contact with too much uoride. Yet, if the concentration less
than 1 ppm (parts per million), the uoride replaces the cations of the teeth enamel and
leaves healthier teeth, without staining. This causes many municipalities add uoride
ions to drinking water to prevent tooth decay, but there are many organizations, such as
the Fluoride Action Network, that are trying to eliminate uoridation. Some of their
arguments state that uoride is unethical, that its dose cannot be controlled, and that
uoridated water can be consumed by everyone regardless of their age, health or
vulnerability.

Hard water, which is usually caused by calcium or magnesium ions, can be very
problematic. Hard water is water that contains a relatively high concentration of ions and
creates insoluble compounds with soap (salt of a fatty acid). Soft water is the opposite
of hard water; it is water with a small concentration of ions that form insoluble
compounds with soap. An insoluble compound is a substance that is incapable of being
dissolved and a soluble compound is the opposite; they are substances that are
capable of being dissolved. When it rains, the carbonic acid that is found in rainwater
reacts with calcium or magnesium ions that are found in rocks. These ions enter the
water solution and turn it into hard water. One way of nding out if your water is hard is

if it has difculty forming a lather with soap, and instead forms a sticky soap curd. These
soap curds cause clothes to look dingy and feel harsh and scratchy, they leave lms on
dishes, bathtubs, showers and all other water xtures, and they prevent the removal of
soil and bacteria from skin, which leads to irritation.

Another way of nding out if water is hard is by looking for the formation of lime
scales (calcium carbonate deposits), a chalky, hard substance that builds up in water
pipes, kettles, and humidiers. Lime scale reduces the water ow in taps and pipe,
stains bathtubs and sinks, and prevents the heat to transfer in kettles. Lucky, there is a
simple way of xing this problem. By using white vinegar (acetic acid), a simple house
product, one can easily remove the stains caused by lime scale. This acid reacts with
calcium and magnesium carbonates to form soluble compounds, breaking down the
calcium carbonate.

There are often elements that are naturally found in water that are potentially
dangerous to humans and have negative impacts on our drinking water. Arsenic ions,
uoride ions, calcium ions and magnesium ions are only a short list of substances found
in nature that can be harmful to humans. Other substances include mercury, uranium,
and bromine.


Harmful pollutants that enter drinking water from human
activities
By Emma Khazzam
11 grade, Chemistry
May 13, 2014

Seventy one percent of the Earths surface is made up of water. Ninety seven point
ve of this water is contained within the oceans, leaving only the remaining 2.5% to be
freshwater. This 2.5% is extremely precious to human beings; we use fresh water for
everything! Unfortunately, there are many pollutants from human activities that affect our
water sources, including manufacturing, farming, transportation, and garbage disposal.
All of these examples contribute to the pollution of water systems. Some of the main
human pollutants are lead, mercury, nitrate, airborne chemicals and chemicals from
plastics.

These are pollutants classied as either point source or non-point source. Point
source pollutants are pollutants that come from a single source in a specic location. A
wrecked tanker that is leaking oil or a pulp mill that throws away its toxic efuent into a
river are examples of point source pollutants. Non-point sources do not come from a
single source and have an easily dened location. They can be from sources that are
spread out, such as pesticides and fertilizers on farmland, or can be a combination of a
large amount of small point sources, such as the exhaust from cars. Non-point

pollutants and the collective effects of many small point sources can be a serious
problem for water sources. Though there are different regulations that try to reduce their
effect, pollutants such as lead, mercury, nitrate, airborne chemicals and chemicals from
plastics remain a problem.

The exposure to lead can lead to many medical problems, including abdominal pain,
kidney failure, nerve damage, and different brain disorders. The lead in fresh water is
rarely from natural sources, and is mostly released into the environment from old water
pipes, industrial recesses, ore smelting, the manufacture and recycling of car batteries,
and the preparation of some types of plastic. Fortunately, over the last 30 years, the
concentration in air and water of lead has signicantly decreased, sometimes by more
than 75 percent! This decrease in lead levels is most likely due to the worldwide effort to
stop the use of leaded gasoline in on-road vehicle.

Another harmful pollutant is mercury. This element is highly toxic and greatly affects
the human body. It can affect the central nervous system, and cause tumours, irritability,
insomnia, numbness, tunnel vision, liver damage, and kidney damage. Mercury can be
emitted both naturally and by humans. Volcanoes are an extremely harmful natural
mercury pollutant and they may be responsible for about one half of all mercury in the
atmosphere. These toxins are equally emitted from human sources such as coal-red
power plants, gold mines, cement plants and smelting for non-ferrous metals (metal that
do not contain iron).


