UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING FOR PRODUCTION
1.Simplicity
2. Standard materials and components
3.Standardized design of the product itself
4.Liberal tolerances
5.Avoidance of secondary operations
6.Design appropriate to the expected level of production
7.Utilizing special process characteristics
8.Avoiding process restrictiveness
9.Avialability of raw materials
10.Moderate design cost
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MANUFACTURABILITY
1.Reduce the number of parts
2.Use modular design
3.Design so assembly operations are in 1 direction
4.Design so it is only possible to assemble the components in single process
5.Minimize the use of fasteners
6.Use popular standard / preferred sizes
7.Eliminate or simplify adjustments
8.Avoid flexible components
9.Dimension in each direction should be from 1 datum
10.Avoid sharp corners, use generous fillets
11.Do not specify tolerances tighter than necessary
12.Do not specify surface roughness than necessary
EVALUATION PURPOSE AND TYPES
Evaluation should be an on-going process. It provides an opportunity
to modify the
1.Programme when necessary. Evaluation helps to check
2.Programme effectiveness
3.Programme response to change needs
4.Strengths and limitations of the programme
5.Staff development
6.Reporting and follow-up
TWO TYPES OF EVALUATION
1.Formative Evaluation
2.Summative Evaluation
TYPES OF EVALUATION:
1.Formative Evaluation :
This types of evaluation is conducted during the planning and designing of the
programme. It provides immediate feedback for programme and improvement. It
is an on-going process. It helps to determine the strength and weaknesses.
2.Summative Evaluation :
This is concerned with the evaluation of an already completed programme. It
is used to determine whether the programme has achieved its goals. It may help
programme leaders to determine whether the programme is worth continuing. It
helps to check the effectiveness of the programme. It helps in early decisions of
programme in order to eliminate the waste of time and production cost.
EVALUATION PROCEDURE:
1.Identification of goals to be assessed
2.Development of an Evaluation plan
3.Application of the evaluation plan
4.Utilization of the findings
It is important to consider the following, if evaluation procedure are to be fruit:
1.Deciding when to evaluate
2. Deciding whom the evaluation is intended to serve
3. Deciding what precisely to evaluate
4. Deciding who should conduct the evaluation
5. Deciding what question the evaluation should address
6.Planning the evaluation study
7.Deciding how to report the evaluation study
8.Dealing with the political, ethical and interpersonal issues in evaluation.
Process Capability:
Process capability is also defined as the capability of a process to meet its
purpose as managed by an organization's management and process definition
structures ISO 15504.
The Process Capability is a measurable property of a process to the
specification, expressed as a process capability index (e.g., Cpk or Cpm)
Two parts of process capability are: 1) Measure the variability of the output of
a process, and 2) Compare that variability with a proposed specification or product
tolerance.
The process capability index or process capability ratio is a statistical measure of
process capability: the ability of a process to produce output within specification
limits
If the upper and lower specification limits of the process are USL and LSL, the
target process mean is T, the estimated mean of the process is and the estimated
variability of the process (expressed as a standard deviation) is , then commonly
accepted process capability indices include:
Process Capability Index ( CP) = USL LSL/6
CP Lower = - LSL / 3
CP Upper = USL - / 3

