Thermodynamics of Steam Formation and Systems

Basic Concepts of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamic System
A thermodynamic system, or simply system, is defined as a quantity of matter or a
region in space chosen for study. The region outside the system is called the
surroundings. The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its
surroundings is called the boundary. The boundary of a system may be fixed or
movable.
Surroundings are physical space outside the system boundary.
Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed mass
or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study.
Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed mass
or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study.
An open system, or control volume, has mass as well as energy crossing the
boundary, called a control surface. Examples of open systems are pumps,
compressors, turbines, valves, and heat exchangers.
1
An isolated system is a general system of fixed mass where no heat or wor may
cross the boundaries. An isolated system is a closed system with no energy crossing
the boundaries and is normally a collection of a main system and its surroundings that
are exchanging mass and energy among themselves and no other system.
Since some of the thermodynamic relations that are applicable to closed and open
systems are different, it is extremely important that we recogni!e the type of system
we have before we start analy!ing it.
Properties of a System
Any characteristic of a system in equilibrium is called a property. The property is
independent of the path used to arrive at the system condition.
Some thermodynamic properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass
m.
"roperties may be intensive or extensive.
Extensive properties are those that vary directly with si!e##or extent##of the system.
Some Extensive "roperties
a. mass
b. volume
c. total energy
d. mass dependent property
$ntensive properties are those that are independent of si!e.
Some $ntensive "roperties
a. temperature
b. pressure
c. age
d. color
e. any mass independent property
Extensive properties per unit mass are intensive properties. %or example, the specific
volume v, defined as
&

,
_

kg
m
m
V
mass
Volume
v
'
and density , defined as
are intensive properties.
Units
An important component to the solution of any engineering thermodynamic problem
requires the proper use of units. The unit chec is the simplest of all engineering
checs that can be made for a given solution. Since units present a ma(or hindrance to
the correct solution of thermodynamic problems, we must learn to use units carefully
and properly. The system of units selected for this course is the S$ System, also
nown as the $nternational System )sometimes called the metric system*. $n S$, the
units of mass, length, and time are the ilogram )g*, meter )m*, and second )s*,
respectively. +e consider force to be a derived unit from ,ewton-s second law, i.e.,
$n S$, the force unit is the newton ),*, and it is defined as the force required to
accelerate a mass of 1 g at a rate of 1 m.s&. That is,

This definition of the newton is used as the basis of the conversion factor to convert
mass#acceleration units to force units.
The term weight is often misused to express mass. /nlie mass, weight Wt is a force.
+eight is the gravitational force applied to a body, and its magnitude is determined
from ,ewton-s second law,
where m is the mass of the body and g is the local gravitational acceleration )g is
0.123 m.s& at sea level and 45latitude*. The weight of a unit volume of a substance
is called the specific weight w and is determined from w 6 g, where is density.
7ftentimes, the engineer must wor in other systems of units. 8omparison of the
/nited States 8ustomary System )/S8S*, or English System, and the slug system of
units with the S$ system is shown below.
Sometimes we use the mole number in place of the mass. $n S$ units the mole number
is in ilogram#moles, or mol.
,ewton9s second law is often written as
'

,
_

'
m
kg
V
m
volume
mass

Force mass acceleration

F ma

) *) *
1 1 1
&
N kg
m
s
) *) *
6 W mg
t
F
ma
g
c
6
where gc is called the gravitational constant and is obtained from the force definition.
$n the S$ System 1 newton is that force required to accelerate 1 g mass 1 m.s&. The
gravitational constant in the S$ System is
$n the /S8S 1 pound#force is that force required to accelerate 1 pound#mass '&.13:
ft.s&. The gravitational constant in the /S8S is
$n the slug system, the gravitational constant is
Example 11
An ob(ect at sea level has a mass of 422 g.
a* %ind the weight of this ob(ect on earth.
b* %ind the weight of this ob(ect on the moon where the local gravitational
acceleration is one#sixth that of earth.
Solution
)a*
,ote the use of the conversion factor to convert mass#acceleration units into force
units.
4
g
ma
F
kg
m
s
N
kg m
N s
c
6
) *) * 1 1
1
1
&
&
g
ma
F
lbm
ft
s
lbf
lbm ft
lbf s
c
6
) *) . *
.
1 '& &
1
'& &
&
&
g
ma
F
slug
ft
s
lbf
lbm ft
lbf s
c
6
) *) * 1 1
1
1
&
&
W mg
t

