1

Domestic and International Tourism in a Globalized World

Research in Progress Paper presented at the International Conference Ever the tain
shall meet ! relating international and domestic tourism" of Research Committee RC#$
International Tourism% International &ociological 'ssociation (aipur% Ra)asthan% India
*ovember% +, - +.% +$$/
Eke Eijgelaar, Paul Peeters, and Pieter Piket
NHTV International Higher Education, Breda, The Netherlands
NHTV Center for Sustainable Transort and Touris!
NHTV "ssociate Professorshi Sustainable Transort and Touris!
'bstract
The touris! sector and touris! research co!!unit# focus !ainl# on international in$ and
outbound touris! %olu!es and e&enditures' But international touris! is onl# one art and
certainl# in nu!ber of arri%als, do!estic touris! is se%eral ti!es larger than international'
Ho(e%er, consistent data on (orld$(ide do!estic touris! are not so readil# a%ailable'
This aer therefore first focuses the de%elo!ent of do!estic %isitor nu!bers o%er ti!e er
countr#' These nu!bers (ill be co!ared to the international inbound and outbound %isitor
nu!bers er countr#' "n international co!arison (ill be included as (ell'
The ne&t ste (ill be the recognition of the econo!ic i!ortance of do!estic co!ared to
international touris!' The resecti%e en%iron!ental i!acts (ith a secific focus on )H)
e!issions of do!estic co!ared to international touris! (ill be subject of our research as
(ell' To conclude, (e reco!!end an alternati%e, !ore accurate !etric than border
crossings to distinguish bet(een do!estic and international touris!
*
The ignorance of domestic tourism
The tourism sector and tourism research community focus mainly on international in- and
outbound tourism volumes and expenditures. Statistics on international tourism as reported
by among others the UNWTO are more or less consistent, comprehensive and up-to-date.
ut international tourism is only one part and certainly in number of arrivals, domestic
tourism is several times larger than international. !ost US tourists never leave their
country and their numbers are far bigger than for instance the "ermans. The number of
domestic tourists #ithin $hina exceeds that of all international inbound tourists and sho#s
also an even larger gro#th. %WTT$ &''(a, National ureau of Statistics of $hina &'')*,
+o#ever, consistent data on #orld-#ide domestic tourism are not so readily available. ,s an
illustration- the latest UNWTO World Tourism arometer of October &''. is all about in-
and outbound international tourism gro#th forecasts #ithout even mentioning the
domestic tourism component once %UNWTO &''.*.
Whereas international tourism movements are hard to measure, domestic tourist movements
are even harder to trac/.
0omestic tourism throughout the #orld is a predominant but invisible portion of total tourism
activity. The lac/ of commonly accepted and1or used definitions of domestic travel activity is
largely responsible for this ignorance. ,vailable domestic tourism data are mostly in the form
of number of trips to destinations beyond a certain minimum distance from the normal place
of residence, and involving at least one overnight stay. Other data include same-day visitors.
,nd in case no such data format is available researchers resort to either the number of
registered guests in hotels, etc. or the ratio bet#een the number of overnight stays and the
average length of stay. The latter formats underestimate domestic tourism by excluding 234
trips %igano et al. &''5*. Other data include same-day visitors.
, recent UNWTO study %UNWTO-UN67-W!O &''.* roughly estimated that in &''8 of
the total number of tourists some )8' million #ere international and 5,''' million
domestic. Of the latter almost half ta/es place in developing countries, the other half in
developed %the 97$$ O6$0:'* countries.
This one-sided focus on international tourism may be caused by, among others, the practical
fact that boundaries bet#een countries are ;natural< points to gather detailed travel data, as are
currency exchange and foreign guest in accommodations. 3urthermore, tourism statistics
traditionally have a strong international economics and finances ob=ective for #hich only
international tourism is relevant to determine trade balances and import-export flo#s.
esides, countries have less of an interest in counting departures than in counting arrivals,
so departures are probably underreported even if there are data available.
+
3or most other purposes the distinction domestic versus international tourism is not very
useful as both amount and character of international tourism depend to a large extend on the
%coincidental* si>e of the country of origin %compare e.g. the United States and ?uxembourg*.
The bias on international tourism ignores most tourists and has many caveats. 9t gives a
distorted image of tourism. Total tourism numbers are grossly underestimated. The
importance of regions for tourism is misrepresented. 6urope as a region is presented as far
more attractive for tourism as regions #ith large countries li/e the United States or $hina.
+o#ever, this is definitely not the case #hen domestic tourism is included. The large number
of international in- and outbound tourists in 6urope contrasting most other areas in the #orld,
is simply caused by the concentration of relatively small and #ealthy countries in 6urope.
With respect to transport the bias to international tourism gives the impression that the
aircraft is the main transport mode #ith 58@, #hile for all tourism air transport serves
only
A)@ of all trips. ,lso the total expenditures of tourism are largely underestimated #hen
ignoring domestic tourism. 3rom a sociological perspective the distinction bet#een domestic
and international does not ma/e much sense as #ell as the #hole travel pattern becomes
distorted both in number of trips, time spent a#ay from home, spending and travel motives
and attitudes. Social and political borders do not al#ays coincide geographically. 3inally, the
neglect of domestic tourists ma/es it difficult to ma/e consistent policies for sustainable
development %e.g. poverty alleviation, climate change*.
This paper presents data on the development of domestic compared to international tourism
numbers and transport volumes, and their respective impacts on the economy and the
environment.
,
Domestic tourism numbers
Total do!estic touris! in *--. has been esti!ated to be in the order of ,'- billion arri%als
/0N1T2 3eart!ent of Statistics and Econo!ic 4easure!ent5' In the follo(ing (e ro%ide
an esti!ate of the share of these tris !ade b# citi6ens in de%eloed and in de%eloing
countries, resecti%el#'
7or developed countries the follo(ing figures ha%e been found8
B 3o!estic tris in the E0 ha%e been esti!ated at .1- !illion er #ear /Peeters et al.