GEOMETRIC TOLERANCES:
Linear tolerance are specified to ensure that actual size obtained after
manufacturing lies within the acceptable limits.
Eg: A shaft may have its diameter well within the specified limits of size, but may
not be circular
A hole may not have its centre correctly located
A square slot may not have its surface exactly perpendicular
Hence it is necessary to specify permitted deviations not for linear
dimensions but also for geometrical variations in the form of the surfaces and the
variation for their locations. The geometry variations are called form variations and
locations variations are called Position variations.
Hence the tolerance specified for variations for both form and position using
symbols, numerals and letters is called as GEOMETRICAL TOLERANCES
FORM VARIATION:
It is the variation of the actual condition of form feature (point, line, surface,
median plane) from the geometrically ideal form
POSITION VARIATION:
It is the permitted variation in the specified position of a features (surface,
line, medium plane or point) in relation to some other feature or datum
DATUM/DATUM FEATURE:
Position tolerance is a variation of actual position of the form feature (point
line, surface, medium plane) from the geometrically ideal position with reference
to another form feature called datum feature.
Datum means a place of reference . The datum feature is the particular
feature to which orientation of position and run out tolerances are referred
TYPES OF GEOMETRICAL TOLERANCES:
1.Form Tolerance: Straightness, Flatness, Roundness, Cylindricity, Profile of any
surface
2.Position Tolerance: Position of a line, concentricity, symmetry, parallelism/
perpendicularity of a line
3.Runout Tolerance: Circular run out, Total Run out
ASSEMBLY LIMITS:
DFA (design for assembly) recognizes the need to analyze both the part design
and the whole product for any assembly problems early in the design process. We
may define DFA as "a process for improving product design for easy and low-cost
assembly, focusing on functionality and on assemblability concurrently."
Comparison of Assembly Methods
Assembly methods can be divided into three major groups.
In manual assembly, parts are transferred to workbenches where workers manually
assemble the product or components of a product. Hand tools are generally used to
aid the workers. Although this is the most flexible and adaptable of assembly
methods, there is usually an upper limit to the production volume, and labour costs
(including benefits, cases of workers compensation due to injury, overhead for
maintaining a clean, healthy environment, etc.) are higher.
Fixed or hard automation is characterized by custom-built machiner that assembles
one and only one specific product. Obviously, this type of machinery requires a
large capital investment. As production volume increases, the fraction of the
capital investment compared to the total manufacturing cost decreases. Indexing
tables, parts feeders, and automatic controls typify this inherently rigid assembly
method. Sometimes, this kind of assembly is called "Detroit-type" assembly.
Soft automation or robotic assembly incorporates the use of robotic assembly
systems. This can take the form of a single robot, or a multi-station robotic
assembly cell with all activities simultaneously controlled and coordinated by a
PLC or computer. Although this type of assembly method can also have large
capital costs, its flexbility often helps offset the expense across many different
products.
Design Guidelines for Manual Assembly
Obviously, the following guidelines depend on the skill of the worker:
1.Eliminate the need for workers to make decisions or adjustments.
ensure accessibility and visibility.
2.Eliminate the need for assembly tools and gauges (i.e. prefer self-locating parts).
3.Minimise the number of different parts - use "standard" parts.
4.Minimise the number of parts.
5.Avoid or minimise part orientation during assembly (i.e. prefer symmetrical
parts).
6.Prefer easily handled parts that do not tangle or nest within one another.
Note that many products do not lend themselves to these guidelines. Many such
products are sold as "ready-to-assemble" kits or require that assembly be shifted to
cheaper labour markets.
Tolerance stackups or tolerance stacks are terms used to describe the problem-
solving process in mechanical engineering of calculating the effects of the
accumulated variation that is allowed by specified dimensions and tolerances.
Typically these dimensions and tolerances are specified on an engineering
drawing. Arithmetic tolerance stackups use the worst-case maximum or minimum
values of dimensions and tolerances to calculate the maximum and minimum
distance (clearance or interference) between two features or parts. Statistical
tolerance stackups evaluate the maximum and minimum values based on the
absolute arithmetic calculation combined with some method for establishing
likelihood of obtaining the maximum and minimum values, such as Root Sum
Square (RSS) or Monte-Carlo methods.
A tolerance stack is a calculation to determine how tolerances accumulate.
Stacks help establish and optimize part tolerances, and ensure that parts are
designed to promote maximum function at minimal cost.
When used in the design stage, stacks provide an opportunity to evaluate a part's
manufacturability, which reduces the need for costly prototypes.
ASSEMBLY LIMITS:
Evaluation Methods for DFA
It is important to quantify the improvements and goals of DFA. Two methods for
DFA quantification considered here are the boothroyd-dewhurst method and the
Lucas method.
Boothroyd-Dewhurst Method
This method is based on two principles:
1.The application of criteria to each part to determine if it should be separate from
all other parts.
2.Estimation of the handling and assembly costs for each part using the appropriate
assembly process.
This method relies on an existing design which is iteratively evaluated and
improved. Generally, the process follows these steps:
Select an assembly method for each part
Generally, the process follows these steps:
1.Select an assembly method for each part
2.Analyse the parts suitable for the given assembly methods
3.Refine the design in response to shortcomings identified by the analysis
4.Loop to step 2 until the analysis yields a sufficient design
The analysis is generally performed using some kind of worksheet (example
shown below). Tables and charts are used to estimate the part handling and part
insertion time. These "lookup tables" are based on a two-digit code that is in turn
based on a part's size, weight, and geometric characteristics.
Non-assembly operations are also included in the worksheet. For example, extra
time is allocated for each time the assembly is re-oriented.
Next, parts are evaluated as to whether it is really necessary (in the assembly) by
asking three questions:
does the part move relative to another part?
are the material properties of the part necessary?
does the part need to be a separate entity for the sake of assembly?
Minimum number of theoretically needed parts, denoted by Nm.
The method then assumes that the assembly time for a part is 3 seconds. With that
assumption, the design efficiency can be calculated as:
Design efficiency = (3s x Nm) / Tm. (Tm. =Operation time)
Basic DFA Guidelines
Here are some basic guidelines for DFA. Generally, you want to start with a
concept design and then go through each of these guidelines, decide whether or not
it is applicable, and the modify the concept to satisfy the guideline. There is no
guarantee that a given guideline will apply to a particular design problem. Many of
these guidelines are similar or the same as rules of concurrent engineering.
1.Minimise part count by incorporating multiple functions into single parts
2.Modularise multiple parts into single subassemblies
3.Assemble in open space, not in confined spaces; never bury important
components
4.Make parts such that it is easy to identify how they should be oriented for
insertion
5.Prefer self-locating parts
6.Standardise to reduce part variety
7.Maximise part symmetry
8.Design in geometric or weight polar properties if nonsymmetrical
9.Eliminate tangly parts
10.Color code parts that are different but shaped similarly
11.Prevent nesting of parts; prefer stacked assemblies
12.Provide orienting features on no symmetries
13.Design the mating features for easy insertion
14.Provide alignment features
15.Insert new parts into an assembly from above
16.Eliminate re-orientation of both parts and assemblies
17.Eliminate fasteners
18.Place fasteners away from obstructions; design in fastener access
19.Deep channels should be sufficiently wide to provide access to fastening tools;
eliminate channels if possible
20.Provide flats for uniform fastening and fastening ease
21.Ensure sufficient space between fasteners and other features for a fastening tool
22.Prefer easily handled parts
PROCESS CAPABILITY:
It is the ability of the process to produce uniform products inorder to meet the
design specification. These specification or tolerance limits are established by
design engineer to meet a particular function, whereas control limits are
established as the function of average.
Process capability and the tolerance are combined to form a capability index
and it may be defined as
Process Capability Index ( CP) = USL LSL/6(process
capability)
6(process capability) Only 105 loss due to poor quality quality level
If the capability index is greater than 1.00, the process is capable of meeting
the specifications, If the capability index is less than 1.00 the process is not capable
of meeting the specifications.