&
&
1
123 . 0 * 422 )
s
m
kg
N
s
m
kg W
t

N
s
m
kg
N
s
m
kg
mg W
t
1 . :5'
1
:
123 . 0
* 422 )
&
&

Process
Any change from one state to another is called a process. ;uring a quasi#equilibrium
or quasi#static process the system remains practically in equilibrium at all times. +e
study quasi#equilibrium processes because they are easy to analy!e )equations of state
apply* and wor#producing devices deliver the most wor when they operate on the
quasi#equilibrium process.
"rocess "roperty held
constant
isobaric pressure
isothermal temperature
isochoric volume
isentropic entropy )see
8hapter 3*
+e can understand the concept of a constant pressure process by considering the
above figure. The force exerted by the water on the face of the piston has to equal the
force due to the combined weight of the piston and the brics. $f the combined weight
of the piston and brics is constant, then F is constant and the pressure is constant
even when the water is heated.
+e often show the process on a P-V diagram as shown below.
5
SteadyFlo! Process
8onsider a fluid flowing through an open system or control volume such as a water
heater. The flow is often defined by the terms steady and uniform. The term steady
implies that there are no changes with time. The term uniform implies no change with
location over a specified region. Engineering flow devices that operate for long
periods of time under the same conditions are classified as steady#flow devices. The
processes for these devices is called the steady#flow process. The fluid properties can
change from point to point with in the control volume, but at any fixed point the
properties remain the same during the entire process.
State Postulate
As noted earlier, the state of a system is described by its properties. <ut by
experience not all properties must be nown before the state is specified. 7nce a
sufficient number of properties are nown, the state is specified and all other
properties are nown. The number of properties required to fix the state of a simple,
homogeneous system is given by the state postulate=
The thermodynamic state of a simple compressible system is
completely specified by t!o independent" intensive properties
Cycle
A process )or a series of connected processes* with identical end states is called a
cycle. <elow is a cycle composed of two processes, A and <. Along process A, the
pressure and volume change from state 1 to state &. Then to complete the cycle, the
pressure and volume change from state & bac to the initial state 1 along process <.
>eep in mind that all other thermodynamic properties must also change so that the
pressure is a function of volume as described by these two processes.
Pressure
%orce per unit area is called pressure, and its unit is the pascal, ,.m&, in the S$ system
and psia, lbf.in& absolute, in the English system.
Process
B
Process
A
1
2
P
V
:
P
Force
Area
F
A

The pressure used in all calculations of state is the absolute pressure measured
relative to absolute !ero pressure. ?owever, pressures are often measured relative to
atmospheric pressure" called gage or vacuum pressures. $n the English system the
absolute pressure and gage pressures are distinguished by their units, psia )pounds
force per square inch absolute* and psig )pounds force per square inch gage*,
respectively@ however, the S$ system maes no distinction between absolute and gage
pressures.
These pressures are related by
7r these last two results may be written as
+here the APgage is used when Pabs B Patm and CPgage is used for a vacuum gage.
The relation among atmospheric, gage, and vacuum pressures is shown below.
Example 1#
3
1 12
1 12 12
'
&
:
&
'
kPa
N
m
MPa
N
m
kPa

P P P
gage abs atm

P P P
vac atm abs

P P P
abs atm gage
t
A pressure gage connected to a valve stem of a truc tire reads &42 "a at a location
where the atmospheric pressure is 122 "a. +hat is the absolute pressure in the tire,
in "aD
Temperature
Although we are familiar with temperature as a measure of EhotnessF or Ecoldness,F it
is not easy to give an exact definition of it. ?owever, temperature is considered as a
thermodynamic property that is the measure of the energy content of a mass. +hen
heat energy is transferred to a body, the body-s energy content increases and so does
its temperature. $n fact it is the difference in temperature that causes energy, called
heat transfer, to flow from a hot body to a cold body. Two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium when they have reached the same temperature. $f two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each
other. This simple fact is nown as the $eroth la! of thermodynamics.
The temperature scales used in the S$ and the English systems today are the 8elsius
scale and %ahrenheit scale, respectively. These two scales are based on a specified
number of degrees between the free!ing point of water ) 28 or '&%* and the boiling
point of water )1228 or &1&%* and are related by
Example 1%
+ater boils at &1& % at one atmosphere pressure. At what temperature does water
boil in 8.
Gie pressure, the temperature used in thermodynamic calculations must be in
absolute units. The absolute scale in the S$ system is the >elvin scale, which is
related to the 8elsius scale by
1
P P P
kPa kPa
kPa
abs atm gage
+
+

122 &42
'42
T F T C + 6
0
5
'&
T 6 ) * ) * T F F
C
F
C

'&
5
0
&1& '&
5
0
122
T K T 6 8A &3'.15

Steam Formation and Properties&

+e now turn our attention to the concept of pure substances and the presentation of
their data.
Simple System
A simple system is one in which the effects of motion, viscosity, fluid shear,
capillarity, anisotropic stress, and external force fields are absent.
'omogeneous Substance
A substance that has uniform thermodynamic properties throughout is said to be
homogeneous.
Pure Substance
A pure substance has a homogeneous and invariable chemical composition and may
exist in more than one phase.
Examples=
1. +ater )solid, liquid, and vapor phases*
&. Hixture of liquid water and water vapor
'. 8arbon dioxide, 87&
4. ,itrogen, ,&
5. Hixtures of gases, such as air, as long as there is no change of phase.
and density , defined as
P-V-T Surface for a Substance that expands upon free$ing
Ieal substances that readily change phase from solid to liquid to gas such as water,
refrigerant#1'4a, and ammonia cannot be treated as ideal gases in general. The
0

