M 2008 Ceet 07 Verjus Hadelin Gs20031084

1
CHAPTER I. I. INTRODUCTION
The title of this project is CHARACTERISATION OF PAVEMENT
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS IN RWANDA
In transportation engineering, characterization of pavement construction materials is very
important because it shows the properties and suitability of pavement construction
materials.
Soil engineering for highways and stone aggregates for pavement design and construction
are used pavement construction materials.
This work is divided into five chapters and each chapter contains a certain number of
sections. Chapter one, which is introduction, it justifies and gives the objectives of the
work and the methodology used to accomplish this work.
After introduction comes literature review in chapter two reviews the elements of soil
engineering, types of pavements, some fundamentals of pavement design and stone
aggregates.
The next chapter three states the different experiments done on the soil sample as raw
material and other done on the stone aggregates. This chapter shows the data collected
during the experiments and its results.
In chapter four, comes the analysis and discussion of the results obtained in chapter three.
In chapter five, there is a conclusion and recommendation.

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I.2. OBJECTIVE OF PROJECT
The project is aimed at determining the suitability of pavement construction materials
from different sources in Rwanda.
I.3. JUSTIFICATION OF THE PROJECT
The pavement construction materials used in road construction must have good properties
such as density plasticity, compressive strength, toughness, hardness.
Contractors are obliged to determine the present properties of the soil sample or
aggregates as raw materials before constructing a road pavement.
After analyzing that the soil or aggregate is poor or weak to be used as a construction
material for road pavement, it is necessary to choose the best soil or aggregates of any
other soil or aggregate having good properties, suitable for road construction.
I.4. METHODOLOGY
Reading books
Visiting websites on internet.
Some laboratory tests are carried out to determine the present properties (suitability) of
soil or aggregates as raw materials.
Those laboratory tests are: Wet sieve analysis, proctor test, atterberg limits(liquid limit
and plastic limit), California bearing ratio(CBR) for soil as raw material and Los
Angeles, specific gravity and water absorption, aggregate impact values and bulk density,
wet sieve analysis for aggregates as raw material.

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CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW
ELEMENTS OF SOIL ENGINEERING
II.1 IMPORTANCE OF SOIL ENGINEERING IN ROAD CONSTRUCTION
Soil is the cheapest and the most widely used material in any highway system,
particularly in non-bituminized roads, either in its natural form (say gravel) or in a
processed form (say stabilized soil layer). Also, all road pavement structures eventually
rest on soil foundation. However, soil are highly heterogeneous and anisotrophic in
nature and occur in unlimited varieties, with widely different engineering properties
which, in turn, can be influenced considerably by the presence of water in several
varieties. Considering all these aspects, a thorough study of the engineering properties of
soils is of vital importance in working out an appropriate design of the pavement
structure which will yield an acceptable level of performance of the road over the design
life under the given traffic and climatic conditions. In any road embankment, the bulk of
the material used is soil and if properly designed, should possess stable slopes and should
not settle to any appreciable extent. Also, the embankments require a stable foundation; if
the foundation soil happens to be soft clay, unless property designed, excessive
settlement or even ultimate failure can take place. Similarly when a road is constructed in
a cutting, sound principles of soil engineering are to be employed to ensure that the
slopes are stable under the climatic conditions prevailing in the area. Finally, the
characteristics of the road pavement i.e. the hard crust placed on the soil formation are
not only dependant on the nature of traffic but also on soil properties over which the
pavement rests. Structure like culverts, bridges, retaining walls, overhead traffic signs etc
also rest on soil and their stability depend on soil strength under the given ground water
and climatic conditions. Precautions against the adverse effects of frost action, common
in high altitude areas, can also be taken, adopting sound principles of soil engineering.
(Dr. B.C PUNMIA, ASHOK KUMAR J AIN, ARUN KUMAR J AIN(1973-74) soil
mechanics and foundation 13
th
edition) and
(Dr. L.R. Kadyali, Dr. N.B. Lal(2003) Principles and practices of Highway Engineering
(including Expressway and airports Engineering)4
th
edition)

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II.2. FORMATION OF SOILS
II.2.1. DEFINITION
Soil is defined, for civil engineering purposes, as natural aggregate of mineral grains
that can be separated easily, as for example, by agitation in water. Rock, on the other
hand, is defined as a natural aggregate of mineral grains connected by strong and
permanent cohesive forces and these mineral grains cannot be separated easily as in the
case of soil.
II.2.2 RESIDUAL AND TRANSPORTED SOIL
Soil can broadly be divided on the basis of origin into two groups. In the first group are
the soils obtained as products of physical and chemical weathering of parent rock. If the
products of rock weathering are located at the place of origin, these soils are termed
Residual soils. These residual soils may extend down to hundreds of meters especially
in warm and humid environment where the time of exposure has been long.Moorums,
extensively found in India, Africa and other parts of the world constitute weathered rock,
which may be Lateritic, Granitic etc. And are examples of residual soil. If, however, the
products of rock weathering are transported from the place of origin by transportation
agents which may be water, wind or snow, the soil termed Transported soil. Water
transported soils may be Alluvial, transported by running water; Lacustrine deposited
in lakes and Marine, deposited in sea water. Aeolian soils are transported by wind e.g.
desert dune sands; Colluvial soils are deposited by gravity as in landslides and Glacial
soils are transported by melting snow during glacier movement.
II.2.3. ORGANIC SOILS
Apart from the residual and transported soils are the organic soils which can generally be
distinguished by their characteristic dark colour, strong odour and compressible nature. In
many parts of the world there are huge deposits of organic soils, notable examples being
the peaty swamps of Africa and Muskeg of Canada. Organic soils with very low strength
characteristics make poor construction materials and are not used for road construction
purposes.
(Dr. B.C PUNMIA, ASHOK KUMAR J AIN, ARUN KUMAR J AIN(1973-74) soil
mechanics and foundation 13
th
edition).

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II.3. PARTICLE SIZE AND SHAPE
A soil is termed Gravel or Sand or Silt or Clay according to its predominant particle size.
To determine the size of soil grains that constitute a soil sample and to determine the total
weight of soil grains in various size ranges, the particle size distribution of soil sample is
to be studied. The simplest method of determining the particle size distribution of a soil
sample is to use a standard set of sieves of different sizes as per IS460. However, sieve
analysis is carried out up to 0.075 mm size only because in sieves of sizes lower than
that, the mesh becomes too small to be effective and sedimentation or hydrometer
analysis has to be resorted to.
In granular (coarse-grained) soils, besides the particle size distribution, the particle shape
also influences the engineering properties. Grains of angular sands and gravels tend to
interlock to provide resistance to deformation.
It is due to the interlocking action that angular particles offer much greater resistance to
deformation under load than rounded particles.
The particle shape can often be inferred from the origin of soil. Wind forms uniformly
graded dune sands with over 75% of their particles falling in the size range between 0.15
and 0.4mm. Gravelly soils formed by flowing water will be rounded as high velocity
water sorts out and abrades the material; lower velocity of water would make it possible
for the material to be deposited as a river terrace material.
While for coarse grained soils, the particle size distribution and particle shape are
related to such engineering properties as permeability, compactibility, and resistance to
deformation under load, it is not so for the fine grained soils (silts and clays).
II.4. SOIL GRADING
Considering the simplicity and expediency, most road agencies carry out the particle size
distribution or soil grading tests as routine tests, using a standard set of sieves.
Conveniently, the results of such sieve analysis are graphically shown as grading curves
plotted on semi-log paper, the particle size or sieve mesh size plotted on horizontal log-
scale while on the vertical axis is the cumulative percentage passing each sieve.
A well graded plot indicates good representation of different particle sizes over a wide
range. Plot of a poorly graded soil indicates either excess or deficiency of certain sizes.
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Uniformly graded and gap-graded plots are examples of poorly graded materials. As may
only be expected, well-graded granular soils are more dense and more resistant to shear
and deformation under compressive stresses than poorly graded soils. It is, therefore, the
objective of mechanical stabilization technique to blend two or more locally available
materials with different particle-size ranges in such a manner as to get a well-graded soil
mix which, after compaction, would give a high density and high strength.
The type of gradation can effectively be gauged by the following:
(i) Effective size (D10) i.e. the diameter at which 10% of soil by weight is finer. D
10
is
the approximate diameter of actual spheres that will allow water percolation at a rate
similar to that given by the graded soil for which D
10
is the effective size. The coefficient
of permeabilityKis directly related to D
10
power 2.
(ii) Uniformity coefficient (u) = D
60
/D
10
where D
60
is the diameter at which 60% of soil
by weight is finer and D
10
is the effective size. If the ratio U has a value of 1, it implies a
uniformly graded soil or a single-sized soil e.g. a single-sized dune sand. For a well-
graded soil the value of U should be high, say more than 4.
(iii) Coefficient of curvature (Cz) =D
30
square/ (D
60
*D
10
) where D
30
is the diameter at
which 30% of soil by weight is finer and D
60
and D
10
have already been described above.
The value of Cz signifies the shape (and curvature) of grading curve, also incorporating
in between D
60
and D
10
, an intermediate diameter D
30
.
For coarse-grained soils, while the particle size distribution and particle shape influence
their engineering behaviour, presence of water hardly affects their properties. In contrast,
fine-grained clay soils are very significantly affected by the presence of water, whereas
particle size distribution and particle shape have very little influence if at all, on their
engineering behaviour.
A soil particle may be either inorganic or organic. Organic soil can be easily
distinguished by their dark colour and odour and are not used as construction materials
and, therefore, need not be discussed in detail. A particle of inorganic soil may either be a
mineral or rock. A mineral may be defined as a naturally occurring chemical element or a
chemical compound having a definite chemical formula, formed as a result of some
geological process. A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals.
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It is interesting to note that very fine fractions of a mineral show certain properties,
which are quite different from those displayed by coarser ones. To get an appreciation of
this aspect, if a mineral is crushed to different fractions and the finest fraction is shaken
in distilled water, the tiny particles in suspension will take a long time to settle down
under the force of gravity. However, if an electrolyte is added to the suspension, the
particles settle down very fast, thereby showing that there is some force of electric nature
acting on tiny particles which is stronger than the force of gravity. It is observed that finer
the particle size, stronger is this electric force and for particles of 1 micron (1/1000 mm)
size, it can be nearly 1000 times the force of gravity. The platy clay particles are known
to be negatively charged.
II. 5. CONSISTENCY AND PLASTICITY OF FINE-GRAINED SOILS
The properties of fine-grained soil are considerably influenced by its water content
(i.e.), ratio of the mass of water in the soil to the mass of solid soil particles). At
particular water content, the physical state of a fine-grained soil is termed consistency
of soil.
Depending on the water content, a soil may exist in liquid, plastic, semi-solid or solid
state. The three water contents at which the transition takes place for a given fine-grained
soil from liquid to plastic; from plastic to semi-solid and from semi-solid to solid state are
significant in reflecting the properties of the soil.
Liquid limit (LL) is the minimum water content (wl) at which the soil can flow under its
own weight (has no strength). Using casagrande apparatus, it is defined as the moisture
content at which 25 blows (taps) in the standardized liquid limit determination device,
will just close a specific groove in a sample of soil. Another common method for its
determination is the cone penetrometer test method.
Plastic limit (PL) is the minimum water content (wp) at which soil can be rolled into a
thread 3 mm in diameter, without breaking.
Shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content at which further loss of moisture does not
cause a decrease in the volume of the soil.
Plasticity index (PI or Ip) is defined as the water content range over which a soil
exhibits plastic behavior. It is the difference between the liquid and plastic limits of a
soil. PI =LL PL; Ip =wl wp
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II.6. THE NEED FOR SOIL CLASSIFICATION
While dealing with soils, it generally becomes necessary to evaluate some
engineering characteristics like compressibility, strength or permeability etc. With the
wide varieties of different soil types encountered in the actual practice of soil
engineering, it would indeed be very cumbersome and time-consuming to measure the
required soil properties for each of the different soil types one is to deal with. It,
therefore, becomes highly desirable, if not necessary; to classify soil into such groups
where in each group will represent similar engineering characteristics. The particle size
distribution for granular soils and plasticity characteristics for the fine-grained soils offer
simple yet effective parameters for such a grouping or classification of soils.
II.7. COMPACTION OF SOIL
II.7.1. Importance of soil compaction
For highway engineers, a study of the compaction properties of soil is extremely
important for the following reasons:
(i) Soils which are compacted to high density have greater strength and hence a
pavement constructed on such sub grades requires lesser thickness.
(ii) Compaction of soils reduces the possibility of settlement of embankments
during the life of the pavement and of slope failure.
(iii) Compacted sub grades are less susceptible to changes in moisture content.
This means that swelling and shrinkage of soils, accompanying moisture
changes, can be reduced.
II.7.2. Factors influencing compaction
II.7.2.1. The density to which soils can be compacted depends primarily on three
factors:
(i) Soil type
(ii) Moisture content
(iii) Compactive effort applied
II.7.2.2. The density to which soils can be compacted depends on the soil type itself.
For example, for a given compactive energy, gravels, and sands can be compacted to a
dry density of 1.7 2.3 gm per c.c. whereas clays can only be compacted to a dry density
of 1.4 1.8 gm per c.c.
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II.7.2.3. One of the most interesting factors in processing a soil for use in highway
construction is the moisture content. The study of the moisture-density relationships in
soils was pioneered R.R. Proctor in the 1930s. Since then, this subject has found
extensive application in the construction of earth dams and highway embankments.
Proctor showed that for a given soil and a compactive effort, there is one water content,
called the optimum moisture content (OMC), at which the dry density of the soil will be
maximum. At moisture contents both above and below the OMC, the dry density will be
less than the maximum.
The explanation for this phenomenon is fairly simple. At low moisture contents, the soil
is dry and stiff and it is difficult to compress the particles close together. As water is
added, the individual particles get lubricated by the water film, making it easier for the
soil particles to be packed closer together. Density thus increases by the expulsion of air
in the voids. At moisture contents above the optimum, however, the dry density decreases
since an increasing proportion of the total volume is now occupied by water. The dotted
line to the right of the moisture density 3 curves represents the theoretical zero air voids
curve when there is no air at all and the soil is in a state of full saturation; such a state,
however, cannot be attained in actual practice. At zero air voids, the maximum theoretical
dry density is given by
(
d) max =
G
s
w
/ 1+wG
s

The general expression for dry density of a soil mass at moisture content w and an
air content A is given by equation:

d=
[G
s
(1- A) / 1+wG
s
]*
w

Putting A=0 in the above expression, the value of the maximum theoretical dry density is
obtained.
II.7.2.4. For a given soil, different dry density-moisture content curves are obtained
for different compactive efforts. The dry density-moisture content curves for the same
soil when compacted to light compaction of standard proctor test (using 2.5 kg hammer)
and when compacted to heavy compaction of modified AASHTO test (using 4.5 kg
hammer). As may be seen, a higher compactive effort gives a higher value of maximum
dry density but a lower value of optimum moisture content.