UNIT 2
FACTORS INFLUENCING FORM DESIGN
Principles of Design:
The principles of design help you to carefully plan and organize the elements
of art so that you will hold interest and command attention. This is sometimes
referred to as visual impact.
Elements of Design
Line - is a mark on a surface that describes a shape or outline. It can create
texture and can be thick and thin. Types of line can include actual, implied,
vertical, horizontal, diagonal and contour lines. (note: Ken does not list "psychic
line" - that was "new term"tome)

Color - refers to specific hues and has 3 properties, Chroma, Intensity and Value.
The color wheel is a way of showing the chromatic scale in a circle using all the
colors made with the primary triad. Complimentary pairs can produce dull and
neutral color. Black and white can be added to produce tints (add white), shades
(add black) andtones(addgray).
Texture - is about surface quality either tactile or visual. Texture can be real or
implied by different uses of media. It is the degree of roughness or smoothness in
objects.

Shape - is a 2-dimensional line with no form or thickness. Shapes are flat and can
be grouped into two categories, geometric and organic.

Form - is a 3-dimensional object having volume and thickness. It is the illusion of
a 3-D effect that can be implied with the use of light and shading techniques. Form
can be viewed from many angles.

Value - is the degree of light and dark in a design. It is the contrast between black
and white and all the tones in between. Value can be used with color as well as
black and white. Contrast is the extreme changes between values.

Size - refers to variations in the proportions of objects, lines or shapes. There is a
variation of sizes in objects either real or imagined. (some sources list
Proportion/Scale as a Principle of Design)

These elements are used to create the Principles of Design. Principles are the
results of using the Elements. When you are working in a particular format (size
and shape of the work surface) the principles are used to create interest, harmony
and unity to the elements that you are using. You can use the Principles of design
to check your composition to see if it has good structure.
Elements of Design:
Color, Values, forms and Shapes, space lines, and textures are called the
elements of design. These elements are known as the fundamentals for all works of
art. Without these elements art could not be created. All of these elements exist in
the world around us in nature and in the environments we create for ourselves
Design for manufacturability (also sometimes known as design for
manufacturing or DFM) is the general engineering art of designing products in
such a way that they are easy to manufacture.
The design of the component can have an enormous effect on the cost of
manufacturing. Other factors may affect the manufacturability such as the type of
raw material, the form of the raw material, dimensional tolerances, and secondary
processing such as finishing.
Factors influence in Form Design:
1.Fitness for Purpose
2. Quantity to be manufactured
3. Product finish
4.Durablity
5. Safety
6.Obsolescence
Forging :
Forging may be defined as a metal working process by which metals and alloys are
plastically deformed(reduced) to desired shapes by application of a compressive
force. Forging can be done either by hot or cold
Hot forging and cold forging are two different metal forming processes that
deliver similar results. Forging is the process of deforming metal into a
predetermined shape using certain tools and equipmentdeformation is
accomplished using hot, cold, or even warm forging processes. Ultimately, the
manufacturer will look at a number of criteria before choosing which type of
forging is best for a particular application.
The Hot Forging Process
When a piece of metal is hot forged it must be heated significantly. The average
temperatures necessary for hot forging are:
Up to 1150 degrees Celsius for Steel
360 to 520 degrees Celsius for Al-Alloys
700 to 800 degrees Celsius for Cu-Alloys
Other considerations for hot forging include:
1. Production of discrete parts
2. Low to medium accuracy
3. Scale Formation
4. Low stresses or low work hardening
5. Homogenized grain structure
6. Increased ductility
7. Elimination of chemical incongruities

Possible disadvantages of hot forging include:
Less precise tolerances
Possible warping of the material during the cooling process
Varying metal grain structure
Possible reactions between the surrounding atmosphere and the metal
Cold Forging