,
_

kg
m
m
V
mass
Volume
v
'
pressure, volume, temperature relation, or equation of state for these substances is
generally very complicated, and the thermodynamic properties are given in table
form. The properties of these substances may be illustrated by the functional relation
F)P,v,T*62, called an equation of state. The above two figures illustrate the function
for a substance that contracts on free!ing and a substance that expands on free!ing.
8onstant pressure curves on a temperature#volume diagram are shown in %igure '#11.
These figures show three regions where a substance lie water may exist as a solid,
liquid or gas )or vapor*. Also these figures show that a substance may exist as a
mixture of two phases during phase change, solid#vapor, solid#liquid, and liquid#
vapor.
+ater may exist in the compressed liquid region, a region where saturated liquid
water and saturated water vapor are in equilibrium )called the saturation region*, and
the superheated vapor region )the solid or ice region is not shown*.
Get-s consider the results of heating liquid water from &28, 1 atm while eeping the
pressure constant. +e will follow the constant pressure process shown in %igure '#
11. %irst place liquid water in a piston#cylinder device where a fixed weight is placed
on the piston to eep the pressure of the water constant at all times. As liquid water is
heated while the pressure is held constant, the following events occur.
"rocess 1#&=
The temperature and specific volume will increase from the compressed liquid, or
subcooled liquid, state 1, to the saturated liquid state &. $n the compressed liquid
region, the properties of the liquid are approximately equal to the properties of the
saturated liquid state at the temperature.
"rocess &#'=
At state & the liquid has reached the temperature at which it begins to boil, called the
saturation temperature, and is said to exist as a saturated liquid. "roperties at the
saturated liquid state are noted by the subscript f and v& 6 vf. ;uring the phase
change both the temperature and pressure remain constant )according to the
$nternational Temperature Scale of 1002, $TS#02, water boils at 00.0358 1228
when the pressure is 1 atm or 121.'&5 "a*. At state ' the liquid and vapor phase are
in equilibrium and any point on the line between states & and ' has the same
temperature and pressure.
12

"rocess '#4=
At state 4 a saturated vapor exists and vapori!ation is complete& The subscript g will
always denote a saturated vapor state. ,ote v4 vg.

Thermodynamic properties at the saturated liquid state and saturated vapor state are
given in Table A#4 as the saturated temperature table and Table A#5 as the saturated
pressure table. These tables contain the same information. $n Table A#4 the
saturation temperature is the independent property, and in Table A#5 the saturation
pressure is the independent property. The saturation pressure is the pressure at which
phase change will occur for a given temperature. $n the saturation region the
temperature and pressure are dependent properties@ if one is nown, then the other is
automatically nown.
"rocess 4#5=
$f the constant pressure heating is continued, the temperature will begin to increase
above the saturation temperature, 122 8 in this example, and the volume also
increases. State 5 is called a superheated state because T5 is greater than the
saturation temperature for the pressure and the vapor is not about to condense.
Thermodynamic properties for water in the superheated region are found in the
superheated steam tables, Table A#:.
11

This constant pressure heating process is illustrated in the following

8onsider repeating this process for other constant pressure lines as shown below.
$f all of the saturated liquid states are connected, the saturated liquid line is
established. $f all of the saturated vapor states are connected, the saturated vapor line
is established. These two lines intersect at the critical point and form what is often
called the Esteam dome.F The region between the saturated liquid line and the
saturated vapor line is called by these terms= saturated liquid#vapor mixture region,
wet region )i.e., a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor*, two#phase region,
and (ust the saturation region. ,otice that the trend of the temperature following a
1&
constant pressure line is to increase with increasing volume and the trend of the
pressure following a constant temperature line is to decrease with increasing volume.



The region to the left of the saturated liquid line and below the critical temperature is
called the compressed liquid region. The region to the right of the saturated vapor
line and above the critical temperature is called the superheated region. See Table A#
1 for the critical point data for selected substances.
Ieview the P-v diagrams for substances that contract on free!ing and those that
expand on free!ing given in %igure '#&1 and %igure '#&&.
At temperatures and pressures above the critical point, the phase transition from liquid
to vapor is no longer discrete.

%igure '#&5 shows the P#T diagram, often called the phase diagram, for pure
substances that contract and expand upon free!ing.
1'

The triple point of water is 2.21o8, 2.:113 "a )See Table '#'*.
The critical point of water is '3'.05o8, &&.2:4 H"a )See Table A#1*.
"lot the following processes on the P#T diagram for water )expands on free!ing*
and give examples of these processes from your personal experiences.
1. process a#b= liquid to vapor transition
&. process c#d= solid to liquid transition
'. process e#f= solid to vapor transition

Property Tables
$n addition to the temperature, pressure, and volume data, Tables A#4 through A#1
contain the data for the specific internal energy u the specific enthalpy ! and the
specific entropy s. The enthalpy is a convenient grouping of the internal energy,
pressure, and volume and is given by
The enthalpy per unit mass is
+e will find that the enthalpy ! is quite useful in calculating the energy of mass
streams flowing into and out of control volumes. The enthalpy is also useful in the
energy balance during a constant pressure process for a substance contained in a
closed piston#cylinder device. The enthalpy has units of energy per unit mass, J.g.
The entropy s is a property defined by the second law of thermodynamics and is
14
" # PV +
! u Pv +
related to the heat transfer to a system divided by the system temperature@ thus, the
entropy has units of energy divided by temperature. The concept of entropy is
explained in 8hapters : and 3.