*--95'
B The 0S do!estic !arket is !uch larger at 1'* billion do!estic tris /1T2 *--.5' "nother
reort using a broader definition e%en sho(s a stable figure of around * /:5 billion erson$
tris er #ear for the #ears *--; $*-1* of (hich around *. < for business and 9. < for
leisure uroses /Shifflet et al *--=5'
B 2ther de%eloed regions add rather s!all do!estic tourist tri nu!bers, for instance 9*
!illion o%ernight tourists in "ustralia in *--.' But if the sa!e$da# %isitors are included it
results in a total of *-- !illion %isitor nu!bers /"ustralian Bureau of Statistics *--95'
B The assu!tion is thus that the re!aining de%eloed (orld /e&cluding the E0 and 0S"5
!a# account for *.- !illion do!estic tourist tris'
"s far as the former &oviet bloc countries are concerned8
B 7or >ussia %er# little reliable data is a%ailable on do!estic tra%el' But tri %olu!e is
%ariousl# esti!ated at bet(een 9. $ 1-- !illion tris a #ear' 2f these, less than *- er
cent in%ol%e air transort' Ho(e%er, do!estic tri %olu!e is still (ell do(n on the
nu!bers achie%ed during the So%iet era' In those da#s, social touris! (as (idesread'
The go%ern!ent had a (hole raft of econo!ic !easures designed to sti!ulate holida#
taking and trade unions ro%ided subsidies for e!lo#ees (ho could not afford to go on
holida#' Toda#, that kind of suort is al!ost non$e&istent /1TTC *--;b5' There has also
been a huge increase in the cost of do!estic tra%el o%er the ast fe( #ears ? airline ticket
rices increased b# al!ost *- er cent in *--,, according to the >ussian 0nion of Tra%el
Industr# />0TI5 for the second or third consecuti%e #ear' "nd the cost of rail tra%el rose
b# o%er +- ercent' "s a result, !ore and !ore >ussians (ho (ant to go on holida# are
considering tris abroad'
B Polish do!estic touris! based on 1@@. data /Bigano et al. *--,5 is esti!ated at an
i!ressi%e =;'9 !illion tris ranking = on the global do!estic touris! to 1-
not(ithstanding substantiall# lo(er er caita inco!e than the rest of the to 1-
countries' Ho(e%er, this !a# be because /illegal5 seasonal labor !igration is registered
as do!estic touris!' See also table *'
.
For developing countries, the follo#ing references #ere identified-
B $hina counted some A.&A billion domestic tourists in &''8 %National ureau of Statistics
of $hina &'')*. 9n A::' this figure #as only &.' million %WTT$ &''(a* See also table 8.
B 9ndia sa# C': million domestic tourist arrivals in &''C %!inistry of Tourism &''5*.
"ro#th in domestic tourism in 9ndia is rapid, and #as estimated to be A5.C@ in &''5, #ith
an estimated 5'5 million trips in &''8 %3ederation of +otel D 4estaurant ,ssociation
&''(*.
.' @ of the tourists visiting the popular tourism spot of "oa are domestic tourists strictly
separated from and #ith totally different needs as the &' @ international tourists (Sa#/ar
et. al A::.*.
B 9ndonesia #as reported to account for A'. million domestic tourist trips in &''5, i.e. at
least AA' million by &''8 %!inistry of $ulture and Tourism &''8*.
B Thailand sa# .' million domestic tourist trips in &''8 %Tourism ,uthority
&''(*.
B Other countries in ,sia are assumed to account for another A'' million trips.
B 9n ?atin ,merican countries li/e 7eru, the number of domestic tourists exceeds that of
international arrivals by an order of magnitude, comprising A' million domestic
trips %7rom 7erE &''5a, 7rom 7erE &''5b*. 9f this is similar in other ?atin ,merican
countries, the total number of domestic tourist trips in ?atin ,merica #ould be ten times
the number of international arrivals %&5.) million in &''8F UNWTO &'')*, i.e. about &8'
million.
B 9n ,frica domestic travel #ill be more restricted due to lo# income levels, #ith
the exception of a fe# countries li/e South ,frica. 9t is here estimated that the continent
accounts for some 8' million domestic trips in &''8.
The total for developed countries #ould then be A,:(' million trips, as opposed to &,A''
million trips in developing countries. 4egarding the relatively large uncertainties in these
assumptions due to varying definitions and Guality of sources, it is estimated that the number
of domestic trips in developed countries is about eGual to those in developing countries, i.e.
totaling about & billion domestic trips, respectively.
9n general, the number of domestic tourists is less than the regional population. +o#ever,
according to a comparative study in && countries, people ta/e domestic holidays more than
once per year. These are generally rich countries, endo#ed #ith plenty of opportunities for
;
domestic tourism and large %or at least medium-si>ed*. This definition fits in particular
Scandinavian countries %e.g., 5.. domestic tourists per resident in S#eden* but also $anada,
,ustralia, and the US,. 9n the US,, the combination of a large national area, a large number
of tourist sites, high income per capita and a #illingness to travel long distances contribute to
explain #hy, on average, an average ,merican too/ a domestic holiday C.) times in A::).
0istance from the rest of the #orld is also important %igano et al. &''5*'
9
Domestic versus international tourism numbers
The #ell-/no#n top-A' UNWTO ran/ings of most popular %international* tourism origin and
destination countries undergo a profound change after including the respective countries<
domestic tourist numbers.
Table 1. Top 10 tourist origins for domestic holidays, international holidays, and all
holidays, by tourist numbers (millions in 1995.
0omestic 9nternational Total
United States :::.' "ermany .).5 United States A'8..8
$hina (55.' United States 8:.8 $hina (5:.C
9ndia C&'.' United Hingdom 5:.A 9ndia C&C.(
ra>il A)(.& 4ussian 3ederation &8.' United Hingdom A.&.)