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II.7.3. Tests for compaction
Since various amounts of compactive effort produce varying degrees of
compaction, it becomes necessary to standardize the compactive effort in the laboratory.
This will facilitate comparison of the soil properties and provide a yardstick for
measuring the compaction achieved in the field. In this respect, the test developed by
proctor density.
The test consists of compacting soil in three layers in a mould 1000 cm
3
volume.
The rammer used is 2.6 kg and it is dropped from a height of 31 cm on each layer. 25
blows are given to each layer. After the standard compaction, the weight of the specimen
is determined. Knowing the volume of the mould, the wet unit weight is determined. The
moisture content is also determined by drying the sample in an oven. Knowing the wet
unit weight and the moisture content, the dry unit weight is determined. If a series of
readings are obtained with varying moisture content, the moisture content-density
relationship can be determined. Thus the optimum moisture content (OMC) and the
maximum dry density of the soil can be determined.
Another test, which employs a higher compactive effort, is the modified
AASHTO compaction test. The weight of rammer is 10 Ib(4.5kg) and the height of fall is
18 inches (45.7cm). The soil is compacted in five layers, each layer being compacted
with 25 blows. This test is often used in connection with airfield construction and for
heavily trafficked roads.
In order to control the quality of compaction in the field, it becomes necessary to
determine the field density on a large scale. A common method employed is the sand
replacement method. A hole about 100mm dia. And 150mm depth is excavated with
suitable tools to the depth of the layer being tested and the weight of the soil sample
removed and its moisture contents are determined. Sand is run into the hole from a
cylinder and the weight of sand is determined before and after the filling. The different
gives the weight of sand in the hole. From the known weight and bulk density of sand,
the volume of the hole is calculated. Thus, the density of the soil in- situ is determined.
A quick method, often used in control of compaction on a large scale, is by means
of a proctor needle. The apparatus consists of a needle attached to a spring-loaded
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plunger, the stem of which is calibrated to read the density directly. The needle can be
calibrated frequently by testing against standard proctor density in proctor moulds.
A quick method of density measurement in the field is by nuclear method. A
radioactive source is kept on the surface of the soil and it emits gamma rays in all
directions. Except the gamma rays that are emitted in the direction of the soil, all other
rays are completely cut off using sufficient quantity of lead shield. The gamma rays
emitted in the direction of the soil get scattered in the medium in all directions and only
some of them reach a detector placed at a certain fixed distance from the source. The rays
reaching the detector are recorded as counts in a given time and depend on the density of
the soil.
The modern development that has taken place in measuring the compaction of
earthwork is the roller-mounted electronic compaction meter. An accelero-meter rigidly
mounted on the vibrating drum of the roller continuously registers the dynamic forces
which are generated when the roller operates on the ground surface. The signals are
treated in a special processor, which continuously calculates the compaction which can
be directly read on an instrument on the operator`s panel. Since instantaneous results are
monitored, the equipment has been found to be extremely useful.
II.8. SOIL STRENGTH
II.8.1. Importance of soil strength
For a highway engineer, knowledge of the strength of a soil (when considered
under the environmental conditions to which it will be subjected) is extremely important,
since the pavement structure and foundation of structures rest on soils. Basically, the
stability of the pavement and the structures is governed by the strength of soils on which
they rest. Difficulties arise in proper evaluation of the strength because soils are seldom
uniform in character and simulating the field conditions during strength evaluation can
often be problematic.
II.8.2. Factors affecting soil strength
Some of the factors affecting soil strength are:
1. Soil type. Granular soils have generally higher strength than fine-grained soils.
2. Particle size distribution. The size, shape and distribution of the particles
determine the internal friction and cohesion.
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3. Dry density. The degree of compaction of soil governs its strength to a great
extent.
4. Moisture content. The amount of water contained in a soil affects the density, the
cohesion and internal friction of soils.
5. Extent of confinement. Soils like sands exhibit greater strength when confined
than when unconfined.
6. Permeability. The rate of drainage of water as loading takes place affects the soil
strength. The more effective the drainage, the better is the shearing resistance.
II.8.3. Penetration Tests
II.8.3.1. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test. The most widely used test for
design of flexible pavements is the California Bearing Ratio test, abbreviated as the CBR
test. The test was originally developed by the California Division of highways by O.J .
Porter and a design methodology was evolved from survey of pavement conditions
carried out in California in 1929. The U.S. Corps of engineers developed the method
further during war. Now most of the countries in the world adopt this standard method.
The test is basically a penetration test, in which the load required to cause a
plunger of standard size to penetrate a specimen of soil at a standard rate is measured.
The test can either be conducted on remoulded specimens or undisturbed
specimens in the laboratory or in-situ on the sub grade soil itself.
For laboratory testing, a phosphor-bronze mould with internal dimensions 150mm
dia. * 175 mm height is used. The mould has a detachable perforated base which can be
fitted at either end. A bronze displacer disc 50 mm deep and 152 mm dia. enables a
specimen exactly 127 mm high to be obtained.
The loading is done by a machine giving a constant rate of strain. If such a machine is not
available, an ordinary hydraulic testing machine is used, provided the rate of penetration
is controlled by a stop watch.
The plunger is standardized with a dia of 50 mm and is placed at the centre of the
mould containing the soil specimen. A dial gauge records the penetration. The vertical
load from the testing machine is noted.
For the in-situ test, a loaded truck is used to provide the reaction and loading is
achieved by a screw jack.
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In other to simulate the surcharge load caused by the pavement layers above the
sub grade soil, annular surcharge weights are placed on the surface of the specimen. As a
rough guide, 10 kg weight is equal to 25 cm pavement.
The specimens have to be prepared with great care. Undisturbed specimens can be
obtained by fitting a cutting edge to the mould and pushing the same into the ground as
gently as possible. The sample is then trimmed. For preparing remoulded specimens,
static or dynamic compaction processes can be used. Static process is preferred. The
volume of the mould being 2244 c.c., the weight of the wet soil at the required moisture
content to give the intended density is calculated as following:
Volume of mould: 2244 c.c.
Weight of dry soil: 2244 d.
Weight of wet soil: [(100 +m)/100]*2244d
Where d =required dry density in gm/c.c.
m =required moisture content (per cent)
If dynamic compaction process is used, the soil is compacted in three layers by
using a standard rammer.
The selection of the density and moisture content is crucial for the test. For new
roads, the specimens should be compacted to a dry density corresponding to the
minimum state of compaction likely to be achieved in the field. Current standards require
that the sub grade should be compacted to 100 per cent proctor density, and hence this
density may be used for the test. The choice of the moisture content is not simple.
The recommended practice for new roads is to prepare the samples at the optimum
moisture content corresponding to proctor compaction and soak them for 4 days prior to
testing. For existing roads requiring strengthening, the moisture content should be the
field moisture content, preferably after rains. The density of the specimens should in such
cases be the field density. The field moisture content and density are determined at a
distance of 0.6 to 1m from the pavement edge below the pavement.
The procedure of soaking is dispensed with for:
(i) Road having a comparatively thick bituminous surfacing of
impermeable nature (other than open graded carpet, surfacing, dressing
or grouted macadam) and where simultaneously water table is too deep
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(greater than 1m in sands, 3 m in sandy clays and 6 m in heavy clays)
and good drainage exists.
(ii) Roads in arid zones having rainfall less than 50 cm annually. Some
authorities now propose that the CBR test should be conducted on
samples compacted at Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC). The EMC
is determined from considerations such as the depth of water table,
pore water pressure, applied stress due to pavement and soil suction.
The loading is done at a rate of 1.25mm/ minute. The loads at 2.5 mm and 5 mm
penetration are recorded. A load-penetration curve is drawn. A correction is needed for
curves curving concave upwards. The loads for penetration of 2.5mm and 5 mm are
noted. For standard crushed stones, loads of 6.895 MN/m
2
and 10.343 MN/m
2
cause the
above penetrations respectively (see fig. below). The CBR value is expressed as a
percentage of the actual load causing the penetrations of 2.5 mm or 5 mm to the standard
above mentioned loads, respectively.
Thus:
CBR=[Load carried by specimen/Load carried by standard crushed stone specimen]*100
Two values of CBR will thus be obtained. If the value at 2.5 mm is greater than that at
5 mm penetration, the former is adopted. If not, the test is repeated and if the new value
of load at 5 mm penetration is still greater, this value is used for the calculation of the
CBR.
II.9. TYPES OF PAVEMENTS
II.9.1. Functions and desirable characteristics of pavements
A highway pavement is designed to support the wheel loads imposed on it from
traffic moving over it. Additional stresses are also imposed by changes in the
environment. It should be strong enough to resist the stresses imposed on it and it should
be thick enough to distribute the external loads on the earthen sub grade, so that the sub
grade itself can safely bear it.
For satisfactorily performing the above functions, the pavement should have many
desirable characteristics.

15
These are:
1. It should be structurally sound enough to withstand the stresses imposed on it.
2. It should be sufficiently thick to distribute the loads and stresses to a safe value
on the sub grade soil.
3. It should provide a reasonably hard wearing surface, so that the abrading action
of wheels (pneumatic and iron-tyred) does not damage the surface.
4. It should be dust-proof so that traffic safety is not impaired.
5. Its riding quality should be good. It should be smooth enough to provide
comfort to the road users at the high speeds at which modern vehicles are
driven.
6. The surface of the pavement should develop as low a friction with the tyres as
possible. This will enable the energy consumption of the vehicles to low.
7. The surface of the pavement should have a texture and adequate roughness to
prevent skidding of vehicles.
8. The surface should not produce excessive levels of sound from moving
vehicles.
9. The surface should be impervious so that water does not get into the lower
layers of the pavement and the sub grade and cause deterioration.
10. The pavement should have long life and the cost of maintaining it annually
should be low.
Some of the requirements enumerated above are conflicting. A good pavement
should be a compromise among such conflicting needs.
II.9.2. Pavement courses
A pavement consists of one or more layers. The topmost layer is the surfacing,
the purpose of which is to provide a smooth, abrasion resistant, dust free,
reasonably water proof and strong layer. The base, which comes immediately
next below, is the medium through which the stresses imposed are distributed
evenly. Additional help in distributing the loads is provided by the sub-base
layer. The sub grade is the compacted natural earth immediately below the
pavement layers. The top of the sub grade is also known as the formation level.
16
In a concrete road, the concrete slab itself acts as the wearing surface and
distributes the load. The slab may be directly placed on the sub grade, or, in
case of weak soils, a base and sub-base may be interposed between the slab and
the sub grade.
In American practice, the top course in a flexible pavement is itself composed
of the surface course and a binder course beneath it. In U.K. practice, the
surfacing is similarly composed of the wearing course at top and a base course
beneath it.
The functions of the sub-base layer are:
(i) To provide additional help to the base and surface courses in
distributing loads.
(ii) To prevent intrusion of fine-grained road-bed soils into base courses.
(iii) To minimize the damaging effects of frost action.
(iv) To facilitate drainage of free water that might get accumulated below
the pavement.
The functions of the base course are:
(i) To act as the structural portion of the pavement and thus distribute the
loads.
(ii) If constructed directly over the sub grade, to prevent in intrusion of sub
grade soils into the pavement.
The functions of the surface course are:
(i) To perform as a structural portion of the pavement.
(ii) To resist the abrasive forces of traffic.
(iii) To reduce the amount of surface water penetrating the pavement.
(iv) To provide a skid-resistant surface.
(v) To provide a smooth and uniform riding surface.
II.9.3. Pavement types
III.3.1. From the point of view of structural performance, pavements can be
classified as:
(i) Flexible
(ii) Rigid
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(iii) Semi-rigid
(iv) Composite.
A flexible pavement is essentially a layered system which has low flexural strength.
Thus, the external load is largely transmitted to the sub grade by the lateral distribution
with increasing depth. Because of the low flexural strength, the pavement deflects
momentarily under load but rebounds to its original level on removal of load. The
pavement thickness is so designed that the stresses on the sub grade soil are kept within
its bearing power and the sub grade is prevented from excessive deformations. This
implies that in a flexible pavement, the sub grade plays an important role as it carries the
vehicle loads transmitted to it through the pavement. The strength and smoothness of the
pavement surface depends to a great extent on the permanent deformation suffered by the
sub grade and its resistance to such deformation. If the pavement itself is very strong, but
it is constructed on loose and poor sub grade, it can fail.
As a contrast, a rigid pavement derives its capacity to withstand loads from flexural
strength or beam strength (modulus of elasticity), permitting the slab to bridge over minor
irregularities in the sub grade, sub-base or base upon which it rests. This implies that the
inherent strength of the slab itself is called upon to play a major role in resisting the
wheel load. Minor imperfection or localized weak spots in the material below the slab
can be taken care of the slab itself. This is not to under-rate the role of the sub grade soil.
In fact, a good, stable and uniform support is necessary for a rigid pavement as well. But
as long as a certain minimum requirement is met with in this regard, the performance of
the rigid pavement is more governed by the strength of the slab itself than by the sub
grade support.
A third category of pavements has become popular during recent times. Known as
semi-rigid pavement, it represents an intermediate state between the flexible and the rigid
pavement. It has much lower flexural strength compared to concrete slabs, but it also
derives support by the lateral distribution of loads through the pavement depth as in a
flexible pavement. Typical examples of a semi-rigid pavement are the clean-concrete
base, soil-cement and lime-puzzalona concrete construction.
A composite pavement is one which comprises of multiple, structurally significant
brick-sandwiched concrete pavement, which has been tried in India. It consists of top and
18
bottom layers of cement concrete which sandwich a brick layer in the neutral axis zone.
The design of composite pavements lies outside the well-established fields of flexible or
rigid pavement design and is still in its infancy.
III.3.2. A very frequent term in highway engineering practice in developing countries is
low-cost pavements. These pavements represent specifications involving the use of
locally available materials, often with stabilization techniques.
III.3.3. Another distinction in pavement description is between paved and unpaved
and surfaced and unsurfaced. The exact definition of these terms is lacking. One
often uses the terms paved roads to mean a road which has at least a stone-aggregate
course laid over the sub grade. The stone-aggregate course may be left bare without any
bituminous surfacing in which case the road, though paved, is unsurfaced. An
unpaved road is one which has only gravel or earthen surface. A surfaced road is one
which has a bituminous or concrete surface. In contrast,unsurfaced roads are those
which have no bituminous or concrete surfaces.
II.10. STONE AGGREGATES
II.10.1. Aggregates
II.10.1.1. Aggregate is the major component of materials used in road making. It used in
granular bases and sub-bases, bituminous courses and in cement concrete pavements. A
study of the types of aggregates, their properties and tests is of great-importance to a
highway engineer.
II.10.2. Types of aggregates
Natural aggregate for road-making are obtained from rock. The road-making aggregates
fall into the following geological groups:
1. Igneous rocks, which are formed by the cooling of molten material.
2. Sedimentary rocks, which are formed by deposition of granular
material.
3. Metamorphic rocks, which are igneous or sedimentary rocks that
have undergone transformations due to heat and pressure.