Temp&"
T C
Sat&
Press&"
Psat
(Pa
Specific volume,
m)*(g
Internal energy,
(+*(g
Enthalpy,
(+*(g
Entropy,
(+*(g,
Sat&
li-uid"
vf
Sat&
vapor"
vg
Sat&
li-uid"
uf
Evap&"
ufg
Sat&
vapor"
ug
Sat&
li-uid"
hf
Evap&"
hfg
Sat&
vapor"
hg
Sat&
li-uid"
sf
Evap&"
sfg
Sat&
vapor"
sg
2.21 2.:113 2.221222 &2:.22 2.22 &'34.0 &'34.0 2.22 &522.0 &522.0 2.2222 0.155: 0.155:
5 2.13&5 2.221222 143.2' &1.2& &':2.1 &'11.1 &1.2& &410.1 &512.1 2.23:' 1.0413 0.2&40
12 1.&&1 2.221222 12:.'& 4&.2& &'4:.: &'11.3 4&.2& &433.& &510.& 2.1511 1.3411 1.1000
15 1.32: 2.221221 33.115 :&.01 &''&.5 &'05.5 :&.01 &4:5.4 &5&1.' 2.&&45 1.5550 1.312'
&2 &.''0 2.22122& 53.3:& 1'.01 &'11.4 &42&.' 1'.01 &45'.5 &5'3.4 2.&0:5 1.':0: 1.:::1
&5 '.132 2.22122' 4'.'42 124.1' &'24.' &420.1 124.1' &441.3 &54:.5 2.':3& 1.1105 1.55:3
'2 4.&43 2.221224 '&.130 1&5.3' &&02.& &415.0 1&5.34 &4&0.1 &555.: 2.4':1 1.215& 1.45&2
'5 5.:&0 2.22122: &5.&25 14:.:' &&3:.2 &4&&.3 14:.:4 &413.0 &5:4.: 2.5251 3.14:: 1.'513
42 3.'15 2.221221 10.515 1:3.5' &&:1.0 &4&0.4 1:3.5' &42:.2 &53'.5 2.53&4 3.:1'& 1.&55:
45 0.505 2.221212 15.&51 111.4' &&43.3 &4':.1 111.44 &'04.2 &51&.4 2.:'1: 3.5&43 1.1:''
52 1&.'5 2.22121& 1&.2&: &20.'' &&''.4 &44&.3 &20.'4 &'1&.2 &501.' 2.32'1 3.'312 1.2341
55 15.3: 2.221215 0.5:'0 &'2.&4 &&10.1 &440.' &'2.&: &':0.1 &:22.1 2.3:12 3.&&11 3.0101
:2 10.05 2.221213 3.::32 &51.1: &&24.3 &455.0 &51.11 &'53.3 &:21.1 2.1'1' 3.23:0 3.021&
:5 &5.24 2.2212&2 :.10'5 &3&.20 &102.' &4:&.4 &3&.1& &'45.4 &:13.5 2.10'3 :.0':2 3.1&0:
32 '1.&2 2.2212&' 5.2'0: &0'.24 &135.1 &4:1.0 &0'.23 &'''.2 &:&:.1 2.0551 :.3010 3.3542
35 '1.:2 2.2212&: 4.1&01 '1'.00 &1:1.' &435.' '14.2' &'&2.: &:'4.: 1.2151 :.::55 3.:11&
12 43.4& 2.2212&0 '.425' ''4.03 &14:.: &411.: ''5.2& &'21.2 &:4'.2 1.235: :.5'55 3.:111
15 53.13 2.2212'& &.1&:1 '55.0: &1'1.0 &413.1 '5:.2& &&05.' &:51.4 1.1'4: :.4210 3.54'5
02 32.11 2.2212': &.'50' '3:.03 &113.2 &404.2 '33.24 &&1&.5 &:50.: 1.10&0 :.&15' 3.431&
05 14.:1 2.221242 1.0121 '01.22 &12&.2 &522.1 '01.20 &&:0.: &::3.: 1.&524 :.1:43 3.4151
122 121.4& 2.22124' 1.:3&2 410.2: &213.2 &52:.2 410.13 &&5:.4 &:35.: 1.'23& :.2432 3.'54&
K K K K K K K K K K K K K
K K K K K K K K K K K K K
':2 11::: 2.221105 2.22:05213&:.1: :&5.3 &'51.0 13:1.5' 3&2.1 &411.: '.01:5 1.1'3' 5.25'3
':5 101&& 2.22&215 2.22:2201333.&& 5&:.4 &'2'.: 1113.1: :25.5 &4&&.3 4.2224 2.0410 4.040'
'32 &1244 2.22&&13 2.22405'1144.5' '15.: &&'2.1 1101.10 44'.1 &''4.' 4.1110 2.:102 4.1220
'3'.05 &&2:4 2.22'12: 2.22'12: &215.1 2 &215.1 &214.' 2 &214.' 4.4232 2 4.4232
%or the complete Table A#5, the last entry is the critical point at &&.2:4 H"a.
Saturation pressure is the pressure at which the liquid and vapor phases are in
equilibrium at a given temperature.
Saturation temperature is the temperature at which the liquid and vapor phases are
in equilibrium at a given pressure.
$n %igure '#11, states &, ', and 4 are saturation states.
The subscript fg used in Tables A#4 and A#5 refers to the difference between the
saturated vapor value and the saturated liquid value region. That is,
The quantity hfg is called the enthalpy of vapori!ation )or latent heat of vapori!ation*.
$t represents the amount of energy needed to vapori!e a unit of mass of saturated
liquid at a given temperature or pressure. $t decreases as the temperature or pressure
increases, and becomes !ero at the critical point.
15
u u u
! ! !
s s s
fg g f
fg g f
fg g f