Cold forging deforms metal while it is below its recrystallization point. Cold
forging is generally preferred when the metal is already a soft metal, like
aluminum. This process is usually less expensive than hot forging and the end
product requires little, if any, finishing work. Sometimes, when aluminum is cold
forged into a desired shape, it is heat treated to strengthen the piece. This is called
"tempering.
Other benefits of cold forging include:
Easier to impart directional properties
Improved interchangeability
Improved reproducibility
Increased dimensional control
Handles high stress and high die loads
Produces net shape or near-net shape parts
Some possible disadvantages of COLD FORGING include:
1. Easier to impart directional properties
2. Improved interchangeability
3. Improved reproducibility
4. Increased dimensional control
5. Handles high stress and high die loads
6. Produces net shape or near-net shape parts
7. The metal surfaces must be clean and free of scale before forging occurs
8. The metal is less ductile
9. Residual stress may occur
10. Heavier and more powerful equipment is needed
11. Stronger tooling is required
12. Secondary process is required for finishing the component.
Forging and its types
Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of metal using localized
compressive forces. Forging is often classified according to the temperature at
which it is performed: "cold", "warm", or "hot" forging.
Forging is the operation where the metal is heated and then a force is applied to
manipulates the metals in such a way that the required final shape is obtained.
Forging is generally a hot working process through cold forging is used sometimes.
Type of Forging
1. Smith Forging
2. Drop Forging
3. Press Forging
4. Machine Forging
1: Smith forging
This is the traditional forging operation done openly or in-openly dies by the
village black smith or modern shop floor by manual hammering or by the power
hammer. The process involves heating the stock in the black smith hearth and then
beating it over the anvil. To get the desire shape the operator has to manipulate the
component in between the blows.
The types of operation available are fullering, flattering, bending , upsetting and
swaging.
2: Drop forging
The drop forging die consists of two halves. The lower halve of the die is fixed to
the anvil of the machine , while the upper halve is fixed to ram. The heated stock is
kept in the lower die, while the ram delivers 4-5 blows on the metal spreads and
completely fills in the die cavity. When the two die of halves closed the complete
is formed.
The typical products obtained in drop forging are cranks, crank shaft, connecting
rods, wrench, crane hooks etc. The types of operations are fullering, edging,
bending, blocking , finishing and trimming etc.
Drop forging
Drop forging is a forging process where a hammer is raised and then "dropped"
onto the work piece to deform it according to the shape of the die. There are two
types of drop forging: open-die drop forging and closed-die drop forging. As the
names imply, the difference is in the shape of the die, with the former not fully
enclosing the work piece, while the latter does
Various Stages / Steps involved in Drop Forging:
1.Fullering impression
2.Edging impression
3.Bending impression
4.Blocking impression
5.Finishing impression
6.Trimming
Press forging
Press forging works by slowly applying a continuous pressure or force, which
differs from the near-instantaneous impact of drop-hammer forging. The amount of
time the dies are in contact with the work piece is measured in seconds (as
compared to the milliseconds of drop-hammer forges). The press forging operation
can be done either cold or hot.
The main advantage of press forging, as compared to drop-hammer forging, is its
ability to deform the complete work piece. Drop-hammer forging usually only
deforms the surfaces of the work piece in contact with the hammer and anvil; the
interior of the work piece will stay relatively unreformed. Another advantage to the
process includes the knowledge of the new part's strain rate. We specifically know
what kind of strain can be put on the part, because the compression rate of the
press forging operation is controlled.
There are a few disadvantages to this process, most stemming from the work piece
being in contact with the dies for such an extended period of time. The operation is
a time-consuming process due to the amount and length of steps. The work piece
will cool faster because the dies are in contact with work piece; the dies facilitate
drastically more heat transfer than the surrounding atmosphere. As the work piece
cools it becomes stronger and less ductile, which may induce cracking if
deformation continues. Therefore heated dies are usually used to reduce heat loss,
promote surface flow, and enable the production of finer details and closer
tolerances. The workpiece may also need to be reheated.
3: Press Forging:
Press forging dies are similar to drop forging dies as also the process in press
forging, the metal is shaped not by means of a series of blows as in drop forging ,
but by means of a single continuous squeezing action. This squeezing is obtained
by means of hydraulic presses. Because of the continuous action of by hydraulic
presses, the material gets uniformly deform through out its entire depth ,the press
forging dies with the various impression , such as fuller, bender and finisher
impression properly arranged .
4: Machine Forging / Upseting Forging:
Unlike the press or drop forging where the material is drawn out , in machine
forging the material is only upset to get the desire shape. As it involves the
upsetting operation some time it is simply called as upset forging. Originally this
was develop for making bolts head in a continuous fashion, but now there are fairly
large number of diverse.
Forging operations:
1: Drawing:
This is the operation in which metal gets elongated with a reduction in the cross
section area. For this, a force is to be applied in a direction perpendicular to the
length axis.

2:Up setting:
This is applied to increase the cross sectional area of the stock at the expanse of the
length. To achieve the length of upsetting force is applied in a direction parallel to
the length axis, For example forming of a bolt head.
3:Fullering:
It a similar to material cross-section is decreased and length increased. To do this;
the bottom fuller is kept in angle hole with the heated stock over the fuller. The top
fuller is then kept above the stock and then with the sledge hammer, and the force
is applied on the top fuller.
4:Edging:
It is a process in which the metal piece is displaced to the desired shape by striking
between two dies edging is frequently as primary drop forging operation.
5:Bending:
Bending is very common forging operation. It is an operation to give a turn to
metal rod or plate. This is required for those which have bends shapes.
6:Punching:
It is a process of producing holes in motel plate is placed over the hollow
cylindrical die. By pressing the punch over the plate the hole is made.
7:Forged welding: It is a process of joining two metal pieces to increase the
length. By the pressing or hammering then when they are at forging temperature. It
is performed in forging shop and hence is called forged welding.
8:Cutting:
It is a process in which a metal rod or plate cut out into two pieces, with the help of
chisel and hammer, when the metal is in red hot condition.
9:Flating and setting down:
Fullering leaves a corrugated surface on the job. Even after a job is forged into
shape with a hammer, the marks of the hammer remains on the upper surface of the
job. To remove hammer marks and corrugation and in order to obtain a smooth
surface on the job, a flatter or set hammer is used.
10: Swaging:
Swaging is done to reduce and finish work for desire size and shape, usually either
round or hexagonal. For small jobs top and bottom swage pair is employed, where
as for large work swage block can be used.