United Hingdom ACC.( !alaysia &5.& ra>il A):.&
9ndonesia A').' 3rance &A.: "ermany A(:.(
7oland .(.) $anada &A.C 9ndonesia A':.A
"ermany .&.& 9taly A..) $anada A'&.C
$anada .'.: Iapan A).: 3rance :(.5
Iapan )).. +ungary A8.C Iapan :8.)
Source- igano et al. %&''5*
Table !. Top 10 tourist destinations, per country, for domestic holidays, international
holidays, and all holidays, by tourist numbers (millions in 1995.
0omestic 9nternational Total
United States :::.' 3rance ('.' United States A'5&.5
$hina (55.' United States 5C.5 $hina ((5.'
9ndia C&'.' Spain C:.C 9ndia C&&.A
ra>il A)(.& 9taly CA.A ra>il A)..&
United Hingdom ACC.( United Hingdom &C.8 United Hingdom A8).A
9ndonesia A').' +ungary &'.) 3rance AC5.8
7oland .(.) !exico &'.& 9ndonesia AAA.C
"ermany .&.& $hina &'.' 7oland A'8.:
$anada .'.: 7oland A:.& $anada :).:
Iapan )).. ,ustria A).& "ermany :).'
Source- igano et al. %&''5*
=
Table A and & sho# once again that domestic tourism is far more important than is
international tourism. oth definitions include at least one overnight stay. 9f ta/ing
into account this domestic tourism component $hina, 9ndia, ra>il and 9ndonesia are
important tourism mar/ets, surpassing "ermany, 3rance and Iapan in either supply or
demand or both.
Surprising in table A are the ran/s 5 %4ussian 3ederation*, 8 %!alaysia* and A' %+ungary*.
7robably temporary labor migration is misclassified as tourism.
7olish domestic tourism in table A and & ran/ing . on the global domestic tourism top A'
not#ithstanding substantially lo#er per capita income than the rest of the top A' countries
may be because %illegal* seasonal labor migration is registered as domestic tourism.
This study #as based on A::8 data. !ore recent data for the Numbers A and & seated reveal
the follo#ing-
"#$%
Table C sho#s the partly actual, partly forecasted total of domestic and international
inbound US, travel in millions of domestic trips or international arrivals*. oth include
same- day arrivals, i.e. visits of less than &5 hours. 9t sho#s among others that the
international arrivals in &''( only made up for only &.8 @ %8A million 1 &,'8& million* of total
US travel. ,s al#ays by far the most international arrivals %around 88@* are from the
neighboring countries $anada and !exico. The report further sho#s that Jthe combination of
rising inflation, increasing unemployment, tightening credit conditions, high levels of
consumer debt, declining housing #ealth, and stagnant #ages are finally ta/ing a toll on
domestic US, travelK from the Crd Guarter of &''.. ,round &8 @ of the domestic trips are
for business and
)8 @ for leisure purposes. ,nother remar/able fact- leisure travel remained resilient #hile
business travel has already been declining in &''. in the #a/e of shrin/ing corporate profits,
particularly in travel-prone industries, leisure travel remained resilient. Only in &'':, leisure
travel #ill finally capitulate to souring economic conditions. 3urthermore, the #ea/er
dollar and relative, albeit softening, strength in the economies of /ey origin mar/ets continues
to drive international arrivals. %Shifflet et al &''.*.
@
Table 01 Total 2& Travel +$$. !+$3+ 4in millions of domestic trips and international
arrivals5
Source8 Shifflet et al *--='
6utbound tourism1
Table ,1 6utbound tourism numbers 2&' 377/ - +$$8 in millions1
Aear8 Total B# air in !illions B# air in < of total
1@@= ..'9 +1'1 .;<
1@@@ .9'* ++'* .=<
*--- ;1'+ +.'9 .=<
*--1 .@', ++'; .9<
*--* .='1 +1', .,<
*--+ .;'+ +*'. .;<
*--, ;1'= +;'. .@<
*--. ;+'. +=', ;-<
*--; ;+'9 +@'= ;*<
*--9 ;,'1 ,-'= ;,<
Sources8 0'S' 3eart!ent of Co!!erce *--=a and *--=b
1
-
China1
China domestic tourists, in correlation (ith both increased disosable inco!e and leisure
ti!e, took 1'1 billion do!estic tris in *--,' 1ith the Tra%el B Touris! industr# in its relati%e
infanc#, the %ast !ajorit# of Chinese tourists are %isiting destinations (hich are closer to
ho!e' In this resect the do!estic !arket can be seen as the feeder !arket for future
outbound tra%el, (hetting the aetite for !ore ad%enturous and e&otic destinations' This is
articularl# (ell illustrated b# CNT"Cs statistics on do!estic and international tra%el as
sho(n belo(' The do!estic 8 international inbound tra%el ratio has been re!arkabl# stable
throughout the #ears (hile the do!estic 8 international outbound tra%el ratio has been going
do(n steel#' Bet(een *--, and *-1+ the nu!ber of urban households earning bet(een
0SD,,=-- and 0SD@,;-- er #ear is forecast to gro( b# 1-'* er cent er annu! and those
earning in e&cess of 0SD@,;-- (ill increase b# 1;'1 er cent' It is the residents of ChinaCs
cities (ho are !ost likel# to tra%el and !ost note(orth# are the residents of Beijing,
Shanghai and the cities of )uangdong ro%ince, such as Shen6hen and )uang6hou'
Inbound touris! has beco!e a %aluable contributor to ChinaCs national econo!#' Inbound
international arri%als in *--, totaled al!ost ,* !illion, a *;'9 er cent increase on *--+Cs
arri%als, and, if !ore fairl# co!ared, gi%en the negati%e i!act of S">S in *--+ in the
interi!, a substantial 1+'. er cent increase on *--*Cs figures' These statistics do not include
inbound arri%als fro! the S">s' If both Hong Eong and 4acau are included, the figure rises
to 1-@ !illion arri%als, sho(ing that China is still to a greater e&tent /;1'. <5 deendent on
e&atriate ties to generate a considerable roortion of its inbound touris!' The 1-@ !illion
tourists recei%ed in *--, contrast starkl# (hen co!aring (ith re%ious decades ? 1-'.