(Dr. L.R. Kadyali, Dr. N.B. Lal(2003) Principles and practices of Highway Engineering
(including Expressway and airports Engineering)4
th
edition).
19

II.10.3. Testing of aggregates
The tests required to be conducted on representative samples of aggregates depend on the
specific use in a road pavement, so as to ensure that they meet the specified requirements
laid down for that specific use. First and foremost, it needs to be emphasized that the
repeatibility and reproducibility of test results depend primarily on the sampling. A
laboratory sample is obtained from a bulk sample collected, either in a number of
increments or in one go, from a batch or a stockpile. Samples are normally collected
using a samples which is in the form of metallic tube or a scoop whose opening is 3 times
the maximum aggregate size. Sampling of aggregates is sometimes done at various
production sources in order to avoid the segregates is sometimes done at various
production sources in order to avoid the segregation which occurs in stockpiles. Some of
the sampling procedures followed are:
1. Sampling from stationary conveyor belt.
2. Sampling at belt and chute discharge points.
3. Sampling from stockpiles
4. Sampling from railway wagons, transporting dumpers/trucks etc.
A sample collected for testing purposes has to be reduced in size to prepare laboratory
samples. The aggregates are quartered either manually or by using riffle boxes.
Some common laboratory tests are:
- Water absorption and bulk specific gravity
- Particle size distribution
- Aggregates Impact value
- Los Angeles Abrasion value and Bulk density.
II.10.3.1. Particle size distribution or gradation of aggregates.
Maximum size of aggregate is the mesh size of the smallest sieve through which 100%
of material will pass. Nominal maximum size is the largest specified sieve size upon
which any of the aggregate material is retained.
Gradation analysis of both coarse and fine aggregates is carried out by
sieving, using standard set of sieves.
20
Dry sieve analysis is generally suitable for the testing of graded coarse
aggregates. However, when the aggregate contains fine dust or clay sticking to the
coarser aggregate particles, a wet/washed sieve analysis should be carried out.
Maximum size and grading of aggregates are invariably controlled by the
specifications, which describe the distribution of particle sizes to be used for a particular
work.
II.10.3.2. Water absorption and bulk specific gravity tests.
These two tests are conducted together. The specific gravity of aggregates is an
indirect measure of its strength. The higher the specific gravity, the denser the rock is and
stronger is the aggregate. Similarly, water absorption depends on the pores and voidage
in the rock. The more the water absorption, the higher the voidage. Some rocks are
adversely affected in their strength when water enters the material and softens it. Laterite
is a good example.
The test is performed by immersing in distilled water a sample (2-3 kg) of
aggregates enclosed in a wire-mesh container for 24 hours. The container with the
aggregates is weighed when immersed in water, thus giving its buoyant weigh (W
1
). The
material is then surface dried and weighed in air, giving the saturated weight (W
2
).
Thereafter the material is oven dried at a temperature 100-110 C and the dry weight
determined (W
3
).
The percentage of water absorption =100* [(W
2
-W
3
)/W
3
]
Bulk specific gravity of aggregates= Dry weight of aggregates/Volume of
aggregates. =W
3
/Volume of displaced water. =W
3
/ (W
2
-W
1
), since Sp. Gravity of water
=1
It is seen that bulk specific gravity of aggregates varies from 1.9 to 3.0. Those with
values above 2.5 are generally good. Aggregates having water absorption above 1.0 per
cent are unsatisfactory, for use in wearing courses while those having water absorption
over 2.0 per cent are considered unsatisfactory for use in base courses.
II.10.3.3. Aggregate Impact Test.
This is a test designed to evaluate the resistance of an aggregate to sudden impact. Since
vehicle loads cause impact, this test gives an indication of the performance of aggregates
to resist crushing under impact.
21
The test consists of subjecting a specimen of aggregates (passing 12.5 mm sieve
and retained on 10 mm sieve) filled into a cylindrical mould 10.2 cm internal dia and 5
cm height. The impact is provided by dropping a hammer of weight 13.5-14.0 kg through
a height of 380 mm. Aggregate passing fully through 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10
mm sieve are filled in the cylindrical measure in three layers, each layer being given 25
strokes with a rod. The sample is then transferred to the cup of the aggregate impact
testing machine and tapped 25 times with the rod.
After subjecting the specimen to 15 blows through the hummer, the crushed
aggregate is sieved on 2.36 mm sieve. The weight of materials passing through this sieve
expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sample gives the aggregate impact
value.
The test is conducted in dry state as well as in wet state. For low-grade aggregates,
a maximum of 50 per cent wet aggregate impact value is allowed when used in sub-base.
When used as base course, the limit is 40 per cent. For surfacing courses, the limit is 30
per cent.
II.10.3.4. Los Angeles Abrasion Test.
This is a very popular test for measuring the abrasion resistance of aggregates. The top
layers of a pavement get abraded due to the movement of tyres. A material which is
highly abrasion resistant has a long life.
The machine consists of a circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and length
500 mm mounted on a horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated. An abrasive charge
consisting of cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm dia. and weight 390-445 gm is placed in
the cylinder along with the aggregates. The weight and number of the abrasive spheres
varies according to the grading of the sample. The quantity of aggregates to be used
depends upon the gradation and is 5-10 kg. The cylinder is rotated at a speed of 30-33
revolutions per minute; for 500-1000 revolutions (depending upon the material). After the
specified revolutions, the material passing through 1.7 mm size sieve is separated. The
weight of this material (fines) expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the sample
is known as the Los Angeles Abrasion Value. For WBM base course, a maximum value
of 40 per cent is allowed. For bituminous courses, a maximum of 30 to 35 per cent is
specified.
22
CHAPTER III. METHOLOGY and EXPERMENTS DONE
SOIL MECHANICS LABORATORY
III. 1. STANDARD COMPACTION TEST (Proctor test method)
In soil mechanics laboratory, I carried out experiments on two different samples: Laterite
of Karongi mountain and volcanic ash of Nkamira that deal with the properties of soil
and their behavior under stress. Some experiments are: Standard compaction test
(Proctor), Atterbarg Limits, Sieve Analysis, and California Bearing Ratio.
III. 1. 0. Definition:
Compaction proctor is the method of compaction where compactive amount of
mechanical energy is applied to the soil mass. We applied the tamping method using
standard hummer developed by R.R Proctor in 1933 hence the origin of name the
Proctor test.
III. 1. 1. Brief description
In laboratory, we determined the following data:
M2 (weight of mould +base +compacted soil in grams)
M1 (weight of mould +base in grams)
III. 1. 2. Objective
This test is done to determine the quantity of water to be added in the sample for field
compaction of sub grade soil and resulting density expected. (Optimum moisture content
and maximum dry density)
Also here the standard proctor compaction method was used, and is commonly applied
where low density is required the more especially in laboratories.
III. 1. 3. Apparatus
Mould
Standard hammer
Straight tape
Scoop
Electronic balance
Measuring cylinder for water
Plate for mixing
Sieves
23
Shaker machine
Specimen. Soil (4000g) and water (2% of the soil sample)
III. 1.4. Procedures
1. We measured 4000g of dry soil and poured it in a mixing plate.
2. We determined the weight of the soil sample as well as the weight of the
compaction mould with its base and the collar by the use of electronic balance and
masses were recorded.
3. We computed the initial water (2 % of soil) to be added in the sample.
4. We measured out the water, then, added it in the soil and then mixed it thoroughly
into soil by hands until soil got a uniform color.
5. We assembled the compaction mould and the color plate as well to the base; we
placed the wet soil into the mould in three layers and compacted with 25 blows
each layer. The blows were applied at a uniform rate not exceeding 1.5 seconds
per blow.
6. The soil was completely filled into the cylinder and the last compacted layer had
to exceed up to the collar at least 6mm if not, the sample was not sufficiently
compacted and had to be repeated.
7. After compaction, we removed the collar plate and trimmed off the soil using the
straight edge until the top of the mould and leveled accurately. Where necessary,
the gaps left were filled with some soil.
8. We weighed the compacted sample while it was still in the mould with the base,
then we recorded the mass. We also determined the weight of the wet sample by
subtracting the weight of the mould and base.
9. We removed the soil from the mould and took the sample for moisture content,
that is, from both top and the bottom of the sample. We put them in different
moisture cans and put them in the oven for 24 hours.
10. We placed soil specimen in large tray and broke up the soil until it appeared
visually as if it would pass through 4 sieve (75mm), we added 2% more water of
the original mass of sample, and remixed as in steps 4, repeated the steps 5 up to
9. Based on the wet mass a peak value was reached followed by lesser compacted
soil masses.
24
III.1.5. Data analysis
i. We calculated the moisture content of each compacted soil specimen by
computing the average of the five moisture contents.
ii. We computed the wet density in grams per cubic cm of the compacted soil
sample by dividing the wet mass by the volume of the mould used.
iii. We computed the dry density using the wet density and the water content
determined in step 1, using the following formula :
d= p/1+w
Where wet density in grams per cubic cm
W moisture content in percent divided by 100.
iv. We plotted the dry density values on Y- axis and the moistures on X- axis.
Then using excel, we draw a smooth curve connecting the plotted points as the
graph shows.
v. We identified and reported the optimum moisture content and the maximum
dry density on the data sheet, by the use of standard proctor test method.

25
Data and results
For Laterite of Karongi mountain
Test number 2 % 4% 6% 8% 10%
Wt of mould + base +
compacted soil (m2)
5726 5785.3 5806.5 5754.2 5712.7
Wt of mould +base (m1) g 3604 3604 3604 3604 3604
Wt of compacted soil (m2-m1) 2122 2181.3 2202.5 2150.2 2108.7
Bulk density =(m2-m1)/1000
Mg/m3
2.122 2.1813 2.2025 2.1502 2.1087
Moisture content container no 71 78 48 73 40
Wt of wet soil +container (m4)
g
94.4 97.9 115.2 116.7 116.2
Wt of dry soil +container (m5)
g
94.1 95.7 110.8 111.6 110.1
Wt of container (m3) g 69.6 68.4 70.2 67.4 70.2
Wt of moisture (m4-m5) g 0.3 2.2 4.4 5.1 6.1
Wt of dry soil (m5-m3) g 24.5 27.3 40.6 44.2 39.9
Moisture content
W=[(m4-m5)/ (m5-m3)]*100
7.65 8.06 10.84 11.54 15.3
Dry density pd =100p/100+w
Mg/m3
1971 2019 1987 1928 1829
Table III.1 : Proctor data of Karongi mountain (laterite)

26
Moisture
Dry
density
content(%)
Kg/m
3

5.2

1931
8.1 2019
10.8 1987
12.5 1928
15.3 1829

Maximum Dry Density(MDD)=2020 Kg/m3

Optimum Moisture
Content(OMC)8.8%

Fig.III.1. Proctor curve of Karongi mountain soil(laterite)

27
For volcanic ash of Nkamira
Test number 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16%
Wt of mould +
base +
compacted soil
(m
2
) g
5007.2 5034.6 5069.2 5106.7 5189.9 5245.8 5323.2 5364.9
Wt of mould +
base (m
1
) g
3604 3604 3604 3604 3604 3604 3604 3604
Wt of
compacted soil
(m
2
-m
1
) g
1403.2 1430.6 1465.2 1502.7 1585.9 1641.8 1719.2 1760.9
Bulk density
=
(m
2
-m
1
)/1000
Mg/m
3

1.4032 1.4306 1.4652 1.5027 1.5859 1.6418 1.7192 1.7609
Moisture
content
container no.
36 42 47 45 51 57 74 28
Wt of wet soil
+
container(m
4
)

g
92.9 88.5 92.1 97.8 92.2 95 103.9 127.1
Wt of dry soil
+ container
(m
5
)

g
91.4 86.9 89.7 94.6 89.0 91.2 98.0 116.6
Wt of
container (m
3
)

g
71.3 69.3 69.1 70.7 68.9 69.9 69.4 69.9
Wt of moisture
(m
4
-m
5
) g
1.5 1.6 2.4 3.2 3.2 3.8 5.9 10.5
Wt of dry soil
(m
5
-m
3
) g
20.1 17.6 20.6 23.9 20.1 21.3 28.6 46.7
Moisture
content w=
(m
4
-m
5
)/ (m
5
-
m
3
)*100 %
7.5 9.1 11.65 13.4 16 18 20.63 22.5
Dry density
pd=
100p/100+w
Mg/m
3

1305 1311 1312 1325 1367 1391 1425 1437.5
Table.III. 2 : Proctor data of Nkamira (Volcanic ash)

28

Moisture
Dry
density

content (%) Kg/m
3

16

1367
20.6 1425
22.5 1437
26.5 1391

Maximum Dry Density(MDD)=1438 Kg/m3
Optimum Moisture Content(OMC)22.0%
Fig.III.2. proctor curve of Nkamira volcanic ash

III. 2. ATTERBERG LIMITS
III.2.0. Aim of the experiment
This experiment is performed to determine the plastic and liquid limits of a fine grained
soil.
III.2.1 Brief description
In engineering practice, the liquid and plastic limits are commonly used:
- The atterberg limits are based on the moisture of soil
- The plastic limits is the moisture content that defines where the soil changes from
a plastic to viscous fluid states.
- Atterberg limits are also used to classify a fine grained soil according to the
unified soil classification syste.