Drop forging diagram

Smith forging process diagram
Press forging process diagram

Machine forging process diagram

Advantages of Machine Forging:
1. Quality of forging is better than drop forging and press forging
2. Maintenance is very cheap in compared with other forging type
3. Raw material wastage is reduced and cost is also very less
4. Upsetting process can be automated
5. Production rate is high in compare with other type of forging
Limitations of Machine Forging:
1. It is not convenient to forge heavier jobs due to material handling difficulties
2. Tooling cost is high
3. Maximum diameter of the stock which can be upset is 25cm
ADVANTAGES OF MACHINE FORGING:
Main advantages 100% reproducibility during the manufacture of forged elements
owing to the presence of CNC (100 scrolls at the machine with will be always
made exactly the same).
High productivity owing to the high rotation speed of output shaft (up to 50 rpm in
the industrial class, up to 20 rpm in the economy class).
Convenience in work owing to smooth adjustment of output shaft rotation speed
(the adjustment for the first detail can be made at a low speed and the batch can be
manufactured at maximum speed).
2-year warranty for the machines.
Advantageous price offer: manufactured machines are cheaper than German
analogues by 50%.
The machines are designed and manufactured taking into account the newest
developments of the companies Mitsubishi, SEW-Eurodrive, PHILIPP Gruppe.
The assembly of the machines is carried out from the components of the leading
German manufacturers.
ADVANTAGES OF FORGING PROCESS:
1.Impurities in the metal in the form of inclusions are broken up, resulting in
structural homogeneity
2.Forging are easily welded, greater strength per unit of cross sectional area
3. Forgings can be held to within fairly close tolerances
4.Relatively smooth surface of the forging
5.Minimum metal removal in machining
6.Better mechanical properties.
7.Ability of the forging to withstand unpredictable loads
8. Superior machining qualities
9.Porosity and blowholes in the metal are largely eliminated
10. Wide range of forgeable metals is available
DIS ADVANTAGES OF FORGING PROCESS:
1.In hot forging due to very high temperature of metal, there is a rapid oxidation or
scaling of the surface resulting in poor surface finish.
2.Tooling and handling cost is very high
3.Many intricate and cored shapes possible only by casting process cannot by
forged
4.Forging cost is more than casting
5. Absolute need for skilled labour
6.Poor material utilization
7. Difficulty of maintaining moderately close tolerances
8.Restricted to simple shapes
9. Less control in determining grain flow, mechanical properties and dimensions
10.Restricted to short run production.

FORGING DEFECTS:
1.Unfilled Sections: Some sections of the die cavity are not completely filled by
flowing metal.
2.Cold shut: This appears as a small crack at the corners of the forging
3.Scale pits: This is seen as irregular depressions on the surface of the forging
4.Die shift: This is caused by the misalignment of the two die halves
5.Flakes : Basically internal ruptures caused by th improper cooling
6.Improper grain flow: This is caused due to improper design of the die
The advantages and disadvantages of hot forging :
Advantages
Increase in ductile strength
High temperature helps in removal of homogeneous substances due to increased
diffusion
Reduction in the pore size
Disadvantages

Lesser tolerance
Warping of material during the cooling process
Undesirable result due to reaction of metal with that of surroundings
Varied metal structure
Advantages of Cold Forging :
Finishing operation is not required
It has very less work during process
In this Fabrication process it is very cost effective.
Cold forging has less impurities
Cold forging Results into smooth shiny surface.
Disadvantages of Cold Forging:
Less ductile metal
Very strong tools are needed
Residual stress
The surface of the metal is to be cleaned before the process starts

RAW MATERIAL SELECTION:
1.Organizational philosophy is to be understood by the raw material supplier
2.The supplier has a stable management system working for quality and
commitment. Check whether the supplier is an ISO certified organization
3.The supplier should maintain high technical standards and have capabile to meet
the future technological innovation.
4. Supplier should be in a position to supply raw materials of quality & quantity as
requested by purchaser
5.There should be no dangers of breaching the corporate secrets
6.Supplier should have a capable of meeting the delivery in schedule and be easily
accessible by road and through communication
7. Supplier should be sincere in fulfilling the commitment according to contract
provision
8. Supplier should have an effective quality updated system
9. Supplier should have a track record of customer satisfaction and organizational
credibility
SOURCING:
Three types : 1. Sole sourcing
2. Multiple sourcing
3. Single sourcing
Sole sourcing : It means the organization is forced to use only one raw material
supplier . This is due to patents, technical specification, location of raw materials.
Multiple sourcing : It is the use of two or more supplier for an item. This type of
sourcing will be based on their quality, price and delivery schedule. This type will
create competition among the supplier, so we get better raw materials and price
will be lower. It eliminate the disruption of supply due to strikes, bundhs and etc.
Single sourcing : It is a planned decision by the organization to select one supplier
for an item when several sources are available. It results in long term contracts and
a partnering relationship.
CASTING PROCESS:
The solidified piece of metal, which is taken out of the mould, is called as
Casting. Casting process is also called as Founding. The word foundry is derived
from latin word fundere meaning melting and pouring.
Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually
poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then
allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected
or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials are usually
metals or various cold setting materials that cure after mixing two or more
components together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is
most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise difficult or
uneconomical to make by other methods
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CASTING PROCESS:
1)Investment casting
2)Permanent mold casting
3)Centrifugal casting
4)Continuous casting
5)Sand casting
TYPES OF CASTING PROCESS:
1)Investment Casting :
Investment casting (known as lost-wax casting in art) is a process that has been
practiced for thousands of years, with lost wax process being one of the oldest
known metal forming techniques.
Investment casting derives its name from the fact that the pattern is invested, or
surrounded, with a refractory material. The wax patterns require extreme care for
they are not strong enough to withstand forces encountered during the mold
making. One advantage of investment casting it that the wax can be reused.


The process is suitable for repeatable production of net shape components,
from a variety of different metals and high performance alloys. Although generally
used for small castings, this process has been used to produce complete aircraft
door frames, with steel castings of up to 300 kg and aluminum castings of up to
30 kg. Compared to other casting processes such as die casting or sand casting it
can be an expensive process, however the components that can be produced using
investment casting can incorporate intricate contours, and in most cases the
components are cast near net shape, so requiring little or no rework once cast.
2 .Permanent Mold Casting
Permanent mold casting (typically for non-ferrous metals) requires a set-up time on
the order of weeks to prepare a steel tool, after which production rates of 5-50
pieces/hr-mold are achieved with an upper mass limit of 9 kg per iron alloy item
(cf., up to 135 kg for many nonferrous metal parts) and a lower limit of about 0.1
kg. Steel cavities are coated with a refractory wash of acetylene soot before
processing to allow easy removal of the work piece and promote longer tool
life. Permanent molds have a limited life before wearing out. Worn molds require
either refinishing or replacement. Cast parts from a permanent mold generally
show 20% increase in tensile strength and 30% increase in elongation as
compared to the products of sand casting.