!illion arri%als in 1@@- and +1'* !illion arri%als in *---'
Table #1 China1 Domestic versus international inbound travel% 377$% +$$$ and +$$0 !
+$$,
Aear 3o!estic International >atio
/C--- tris5 /C--- tris5 3o!estic8 International
1@@- *=-,--- 1-,.-- *981
*--- 9,,,--- +1,*-- *,81
*--* =9=,--- +9,--- *,81
*--+ =9-,--- ++,1.- *;81
*--, 1,1-*,--- ,*,--- *;81
*--, /15 1'1-*,--- 1-@,--- 1-81
/15 International arri%als including Hong Eong and 4acau
2(n table based on 1TTC /*--;a5
1-
6utbound tourism gro(th in China has outrun that of the burgeoning do!estic and inbound
sectors' Bet(een *--1 and *--,, outbound touris! fro! China rose b# an a%erage of *@'+
er cent er #ear to total so!e *='= !illion tris abroad in *--,' The future for outbound
touris! according to the 1orld Touris! 2rgani6ation is looking bright (ith a rediction of 1--
!illion outbound tra%elers b# *-*-, calculated on an assu!ed 1*'= er cent a%erage annual
gro(th and conseFuentl# cornering a ;', er cent global !arket share'
Table .1 China1 Domestic versus international outbound travel% 377$% 377# and +$$$!
+$$,
Aear 3o!estic International >atio
/C--- tris5 /C--- tris5 3o!estic8 International
1@@- *=-,--- ;*- ,.*81
1@@. ;*@,--- ,,.*1 1+@81
*--- 9,,,--- 1-,,9+ 9181
*--1 9=,,--- 1*,1++ ;.81
*--* =9=,--- 1;,;-* .+81
*--+ =9-,--- *-,*** ,+81
*--, 1,1-*,--- *=,=.- +=81
Source8 1TTC /*--;a5
11
Domestic versus international outbound travel1 an international comparison
Table 9 and 7igure 1 ro%ide a co!arison bet(een a choice of *. countries taking into
account 8
B >atio do!estic 8 international outbound tra%el'
B Ge%el of de%elo!ent of the countr#Cs /touris!5 econo!#8 !ature %ersus i!!ature
touris! !arket' In this resect (e (ill consider India, China, Peru, >ussian 7ederation
and Indonesia as /still5 i!!ature !arkets illustrated as ink dots in 7igure 1' These
countries tend to ha%e a /!uch5 higher ratio than the !ature !arkets' IndonesiaCs !uch
lo(er ratio than e&ected is caused b# huge underesti!ation of the a!ount of do!estic
tra%ellers /for the #ear *--; onl# 11'; !illion5 based on the %er# li!ited definition Hguests
in hotels and si!ilar establish!entsI' The lo(er than e&ected >ussian ratio has alread#
been e&lained earlier on'
B 3istance fro! the border' The sFuare root of the countr#Cs area /in sFuare k!Cs5 is taken
as its !easure!ent !ethod' "s illustrated b# "ustralia and Canada, the higher this
%alue, the higher the countr#Cs e&ected ratio do!estic8 international outbound tra%el'
2b%ious things are e%en !ore co!licated8 the length of the countr#Cs border and the
a%erage distance and e%en !ore i!ortant a%erage tra%el ti!e of the inhabitants to that
border should also be taken into account' The resecti%e distances for 0S", China and
Canada are al!ost si!ilar' 2ne could therefore argue that the long ter! ratio do!estic 8
international outbound tra%el for China could be around the 0S" le%el of 1@81 or e%en the
Canada le%el of 11'. !eaning that the abo%e !entioned relati%e gro(th of the Chinese
international outbound tra%el co!ared to do!estic tra%el could otentiall# !ore than
double in the long ter!'
1*
Table 81 Domestic versus international outbound travel
Countr# >atio "rea SFuare root
3o!estic8 International /sF' k!Cs5 of area /k!Cs5
Netherlands 1'-* 8 1 ,1,.*= *-,
0nited Eingdo! 1'.1 8 1 *,*,@-- ,@+
Poland +'+@ 8 1 +1*,;=. ..@
Belgiu! -'@; 81 +-,.*= 19,
"ustria -',* 81 =+,=9* *@-
7rance +'. 81 ;9,,=,+ =*1
Ital# + 8 1 +-1,++= .,@
Sain *'1= 8 1 .-,,-+- 91-
Portugal 1'1* 8 1 @*,+,. +-,
)reece *'. 8 1 1+1,@@- +;+
)er!an# 1'.+ 8 1 +.9,-** .@=
China += 8 1 @,.@;,@;1 +,-@=
0S" 1@ 8 1 @,;*@,-@1 +,1-+
>ussia +'.9 8 1 19,-9.,--- ,,1+*
"ustralia 1,'@ 81 9,9,1,**- *,9=*
India .=8 1 +,*=9,*,- 1,=1+
Canada8 11',9 8 1 @,@=,,;9- +,1;-
Jaan8 1.'1. 8 1 +99,=9+ ;1.
Ne( Kealand @'; 8 1 *;=,;=- .1=
Peru @'@ 8 1 1,*=.,*1; 1,1+,
Indonesia *'9 8 1 1,@1*,@== 1,+=+
Sources8 E0$countries8 0N1T2 figures #ear *---L China8 Table . #ear *--,L >ussia8
/1TTC *--;b5 #ear *--,L 0S"8 /1T2 *--. and 0S 3eart!ent of Co!!erce *--=a5 #ear
*--,L "ustralia8 /"ustralian Bureau of Statistics *--95 #ear *--;L India8 /4inistr# of Touris!