.uality and Saturated /i-uid0apor 1ixture
,ow, let9s review the constant pressure heat addition process for water shown in
%igure '#11. Since state ' is a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor, how do
we locate it on the T#v diagramD To establish the location of state ' a new parameter
called the quality $ is defined as




+e note


Iecall the definition of quality $
,ote, quantity 1# $ is often given the name moisture. The specific volume of the
saturated mixture becomes
The form that we use most often is
$t is noted that the value of any extensive property per unit mass in the saturation
region is calculated from an equation having a form similar to that of the above
1:
$
mass
mass
m
m m
saturate% va&or
total
g
f g

+
V V V
m m m
V mv V m v V m v
f g
f g
f f f g g g
+
+
, ,
mv m v m v
v
m v
m
m v
m
f f g g
f f g g
+
+
$
m
m
m
m m
g g
f g

+
v $ v $v
f g
+ ) * 1
v v $ v v
f g f
+ ) *
equation. Get ' be any extensive property and let ( be the corresponding intensive
property, ')m, then
The term (fg is the difference between the saturated vapor and the saturated liquid
values of the property (@ ( may be replaced by any of the variables v* u* !, or s.
+e often use the above equation to determine the quality $ of a saturated liquid#vapor
state.
The following application is called the Gever Iule=
The Gever Iule is illustrated in the following figures.


Superheated 2ater Table
A substance is said to be superheated if the given temperature is greater than the
saturation temperature for the given pressure.
State 5 in %igure '#11 is a superheated state.
$n the superheated water Table A#:, T and " are the independent properties. The
value of temperature to the right of the pressure is the saturation temperature for the
pressure.
The first entry in the table is the saturated vapor state at the pressure.
13
(
'
m
( $ ( (
( $ (
w!ere ( ( (
f g f
f fg
fg g f
+
+

) *
$
( (
(
f
fg

Compressed /i-uid 2ater Table
A substance is said to be a compressed li-uid when the pressure is greater than the
saturation pressure for the temperature.
$t is now noted that state 1 in %igure '#11 is called a compressed liquid state because
the saturation pressure for the temperature T1 is less than P1.
;ata for water compressed liquid states are found in the compressed liquid tables,
Table A#3. Table A#3 is arranged lie Table A#:, except the saturation states are the
saturated liquid states. ,ote that the data in Table A#3 begins at 5 H"a or 52 times
atmospheric pressure.
At pressures below 5 H"a for water, the data are approximately equal to the saturated
liquid data at the given temperature. +e approximate intensive parameter (" that is
v* u* !, and s data as
The enthalpy is more sensitive to variations in pressure@ therefore, at high pressures
the enthalpy can be approximated by
11
( (
f T

L
! ! v P P
f T f sat
+
L
) *
%or our wor, the compressed liquid enthalpy may be approximated by
Saturated 3ce2ater 0apor Table
+hen the temperature of a substance is below the triple point temperature, the
saturated solid and liquid phases exist in equilibrium. ?ere we define the quality as
the ratio of the mass that is vapor to the total mass of solid and vapor in the saturated
solid#vapor mixture. The process of changing directly from the solid phase to the
vapor phase is called sublimation. ;ata for saturated ice and water vapor are given in
Table A#1. $n Table A#1, the term Subl& refers to the difference between the saturated
vapor value and the saturated solid value.
The specific volume, internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy for a mixture of saturated
ice and saturated vapor are calculated similarly to that of saturated liquid#vapor
mixtures.
where the quality $ of a saturated ice#vapor state is
10
! !
f T