The only necessary input is the coating applied regularly. Typically, permanent
mold casting is used in forming iron, aluminum, magnesium, and copper based
alloys. The process is highly automated.
3 .Centrifugal casting


Centrifugal casting is both gravity- and pressure-independent since it creates its
own force feed using a temporary sand mold held in a spinning chamber at up to
900 N (90 g). Lead time varies with the application. Semi- and true-centrifugal
processing permit 30-50 pieces/hr-mold to be produced, with a practical limit for
batch processing of approximately 9000 kg total mass with a typical per-item limit
of 2.3-4.5 kg.
Industrially, the centrifugal casting of railway wheels was an early application of
the method developed by German industrial company Krupp and this capability
enabled the rapid growth of the enterprise.
4. Continuous casting

Continuous casting is a refinement of the casting process for the continuous,
high-volume production of metal sections with a constant cross-section. Molten
metal is poured into an open-ended, water-cooled copper mold, which allows a
'skin' of solid metal to form over the still-liquid centre. The strand, as it is now
called, is withdrawn from the mold and passed into a chamber of rollers and water
sprays; the rollers support the thin skin of the strand while the sprays remove heat
from the strand, gradually solidifying the strand from the outside in.
Continuous casting is used due to the lower costs associated with
continuous production of a standard product, and also increases the quality of
the final product. Metals such as steel, copper and aluminum are continuously
cast, with steel being the metal with the greatest tonnages cast using this method.

5 . Sand casting

Sand casting is one of the most popular and simplest types of casting that has
been used for centuries. Sand casting allows for smaller batches to be made
compared to permanent mold casting and a very reasonable cost. Not only does
this method allow for manufacturers to create products for a good cost there are
other benefits to sand casting such as there are very little size operations. From
castings that fit in the palm of your hand to train beds (one casting can create the
entire bed for one rail car) it can be done with sand casting. Sand casting also
allows for most metals to be cast depending in the type of sand used for the molds.
Sand casting requires a lead time of days for production at high output rates (1-20
pieces/hr-mold), and is unsurpassed for large-part production. Green (moist) sand
has almost no part weight limit, whereas dry sand has a practical part mass limit of
2300-2700 kg. Minimum part weight ranges from 0.075-0.1 kg. The sand is
bonded together using clays (as in green sand) or chemical binders, or polymerized
oils (such as motor oil.) Sand in most operations can be recycled many times and
requires little additional input.
ADVANTAGES OF CASTING PROCESS:
1- Low Cost
2- No skilled operators needed
3- Equipments are cheap and easy to deal with.
4- Suitable for few small production rates
5- Can produce large (very large) castings (i.e. Pit casting in a very large whole in
the ground the molten metal is poured)
Advantages of special casting process over sand casting
Greater dimensional accuracy.
Higher metallurgical quality.
Lower production cost (in certain cases).
Ability to cast extremely thin sections.
High production rates.
Better surface finish on the castings; therefore low labour and finishing
costs.
Minimum need for further machining of castings.
Castings may possess a denser and finer grain structure.
Castings are slightly stronger and more ductile than solid mould castings
ADVANTAGES OF CASTING PROCESS:
The reasons for the success of the casting process are:
Owing to physical properties, some metals can only be cast since they cannot be
re-modelled into bars, rods, plates or other shapes.
It's a process highly adaptable to the requirements of mass production. Large
numbers of a given casting can be produced quickly. For example; in the
automotive industry there is massive production of cast engine blocks and
transmission cases.
Certain light metal alloys because of their respective strength and weakness, can be
produced only as castings.
Shows excellent bearing qualities.
Some of the key Advantages of Casting over Forging can be with respect to
the following:
Design flexibility
High production rate
Large and complex parts
ADVANTAGES OF CASTING PROCESS:

1. On Basis of Size of Object to be Manufactured:
Size of cast objects vary over large range. An object from 5gm to 200tonn,
anything can be cast.
2. On Basis of Complexity:

Casting can be effectively used for complex shaped objects. It can work where
general machining processes can not be used, as in complicated inner and outer
shapes of object.
3. Weight Saving:

Component made with casting process is lighter than the component made with
other machining processes

4. Control Over The Process:
Casting provides versatility. Wide range of properties can be attained by adjusting
percentage of alloying elements.
5. Accuracy:
Casting can be made with hair like precision provided proper molding and casting
technique is employed.
6. Fibrous Structure:
Only casting have this advantage. Casting leaves component with its solid fibrous
structure which inherit great compressive strength. So, component subjected to
compressive strength are made with casting ex. IC engine cylinder.
7. Control Over Grain Size:
Grain size of cast component can be easily controlled by controlling cooling rate
which in turn can be used to modify the properties.
8. Low Cost:
Casing is one of cheapest method for mass production.
DIS ADVANTAGES OF CASTING PROCESS:
1. Weakness of Casting
Requires close process control and monitoring
Shrinkage porosity may occur
Metallic projections
Cracks, hot tearing, coldshuts
Laps, oxides , Misruns, insufficient volume , Inclusions
2.Though casting is cheapest for MASS Production, it becomes non economical
in case of JOB production.
3.Sand casting leaves rough surface which needs machining in most of cases. It
adds up the cost in production.
4.Again in sand casting, poor dimensional accuracy is achieved.
5.Cast products are superior for compressible loads but they are very poor in
tensile or shock loads.(They are brittle).
1- Poor surface finish, due to sand indentation and oxidizing medium ..etc.
2- Many defects arise in the casting (no good control on the process , die
casting is much better)
3- Not suitable for mass production, oftenly used to produce few number of
products compared with other casting processes which produce thousands
and millions.
4- Dangerous operation , may cause harmful injuries ..etc.
5.Only good for basic shapes
6.Can usually only be used once
7.Accuracy of casting sizes aren't great.
Consequently, this process costs more than other forms of casting