*--,5 #ear *--+8 Canada8 0N1T2 figures #ear *--;8 Jaan8 0N1T2 figures #ear *--,
Ne( Kealand8 0N1T2 figures #ear *--98 Peru8 0N1T2 figures #ear *--;, and Indonesia8
0N1T2 figures #ear *--;
&
9
u
a
r
e

R
o
o
t

o
f

'
r
e
a
1+
:igure 31 Domestic ! international outbound travel ; distance from the border ;
level of tourism development
,.--
,---
+.--
+---
*.--
*---
1.--
1---
.--
-
- 1- *- +- ,- .- ;- 9-
Domestic!international ratio
1,
Domestic versus international tourism1 the economic impacts
3o!estic touris! nu!bers are difficult to find' The sa!e is true for the econo!ic significance
of do!estic touris! co!ared to international tra%el' In the Touris! Satellite "ccounting
S#ste! /Co!!ission of the Euroean Co!!unities et al *--1, 1TTC *--;a, *--;b and
*--;c5 the Personal Tra%el and Touris! categor# includes all ersonal sending b# an
econo!#Ms residents on Tra%el B Touris! ser%ices /lodging, transortation, entertain!ent,
!eals, financial ser%ices, etc5 and goods /durable and nondurable5 used for Tra%el B
Touris! acti%ities' Sending !a# occur before, during or after a tri' Sending co%ers all
Tra%el B Touris!, outbound and domestic% including both sa!e$da# %isitors and o%ernight
tourists' "nd the Business tra%el categor# of e&enditures b# go%ern!ent and industr#
includes sending on goods and ser%ices /transortation, acco!!odation, !eals,
entertain!ent, etc5 for e!lo#ee business tra%el uroses, outbound and domestic'
7urther!ore, the Visitor E&orts categor# includes e&enditures b# international inbound
%isitors on goods and ser%ices (ithin the resident econo!#'
7or China for the #ear *--; /1TTC *--;a5 this results in the follo(ing redicted resecti%e
direct econo!ic contribution8
Personal Tra%el and Touris! /outbound and do!estic58 99;'9 billion >!b /0SD @@'1 billion5
Business Tra%el /outbound and do!estic58 *9,'= billion >!b /0SD +.'1 billion5
Visitor E&orts /inbound58 *=='9 billion >!b /0SD +;'= billion5
"ssu!e a *--; do!estic 8 outbound ratio of around +- 81 and the direct econo!ic
contribution of do!estic touris! beco!es ob%ious'
7or the >ussian 7ederation for the #ear *--; /1TTC *--;b58
Personal Tra%el and Touris! /outbound and do!estic58 1,-9;'@ billion >b /0SD +9', billion5
Business Tra%el /outbound and do!estic58 +,@'= billion >b /0SD 1*'1 billion5
Visitor E&orts /inbound58 *,@'@ billion >b /0SD ='9 billion5
"n illustration once again of the de%eloing touris! countr# status of the >ussian 7ederation'
7or India for the #ear *--; /1TTC *--;c58
Personal Tra%el and Touris! /outbound and do!estic58 @+.', billion IN> /0SD *1', billion5
Business Tra%el /outbound and do!estic58 *;-'= billion IN> /0SD ; billion5
Visitor E&orts /inbound58 +-*'* billion IN> /0SD 9 billion5
7or the 0S" for the #ear *--; the total sending of the earlier !entioned * billion do!estic
tourists (as a staggering 0SD 9*9'. billion of (hich business tra%el 0SD *1,'+ billion and
leisure tra%el the re!aining 0SD .1+'* billion' It is e&ected to gro( to a total of @+9 billion
/*;,'+ billion /business5 and ;9*'9 billion /leisure5 in *-1*' Business tri sending is about
9- < higher er tri than leisure /Shifflet et al *--=5'
To conclude this short o%er%ie(, "ustralia TS" figures /"ustralian Bureau of Statistics *--95
sho( a co!arison bet(een the a%erage touris! e&enditures on do!esticall# roduced
1.
goods and ser%ices er tri of the do!estic leisure and business tourists /including
e&enditure b# outbound "ustralian residents beforeNafter international tris as (ell as
including both sa!e$da# %isitors and o%ernight tourists5 and the international inbound tourists
%isiting "ustralia'
Table /1 'verage tourism e<penditures on 'ustralian goods and services per visitor1
domestic versus international inbound tourists 4in 'ustralian =5
Aear 3o!estic International Inbound < 3o!estic of International
*---$-1 +*; +,9,- ='9<
*--1$-* ++= +,@+- =';<
*--*$-+ +,. +,@*@ ='=<
*--+$-, +.9 +,=9, @'*<
*--,$-. +9= +,;*9 1-',<
*--.$-; +@9 +,9,* 1-';<
Source8 2(n table based on "ustralian Bureau of Statistics *--9
"s could be e&ected the do!estic %isitor e&enditures er tri are onl# a s!all art of the
international inbound e&enditures er %isitor er tri' But the a%erage international inbound
tri is far less freFuent and lasts far longer than the a%erage do!estic tri' "s a result, the
do!estic %isitors generated 9.'=< of "ustralian touris! industr# )3P (hile international
%isitors generated Honl#I *,'*<'
If (e assu!e that the "ustralian outco!e of 1-', < o%er the eriod *--,$-. (ould also be
a reasonable esti!ation for the Chinese situation in *--, /see table .5 (ith 1,1-*,---,---
do!estic %isitors against ,*,---,--- international inbound %isitors /including 4acau and
Hong Eong S">Cs5' This (ould !ean that the contribution of the do!estic %isitors to the
Chinese touris! )3P (ould be *'9 ti!es larger than the contribution of the international
inbound %isitors8 9* < against *= <'
1;
Domestic versus international tourism1 the environmental impacts
This section ro%ides an introduction to the en%iron!ental i!acts fro! do!estic and
international touris! fro! a global ersecti%e' It focuses on touris! i!acts on cli!ate
change through energ# use, (hich is one of the !ost ressing issues regarding the future
sustainabilit# of touris! /)Ossling et al. *--=L 0N1T2N0NEPN142 *--=5' 0ntil recentl#,
en%iron!ental i!act research (as conducted on a destination le%el /Hunter and )reen
1@@.L Si!!ons and Becken *--,L Hall and Higha! *--.L Peeters *--.5, anal#sing i!acts
on ecos#ste!s, flora and fauna or (ater Fualit# /e'g' 4athieson and 1all 1@=*5, describing
the change and destruction of landscaes /Eriendorf 1@9.5 and often focusing on one for!