L
( ( (
( ( $ (
ig g i
i ig

+
$
m
m m
g
i g

+
'o! to Choose the 4ight Table
The correct table to use to find the thermodynamic properties of a real substance can
always be determined by comparing the nown state properties to the properties in the
saturation region. Miven the temperature or pressure and one other property from the
group v* u* !* and s* the following procedure is used. %or example if the pressure and
specific volume are specified, three questions are ased= %or the given pressure,
The answer to one of these questions must be yes. $f the answer to the first question
is yes, the state is in the compressed liquid region, and the compressed liquid tables
are used to find the properties of the state. $f the answer to the second question is yes,
the state is in the saturation region, and either the saturation temperature table or the
saturation pressure table is used to find the properties. Then the quality is calculated
and is used to calculate the other properties, u* !* and s. $f the answer to the third
question is yes, the state is in the superheated region and the superheated tables are
used to find the other properties.
Some tables may not always give the internal energy. +hen it is not listed, the
internal energy is calculated from the definition of the enthalpy as
Example 55
;etermine the enthalpy of 1.5 g of water contained in a volume of 1.& m' at &22
"a.
Iecall we need two independent, intensive properties to specify the state of a simple
substance. "ressure P is one intensive property and specific volume is another.
Therefore, we calculate the specific volume.
/sing Table A#5 at P 6 &22 "a,
vf 6 2.2212:1 m'.g , vg 6 2.1151 m'.g
,ow,
+e see that the state is in the two#phase or saturation region. So we must find the
quality $ first.
&2
$s D
$s D
$s D
v v
v v v
v v
f
f g
g
<
< <
<
u ! Pv
v
Volume
mass
m
kg
m
kg

1&
15
21
' '
.
.
.
$s D ,o
$s D Nes
$s D ,o
v v
v v v
v v
f
f g
g
<
< <
<
Example 5)
;etermine the internal energy of refrigerant#1'4a at a temperature of 28 and a
quality of :2O.
/sing Table A#11, for T 6 28,
uf 6 51.:' J.g ug 6&'2.1: J.g
then,
Example 5#
8onsider the closed, rigid container of water shown below. The pressure is 322 "a,
the mass of the saturated liquid is 1.31 g, and the mass of the saturated vapor is 2.&&
g. ?eat is added to the water until the pressure increases to 1 H"a. %ind the final
temperature, enthalpy, and internal energy of the water. ;oes the liquid level rise or
fallD "lot this process on a P#v diagram with respect to the saturation lines and the
critical point.
Get9s introduce a solution procedure that we will follow throughout the course. A
similar solution technique is discussed in detail in 8hapter 1.
System6 A closed system composed of the water enclosed in the tan
Property 4elation6 Steam Tables
Process6 Polume is constant )rigid container*
%or the closed system the total mass is constant and since the process is one in which
the volume is constant, the average specific volume of the saturated mixture during
the process is given by
or
&1
v v $ v v
f g f
+ ) *
2.1 2.2212:1
2.1151 2.2212:1
2.02' )+hat does this meanD*
f
g f
v v
$
v v

) *
51.:' )2.:*)&'2.1: 51.:'*
151.35
f g f
u u $ u u
k+
kg
+
+

v
V
m
constant
v v
& 1

,ow to find v, recall that in the two#phase region at state 1

Then, at P 6 322 "a
State & is specified by=
P- . MPa* v- /0/1, m1)kg
At 1 H"a 6 1222 "a,
vf /0//,1.4 m1)kg vg /0/-12- m1)kg
At 1 H"a, v& 6 2.2'1 m'.g.
Therefore, State & is superheated.
$nterpolating in the superheated tables at 1 H"a, v 6 2.2'1 m'.g gives,
T- 13, C
!- 1/-4 k+)kg
u- -443 k+)kg
Since state & is superheated, the liquid level falls.
Thermodynamics of boiler steam formation&
The thermodynamic process of steam formation in boiler is isobaric process, with
temperature increases because of the heat addition to the fluid. The figure &.' below
shows boiler thermodynamics processes for two different pressures, on the coordinate
of temperature )T* vs volume specific )v*. The operating pressures are 122 "a )1
bar* and 1222 "a )12 bars*, and it shown that the steam temperature of the fluid for
12 bars is always higher than for 1 bars during the process.
&&
$
m
m m
kg
kg
g
f g
1
1
1 1
2 &&
131 2 &&
211
+

+

.
) . . *
.
1 1 1 1 1
'
) *
2.221121 )2.11*)2.&3&1 2.221121*
2.2'1
f g f
v v $ v v
m
kg
+
+

$s D ,o
$s D ,o
$s D Nes
v v
v v v
v v
f
f g
g
&
&
&
<
< <
<
+ater was heated from the same temperature T
1
and rises to the saturated liquid
temperatures on the liquid saturation line, which are 00.:1
o
8 for 1 bar and 130.11
o
8
for 12 bars. %urther heat addition maes water start to evaporate, and the temperatures
remain constant until it reaches the steam saturation line. Hore heat addition will
increase the steam temperature, because fluid is already in superheated steam
condition. Superheated steam is usually use in electricity power plants to drive steam
turbine, where water is undesirable in this process. $n water tube boilers the process of
heating water up to liquid saturation line is done in economi!er, while boiling water to
produce steam is done in evaporator, and further heating steam in superheated
condition is done in superheater.
%or boiler use in heating process, the steam is usually heated up to steam saturation
line or less. The steam condition below the saturated line is usually called wet steam,
where the steam quality x Q 1.2. The value of x usually more than 2.02, since water is
usually not releasing heat during heating process. The wet steam condition can not be
avoided, because it is impossible to produce steam with exactly on the saturated
condition during the evaporation process. +ater will always entrained in the steam
during steam separation process after the evaporation. %igure &. shows the
thermodynamic boiler process with produce wet steam.