Another disadvantage of metal casting is that it is extremely dangerous. People
involved in this industrial process must be highly trained, and even then, accidents
happen. Molten metal can reach temperatures of over 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit, so
one small mistake or equipment malfunction can lead to serious injury or death.
Sand casting is the cheapest process but also the least accurate, thus making it
unsuitable for precise work. In short, metal casting requires a trade-off between
quality and cost.
DEFECTS IN CASTING PROCESS:
1.BLOW HOLES :Gases and steam are formed when molten metal is poured
2. SCAB: Erosion or breaking down a portion of mould
3. SHIFT: Mismatching of casting sections
4. SWELL: Enlargement of casting
5.SHRINKS: Shrinkage cavity on casting surface
6.HOT TEAR: Internal or external discontinuity in the casting
7.METAL PENETRATION: Molten metal penetrating the sand. so casting will
have rough external surface
8.HONEY COMBING: Number of small cavities present in the surface
9.RUNOUT: Metal leaks out of mould during pouring
10.CRACKS OR WRAPAGE: Small cracks appear on the sharp corners of the
casting
UNIT 3
COMPONENT DESIGN - MACHINING
Principles of DRILLS:
A drill is a tool fitted with a cutting tool attachment or driving tool attachment,
usually a drill bit or driver bit, used for boring holes in various materials or
fastening various materials together with the use of fasteners
Drills are commonly used in wood working, metal working, construction and
do-it-yourself projects. Specially designed drills are also used in medicine, space
missions and other applications. Drills are available with a wide variety of
performance characteristics, such as power and capacity.
A fastener is a hardware device that mechanically joins or affixes two or more
objects together. It is a Devices that are used to join and assemble parts together
Various type of DRILLS:
There are many types of drills: some are powered manually, others use
electricity (electric drill) or compressed air (pneumatic drill) as the motive power,
and a minority are driven by an internal combustion engine (for example, earth
drilling augers).
Pistol-grip (corded) drill

Hammer drill:The hammer drill is similar to a standard electric drill, with the
exception that it is provided with a hammer action for drilling masonry.
Rotary hammer drill: The rotoary hammer drill (also known as a rotary
hammer, roto hammer drill or masonry drill) combines a primary dedicated
hammer mechanism with a separate rotation mechanism, and is used for more
substantial material such as masonry or concrete
Cordless drills:
A cordless drill is an electric drill which uses rechargeable batteries
Drill press:
A drill press consists of a base, column (or pillar), table,spindle (or quill), and drill
head, usually driven by an induction motor.
Radial arm drill press: Radial arm drill press controls
A radial arm drill press is a large geared head drill press in which the head can be
moved along an arm that radiates from the machine's column.
Milling cutters:
Milling cutters are cutting tools typically used in milling machines or machining
centres to perform milling operations (and occasionally in other machine tools).
They remove material by their movement within the machine (e.g., a ball nose
mill) or directly from the cutter's shape (e.g., a form tool such as a hobbing
cutter).
Various parameters of milling cutters:
1.Shape
2.Teeth
3.Helix angle
4.Finishing
5.Coatings 6. Shank 7. Centre cutting
Types of Milling Cutters:
1. End Mill
2. Slot Mill
3. Roughing End Mill
4. Ball Nose Cutter
5. Slab Mill
6. Side and Face cutter
7. In Volute Gear Cutter
Factors consider in Selecting a Milling Cutter :
1. Material 2. Diameter
3. Flutes 4. Coating 5. Helix angle
Keyways: In mechanical engineering, a key is a machine element used to connect
a rotating machine element to a shaft. The key prevents relative rotation
between the two parts and enables torque transmission. A key is used for
temporary fastening. For a key to function, the shaft and rotating machine
element must have a keyway, also known as a keyseat, which is a slot or pocket
the key fits in. The whole system is called a keyed joint
Various types of Keyways:
1.Sunk keys
2.Parallel keys
3.Tapered keys
4.Scotch key or Dutch key
5.Spline key
Doweling Procedure:
A dowel is a solid cylindrical rod, usually made of wood, plastic, or metal. In its
original manufactured form, a dowel is called a dowel rod. Dowel rods are often
cut into short lengths called dowel pins. Dowels are employed in numerous,
diverse applications including as axles in toys, detents (e.g., in gymnastics grips),
structural reinforcements in cabinet making, and supports for tiered wedding
cakes.
Dowel pins are used to hold two pieces of wood
together. They are often used as an alternative
to glue or screws,...
Other uses include:
As furniture shelf supports
As moveable game pieces (i.e., pegs)
As supports for hanging items such as clothing, key rings, tools, toilet roll
dispensers and picture frames
To precisely align two objects in a dowel joint: a hole is bored in both objects and
the dowel pin is inserted into the aligned holes
As a core to wrap cable or textiles around
Counter Sunk Screws: A countersink (symbol: ) is a conical hole cut into a
manufactured object, or the cutter used to cut such a hole. A countersink may
also be used to remove the burr left from a drilling or tapping operation thereby
improving the finish of the product and removing any hazardous sharp edges.
Types: 1.Cross-hole Countersink Cutter
2.Form Countersink Cutter
3. Fluted Countersink Cutter
4. Back Countersink Cutter
Advantage of Counter sunk screws in joints :
1. Easy to fasten and remove or replace
2. Different types of heads are possible--straight cut, Allen, star, and many other
3. The pitch of thread can be varied to ensure compatibility where only needed
4. The thread could be very close ensuring tight fit or distanced to be used on
wood