of touris! /e'g' nature$based touris!8 Boo 1@@-L Ceballos$GascurPin 1@@;L Buckle# *--,5'
I!acts fro! touris! energ# use (ere hardl# !entioned and those fro! transort (ere
li!ited to local air and noise ollution or traffic congestion' 7ollo(ing the influential IPCC
Secial >eort on "%iation and the )lobal "t!oshere //IPCC 1@@@5, touris! researchers
started leading for !ore a(areness and inclusion of the i!acts fro! touris! energ# use
and )H) e!issions /)Ossling *---L HQ#er *---5' These authors strongl# linked air tra%el
fro! touris! to global (ar!ing' In *--+, cli!ate change slo(l# beca!e an issue for the
touris! sector (hen it (as icked u b# the 1orld Touris! 2rganisation for its 1
st
International Conference on Cli!ate Change and Touris! at 3jerba, Tunisia /1T2 *--+5' It
took four !ore #ears before !itigation action (as urged fro! all touris! actors in the 3a%os
3eclaration /0N1T2N0NEPN142 *--95' 7inall#, the sector has arri%ed at a oint (here the
i!acts fro! cli!ate change on the en%iron!ental assets of touris! itself cannot be ignored'
This should not onl# !oti%ate actors to initiate adatation strategies, but rather to start
de%eloing and i!le!enting !itigation efforts'
Besides through energ# use, touris! contributes to global en%iron!ental change through
changes in land co%er and land use, biotic e&change and e&tinction of (ild secies,
e&change and disersion of diseases, changes in the ercetion and understanding of the
en%iron!ent and (ater use /)Ossling *--*5' These are global heno!ena, each co%ering a
!ultitude of local touris! acti%ities' Energ# use based on fossil fuels is resonsible for
touris!Cs greenhouse gas /)H)5 e!issions' 7or anal#sis, energ# use fro! touris! is broken
do(n in four !ain co!onents8 origin$destination /2N35 transort, acco!!odation, transort
at the destination and acti%ities /Becken and Si!!ons *--.L Peeters and Schouten *--;5,
so!eti!es reduced to transort, acco!!odation and acti%ities /e'g' b#
0N1T2N0NEPN142 *--=5' Initial research on touris! energ# use again focused on
international touris! or concentrated on one destination /)Ossling *---L Becken *--*L
)Ossling *--*L Sch!ied et al. *--*L Becken and Ca%anagh *--+L Patterson and 4c3onald
*--,5' Euroean touris! transort e!issions, both do!estic and international, (ere first
anal#sed b# Peeters et al' /*--,5' " %er# une%en distribution of e!issions (as found in !ost
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

G
>
G

e
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
s

4
i
n
d
e
<
+
$
$
$
?
3
$
$
5
-
*
-
,
-
;
-
=
-
1
-
-
19
of these cases, (ith roughl# *-< of all tris being resonsible for u to =-< of e!issions
/Peeters et al. *--95' This t#e of distribution ? si!ilar to a o(er la( ? can be seen (hen
%isualising Euroean do!estic and international tris and their cu!ulati%e )H) e!issions in
one grah /7igure *58 do!estic touris! !akes u the !ajorit# of all tris but onl# a s!all art
of e!issions, (hereas relati%el# fe( international tris do!inate in )H) e!issions' "ir
tra%el, notabl# long$haul flights, is found largel# resonsible for this disarit#'
:igure +1 Relation beteen cumulative number of domestic and international trips and
G>G emissions for European tourism sorted on distance for @ear +$$$
Relation beteen number of outbound trips
and
G>G emissions
1--
=-
;-
,-
*-
-
Cumulative number of outbound trips 4inde< +$$$?3$$5
3o!estic International
Source8 Based on 4uSTT data !odel outut /Peeters et al. *--,5
" first atte!t to esti!ate carbon dio&ide /C2
*
5 e!issions fro! (orld(ide international and
do!estic touris! (as !ade for the *--= 1orld Touris! 2rgani6ation reort on cli!ate
change /0N1T2N0NEPN142 *--=5' 7igures are for *--. and based on a !i& of hard data,
esti!ations and aro&i!ations' Visitors /do!estic and international5 are di%ided in tourists
/o%ernight %isitors5 and sa!e$da# %isitors' Total touris! de!and /o%ernight and sa!e$da#L
international and do!estic5 is esti!ated at @'= billion arri%als in *--.' 1e focus on the !ain
outco!es concerning i!acts fro! do!estic and international touris!'