%igure &. . Thermodynamics boiler process producing superheated steam

%igure &. . Thermodynamics boiler process producing wet steam
&'
"roblems=
1. A boiler is used to produce steam for heating process in a food processing
industry. The steam pressure is 2.: H"a and the steam quality x 6 2.05.
Temperature of water enter the boiler is 52
o
8. 8alculate the amount of heat
required to form the steam per#g of steam produced.
&. A boiler is used to supply steam in large steam power plant with high pressure
steam output of " 6 1: H"a, and steam temperature T 6 :15
o
8. 8alculate the
amount of heat required to form the steam per#g of steam produced.
Thermodynamics of Steam Energy Systems&
$t has been discussed briefly in 8hapter 1 that there four types of steam energy system
depending on the different steam utili!ation, which are
1. ;rive turbine for electric generating equipment, blowers, and pumps
&. ?eating in industrial processes= chemical industries, agricultural, food processing
industries, etc. These heating are usually done in non contact heat transfer.
'. 8ombination of the two utili!ations, which combined heat and power )8?"*.
4. 7ther purposes which usually require small steam capacity, such as cleaning,
laundry, drying, sterili!ation, etc. These heating are usually done in direct contact
heat transfer.
Each system could be analy!ed as a thermodynamics system, because the boundary of
the system could be defined and there are exchange of heat and wor between the
system and the surrounding across the boundary. Thermodynamics analysis of
systems related to boiler specification which are, steam power plant, combined heat
and power system, and steam heating system are presented as follows.
Steam Po!er Plant&
8arnot steam cycle.
+e consider power cycles where the woring fluid undergoes a phase change. The
best example of this cycle is the steam power cycle where water )steam* is the
woring fluid. The heat engine may be composed of the following components. The
woring fluid, steam )water*, undergoes a thermodynamic cycle from 1#&#'#4#1. The
cycle is shown on the following T-s diagram.
$deal 8arnot Steam 8ycle "rocesses
"rocess ;escription
1#& $sentropic compression in compressor
&#' 8onstant pressure heat addition in boiler
'#4 $sentropic expansion in turbine
4#1 8onstant
pressure heat re(ection in condenser
&4

%igure &. ;iagram $nstalation and
8arnot Steam 8ycle

The thermal efficiency of this cycle
is given as

,ote the effect of T" and T5 on
t!* Carnot.
R The larger the T" the larger the t!* Carnot
R The smaller the T5 the larger the t!* Carnot

To increase the thermal efficiency in any power cycle, we try to increase the
maximum temperature at which heat is added.
Ieasons why the 8arnot cycle is not used=
R "umping process 1#& requires the pumping of a mixture of saturated liquid and
saturated vapor at state 1 and the delivery of a saturated liquid at state &.
R To superheat the steam to tae advantage of a higher temperature, elaborate
controls are required to eep T" constant while the steam expands and does
wor.
To resolve the difficulties associated with the 8arnot cycle, the Ianine cycle was
devised.
4an(ine Cycle
The simple Ianine cycle has the same component layout as the 8arnot cycle shown
above. The simple Ianine cycle continues the condensation process 4#1 until the
saturated liquid line is reached.
$deal Ianine 8ycle "rocesses
"rocess ;escription
1#& $sentropic compression in pump
&#' 8onstant pressure heat addition in boiler
'#4 $sentropic expansion in turbine
4#1 8onstant pressure heat re(ection in condenser
The T-s diagram for the Ianine cycle is given below. Gocate the processes for heat
transfer and wor on the diagram.
&5

t! Carnot
net
in
out
in
5
"
W
6
6
6
T
T
,


1
1
Example 171

8ompute the thermal efficiency of an ideal Ianine cycle for which steam leaves the
boiler as superheated vapor at : H"a, '52o8, and is condensed at 12 "a.
+e use the power system and T-s diagram shown above.
P& 6 P' 6 : H"a 6 :222 "a
T' 6 '52o8
P1 6 P4 6 12 "a
Pump
The pump wor is obtained from the conservation of mass and energy for steady#flow
but neglecting potential and inetic energy changes and assuming the pump is
adiabatic and reversible.
Since the pumping process involves an incompressible liquid, state & is in the
compressed liquid region, we use a second method to find the pump wor or the !
across the pump.
Iecall the property relation=
%! T %s 7 v %P
Since the ideal pumping process 1#& is isentropic, %s 6 2.
&:

) *
m m m
m! W m !
W m ! !
&um&
&um&
1 &
1 1 & &
& 1

+


The incompressible liquid assumption allows

The pump wor is calculated from
/sing the steam tables
,ow, !& is found from
Boiler
To find the heat supplied in the boiler, we apply the steady#flow conservation of mass
and energy to the boiler. $f we neglect the potential and inetic energies, and note that
no wor is done on the steam in the boiler, then
+e find the properties at state ' from the superheated tables as
The heat transfer per unit mass is
&3
v v const
! ! v P P