Nitrate pollution is problematic both for wildlife and humans. The greatest sources of
nitrate pollutants in Canada come from livestock waste and nitrogen-based fertilizers.
Nitrogen-based fertilizers increase the crop yield, but when the fertilizer leaches into the
lakes and rivers, the growth of aquatic plants, including algae, increases. When the
plants die and decompose, the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water subsides,
which causes a stress on the sh because they have less oxygen to breathe. The
decrease in oxygen causes the aquatic wildlife to die. Nitrate ions can equally affect
humans. When these ions are present in drinking water, in a high concentration, they
can be harmful to babies. The digestive system of infants converts the nitrate ions to
nitrite ions. The nitrite ions bond with hemoglobin, the iron-containing oxygen-
transporting protein in the red blood cells, which decreases the amount of hemoglobin
left to bond with oxygen. This causes the bodys tissues to be starved of oxygen, which
causes babies to turn blue. This condition is called blue-baby syndrome, but as the
youth grows and the amount of acid in the stomach increases, the body inhibits the
conversion from nitrate to nitrite.

There are many airborne pollutants that contribute to water pollution. The sources of
these pollutants include motor vehicles, reneries, and factories that release gases such
as carbon dioxide gas, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide gases. When these non-
metalic oxides dissolve in rainwater they become acid rain, and the more acid rain that
there is, the more compounds get dissolved into it from soil and rocks. For example,
acid rain leaches aluminium ions from the soil into ground water and surface water. This
element is harmful for sh because the ions obstruct the path of oxygen from the water

into the gills. When people are exposed to toxic air pollutants, at sufcient
concentrations, they may have an increased chance of getting cancer or other serious
health problems, including neurological, reproductive, developmental, respiratory
problems and damage to the immune system.

Have you ever drunken water from a plastic bottle and found that it tasted a bit like
plastic? Substances from unexpected sources, like plastic water bottles, equally affect
our drinking water. Different containers, such as water bottles, are made using hard,
clear plastics called polycarbonates. These polycarbonates are made with BPA or
bisphenol A, which is a carbon-based synthetic compound. This chemical can leach into
the water from the bottle. BPA triggers biological changes, that are linked to breast
cancer and heart disease. Countries are starting to place regulations to control the
amount of BPA that we digest. Canada was the 1st country to ban BPA from baby
bottles, but it is still used to make kitchen containers and the linings of cans. BPA and
other chemicals can be leached into the environment.

Pollution from human sources is a serious problem, especially because the earths
water sources are limited. Fortunately, there are ways to help keep our water clean,
safe and healthy. By taking great care not to overuse pesticides and fertilizers, by not
throwing away litter into rivers, lakes or oceans, by using environmental house products,
by conserving water, and by being careful about what you throw down your sink or toilet
(not throwing out paints, oils or other forms of litter down the drain), you can help keep
one of the earths most amazing resource clean.

Treating water hardness
By Emma Khazzam
11 grade, Chemistry
May 13, 2014

Have you ever noticed mineral deposits on your cooking dishes or that your soap
does not lather but rather leaves insoluble soap scum in your bathtub? This is probably
not because of bad housekeeping, but is rather the sign of hard water. What is water
hardness? Hard water is water with a high concentration of ions that form insoluble
compound with soap. It contains cations with a charge of +2, usually calcium and
magnesium ions. Though they do not usually pose health threats, deposits of hard
water can be unsuitable for many uses. Luckily, there are ways of treating water
hardness by softening the water.

There are two types of hardness; temporary water hardness and permanent water
hardness. Temporary hardness is hard water that can be removed by boiling water, by
driving the ions out of the solution though heat. An example of temporary hardness is
calcium carbonates. When calcium reacts with rainwater that contains dissolved carbon
dioxide, it creates calcium carbonates. Yet, this reaction can be reversed by boiling the
water; the boiling drives most of the carbon dioxide out.

Permanent hardness is water hardness that that cannot be removed by boiling, but
can be removed by other methods. One example for permanent hardness is calcium

sulphate, that can not be removed by boiling, but has to be removed chemically. The
least expensive method of doing this is by using hydrated sodium carbonate or washing
soda. One problem with using washing soda is that it makes the water basic. A way to
avoid making the water basic is by using ion-exchanging water softeners.