29
III.2.2. LIQUID LIMIT
III.2.2.0. Definition
The liquid limit is defined as the water content, in percent at which a paste of soil in a
standard cup by a groove of standard dimensions will flow together at the box of the
groove for a distance of 13mm, when subject to 25 blows from the cup being dropped
10mm in standard liquid limit apparatus operated at a rate of two flows per second.
III.2.2.1. Objective
To determine the liquid limit of a soil sample.
III.2.2.2. Equipments
- Casagrande apparatus
- Groove tool
- Spatula
- Drying oven (electrical oven)
- Balance
- Glass plate
- Wash bottle +distilled water
- 425m sieve (I.S sieve)
- Mixing dishes
III.2.2.3. Procedures
- The sample of air dried soil from thoroughly mixed portion of material passing
425m I.S sieve is to be obtained.
- Distilled water is mixed to the soil thus obtained in a mixing disc to form uniform
paste. The paste shall have a consistency that would require 30 to 35 drops of cup
to cause closer of standard groove for sufficient length.
- A portion of the paste is placed in the cup of liquid limit device (casagrande
apparatus) and spread into portion with few strokes of spatula.
- Trim it to a depth of 1cm at the point of maximum thickness and return excess of
soil to the dish.
- The soil in the cup shall be divided by the firm strokes of the grooving tool along
the diameter through the center line of the can follower so that clean sharp groove
of proper dimensions is formed.
30
- Lift and drop the cup by turning crank at the rate of 2 revolutions per second until
the two halves of soil cone in contact each other for a length of about 10mm by
flow only.
- The number of blows required to cause the groove chose for about 10mm shall be
recorded.
- A representative portion of soil is taken from the cup water content determination.
- The test was repeated with different moisture content at least three more times for
blows between 10 and 40.
III.2.2.4. Data analysis
Liquid limit test No 1 2 3
No. of blows 41 29 19
No. of container (g) 48 45 36
Wt. of wet soil +container (g) 99 93.9 96.6
Wt. of dry soil +container (g) 94.1 89.7 91.7
Wt. of container (g) 70.2 70.7 70.9
Wt. of moisture (g) 4.9 4.2 4.9
Wt. of dry soil (g) 23.9 19 20.8
Moisture content % 20.5% 22.1% 23.56%
Table.III. 3 : Liquid limit of Karongi mountain (laterite)

31
Blows Liquid
limit
41 20.5
29 22.1
19 23.6

LL=22.8%
PL=13.9%
PI =8.9%
Fig.III.3. Liquid limit graph of Karongi mountrain soil(laterite)

III.2.3. PLASTIC LIMIT TEST
III.2.3.0. Definition:
The plastic limit of soil is defined as the water content at which the soil begins to crumble
when rolled into a thread 3mm in diameter.
The plastic limit test is used to determine the lowest moisture content at which the soil
behaves plastically it is carried out only on the soil fraction passing sieve number 40 i.e
(425m) and is usually performed in the conjunction with the liquid limit test.
III.2.3.2. Equipments
- Surface for rolling the thread such as a glass or plastic plate or smooth lineleneum
table top
- Short metal rod of 3mm diameter
- Spatula with a blade about 10cm long and about 2cm wide
- Specimen container (moisture can) for determination of water content.
- Balance sensitive to 0.01g
32
- Hair dryer and drying oven.
- Take sample thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing through 425m I.S
sieve obtained in accordance with I.S 2720
- Mix it thoroughly with distilled water in the evaporating dish (glass plate) until
the soil mass becomes plastic enough to be easily moulded with fingers.
- Allow it to season for sufficient time (24hrs) to allow water to penetrate
throughout the soil mass.
- Take small sample of this plastic soil mass and roll it between fingers and glass
plate with just sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform
diameter throughout its length. The rate of rolling shall be between 60 and 90
strokes per minutes.
- Continue rolling until you get a thread of 3mm diameter
- Kneel the soil together to a uniform mass and re-roll.
- Continue the pieces of the crumbled thread in air tight container for moisture
content determination.
- Repeat the test to at least 3 times.
- Take the average of the results calculated to the nearest whole number.
III.2.3.4. Data presentations
PLASTIC LIMIT (PL)
Container No 39
Mass of wet soil +container (m
2
) 86.8
Mass of container (m
1
) 77.8
Mass of dry soil +container (m
3
) 85.7
Mass of dry soil (m
3
-m
1
) 7.9
Mass of moisture (m
2
-m
3
) 1.1
Moisture content W=[(m
2
-m
3
)/ (m
3
-m
1
)] * 100 13.9 %
Table .III.4 : Plastic limit data of Karongi mountain (laterite)

33
III.2.3.5. Computation
The plastic limit (PL) is reported as the above of two similar values. If it is not
possible to obtain a plastic limit in the plastic limit test, the soil is reported as non-
plastic. This also applies if PLLL. Errors in computing the liquid limit or plastic
limit can be detected by plotting the point (LL, PL) on the plasticity chart. This
should fall under the U-line.
Plasticity index of the sample =Liquid Plastic limit
Plasticity index =22.80-13.9 =8.9%
III.3. SIEVE ANALYSIS
III.3.0. Introduction
The desired sand for a particular work should be selected by Engineering charge of
work site considering three main aspects: quality, availability and cost; because of a
good sand quality consumes less cement and makes the structure strong and durable
keeping maintenance cost low.
Sieve analysis should be made and the fineness modulus of sand should be found out.
It is to be seen whether the sand contains grains of different grades to make a good
mortar. It is also a great important to find whether the sand can be improved by
screening out or by adding the fine or coarse particles of sand.
III.3.1. Objective
The objective of this experiment is to determine the sand size and to know in which
category the sand can be classified.
III.3.2. Apparatus
In sieve analysis of sand we can use different apparatus such as:
1. Sieves: for taking different sizes of sand according to the size of the sieve.
2. Plat form balance: for measuring the sample of the sand.
3. Tray: for taking the sample from the scoop.
4. Shake Machine: for shaking the sand which is in the sieve in order to pass through
them.
5. Scoop: for carrying the sample which is going to be tested.
6. Timer/watch: for regulating the required time to be used (10 minutes)

34
III.3.3. Setting of sieves
In setting of sieves; you can use upward or downward method:
Upward Downward
Pan 20.0mm
75m 14.0mm
150m 10.0mm
300m 4.75mm
425m 2.36mm
600m 1.18mm
1.18mm 600m
2.36mm 425m
4.75mm 300m
10.0mm 150m
14.0mm 75m
220.0mm Pan

III.3.4. Procedures
1. Preparation of the sample by putting it in the oven leaves it for 24 hours at 105
o
C
to 110
o
C.
2. Setting the sieves.
3. Fitting the sieve set to the shaken machine.
4. Weighing a certain quantity of sand sample.
5. Purring the sample at the top sieve and fix the top cover.
6. Starting the shaker machine (5 minutes for electrical machine and 10 minutes for
hand operated machine).
7. Weighing each quantity of the sand retained on each sieve.

35
III.3.5. Results
By taking 100g of the sample before testing; the results are reported in the common
table as following:
Sample of laterite (of Karongi mountain)
Test Sieve Mass retained Percentage
retained
Percentage passing
20.0mm - - -
14.0mm - - -
10.0mm - - 100
4.75mm 6.8g 6.8g 93.2g
2.36mm 8.5g 8.5g 84.7g
1.18mm 4.9g 4.9g 79.8g
600m 4.0g 4.0g 75.8g
425m 3.3g 3.3g 72.5g
300m 6.1g 6.1g 66.4g
150m 18.1g 18.1g 48.3g
75m 10.6g 10.6g 37.7g
Table.III. 5 : Sieve analysis data of Karongi mountain (laterite)

36

Sieve
size %Passing
Mm
14 100

10 100
4.75 93.2
2.36 84.7
1.18 79.8
0.6 75.8
0.425 72.5
0.3 66.4
0.15 48.3
0.075 37.7

Fig.III.4. Sieve graph of Karongi mountain soil(laterite)

Sample of volcanic ash of Nkamira
Test Sieve Mass retained Percentage
retained
Percentage passing
20.0mm - - -
14.0mm - - -
10.0mm - - 100 g
4.75mm 1.3 g 1.3 g 98.7 g
2.36mm 4.4 g 4.4 g 94.3 g
1.18mm 3.7 g 3.7 g 90.6 g
600m 3.4 g 3.4 g 87.2 g
425m 2.6 g 2.6 g 84.6 g
300m 7.3 g 7.3 g 77.3 g
150m 25.1 g 25.1 g 52.2 g
75m 21.4 g 21.4 g 30.8 g
Table.III. 6 : Sieve analysis data of Nkamira (volcanic ash)

37

Sieve
size %Passing

Mm
14 100
10 100
4.75 98.7
2.36 94.3
1.18 90.6
0.6 87.2
0.425 84.6
0.3 77.3
0.15 52.2
0.075 30.8

Fig.III.5.Sieve graph of Nkamira volcanic ash

III.4. THE CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR)
III.4.0. Definition:
It is the ratio of the force per unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with standard
circular piston at the rate of 25mm/min. to that required for corresponding penetration
of a standard material.
CBR=[Test load/Standard load]*100.
III.4.1. Scope
The California Bearing Ratio test is penetration test meant for the evaluation of sub grade
strength for roads and pavements. The results obtained by these tests are used with the
empirical curves or charts to determine the thickness of pavement and of its component
layers. This is the most widely used method for the design of flexible pavement.

38
III.4.2. Apparatus
- Moulds
- Extension collar
- Perforated base plate
- Spacer disk
- Rammer
- Swell plate
- Tripod support
- Two dial indicators
- Surcharge weight
- Penetration piston
- Loading device
- Soaking tank
- Drying oven
- Mixing pans
- Spoons
- Straightedge
- Filter paper
- Balance
III.4.3. Sample
Prepare a sample in accordance with AASHTO 99.Material passing the 50mm sieve and
retained on the 19mm sieve shall be replaced with material passing 19mm and on the
4.75mm. Select a representative portion weighing approximately (4 kg) for moisture
density test and divide the remainder of the sample to obtain 3 representative portions.
III.4.4. Procedures
1. Normally 3 specimens must be compacted so that their compacted densities range.
2. Clamp the mould to the base plate, attach the extension collar and weigh to the
nearest 5 gr. Insert the spacer disk into the mould and place a coarse filter paper
on top of the disk.
3. Mix each of the three (4kg) portions prepared with sufficient water to obtain the
optimum moisture content determined.
39
4. Compact one of the portions of soil-water mixture into the mould in three equal
layers to give a total compacted depth of about (127mm) compacting each layer
with the lowest selected number of blows in order to give a compacted density of
95 percent or less of the maximum density.
5. Determine the moisture content of the material being compacted at the beginning
and end of the compaction procedure. Each moisture sample shall weigh at least
100g for fine grained soils and 500g for coarse grained soils.
6. Remove the extension collar, and using a straightedge, trim the compacted soil
even with the off the mould. Surface irregularities should be patched with small
sized material. Removed the spacer disk, place a coarse filter paper on the
perforated base plate, invert the mould and compacted soil and place on the filter
paper so the compacted soil is in contact with the filter paper. Clamp the
perforated base plate to the mould and attach the collar. Weigh the mould and
specimen to the nearest 5gr.
7. Compact the other two (4kg) portions in accordance with the procedure in the step
4 through steps 6 except that an intermediate number of blows per layer should be
used to compact the second specimen and the highest number of blows per layer
shall be used to compact the third specimen.
III.4.5. Soaking
Place the swell plate with adjustable stem on the soil sample in the mould and apply
sufficient annular weights to procedure an intensity of loading equal to the mass of
the sub base and base courses and surfacing above the tested material.
Place the tripod with dial indicator on top of the mould and make an initial dial
reading. Immerse the mould in water to allow free access of water to top and bottom
of the specimen.
During soaking, maintain the water level in the mould and the soaking tank
approximately (25.4mm) above the top of the specimen. Soak the specimen 96 hrs
(4days).
At the end of the 96hrs make a final dial reading on the soaked specimen and
calculate the swell as a percentage of the initial sample length:
Percent swell ={change in length in during soaking/4.584in}*100.
40
Remove the specimens from the soaking tank, pour the water off the top and to drain
down ward for 15min. Care shall be taken not to disturb the surface of the specimens
during removal of the water. After draining, remove the surcharge weights and
perforated plate.
III.4.6. Penetration test
Application of surcharge: Place a surcharge of annual and slotted weights on the
specimens equal to the used during soaking. To prevent displacement of soft
materials into the hole of the surcharge weights, seat the penetration piston after one
surcharge weight has been placed on the specimen. After seating the penetration
piston the remainder of the surcharge weights shall then be place around the piston.