1=
. billion arri%als are esti!ated to be fro! sa!e$da# %isitors /, billion do!estic and 1 billion
international5 and ,'= billion fro! arri%als of o%ernight %isitorsNtourists /, billion do!estic and
=-- !illion international5' International touris! trips are esti!ated at 9.- !illionL do!estic
touris! tris outnu!ber these b# !ore than a factor fi%e' International and do!estic touris!
e!issions fro! transortation, acco!!odation and acti%ities ? including sa!e$da# %isitors ?
are esti!ated to reresent bet(een +'@< and ;'-< of all global e!issions in *--., (ith a
best esti!ate of ,'@< /ibid'5'
9.< /@=- 4t C2
*
5 of all touris! e!issions are transort$related' The !ajorit# of these /.*<
or .1. 4t C2
*
5 are caused b# air tra%el, ,+< /,*- 4t C2
*
5 b# car tra%el and onl# +< b#
other for!s of transort /train, coach, shi5' "cco!!odation and acti%ities are resonsible
for *1 /*9, 4t C2*5 and ,< /,= 4t C2*5 of global touris! e!issions resecti%el# /see
7igure +5' 1hen including radiati%e forcing ? a !etric for !easuring the e&tent to (hich )H)
e!issions raise global a%erage te!eratures ? transort (ould !ake u =1< to @-<
/e&cluding and including cirrus i!acts5 of touris! e!issions'
:igure 01 Tourism C6
+
emissions in +$$# 4At5
Total touris! International 3o!estic Sa!e$da# %isitors
"cti%ities ,= not a%ailable not a%ailable not a%ailable
"cco!!odation *9, 119 1.= -
2ther transort ,. , +, 9
Car transort ,*- ,; *.@ 11.
"ir transort .1. +*1 1=. 11
Su! 1+-* ,== ;+; 1++
Source8 0N1T2N0NEPN142 //*--=5
7igure , sho(s ho( the !odal slit differs in ter!s of tri nu!bers and corresonding
e!issions for international and do!estic touris!' ,.< of international tris use air tra%el,
(hereas this figure is onl# 1*< for do!estic tris and 1< for all sa!e$da# %isitors' "ir tra%el
is resonsible for =9< of international tourist tri e!issions /+*1 4t C2
*
5' 3o!estic tri
e!issions are do!inated b# car transort /.,<, *.@ 4t C2
*
5' " large share of do!estic tris
is !ade b# other transort !odes than airlanes or cars /+9<5, but these onl# roduce 9<
/+, 4t C2
*
5 of do!estic touris! transort e!issions' 7or all touris! tris, the i!act of air
tra%el on e!issions is lainl# %isible'
1@
:igure ,1 Aodal split of trip numbers and C6
+
emissions 4+$$#5
1--<
@
1*
1
=
=-<
;-< ;1
,-<
+@
.*
,.
.1 9+
=9
=9
+=
.,
,+
*-<
+-
-<
,
+9
*;
1;
1*
1
9
.
2ther transort Car transort "ir transort
Source8 0N1T2N0NEPN142 /*--=5
, billion do!estic tourists roduce ,9@ 4t of transort$related C2
*
e!issions, (hile 9.-
!illion international tourists co!e to a total of +91 4t transort$related C2
*
' E!issions er
tri b# international tourists are thus , ti!es higher than b# do!estic tourists /,@, %s' 1*- kg
C2
*
er tri ? onl# transort$related e!issions5' 4ore e%idence of air transortCs high
e!issions can be seen in er tri e!issions of different transort !odes' 3o!estic tris b#
air roduce +=. kg C2
*
er tri, international intraregional tris b# air ,=, kg C2
*
'
Interregional tris /b# air5 sho( the highest e!ission figures8 19+9 kg C2
*
er tri' In
co!arison, a do!estic tri b# car roduces 1*= kg C2
*
and international tris b# other
transort !odes a%erage onl# +- kg C2
*
/transort onl#5 /see 7igure .5'
*-
B
g

C
6
+
;
t
r
i
p
:igure #1 C6
+
emissions per trip and transport mode 4+$$#5
1=--
1;--
1,--
1*--
1---
=--
;--
,--
*--
-
*+ +-
1*=
1;-
+=.
,=,
19+9
3o!estic
International 3o!estic Interntional 3o!estic International International
touris! b#
other
transort
touris! b#
other
transort
touris! b# car touris! b# car touris! b# air intraregional
b# air
interregional
b# air
Source8 0N1T2N0NEPN142 /*--=5
Gooking at tourist air tra%el (ithin regions /total *=@ 4t C2
*
5, do!estic air tra%el roduces
!ore e!issions than international air tra%el in the "!ericas /1*+ %s' ** 4t C2
*
5 and in "sia
and the Pacific /,* %s' ,- 4t C2
*
5, (hereas (ithin Euroe international air tra%el do!inates
air tra%el e!issions /+@ %s' 19 4t C2
*
do!estic air tra%el5' This is !ainl# due to differences
in countr# si6e and, conseFuentl#, high do!estic tri nu!bers in the "!ericas and
"siaNPacific and high international tri nu!bers in Euroe /see 7igure ;5' 3ue to the sa!e
reason /increasing tra%el distance5 do!estic touris! tris b# "!ericans are !uch !ore
energ# intensi%e than those !ade b# Euroeans /,.- %s' *;- kg C2
*
er tri5' 2f
interregional tourist air tra%el /total *19 4t C2
*
5, !ost e!issions are roduced b# 1-, !illion
long$haul flights /total *-= 4t C2
*
5' These flights onl# !ake u 1*< of all tris !ade b# air
/o%ernight and sa!e$da#5, but are resonsible for ,-< of all air transort e!issions' Gong$
haul flights are also the onl# for! of touris! tris in 7igure ; (here the ratio bet(een tri
nu!bers and e!issions is actuall# negati%e /18*5 co!ared to other tri for!s' The influence
of tra%el distance on e!issions is clearl# seen in 7igure 98 C2* e!issions er tri increase
roortionall# (ith greater return distances /cf' Peeters et al' *--95'
:igure .1 Tourist trips b@ air transport and C6
+
emissions per 6;D region in +$$#
+--
*9*
*.-
*--
*-=
1.-
1--
;;
.-
19
1*; 1*9
+@
,*
1*+
+9 ,-
,1
**
1-,
-
3o!estic
touris!
Euroe
International
(ithin
Euroe
3o!estic
touris!
"siaNPacific
3o!estic
touris!
"!ericas
International
(ithin
"!ericas
International
(ithin
"siaNPacific
International
long$haul
C2* /4t5 Tris /!illion5
Source8 0N1T2N0NEPN142 //*--=55
:igure 81 Return distance and C6
+
emissions per trip and 6;D region 4+$$#5
*.--
*---
1.--
1---
.--
-
3o!estic International 3o!estic 3o!estic International International International
touris!