Ion-exchange water softeners exchange the ions that cause hard water. These
softeners trade ions such as calcium, for something else, usually sodium ions, to create
soft water (water with a small concentration of ions that form insoluble compound with
soap). The heart of a water softener is a mineral tank which is lled with small
polystyrene beads, made from resin or zeolite (microporous crystalline solids that
generally contain silicon, aluminium and oxygen). These beads carry a negative charge
while calcium and magnesium both carry positive charges. Because they are oppositely
charged, the ions cling to the beads as the hard water passes though the tank. Sodium
ions, which are attached to the beads, also have positive charges, but their charges are
not as strong as calcium and magnesium ions. When the solution is put thought the
tank, the calcium and magnesium ions move to the beads, replacing sodium ions. Once
the beads are saturated with the calcium and magnesium ions, the water enters a three-
phase regenerating cycle. Firstly, there is the backwash phase which reverses the ow
of the water so that the dirt is ushed out of the tank. Secondly, there is the recharge
phase, which takes the sodium-rich salt solution out of the brine tank and through the
mineral tank. The nal phase is to ush the mineral tank of excess brine and rell the
brine tanks.


Though water softening is extremely benecial, there are some problems. The
sodium, that remains in softened water may be troublesome for those who have
sodium-restricted diets. Treated water has a slightly salty taste, a taste that some
people wish to avoid. In these cases, one can install a separate water dispenser that
bypasses the softener or use potassium chloride instead of salt, but the cost would
increase about three to four times.


Drinking water standards in Canada
By Emma Khazzam
11 grade, Chemistry
May 13, 2014

When drinking water, one must have certain standards. It should be clean,
colourless, odourless, and cannot have a bad taste. Water should not contain any
disease-causing or unsafe particles such as E coli, or coliform bacteria. Unfortunately,
water found in nature can never meet these standards. As water in nature runs its
course, it picks up bits and pieces such as vegetation, fertilizers, minerals etc. Though
most of these particles might be harmless, some of the may pose a health risk. To
address this risk, governments have developed standards to protect the health of its
society, especially the most vulnerable members such as the elderly and children.
Health Canada has worked with both provincial and territorial governments to help
develop these guidelines. The Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality deal with
microbiological, chemical, and radiological contaminants.

The most signicant risks to peoples health from drinking water comes from the
microscopic organisms that can be found in water. This includes disease-causing
bacteria, protozoa and viruses. Because the associated health effects of these
organisms can be very severe, both in the short and long term, the guidelines have to
be very strict. There are also chemical and radiological substances that may be found

in drinking water supplies, though they are usually only a health concern if they are
present above set guideline levels, including MAC and IMAC.

Ontario drinking water standards apply specically to the MAC, which means
Maximum Allowable Concentration, value of a substance. This is a drinking water
standard for substances that are known or suspected to affect human health when
above a certain concentration. They are not physical constants, but rather they are
values and standards that are set, usually by national bodies. The MAC values are set
to ensure the health and safety at the workplace and are dened and revised based on
reliable toxicological and medical evidence. Examples of MAC standards are that
drinking water cannot contain more than ve coliform bacteria per 100 mL. Cadmium
(Cd2+), a chemical used in some types of batteries, has a maximum allowable
concentration of 0.005.

Yet MAC guidelines and standards are frequently adjusted. When scientists are doing
research, they might create a IMAC, with is a Interim Maximum Allowable
Concentration. IMACs are created when there is an insufcient amount of data for a
MAC. An example of an IMAC is dioxin and furan, which is the burning of waste,
especially plastics, has an interim maximum allowable concentration is 0.000 000 015
mg/L. These guidelines include AOs, aesthetic objectives. AOs are standards that
address the parameters that affect the consumers acceptance of drinking water, such
as taste, odour and colour, but they are not health hazards. An example of aesthetic

objectives is that only 250 mg/L of chloride, which is used for water treatment, can be
used.
Drinking water is essential to life, yet it is naturally exposed to pathogens and
chemical, physical and radiological contaminants. These organisms can affect human
health, both in the short-term and the long-term, and are known to contribute to a large
range of adverse health effects including cancer, neurological disorders, reproductive
problems, the disruption of the endocrine system, and gastrointestinal illnesses. For
these reasons, it is important that standards and guidelines are set to protect the human
population. Standards ensure that our water is safe, clean, tasty and healthy.


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Book:
Clancy, Christina. McGraw-Hill Ryerson Chemistry 11. Whitby, Ont.: McGraw-Hill
Ryerson, 2001. Print.


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