DETERMINATION OF PRESENT MOISTURE CONTENT OF SOIL FOR
CBR OF KARONGI MOUNTAIN (laterite)
Container number 52
Weight of container m
1
(g) 69.3
Weight of wet soil +container m
2
(g) 152.5
Weight of dry soil +container m
3
(g) 148.6
Weight of dry soil=m
3
-m
1
(g) 79.3
Weight of moisture=m
2
-m
3
(g) 3.9
Moisture content (%) w=[(m
2
-m
3
)/(m
3
-m
1
)]*100 4.9
Table.III. 7 : Determination of moisture content presents in Karongi mountain

41
Take Optimum moisture content determined by proctor test is 8..8%. Present moisture
content of soil is 4.9%.
The quantity of water to be added is calculated as follow: 8.8%-4.9%=3.9% of soil for
CBR test.
Take 4kg of soil and weight of water to be added=3.9%*4000g=156 ml. This is for
Karongi mountain soil (laterite).
For Nkamira soil (volcanic ash), take Optimum moisture content determined by proctor
test is 22%. Present moisture content of soil is 4.5%.
The quantity of water to be added is calculated as follow: 22%-4.5%=17.5% of 4kg of
soil for CBR test.
Take 4kg of soil and weight of water to be added=17.5%*4000g=700 ml.

RESULTS AND DATA
For laterite of Karongi:
Weight of mould +base plate=5032.7gr
Weight of mould +base plate +wet soil=7737.3gr
Expension=0.05mm
Dry density=2020kg/m
3

Optimum moisture content=8.8%

For volcanic ash:
Weight of mould +base plate=5022.5g
Weight of mould +base plate +soil=7115.7g
Expension=0.045 mm
Dry density=1438kg/m
3
Optimum moisture content=22%

42
Curing (laterite) of Karongi mountain soil
Penetration of plunger (mm) Division*0.01
0.25 0.03
0.50 0.03
0.75 0.05
1.00 0.07
1.25 0.09
1.50 0.11
1.75 0.14
2.00 0.16
2.25 0.18
2.50 0.21
2.75 0.23
3.00 0.25
3.25 0.27
3.50 0.29
3.75 0.31
4.00 0.33
4.25 0.34
4.50 0.36
4.75 0.38
5.00 0.40
5.25 0.41
5.50 0.43
5.75 0.44
6.00 0.45
6.25 0.48
6.50 0.49
6.75 0.51
7.00 0.52
7.25 0.54
7.50 0.55
Table.III. 8 : Curing of CBR penetration vs division for Karongi mountain soil (laterite)

43
Penetration of plunger (mm) Force on plunger (Top) KNmm
0.25 0.71
0.50 0.71
0.75 1.19
1.00 1.67
1.25 2.14
1.50 2.62
1.75 3.33
2.00 3.81
2.25 4.29
2.50 5.00
2.75 5.48
3.00 5.95
3.25 6.43
3.50 6.90
3.75 7.38
4.00 7.86
4.25 8.10
4.50 8.57
4.75 9.05
5.00 9.52
5.25 9.76
5.50 10.23
5.75 10.47
6.00 10.70
6.25 11.40
6.50 11.63
6.75 12.09
7.00 12.33
7.25 12.79
7.50 13.02
Table 9 : Curing of CBR loads for Karongi mountain soil (laterite)

44
Penetration Force(KN)
(mm)

0.00
0

0.25 0.71
0.50 0.71
0.75 1.19
1.00 1.67
1.25 2.14
1.50 2.62
1.75 3.33
2.00 3.81
2.25 4.29
2.50 5
2.75 5.48
3.00 5.95
3.25 6.43
3.50 6.9
3.75 7.38
4.00 7.86
4.25 8.1
4.50 8.57
4.75 9.05
5.00 9.52
5.25 9.76
5.50 10.23
5.75 10.47
6.00 10.7
6.25 11.4
6.50 11.63
6.75 12.09
7.00 12.33
7.25 12.79
7.50 13.02

Fig.III.6. Curing CBR value for Karongi mountain soil(laterite)

45
Soaking(laterite) of Karongi mountain soil
0.25 0.03
0.50 0.05
0.75 0.08
1.00 0.10
1.25 0.13
1.50 0.15
1.75 0.18
2.00 0.20
2.25 0.22
2.50 0.25
2.75 0.27
3.00 0.29
3.25 0.30
3.50 0.32
3.75 0.34
4.00 0.36
4.25 0.37
4.50 0.39
4.75 0.40
5.00 0.42
5.25 0.43
5.50 0.45
5.75 0.46
6.00 0.47
6.25 0.49
6.50 0.50
6.75 0.52
7.00 0.53
7.25 0.54
7.50 0.55
Table.III. 10 : Soaking of CBR penetration vs division for karongi mountain soil

46
0.25 0.71
0.50 1.19
0.75 1.90
1.00 2.38
1.25 3.10
1.50 3.57
1.75 4.29
2.00 4.76
2.25 5.24
2.50 5.95
2.75 6.43
3.00 6.90
3.25 7.14
3.50 7.62
3.75 8.10
4.00 8.57
4.25 8.81
4.50 9.29
4.75 9.52
5.00 10.00
5.25 10.23
5.50 10.70
5.75 10.93
6.00 11.16
6.25 11.63
6.50 11.86
6.75 12.33
7.00 12.56
7.25 12.79
7.50 13.02
Table.III. 11 : Soaking of CBR loads for Karongi mountain soil (laterite)

47
(mm)

0.00 0
0.25 0.71
0.50 1.19
0.75 1.9
1.00 2.38
1.25 3.1
1.50 3.57
1.75 4.29
2.00 4.76
2.25 5.24
2.50 5.95
2.75 6.43
3.00 6.9
3.25 7.12
3.50 7.62
3.75 8.1
4.00 8.57
4.25 8.81
4.50 9.29
4.75 9.52
5.00 10
5.25 10.23
5.50 10.7
5.75 10.93
6.00 11.16
6.25 11.63
6.50 11.86
6.75 12.33
7.00 12.56
7.25 12.79
7.50 13.02

Fig.III.7. Soaking CBR value for Karongi mountain soil(laterite)

48
CURING (for volcanic ash) of Nkamira
0.25 0.01
0.50 0.02
0.75 0.04
1.00 0.06
1.25 0.08
1.50 0.12
1.75 0.15
2.00 0.19
2.25 0.22
2.50 0.27
2.75 0.29
3.00 0.34
3.25 0.37
3.50 0.41
3.75 0.45
4.00 0.48
4.25 0.51
4.50 0.54
4.75 0.57
5.00 0.60
5.25 0.63
5.50 0.66
5.75 0.68
6.00 0.71
6.25 0.74
6.50 0.76
6.75 0.78
7.00 0.81
7.25 0.83
7.50 0.86
Table.III. 12 : curing of CBR penetration vs division for Nkamira volcanic ash

49
0.25 0.24
0.50 0.48
0.75 0.95
1.00 1.43
1.25 1.90
1.50 2.86
1.75 3.57
2.00 4.52
2.25 5.24
2.50 6.43
2.75 6.90
3.00 8.10
3.25 8.81
3.50 9.76
3.75 10.70
4.00 11.40
4.25 12.09
4.50 12.79
4.75 13.49
5.00 14.19
5.25 14.88
5.50 15.58
5.75 16.05
6.00 16.74
6.25 17.44
6.50 17.91
6.75 18.37
7.00 19.07
7.25 19.53
7.50 20.24
Table.III. 13 : Curing of CBR loads for Nkamira volcanic ash

50

Penetration Force (kN)
(mm)

0.00 0
0.25 0.24

0.50 0.48
0.75 0.95
1.00 1.43
1.25 1.9
1.50 2.86
1.75 3.57
2.00 4.52
2.25 5.24
2.50 6.43
2.75 6.9
3.00 8.1
3.25 8.81
3.50 9.76
3.75 10.7
4.00 11.4
4.25 12.09
4.50 12.79
4.75 13.49
5.00 14.19
5.25 14.88
5.50 15.58
5.75 16.05
6.00 16.74
6.25 17.44
6.50 17.91
6.75 18.37
7.00 19.07
7.25 19.53
7.50 20.24

Fig.III.8. Curing CBR value of Nkamira volcanic ash
51
Soaking (volcanic ash) of Nkamira
0.25 0.02
0.50 0.04
0.75 0.07
1.00 0.09
1.25 0.12
1.50 0.16
1.75 0.19
2.00 0.23
2.25 0.27
2.50 0.31
2.75 0.34
3.00 0.38
3.25 0.41
3.50 0.45
3.75 0.48
4.00 0.51
4.25 0.54
4.50 0.57
4.75 0.60
5.00 0.63
5.25 0.65
5.50 0.68
5.75 0.70
6.00 0.73
6.25 0.75
6.50 0.77
6.75 0.79
7.00 0.81
7.25 0.83
7.50 0.86
Table.III. 14 : Soaking of CBR penetration vs division for Nkamira volcanic ash

52
0.25 0.48
0.50 0.95
0.75 1.67
1.00 2.14
1.25 2.86
1.50 3.81
1.75 4.52
2.00 5.48
2.25 6.43
2.50 7.38
2.75 8.10
3.00 9.05
3.25 9.76
3.50 10.70
3.75 11.40
4.00 12.09
4.25 12.79
4.50 13.49
4.75 14.19
5.00 14.88
5.25 15.35
5.50 16.05
5.75 16.51
6.00 17.21
6.25 17.67
6.50 18.14
6.75 18.60
7.00 19.07
7.25 19.53
7.50 20.24
Table.III. 15 : Soaking of CBR loads for Nkamira volcanic ash

53

(mm)

0.00 0
0.25 0.48

0.50 0.95
0.75 1.67
1.00 2.14
1.25 2.86
1.50 3.81
1.75 4.52
2.00 5.48
2.25 6.43
2.50 7.38
2.75 8.1
3.00 9.05
3.25 9.76
3.50 10.7
3.75 11.4
4.00 12.09
4.25 12.79
4.50 13.49
4.75 14.19
5.00 14.88
5.25 15.35
5.50 16.05
5.75 16.51
6.00 17.21
6.25 17.67
6.50 18.14
6.75 18.6
7.00 19.07
7.25 19.53
7.50 20.24
Fig.III.9.Soaking CBR value of Nkamira volcanic ash

54
III.5. HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING LABORATORY
In the highway and transportation Laboratory, I carried out experiments on pavement
construction materials from different sources in Rwanda (Gahara, Bugesera, Giti
cyìnyoni, Karongi, Mukungwa, Gatumba and Musanze) that deal with
Transportation Engineering. Some of these experiments are:
- Los Angeles Abrasion Test
- Aggregate Impact Test
- Specific Gravity and Water Absorption
- Bulk Density
III.5.1. Los Angeles Abrasion Test
Resistance to abrasion of small size coarse aggregate by use of the Los Angeles
machine or Hardness to resist the abrasion effect of traffic over a long period of time.
III.5.1.1. Scope
This method covers a procedure for testing sizes of aggregate smaller than 37.5mm for
resistance to abrasion.
Resistance to abrasion is the measure of hardness of aggregate under action of traffic
resistance to relative movement and rubbing of aggregate with each other.
III.5.1.3. Apparatus
- Los Angeles Abrasion machine equipped with a counter, hallow steel cylinder
close at both ends with inside diameter of 7115mm and inside length of
5085mm.
- Sieve conforming to the specifications for wire cloth sieve for testing purposes.
- Abrasion charges (Sphere)
- Balance or scale accurate within 0.1 percent of test load over a range required for
this test.
- Oven capable of maintaining a uniform temperature of 1105
o
C

55
III.5.1.4. Abrasion Charges
These consist of steel sphere averaging approximately 46.8mm in diameter and each
weighing between 390 and 450g. The abrasion charge, depending upon the grading of the
test sample as described, shall be as follows:
GRADING No OF SPHERE MASS OF CHARGE
A 12 500025
B 11 458425
C 8 333020
D 6 250015

III.5.1.5 Test sample
Test sample shall consist of clean aggregate representative of material to be tested. If the
aggregate representative of material is dirty or coated, shall be washed until clean, then
dried to constant mass, separated to individual size fraction and recombined to the
grading of the above table most nearly corresponding to the range of size in the
aggregates as furnishes for work.
The mass of sample prior to the test shall be recorded to the nearest 5g.