1
& 1 1 & 1
.
) *

) * ) *

) *
W m ! ! mv P P
w
W
m
v P P
&um&
&um&
&um&


& 1 1 & 1
1 & 1
1
1
'
1
101.11
12
.
2.22121
f
f
k+
! !
kg P kPa
8at li9ui% m
v v
kg

;'

w v P P
m
kg
kPa
k+
m kPa
k+
kg
&um&

1 & 1
'
'
2 22121 :222 12
: 25
) *
. ) *
.
& 1
:.25 101.11
103.1:
&um&
! w !
k+ k+
kg kg
k+
kg
+
+

) *
m m m
m ! 6 m !
6 m ! !
in
in
& '
& & ' '
' &

+

'
'
'
'
'24'.0
:222
'52
:.''53
o
k+
!
P kPa
kg
k+ T C
s
kg K

;'

' &
)'24'.0 103.1:*
&145.1
in
in
6
9 ! !
m
k+
kg
k+
kg

Turbine
The turbine wor is obtained from the application of the conservation of mass and
energy for steady flow. +e assume the process is adiabatic and reversible and neglect
changes in inetic and potential energies.
+e find the properties at state 4 from the steam tables by noting s4 6 s' 6 :.''53
J.g#> and asing three questions.
The turbine wor per unit mass is
The net wor done by the cycle is
&1

) *
m m m
m ! W m !
W m ! !
turb
turb
' 4
' ' 4 4
' 4

+

4
4
4
4
12 = 2.:40& @ 1.1411
D
D
D
f g
f
f g
g
k+ k+
at P kPa s s
kg K kg K
is s s
is s s s
is s s


<
< <
<
4 4
4
4
:.''53 2.:40&
2.351
3.400:
f fg
f
fg
s s $ s
s s
$
s
+

4 4
101.11 2.351)&'0&.1*
&225.2
f fg
! ! $ !
k+ k+
kg kg
k+
kg
+
+

' 4
)'24'.0 &225.2*
12'1.0
turb
w ! !
k+
kg
k+
kg

)12'1.0 :.25*
12'&.1
net turb &um&
w w w
k+
kg
k+
kg

The thermal efficiency is

<ased on 8arnot efficiency principle, there are many methods to improve the simple
Ianine cycle efficiency=
1. Superheat the steam, average temperature is higher during heat addition and
moisture is reduced at turbine exit.
&. $ncrease boiler pressure for fixed maximum temperature, availability of steam is
higher at higher pressures, however moisture is increased at turbine exit.
'. Ieheat the steam, average temperature is higher during heat addition and moisture
is reduced at turbine exit.
4. Gower condenser pressure, less energy is lost to surroundings, however moisture
is increased at turbine exit.
5. Iegenerative cycle, average temperature is higher during heat addition.
The first three methods for improving systems efficiency are related directly to the
boiler, which basically related to the condition of steam output of the boiler.
1. The higher the steam output temperature the higher the system efficiency.
&. The higher the steam output pressure the higher the system efficiency.
The following is an example to demonstrate the effect higher steam temperature using
superheater and reheater, and higher steam pressure on steam power plant9s thermal
efficiency.
Example=
&0
12'&.1
&145.1
2.':' ':.'O
net
t!
in
k+
w kg
k+
9
kg
or

Combined 'eat and Po!er 8C'P9 Plant&

$n 8?" plant the steam from boiler is utili!ed for generating power in turbine, and
process heating. The 8?" plant is usually used in an industry to supply electrical
energy to drive the plant and heat energy taen from turbine outlet for process
heating. The installation and thermodynamics diagram of 8?" plant is shown below.
The thermodynamic diagram is the same as the steam power plant, since the
condenser is replaced by the process heating which operate similarly to the condenser.
The difference is the turbine outlet steam pressure is higher than the atmospheric, to
provide sufficient temperature for the process and to overcome steam flow losses in
pipes and process. The overall thermal efficiency of this system is very high, ideally
equal to unity, since all the heat of the steam from boiler is utili!ed.
'2
<oiler specification for 8?" system is determined based on the optimi!ation
calculation between two main factors, which are the amount of heat energy for
process heating and electrical energy required by the plant. The output of the
optimi!ation is boiler capacity and steam pressure. Steam pressure of boiler for 8?"
is usually of moderate pressures, to achieve enough steam capacity for the process
heating in the plant.
Steam heating system&
$n this system steam from boiler is directly used for process heating, and the
requirement of electrical energy is usually supplied by the utility grid. <oiler steam
pressure is usually of low pressure, and the steam is below saturated steam condition.
There are two types of process heating,
1. 8ondensing steam or closed system, where heat transfer for process heating is
non direct contact. The condensate is then used for boiler feedwater.
&. ,on condensing steam or open system, where heat transfer for process heating
is direct contact and the condensate mixed with the product being processed.
The boiler teedwater is fully provided by water treatment facility.
The installation and thermodynamic diagram of the two systems are shown below.

%igure &.:. 8losed system boiler steam
heating
a*. $nstallation diagram
b*. Thermodynamics diagram
'1
a*.
b*.
%igure &.:. 7pen system boiler steam
heating
a*. $nstallation diagram
b*. Thermodynamics diagram
'&
#
a*.
b*.
''