Euroe
(ithin Euroe touris!
"siaNPacific
touris!
"!ericas
(ithin
"!ericas
(ithin long$haul
"siaNPacific
kg C2*Ntri k! /&1-5Nreturn tri
Source8 0N1T2N0NEPN142 /*--=5
7or *-+. the 0N1T2 rojects touris! C2
*
e!issions to rise b# 1;1< and a%iationCs share
to gro( fro! ,-< to .*< /Rbusiness$as$usualC scenario5' Total touris! e!issions (ould
reach around +,-.9 4t C2
*
, co!ared to 1,1;9 4t C2
*
in *--. /e&cluding sa!e$da#
%isitors5 /0N1T2N0NEPN142 *--=5' Such a scenario (ill certainl# interfere (ith global
e!issions reduction efforts of u to =-< b# *-.- /IPCC *--95' 4itigation efforts in the
a%iation sector are not likel# to offset the industr#Cs redicted gro(th /ibid'5' Technical
!easures, fa%oured b# the a%iation industr#, need to be co!le!ented b# beha%ioural
change' The touris! sector is reFuired to enable such change b# using different !arketing
techniFues and decarbonising their roducts /Peeters et al. *--=5'
7ro! a global en%iron!ental oint$of$%ie(, do!estic touris! is generall# !ore sustainable
than international touris!, although such a state!ent neglects differences caused b# countr#
si6e' 1ithin both for!s, surface$based touris! is to be referred abo%e air tra%el, (hich is
articularl# detri!ental (hen used for long$haul flights' "gain, distance is the !ost i!ortant
factor for high e!ission figuresL er k! e!issions for e&a!le are actuall# a little lo(er for
interregional air tra%el than for do!estic air tra%el' Therefore, one conclusion is to start using
distance classes instead of national border crossings in touris! statistics' These (ould co%er
the en%iron!ental i!acts of touris! /tri sustainabilit#5 far !ore accuratel#, as the# ignore
differences in countr# si6e and include large do!estic touris! %olu!es /Peeters et al. *--95'
The 0N1T2 is ai!ing to alle%iate o%ert# in de%eloing countries through sustainable
touris! de%elo!ent through its ST$EP rogra!!e' "t the sa!e ti!e, it (ants touris! to
beco!e en%iron!entall# sustainable on a global scale, i'e' regarding the sectorCs )H)
e!issions' International /1est$South5 touris! to de%eloing countries deends on high$
e!ission long$haul flights, i'e' those tris causing a large art of touris! e!issions' Thus, a
reduction in de!and for these tris (ill significantl# reduce o%erall touris! e!issions /cf'
Peeters et al. *--=5' En%iron!entall# sustainable touris! to de%eloing countries should
rather be do!estic or intraregional /South$South5' The do!estic and regional arri%al and
e&enditure figures sho(n abo%e suort this theor#, (hich also alies to se%eral 1est$
1est touris! flo(s /e'g' North "!erica ? Euroe5 /cf' Na(ijn et al. *--=5'
Conclusions
The touris! sector and touris! research co!!unit# focus !ainl# on international in$ and
outbound touris! %olu!es and e&enditures' Statistics on international touris! as reorted
b# a!ong others the 0N1T2 are !ore or less consistent, co!rehensi%e and u$to$date'
But international touris! is onl# one art and certainl# in nu!ber of arri%als, do!estic
touris! is se%eral ti!es larger than international' Ho(e%er, consistent data on (orld$(ide
do!estic touris! are not so readil# a%ailable' 1hereas international touris! !o%e!ents are
hard to !easure, do!estic tourist !o%e!ents are e%en harder to track' Esti!ations for *--.
arri%e at ,,--- !illion do!estic tris against Honl#I 9.- !illion international tris although
these esti!ations differ hugel# deendent on the definition used (ith regard to do!estic
tris' The bias on international touris! ignores !ost tourists and has !an# ca%eats' It gi%es
a distorted i!age of touris!' Total touris! nu!bers are grossl# underesti!ated' To 1-
rankings of !ost oular countries of origin and destination change rofoundl# if do!estic
touris! nu!bers are taken into account' The t(o !ajor generators of do!estic touris!, 0S"
and China, do!inate these ne( rankings' 7urther!ore, a high ercentage of both inbound
and outbound international tris take lace bet(een neighbouring or nearb# countries
e!hasi6ing the i!ortance of intraregional as oosed to interregional international tris'
"s an additional conseFuence the econo!ic i!ortance of do!estic touris! has been
grossl# underesti!ated as (ell' 3o!estic %isitors generated 9.'=< of "ustralian touris!
industr# )3P in the #ear *--,$*--. (hile international %isitors generated Honl#I *,'*<'
The enor!ous differences in en%iron!ental i!acts, (ith a secific focus on )H)
e!issions, of do!estic %ersus international, articularl# long$haul touris! are taken into
account as (ell' International interregional touris! flo(s, be it 1est$South or 1est$1est
touris! flo(s /e'g' North "!erica ? Euroe5 highl# deends on high$e!ission long$haul
flights, i'e' those tris causing a large art of touris! e!issions' Thus, a reduction in de!and
for these tris (ill significantl# reduce o%erall touris! e!issions' En%iron!entall# sustainable
touris! should therefore rather be do!estic or intraregional /South$South, intra$Euroe, intra
? North "!erica5'
To conclude, distance is the !ost i!ortant factor for high e!ission figuresL er k!
e!issions for e&a!le are actuall# a little lo(er for interregional air tra%el than for do!estic
air tra%el' Therefore, one conclusion is to start using distance classes instead of national
border crossings in touris! statistics' These (ould co%er the en%iron!ental i!acts of
touris! /tri sustainabilit#5 far !ore accuratel#, as the# ignore differences in countr# si6e and
include large do!estic touris! %olu!e