III.5.1.6. Grading of test samples
SIEVE SIZE MASS OF INDICATED SIZE GRADING (g)
PASSING
(mm)
RETAINED
(mm)
A B C D
37.5 25.0 125025

25.0 19.0 125025

19.O 12.5 125025 250010

12.5 9.5 125025 250010

9.5 6.3
250010

6.3 4.75
250010

4.75 2.36
500010
TOTAL
500010 500010 500010 500010

56
III.5.1.7. Procedure
- Test the sample and abrasive charge shall be placed in Los Angeles abrasive
testing machine rotated at speed of 30 to 33 rev. per min. for 500 revolutions.
- After the prescribed number of revolutions the material shall be discharged from
the machine and preliminary separation of the sample made on a 4.75mm B.S.
Sieve.
- The finer portion shall be sieved on a 1.7mm sieve then the material coarser than
a 1.7mm sieve shall be washed, dried to a constant mass and weighed to the
nearest 5g
III.5.1.8. Calculation
The Los Angeles Value (L.A.A.V) =(M
o
-M
R1.7mm
)/M
o*
100
Where: M
o
is the original mass
M
R1.7mm
is the final mass retained on the sieve of 1.7mm
So, as I carried out Los Angeles Test on different pavement construction materials from
different source like: GAHARA (quartzite); BUGESERA (quartzite); GITI CYÌNYONI
(quartzite); KARONGI (dolerite); MUKUNGWA (basalt); GATUMBA (dolerite);
MUSANZE (amphibolites). I got different Los Angeles Value.
L.A.A.V of GAHARA
M
o
=5000g
M
R1.7mm
=4154.3g
Then, L.A.A.V=[(5000-4154.3)/5000]*100=16.9%
The Los Angeles Value is 16.9%
L.A.A.V of BUGESERA
M
o
=5000g
M
R1.7mm
=3789.1g
Then, L.A.A.V=[(5000-3789.1)/5000]*100=24.2%

57
L.A.A.V of GITI CYÌNYONI
M
o
=5000g
M
R1.7mm
=3494.2g
Then, L.A.A.V=[(5000-3494.2)/5000]*100=30%
The Los Angeles Value is 30%
L.A.A.V of KARONGI
M
o
=5000g
M
R1.7mm
=4104.2g
Then, L.A.A.V=[(5000-4104.2)/5000]*100=17.9%
L.A.A.V of MUKUNGWA
M
o
=5000g
M
R1.7mm
=3722.1g
Then, L.A.A.V=[(5000-3722.1)/5000]*100=25.5%
L.A.A.V of GATUMBA
M
o
=5000g
M
R1.7mm
=4087.4g
Then, L.A.A.V=[(5000-4087.4)/5000]*100=18.25%
L.A.A.V of MUSANZE
M
o
=5000g
M
R1.7mm
=3399.4g
Then, L.A.A.V=[(5000-3399.4)/5000]*100=32%
The Los Angeles Value is 32%

58
III.5.2. Aggregate Impact Test
Toughness of an aggregate which is its resistance to failure by impact and is as curtained
in the laboratory by the aggregate impact test.
III.5.2.1. Scope
This method covers a procedure for testing sizes of aggregate smaller than 12.5mm for
resistance of an aggregate to failure by impact.
Resistance of an aggregate to failure by impact defined as the percentage fines produced
an application of standard impact load; the aggregate impact value gives a relative
measure of the resistance to impact.
- Impact test machine
- Sieves conforming to the specifications for wire cloth sieves for testing purposes
- Balance or scale accurate within 0.1 percent of test load over a range required for
this test.
- Oven capable of maintaining a uniform temperature of 1105
o
C
- Stroke of a 10mm diameter metal rod 23cm long rounded at one end
- Steel cup at the base of the impact testing machine.
III.5.2.4. Preparation of test sample
- The material for the standard test shall consist of aggregate passing 14.0mm and
retained on 10.0mm BS test sieve.
- For smaller sizes the aggregate shall be prepared in the manner using the
appropriate sieves.
- The aggregate shall be tested in a surface-dry condition. If dried by heating the
period of drying shall not exceed 4hours the temperature shall not exceed 110
o
C
and the sample shall be cooled to room temperature before testing.
- The quality of aggregate sieved out shall be sufficient for two tests.
- The measure shall be filled about 1/3 with aggregate with means of scoop;
discharged from a height not exceeding 50mm above the top of container.
59
- The aggregate shall then be tamped with 25 blows of rounded end of tamping rod;
discharged from a height of about 50mm above the tasting sample and blows
being distributed evenly over the sample
- A further similar quantity of aggregate shall be added on the same manner and
further tamping of 25 blows given.
- They shall finally be filled to over flowing tamped 25 blows and surplus
aggregate removed by rolling the tamped, the tamping rod across and in contact
with the top of container, any aggregate which impedes its progress being
removed by hand aggregate being added to fill any obvious depressions.
- Rest the impact machine, without wedging or packing, upon the level plate block
or floor so that it is rigid and hammer guide columns are vertical.
- Fix the cup firmly in the position on the base of the machine and place the sample
in it and compact it with single tamping of 25 strokes of the tamping rod as above.
- Adjust the height of the hammer so that its lower face is 3805mm above the
surface of aggregate in the cup and then allow it to fall freely on the sample.
- Subject the test sample to 15 blows each being delivered at an interval of not less
than 1 sec.
- Remove the crushed aggregate from the cup, with the aid of rubber mallet; sieve
the sample in a 2.36mm BS test sieve for standard test until no further significant
amount pass in 1 minute.
- Weigh the fractions passing and retained on the sieve to an accuracy of 0.1g
(mass B and mass C) respectively and if the total mass B+C is less than initial
mass A by more than 1g discard the result and make fresh one.
- Repeat the procedure starting from the beginning for the second sample on the
same mass.

60
The ration at mass of fines formed to the total sample mass in each test shall be
expressed as percentage the result being recorded to be the first decimal place.
A.I.V (Aggregate Impact Value) (%) =(B/A)*100
Where A: is the mass of surface dry sample in (g)
B: is the mass of fraction passing the sieve for separating fines in (g)
A.I.V of GAHARA
No. of sample 1 2
A (g) 636.8 (g) 665.1 (g)
B (g) 32.5 (g) 33.6 (g)
A.I.V% 5.10 ~5% 5.13~5%
Average=(5+5)/2=5%,
Then, the A.I.V is 5%
A.I.V of BUGESERA
No. of sample 1 2
A (g) 642.8 (g) 647.7 (g)
B (g) 81.0 (g) 71.9 (g)
A.I.V% 12.6~13% 11.1~11%
Average=(13+11)/2=12%,
A.I.V of GITI CYÌNYONI
No. of sample 1 2
A (g) 640.2 (g) 625.1 (g)
B (g) 88.3 (g) 78.1 (g)
A.I.V% 13.79~14% 12.49~12.5%
Average=(14+12.5)/2=13.25%~13%,

61
A.I.V of KARONGI
No. of sample 1 2
A (g) 650.7(g) 652.3 (g)
B (g) 34.6 (g) 30.9 (g)
A.I.V% 5.3~5% 4.74~5%
Average=(5+5)/2=5%,
A.I.V of MUKUNGWA
No. of sample 1 2
A (g) 616 (g) 606.1(g)
B (g) 60.7 (g) 62.9 (g)
A.I.V% 9.85~10% 10.38~10%
Average=(10+10)/2=10%,
Then the A.I.V is 10%
A.I.V of GATUMBA
No of sample 1 2
A (g) 672.3 (g) 672.1 (g)
B (g) 31.5 (g) 28.3 (g)
A.I.V% 5% 4.75~5%
Average=(5+5)/2=5%,
A.I.V of MUSANZE
No. of sample 1 2
A (g) 679.6 (g) 686.7 (g)
B (g) 66.1 (g) 82.9 (g)
A.I.V% 9.73~10% 12.07~12%
Average=(10+12)/2=11%,

62
III.5.3. Specific gravity test and water absorption
III.5.3.0. Objectives
- The specific gravity, the denser the rock is and stronger is the aggregate.
- The more the water absorption, the higher the voidage.
III.5.3.1. Scope
This test covers the procedures for determining the specific gravity, apparent specific
gravity and water absorption of aggregate. Three main methods are specified for
aggregate a wire basket method for aggregate larger than 10mm a gas jar method for
aggregate between 40mm and 5mm and pycnometer method for aggregate smaller than
10mm.
These two tests are conducted together. The specific gravity, the denser the rock is and
stronger is the aggregate similarly, water absorption depends on the pores and voidage in
the rock. The more the water absorption, the higher the voidage.Some rocks are adversely
affected in their strength when water enters the materials and softens it. Laterite is a good
example.
- Balance or scale of capacity not less than 3kg and accurate to 0.5g and of such
type as to permit the weighing of the vessel containing the aggregate and water.
- Oven a well ventilated oven thermostatically controlled, to maintain a temperature
of 1055
o
C
- Pycnometer of about 1 litre capacity having a metal conical screw top with a 6mm
diameter hole at its apex. The screw top shall be watertight when it is screwed on
to the jar and if necessary, a rubber or fibre washer shall be inserted in the joint.
- A means of supplying a current of warm air.
- A shallow tray of area not less than 325cm
2

- An air-tight container large enough to take the sample.
- Filter papers and funnel
- A sample of about 1kg from 10mm to 4.75mm or 500g if finer than 4.75mm shall
be used.

63
III.5.3.4. Procedure
- The sample shall be placed in the tray and covered with water at a temperature of
275
o
C. Soon after immersion, entrapped air shall be removed by gentle agitation
with rod. The sample shall remain immersed for 24hrs.
- The water shall then be carefully drained from the sample by decantation through
a filter paper; any material retained being returned to the sample. Then expose the
aggregate to a gentle current of warm air to evaporate surface moisture and stir at
frequent intervals to ensure uniform drying until no free surface moisture can be
seen. The saturated and surface-dry sample shall be weighed (mass A).
- The aggregate shall then be placed in the pycnometer which shall be filled with
water. Screw the conical top into the position and eliminate any trapped air by
rotating the pycnometer on its side, the hole in the apex of the cone being covered
with a finger. The pycnometer shall then be topped up with water, dried on the
outside and weighed (mass B).
- The contents of the pycnometer shall be emptied into the tray. Care being taken to
ensure that all the aggregate is transferred. The pycnometer shall be refilled with
water to the same level as before, dried on the outside and weighed (mass C). The
difference in the temperature of the water in the pycnometer during the first and
second weighings shall not exceed 2
o
C.
- The water shall then be carefully drained from the sample by decantation through
a filter paper and any material retained on it is returned to the sample. The sample
shall be placed in the oven at a temperature of 1055
o
C for 24hrs. Then it shall be
cooled in the airtight container and weighed (mass D).
III.5.3.5. Reporting of results (Formulas)
Specific gravity, apparent specific gravity and water absorption shall be calculated
from the following formulas:
Specific gravity on an oven-dried basis=D/[A-(B-C)]
Specific gravity on a saturated and surface dried basis=A/[A-(B-C)]
Apparent specific gravity=D/[D-(B-C)]
Water absorption (% of dry mass)=100*(A-D)/D

64
Where: A=mass of saturated surface dry sample in air (g)
B=mass of pycnometer containing sample and filled with water (g)
C=mass of pycnometer filled with water only
D=mass of oven-dried sample in air (g)
The value of relative density shall be reported to the nearest 0.01 and those for water
absorption to the nearest 0.1%.
Specific gravity and water Absorption of GAHARA
A=502 (g)
B=1915.3 (g)
C=1597.9 (g)
D=500 (g)
- Specific gravity on an oven-dried basis=500/[502-(1915.3-1597.9)]=2.71
- Specific gravity on a saturated and surface dried basis
=502/[502-(1915.3-1597.9)]=2.72
- Apparent specific gravity=500/[500-(1915.3-1597.9)]
- Water absorption (% of dry mass)=[100*(502-500)]/500=0.40%
Specific gravity and water Absorption of BUGESERA
A=500.7 (g)
B=1915.6 (g)
C=1601.9 (g)
D=500 (g)
- Specific gravity on an oven-dried basis=500/[500.7-(1915.6-1601.9)]=2.67
=500.7/[500.7-(1915.6-1601.9)]=2.68
- Apparent specific gravity=500/[500-(1915.6-1601.9)]=2.68
- Water absorption(% of dry mass)=[100*(500.7-500)]/500=0.14%

65
Specific gravity and water Absorption of GITI CYÌNYONI
A=501.6 (g)
B=1915 (g)
C=1602.7 (g)
D=500 (g)
- Specific gravity on an oven-dried basis=500/[501.6-(1915-1602.7)]=2.64
=501.6/[501.6-(1915-1602.7)]=2.65
- Apparent specific gravity=500/[500-(1915-1602.7)]=2.66
- Water absorption(% of dry mass)= [100*(501.6-500)]/500=0.32%
Specific gravity and water Absorption of KARONGI
A=502.6 (g)
B=1931.7 (g)
C=1600.3 (g)
D=500 (g)
=502.6/[502.6-(1931.7-1600.3)]=2.93
Specific gravity and water Absorption of MUKUNGWA
A=508.1 (g)
B=1930.4 (g)
C=1603.9 (g)
D=500 (g)
=508.1/[508.1-(1930.4-1603.9)]=2.79

66
Specific gravity and water Absorption of GATUMBA
A=501.5 (g)
B=1933.1 (g)
C=1604.1 (g)
D=500 (g)
=501.5/[501.5-(1933.1-1604.1)]=2.90
Specific gravity and water Absorption of MUSANZE
A=501 (g)
B=1933.7 (g)
C=1601 (g)
D=500 (g)
- Specific gravity on an oven-dried basis=500/[501-(1933.7-1601)]=2.96
=501/[501-(1933.7-1601)]=2.97
- Apparent specific gravity=500/[500-(1933.7-1601)]=2.98
- Water absorption(% of dry mass)= [100*(501-500)]/500=0.2%
III.5.4. Bulk density
- Show how densely the aggregate is packed in the measure.
- For a coarse aggregate of given specific gravity, a higher bulk density indicates
that there fewer voids to be filled by sand and cement.
III.5.4.1. Scope
This method of test the procedure for determining bulk density and percentage of voids of
aggregates.
- The bulk density of an aggregate is defined as the mass of the material in a given
volume and is expressed in kilograms/liter
67
- The empty spaces between the aggregate particles are termed voids
- Balance accurate to 0.5% of the mass of the material to be weighed and of
adequate capacity.
- Cylindrical metal measure, the measure shall preferably be machined to accurate
internal dimension given in table below appropriate to size of aggregate and shall
be provided with handles. It shall be water tight and of sufficient rigidity to retain
it`s from under rough usage and should be protected against corrosion.
Table. Size of container for bulk density
Size of largest
particles
Normal
capacity
Inside diameter Inside height Thickness of
metal (min)
M
3
Cm Cm Cm
4.75mm and
under
0.003 15 15 3.15
Over 4.75mm
to 40mm
0.015 25 30 4.0
Over 40mm 0.030 35 30 5.0

- A straight metal tamping rod of circular cross section 16mm in diameter and
600mm long rounded at one end.
- Calibration the cylinder shall be calibrated by determining the mass of water at
272
o
C required to fill it such that no meniscus is present above the rime of the
container. The actual volume in cubic meter shall be obtained by dividing the
mass of water in kilograms by 1000.
- Sample this test for bulk density shall be made on oven dry or saturated surface
dry material. The test for voids shall be made on oven dry.
III.5.4.4.1. Rodded or compacted bulk density
The measure shall be filled one third full with thoroughly mixed aggregate and
tamper with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod. Each blow should be
given by allowing the tamping rod to fall freely from a height of 50mm above the
68
surface of aggregate and the blows should be evenly distributed over the surface. A
further similar quantity of aggregate shall be added and a further tamping 25 strokes
given. The measure shall finally be filled to over-flowing, tamped 25 times and the
surplus aggregate struck off using the tamping rod as straight edge. The net mass of
the aggregate in the measure shall be determined and the bulk density in kilograms
per cubic meter using the calibrated volume determined as in 803 shall be calculated.
III.5.4.4.2.Uncompacted or loose bulk density
The measure shall be filled to over-flowing by means of a shovel or scoop, the aggregate
being discharged from a height not exceeding 5cm above the top of the measure. Care
shall be taken to prevent, as far as possible, segregation of particle sizes of which the
sample is compacted. The surface of the aggregate shall then be leveled with a straight
edge. The net mass of the aggregate in the measure shall be determined and bulk density
in kilograms per cubic meter using the calibrated volume determined as in 8.3 shall be
calculated.
III.5.4.5. Calculation of BULK DENSITY
Bulk density of GAHARA
With compaction
No. Sample 1 2 3
Volume of
cylindrical metal
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3

Cylindrical metal +
aggregate
6207.3 g 6200.4 g 6203.8 g
Aggregate 3052.8 g 3045.9 g 3049.3 g
Bulk density 1.64 g/cm
3
1.64 g/cm
3
1.64 g/cm
3

Non Compaction
No. Sample 1 2 3
Volume of
cylindrical metal
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3

Cylindrical metal +
aggregate
5909.9 g 5914.2 g 5907.8 g
Aggregate 2755.4 g 2759.7 g 2753.3 g
3
1.48g/cm
3
1.48g/cm
3

Table III.16. Bulk density data of Gahara

69
Bulk density of BUGESERA
With compaction
No. Sample 1 2 3
Volume of
cylindrical metal
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6cm
3
1860.6cm
3

Cylindrical metal +
aggregate
6161.3 g 6158.3 g 6164.3 g
Aggregate 3006.8 g 3003.8 g 3009.8 g
3
1.61 g/cm
3
1.62 g/cm
3

Non Compaction
No. Sample 1 2 3
Volume of
cylindrical metal
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3

Cylindrical metal +
aggregate
5911.0 g 5892.5 g 5900.8 g
Aggregate 2756.5 g 2738 g 2746.3 g
3
1.47 g/cm
3
1.48 g/cm
3

Table III.17. Bulk density data of Bugesera
Bulk density of GITI CYÌNYONI
With compaction
No. Sample 1 2 3
Volume of
cylindrical metal
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3

Cylindrical metal +
aggregate
6183.5 g 6105.1 g 6130 g
Aggregate 3029 g 2950.6 g 2975.5 g
3
1.60 g/cm
3
1.60 g/cm
3

Non Compaction
No. Sample 1 2 3
Volume of
cylindrical metal
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3

Cylindrical metal +
aggregate
5826.4 g 5855.8 g 5831.2 g
Aggregate 2671.9 g 2701.3 g 2676.7 g
3
1.45 g/cm
3
1.45 g/cm
3

Table III.18. Bulk density data of Giti cyìnyoni

70
Bulk density of KARONGI
With compaction
No. Sample 1 2 3
Volume of
cylindrical metal
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3

Cylindrical metal +
aggregate
6348.7 g 6353.8 g 6323.4 g
Aggregate 3194.2 g 3199.3 g 3168.9 g
3
1.72 g/cm
3
1.70 g/cm
3

Non Compaction
No. Sample 1 2 3
Volume of
cylindrical metal
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3

Cylindrical metal +
aggregate
5963.7 g 5980.6 g 5944.3 g
Aggregate 2809.2 g 2826.1 g 2789.8 g
3
1.52 g/cm
3
1.50 g/cm
3

Table III.19. Bulk density data of Karongi
Bulk density of MUKUNGWA
With compaction
No. Sample 1 2 3
Volume of
cylindrical metal
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3

Cylindrical metal +
aggregate
6070.3 g 6071.1 g 6071.2 g
Aggregate 2915.8 g 2916.6 g 2916.7 g
3
1.57 g/cm
3
1.57 g/cm
3

Non Compaction
No. Sample 1 2 3
Volume of
cylindrical metal
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3

Cylindrical metal +
aggregate
5732.2 g 5723.1 g 5772.7 g
Aggregate 2577.7 g 2568.6 g 2618.2 g
3
1.40 g/cm
3
1.41 g/cm
3

Table III.20. Bulk density data of Mukungwa

71
Bulk density of GATUMBA
With compaction
No. Sample 1 2 3
Volume of
cylindrical metal
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6cm
3

Cylindrical metal +
aggregate
6191.2 g 6236.1 g 6195.2 g
Aggregate 3034.5 g 3079.4 g 3038.5 g
3
1.65 g/cm
3
1.63 g/cm
3

Non Compaction
No. Sample 1 2 3
Volume of
cylindrical metal
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3

Cylindrical metal +
aggregate
5982.5 g 5964.3 g 6034.1 g
Aggregate 2825.8 g 2807.6 g 2877.4 g
3
1.51 g/cm
3
1.54 g/cm
3

Table III.21. Bulk density data of Gatumba
Bulk density of MUSANZE
With compaction
No. Sample 1 2 3
Volume of
cylindrical metal
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3

Cylindrical metal +
aggregate
6417.6 g 6441.4 g 6414.7 g
Aggregate 3263.1 g 3286.9 g 3260.2 g
3
1.76 g/cm
3
1.75 g/cm
3

Non Compaction
No. Sample 1 2 3
Volume of
cylindrical metal
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3
1860.6 cm
3

Cylindrical metal +
aggregate
5997 g 5975.1 g 6000.9 g
Aggregate 2842.5 g 2820.6 g 2846.4 g
3
1.51 g/cm
3
1.53 g/cm
3

Table III.22. Bulk density data of Musanze
Bulk density is the ratio of mass of aggregate to the volume (M/V) in g/cm
3

72
CHAPTER IV. DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
IV.1. PROCTOR TEST
The optimum moisture content is 8.8 % and the maximum dry density is 2020kg/m
3
for
KARONGI mountain soil. The optimum moisture content and maximum dry density of
NKAMIRA soil are 22% and 1438 kg/m
3
respectively.

IV.2. ATTERBERG
The plastic index of KARONGI mountain soil(laterite) is 8.9% and for volcanic ash of
Nkamira there was no need of finding its plastic indix because the volcanic ash is Non-
plastic ie plastic index is Nil. In general, soil with high plasticity have higher clay content
and usually exhibit poor engineering behaviour. Low plasticity or being non-plastic
shows the soil to be granular and is more desirable.So as Karongi mountain soil(laterite)
and Nkamira volcanic ash are non-plastic, are suitable for road-making.

IV. 3. SIEVE ANALYSIS
According to British soil classification system (BS 1377, 1990), KARONGI mountain
soil(laterite) is classified as sand- gravel because his particle sizes are ranged between
0.6mm and 10mm, for NKAMIRA soil(volcanic ash), the particle sizes are ranged
between 0.6mm and 10mm this is also classified as sand-gravel.So as the range of this
soil show; Karongi mountain soil(laterite) and Nkamira soil(volcanic ash), are good for
road construction.

IV.4.CBR TEST
The CBR value of KARONGI mountain soil(laterite) as raw material soil is 50.1% and
that of NKAMIRA soil is 74.5%.
From the above results, it is seen that the two types of soil are suitable to be used as
construction material for the road pavement because their CBR value do meet the
required CBR value ranges between 8 to 24 per cent for the construction of sub-base
course and not less than 25 per cent for construction of base course.

73
IV.5. LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST
For bituminous courses, a maximum of 30 to 35 per cent is specified.
The standard Los Angeles Value which must be used in construction of pavement must
be less than 35%, so as the L.A.A.V obtained from different sources(Gahara=16.9%,
Bugesera=24.2%, Giti cyìnyoni=30%, Karongi=17.9%, Mukungwa=25.5%,
Gatumba=18.25% and Musanze=32%) are less than 35% then, our aggregate are hard
enough or are good for road construction and/or are suitable for road construction.

IV.6. AGGREGATE IMPACT TEST
The test is conducted in dry state as well as in water state. For low-grade aggregate, a
maximum of 50 per cent wet aggregate impact value is allowed when used in sub-base.
When used as base course, the limit is 40 per cent. For surfacing courses, the limit is 35
per cent. The standard aggregate impact value must be less than 35%, so as the aggregate
impact value (A.I.V) obtained from different sources (Gahara=5%, Bugesera=12%, Giti
cyìnyoni=13%, Karongi=5%, Mukungwa=10%, Gatumba=5% and Musanze=11%) are
less than 30% then, our aggregates have high resistance against the sudden shock,then the
aggregates are suitable for road construction.

IV.7. SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WATER ABSORPTION
The specific gravity on an oven-dried basis of GAHARA, BUGESERA, GITI
CYÌNYONI, KARONGI, MUKUNGWA, GATUMBA and MUSANZE aggregates are
2.71; 2.67; 2.64; 2.92; 2.70; 2.89 and 2.97 respectively and water absorption of
GAHARA, BUGESERA, GITI CYÌNYONI, KARONGI, MUKUNGWA, GATUMBA
and MUSANZE aggregates are 0.40%; 0.14%; 0.32%; 0.52%; 1.62%; 0.30% and 0.2%
respectively. From the above results, it is seen that the specific gravity of aggregates
varies from 1.9 to 3.0. Those with values above 2.5 are generally good. Aggregates
having water absorption above 1.0 per cent are unsatisfactory, for use in wearing courses
while those having water absorption over 2.0 per cent are considered unsatisfactory for
use in base courses.

74
IV.8. BULK DENSITY
The bulk density shall be reported as the compacted or uncompacted bulk density in
g/cm
3
. The compacted bulk density of GAHARA, BUGESERA, GITI CYÌNYONI,
KARONGI, MUKUNGWA, GATUMBA and MUSANZE are 1.64g/cm
3
, 1.62g/cm
3
,
1.61g/cm
3
, 1.71g/cm
3
, 1.57g/cm
3
, 1.64g/cm
3
and 1.75g/cm
3
respectively. The
uncompacted bulk density of GAHARA, BUGESERA, GITI CYÌNYONI, KARONGI,
MUKUNGWA, GATUMBA and MUSANZE are 1.48g/cm
3
, 1.48g/cm
3
, 1.45g/cm
3
,
1.51g/cm
3
, 1.40g/cm
3
, 1.52g/cm
3
and 1.52g/cm
3
respectively. So, it is seen that the
rodded bulk density is useful as a check on the uniformity of aggregate grading, loose
bulk density is useful to convert masses into bulk volumes on site or vice versa.

75
IV.9. SUMMARY
No Name of rock Geological
group
Properties Suitability for road-
making
1 Quartzite of
Gahara,
Bugesera and
Giti
cyìnyoni.
Metamorphic
Rock
1.Reasonably hard and
durable(A.I.V=5%,12%and
13% respectively)
2.Light brown or pink in
colour
3.Resistant to
abrasion(L.A.A.V= 16.9%,
24.2% and 30% respectively)
4.Low absorption of
water(0.40%, 0.14% and
0.32% respectively)
5.Specific gravity of (2.71,
2.67 and 2.64 respectively)
1.Good for base courses,
bituminous courses and
cement concrete
pavements.
2.Used for R.C.C work.
3.Suitable for masonry
work.(according to
AASHTO T96-74 and
T85-74)

2 Basalt Igneous rock 1. Hard and durable(A.I.V=
10%)
2.Blue or dark blue in colour
3.Resistant to
abrasion(L.A.A.V=25.5%)
4.Low absorption of
water(1.62%)
5.Specific gravity of (2.70)
1.Good for base courses
and cement concrete
pavements.
work. (AASHTO T96-
74; AASHTO T85-74)

3 Dolerite of
Karongi and
Gatumba
Igneous rock 1. Hard and durable(A.I.V=
5% and 5% respectively)
3.Resistant to
abrasion(L.A.A.V= 17.9%
and 18.25% respectively)
4.Low absorption of
water(0.52% and 0.30%
respectively)
5.Specific gravity of (2.92
and 2.89 respectively)
cement concrete
pavements.
work. (AASHTO T96-
74; AASHTO T85-74)

4 Amphibolite Metamorphic
Rock
1.Reasonably hard and
durable(A.I.V=11% )
3.Resistant to
abrasion(L.A.A.V=32%)
4.Low absorption of
water(0.2%)
5.Specific gravity of (2.97)
cement concrete
pavements.
work. (AASHTO T96-
74; AASHTO T85-74)

76
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
V.1. conclusion
The research conducted during this work has increased my knowledge. It is seen that the
suitability of soil and aggragates from different sources in Rwanda is good.
The soil and aggregate from different sources in Rwanda, specificaly(Gahara, Bugesera,
Giti cyìnyoni, Karongi, Mukungwa, Gatumba and Musanze) can be used as a
construction material for road pavement such as flexible pavement.
As discussed in chapter IV, it is seen that pavement contruction materials from different
sources in Rwanda are suitable for road-making.
In general I realized that pavement construction materials from different sources in
Rwanda are very good for base courses, bituminous courses and cement concrete
pavements; used for R.C.C work and suitable for masonry work.
V.2. Recommendation
I recommend to all Engineering contractors working in our country to test the site soil
and/or stones for determination of its properties.
After analyzing that the site soil or stone site is poor, then the soil or stones cannot be
used for constructing the road pavement.
Those contractors must use suitable soil or suitable stone(aggregates) when constructing
road pavements.

77

APPENDICES
78
REFERENCES
Dr. B.C PUNMIA, ASHOK KUMAR J AIN, ARUN KUMAR J AIN (1973-74) Soil
mechanics and Foundation 13th edition, LAXMI Publications (P) LTD 7/21, Ansari
Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002 pp.3-130.

Dr. L.R Kadiyali, Dr N.B LAL (2003) Principles and practices of highway Engineering
Chander Khanna for KHANNA PUBLISHER-B Nath Market, Nai Sarak, Delhi-
110006(india) pp.223-258; pp.443-449.

G. VENKATAPPA RAo(1996) Principles of Transportation and Highway Engineering
Professor of civil Engineering, India Institute of Technology, New Delhi, Tata Mc Graw-
Hill Publishing Company limited 4/12. Asaf Ali Road, New Delhi 110002 pp.211-249.

J ean Pierre Bardet(1997), Experimental soil mechanics, Civil Engineering Department
University of Southern California, Los Angels; Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, New
J ersey 07458 pp.8-165.

K.V.S Apparao and V.C.S RAO(1995) Soil Testing Laboratory Manual and Question
Bank Professor of Civil Engineering, Andhara University, Visakhapatnam, Associate
Professor Department of Civil Engineering, BIT Mesra, Ranchi, Laxmi Publications (P)
LTD, New Delhi pp.1-29; pp.92-98.

79
DECLARATION
I, VERJ US Hadelin, hereby declare that this work reports previously unpublished that I
have personally done during the Bachelor programme at KIGALI INSTITUTE OF
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY.

..........................................................
VERJ US Hadelin

80
DEDICATION
To
My family Mr. HIGIRO Eugene and Mme VERJ US Marie Pierrette
To
My brothers and sister VERJ US J .Luc, VERJ US Richard and VERJ US Alice
To
My best friend UWITONZE Gilbert
To
My all friends.

81
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanks are addressed to all people who helped me in the preparation of this book.
Practically, I am indebted grateful to the almighty God on the top and the first and
foremost is Dr. MUSHULE Nurdin who surpervised me from the highest and spend
much more time in guiding and making suggestions of the book.
My special thanks are assigned to Mr. KABAYIZA Bertin and Mr. KYZZEE Edouard as
KIST Staves working in KIST laboratory for their orientations and good ideas.
Other special thank is assigned to my family including my brother in low Mr. HIGIRO
Eugene and his wife VERJ US Marie Pierrette who encouraged me accomplish this
project.
God bless all of them.

82
ABSTRACT
This part presents the characterisation of pavement construction materials in Rwanda.It
presents all Experments done in Soil mechanics laboratory and Transportation laboratory.
The tests done in Soil mechanics are: Standard compaction test(proctor test), atterberg
limits, sieve analysis and California Bearing Ratio(CBR) and the tests done in Highway
and Transportation laboratory are: Los Angeles Abrasion test, Aggregate Impact test,
Specific gravity and water absorption and Bulk density.
In Soil mechanics laboratory, I worked on the soil samples from two different sources;
laterite of Karongi mountain soil(in west province) and volcanic ash of Nkamira(in north
province).
In Highway and Transportation laboratory, I worked also on Aggregate samples from
different sources like aggregates from Gahara(Quartzites), Bugesera(Quartzites), Giti
cyìnyoni(Quartzites), Karongi(dolerites), Mukungwa(basalts), Gatumba(dolerites) and
Musanze(amphibolites).
All those tests have been done to determine the suitability of pavement construction
materials from different sources in Rwanda.
In conclusion, the analysis of this project work shows that the pavement construction
materials from different sources in Rwanda are suitable for road-making.
A recommendation is given to all contractors to test the site soil and stones for
determination of its properties in order to use suitable pavement construction materials
when constructing road pavement.

83

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO
CERTIFICATE...............................................................................i
DECLARATION...........................................................................ii
DEDICATION..............................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...........................................................iv
ABSTRACT....................................................................................v
LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................vi
LIST OF FIGURES....................................................................vii
LIST OF SYMBOLS................................................................ viii

I. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................1
I.1. General introduction................................................................................................1
I.2. Objective of project.................................................................................................2
I.3. J ustification of the project.......................................................................................2
I.4. Methodology............................................................................................................2

II.LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................................................3
II.1. Importance of soil Engineering in road construction.............................................3
II.2. Formation of soils...................................................................................................4
II.2.1. Definition................................................................................................4
II.2.2. Residual and Transportation soil.............................................................4
II.2.3. Organic soils............................................................................................4
II.3. Particle size and shape............................................................................................5
II.4. Soil grading............................................................................................................5
II.5. Consistency and plasticity of fine-grained soil......................................................7
II.6. The need for soil classification...............................................................................8
II.7. Compaction of soil.................................................................................................8
II.7.1. Importance of soil compaction.....................................................................8
II.7.2. Factors influencing compaction...................................................................8
84
II.7.3. Tests for compaction..................................................................................10
II.8. soil strength..........................................................................................................11
II.8.1. Importance of soil strength..........................................................................11
II.8.2. Factors affecting soil strength.....................................................................11
II.8.3. Penetration tests...........................................................................................12
II.8.3.1. California Bearing Ratio(CBR) test..............................................12
II.9. Types of pavements...............................................................................................14
II.9.1. Functions and desirable characteristics of pavement...................................14
II.9.2. Pavement courses.........................................................................................15
II.9.3. pavement types.............................................................................................15
II.10. Stone aggregates...................................................................................................18
II.10.1.Aggregates...................................................................................................18
II.10.2. Types of aggregates....................................................................................18
II.10.3. Testing of aggregates.................................................................................19
II.10.3.1. Particle size distribution.................................................................19
II.10.3.2. Water absorption and specific gravity test.....................................20
II.10.3.3. Aggregate Impact test.....................................................................20
II.10.3.4. Los Angeles Abrasion test..............................................................21

III. METHODOLOGY AND EXPERMENTS DONE.................................................22
III.1. Standard compaction test..........................................................................................22
III.1.0. Definition.......................................................................................................22
III.1.1. Brief description.............................................................................................22
III.1.2. Objective........................................................................................................22
III.1.3. Apparatus.......................................................................................................22
III.1.4. Procedures......................................................................................................23
III.1.5. Data analysis..................................................................................................24
III.2. Atterberg limits.........................................................................................................28
III.2.0. Aim of the experment....................................................................................28
III.2.1. Brief description.............................................................................................28
III.2.2. Liquid limit....................................................................................................29
85
III.2.2.0. Definition.........................................................................................29
III.2.2.1. Objective............................................................................................29
III.2.2.2. Equipments........................................................................................29
III.2.2.3. Procedures..........................................................................................29
III.2.2.4. Data analysis......................................................................................30
III.2.3. Plastic limit test...............................................................................................32
III.2.3.0. Definition...........................................................................................32
III.2.3.1. Objective............................................................................................32
III.2.3.2. Equipments.......................................................................................32
III.2.3.3. Procedures..........................................................................................32
III.2.3.4. Data presentations..............................................................................33
III.2.3.5. Computation.......................................................................................33
III.3. Sieve analysis ....................................................................................................33
III.3.0. Introduction...........................................................................................34
III.3.1. Objective...............................................................................................34
III.3.2. Apparatus..............................................................................................34
III.3.3. Setting of sieves....................................................................................34
III.3.4. Procedures.............................................................................................35
III.3.5. Results...................................................................................................35
III.4. The California Bearing Ratio .............................................................................39
III.4.0. Definition..............................................................................................39
III.4.1. Scope.....................................................................................................39
III.4.2. Apparatus..............................................................................................39
III.4.3. Sample...................................................................................................40
III.4.4. Procedures.............................................................................................40
III.4.5. Soaking.................................................................................................41
III.4.6. Penetration test......................................................................................41
III.5. Highway and Transportation Engineering laboratory.........................................55
III.5.1. Los Angeles Abrasion test....................................................................55
III.5.1.0. Objective.................................................................................55
III.5.1.1. Scope.......................................................................................55
86
III.5.1.2. Definition................................................................................55
III.5.1.3. Apparatus..................................................................................55
III.5.1.4. Abrasion charges.......................................................................56
III.5.1.5. Test sample...............................................................................56
III.5.1.6. Grading of test samples.............................................................56
III.5.1.7. procedure...................................................................................57
III.5.1.8. Calculation................................................................................57
III.5.2. Aggregate Impact test.............................................................................59
III.5.2.0. Objective...................................................................................59
III.5.2.1. Scope.........................................................................................59
III.5.2.2. Definition..................................................................................59
III.5.2.3. Apparatus..................................................................................59
III.5.2.4. Preparation of test sample.........................................................59
III.5.2.5. Procedures.................................................................................60
III.5.2.6. Calculation................................................................................60
III.5.3. Specific gravity test and water absorption..............................................62
III.5.3.0. Objectives.................................................................................62
III.5.3.1. Scope.........................................................................................62
III.5.3.2. Definition..................................................................................63
III.5.3.3. Apparatus..................................................................................63
III.5.3.4. Procedure..................................................................................63
III.5.3.5. Reporting of results...................................................................64
III.5.3.6. Calculation................................................................................65
III.5.4. Bulk density............................................................................................67
III.5.4.0. Objective...................................................................................67
III.5.4.1. Scope.........................................................................................67
III.5.4.2. Definition..................................................................................67
III.5.4.3. Apparatus..................................................................................67
III.5.4.4. Procedures.................................................................................68
III.5.4.4.1. Rodded or compacted bulk density...........................68
III.5.4.4.2. Uncompacted or loose bulk density..........................69
87
III.5.4.5. Calculation of bulk density.......................................................69
IV. DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS..................................73
IV.1. Proctor test..........................................................................................73
IV.2. Atterberg.............................................................................................73
IV.3. Sieve analysis......................................................................................73
IV.4. CBR test..............................................................................................73
IV.5. Los Angeles Abrasion test..................................................................74
IV.6. Aggregate Impact test.........................................................................74
IV.7. Specific gravity and water absorption test..........................................74
IV.8. Bulk density........................................................................................75
IV.9. Summary.............................................................................................76
V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION..................................................77
V.1. Conclusion...........................................................................................77
V.2. Recommendation.................................................................................77
APPENDICES............................................................................................................78
REFERENCES...........................................................................................................79

88

LIST OF TABLES
Tables Page
Table III.1. Proctor data of Karongi mountain soil(laterite)..............................................25
Table III.2. Proctor data of Nkamira volcanic ash.............................................................27
Table III.3. Liquid limit of Karongi mountain(laterite).....................................................30
Table III.4. Plastic limit data of Karongi mountain(laterite).............................................33
Table III.5. Sieve analysis data of Karongi mountain(laterite)..........................................35
Table III.6. Sieve analysis data of Nkamira volcanic ash..................................................37
Table III.7. Determination of moisture content presents in Karongi mountain.................42
Table III.8. Curing of CBR penetration vs division for Karongi mountain.......................43
Table III.9. Curing of CBR loads for Karongi mountain soil............................................44
Table III.10. Soaking of CBR penetration vs division for Karongi mountain...................46
Table III.11. Soaking of CBR loads for Karongi mountain soil(laterite)..........................47
Table III.12. Curing of CBR penetration vs division for Nkamira ash of.........................49
Table III.13. Curing of CBR loads for Nkamira volcanic ash...........................................50
Table III.14. Soaking of CBR penetration vs division for Nkamira ash of.......................52
Table III.15. Soaking of CBR loads for Nkamira volcanic ash.........................................53
Table III.16. Bulk density data of Gahara..........................................................................69
Table III.17. Bulk density data of Bugesera......................................................................70
Table III.18. Bulk density data of Giti cyìnyoni...............................................................70
Table III.19. Bulk density data of karongi.........................................................................71
Table III.20. Bulk density data of Mukungwa...................................................................71
Table III.21. Bulk density data of Gatumba......................................................................72
Table III.22. Bulk density data of Musanze.......................................................................72

89

LIST OF FUGURES
Figures Page
Fig.III.1. Proctor curve of Karongi mountain soil(laterite)...............................................26
Fig.III.2. Proctor curve of Nkamira volcanic ash............................................................. 28
Fig.III.3. Liquid limit graph of Karongi mountain soil(laterite)........................................31
Fig.III.4. Sieve graph of Karongi mountain soil(laterite)..................................................36
Fig.III.5. Sieve graph of Nkamira volcanic ash.................................................................38
Fig.III.6. Curing CBR value for Karongi mountain soil(laterite)......................................45
Fig.III.7. Soaking CBRvalue for Karongi mountain soil(leterite).....................................48
Fig.III.8. Curing CBR value of Nkamira volcanic ash......................................................51
Fig.III.9. Soaking CBR value of Nkamira volcanic ash....................................................54

90

ABBREVIATION
BS: British standard
IS: India standard
CBR: Calfornia Bearing Ratio
LL: Liquid limit
PL: Plastic limit
m
3
: Cubic meter
Kg: Kilogram
g: gram
cm
3
: Cubic centimeter
W: Weight
KN: Kilo Newton
m
2
: Square meter
OMC: Optimum moisture content
MDD: Maximum dry density
PI: Plastic index
m: Micro meter
mm: Milli meter
R.C.C: Reinforced cement concrete
L.A.A.V: Los Angels Aggregate value
A.I.V: Aggregate Impact Value

91

REFERENCES
Dr. B.C PUNMIA, ASHOK KUMAR J AIN, ARUN KUMAR J AIN (1973-74) Soil
mechanics and Foundation 13th edition, LAXMI Publications (P) LTD 7/21, Ansari
Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002 pp.3-130.

Dr. L.R Kadiyali, Dr N.B LAL (2003) Principles and practices of highway Engineering
Chander Khanna for KHANNA PUBLISHER-B Nath Market, Nai Sarak, Delhi-
110006(india) pp.223-258; pp.443-449.

G. VENKATAPPA RAo(1996) Principles of Transportation and Highway Engineering
Professor of civil Engineering, India Institute of Technology, New Delhi, Tata Mc Graw-
Hill Publishing Company limited 4/12. Asaf Ali Road, New Delhi 110002 pp.211-249.

J ean Pierre Bardet(1997), Experimental soil mechanics, Civil Engineering Department
University of Southern California, Los Angels; Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, New
J ersey 07458 pp.8-165.

K.V.S Apparao and V.C.S RAO(1995) Soil Testing Laboratory Manual and Question
Bank Professor of Civil Engineering, Andhara University, Visakhapatnam, Associate
Professor Department of Civil Engineering, BIT Mesra, Ranchi, Laxmi Publications (P)
LTD, New Delhi pp.1-29; pp.92-98.

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