Disadvantage Counter sunk screws in joints :
1. Needs an external too
2. Needs a cut on the head, special process
3. Needs threading, special process
4. Wastage of material during manufacture
Screws are used to fit materials such as chipboard, MDF and natural woods
together although there is a type of screw called a self-tapping screw that can be
used for joining thin metal sheet. screws can be used to join materials together
permanently although as they can be unused with relative ease they are also
good as a way of fixing materials temporarily. COUNTERSUNK - SLOT HEAD: This
can be used for general woodworking for example fitting hinges to doors.
Because the screw is countersunk it can be tightened 'flush' to the surface of the
material.
SIMPLIFICATION BY AMALGATION:
In general, amalgamation is the process of combining or uniting multiple entities
into one form.
Definition of 'Amalgamation
The combination of one or more companies into a new entity. An amalgamation is
distinct from a merger because neither of the combining companies survives as a
legal entity. Rather, a completely new entity is formed to house the combined
assets and liabilities of both companies.
This sense of the term amalgamation has generally fallen out of popular use and
the terms "merger" or "consolidation" are often used instead
"Amalgamation is a union of two or more companies, made with an intention to
form a new company."
In terms of finance, the definition of amalgamation can be given as under.
"Amalgamation is an agreement (deal) between two or more companies to
consolidate (strengthen) their business activities by establishing a new company
having a separate legal existence."
AMALGATION:
A dowel is a solid cylindrical rod, usually made of wood, plastic, or metal. In its
original manufactured form, a dowel is called a dowel rod. Dowel rods are often
cut into short lengths called dowel pins. Dowels are employed in numerous,
diverse applications including as axles in toys, detents (e.g., in gymnastics grips),
structural reinforcements in cabinet making, and supports for tiered wedding
cakes.
Example of Amalgamation: Bank a and Bank b proposed to be a BANK ab
STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE OF AMALGATION:
1. Intimate the Stock Exchange about the Board Meeting in which the proposal for
amalgamation will be considered.
2. Conduct the Board Meeting for considering the proposal of amalgamation. The
Board has to inprincipally approve the amalgamation and appoint Chartered
Accountant as Valuer for recommending the share exchange ratio and Advocates
for representing the matter on behalf of the Company before the Honble High
Court.
3. Intimate Stock Exchange about the decision at the Board and intimation about
4. Hold the Board Meeting to approve the Scheme of Amalgamation and the
Share Exchange Ratio.
5. Intimate Stock Exchange about the result of the Board Meeting and the Share
Exchange Ratio.
6. Apply to the Stock Exchange(s) where the Shares of the Company are listed
under Clause 24(f) of the Listing Agreements.
7. After 30 days of making the above application, apply to the Honble High Court
seeking directions for holding meeting of Shareholders & Creditors.
8. Obtain Order from the Honble High Court convening the meeting of the
Shareholders &Creditors meeting and for publishing advertisements for the same.
Creditors meetings are not required in the Transferee Company.
9. Publish the Advertisements in Newspapers about meetings in accordance with
the schedule given by the Honble High Court.
10. Send printed notices of court convened meetings to the Shareholders &
Creditors in accordance with the instruction of the Honble High Court. The
notices have to be sent Under Postal Certification only (UPC). 11. Send 3 copies to
Stock Exchanges where the Company's Shares are listed.
12. Prepare the Affidavit for Dispatch of Notices and for Publication of
Advertisements and file them with the Honble High Court alongwith original
proof of dispatch and original proof of publication of advertisements.
13. Conduct the Court convened Meetings of the shareholders and creditors in
accordance with the instructions of the Honble High Court. Please note that this
resolution has to be passed by Special Majority i.e. more than 50% in number and
more than 75% in value have to vote in favour of the resolution. The result of the
meeting has to be decided by Poll only.
14. Inform the Stock Exchanges regarding the outcome of the meeting and within
reasonable time, submit Minutes of the Meeting.
15. After the resolution has been approved, File Form No. 23 with the Registrar of
Companies (ROC) within 30 days from the date of the meeting.
16. Within 7 days of the Meeting, the Chairman's Report for the meetings has to
be filed with the Honble High Court.
17. Within 7 days of filing the Chairmans Report, the Company Petition has to be
filed with the Honble High Court for approving the Scheme of Amalgamation.
18. Obtain an Order of admission of petition from Honble High Court. The
Honble High Court would order a copy of the Petition to be served to the office
of the Regional Director (RD) and the Official Liquidator (OL).
19. Submit a Certified Copy of the Petition with the office of the RD and the OL.
The RD would require a copy of the Petition to be submitted to the office of the
ROC and hence, it is advisable to be proactive and file the copy of petition with
the office of the ROC as well.
20. The ROC will investigate into the compliances by the Companies and whether
the scheme is prejudicial to the interest of the shareholders or creditors. The ROC
will submit its report to the RD.
21. The RD will require details from the Companies and make a separate study of
the Scheme of Amalgamation and whether the scheme is prejudicial to the
interest of the shareholders or creditors. The RD will prepare its report and sent it
to the ROC. The ROC will forward the report to the Government Counsel.
22. The OL will recommend and appoint an auditor for verifying the details of the
Transferor Company and to investigate into the affairs of the Company. The
auditor appointed as per the instructions of the OL will submit a report on the
affairs of the Company. The Company has to also submit some details to the
office of the OL. The OL shall prepare his report and submit to the Honble High
Court / Government Counsel.
23. The matter would now be taken up for hearing before the Honble High Court.
The Honble High Court would consider the arguments from both the sides and
depending on the merits of the case, would issue an order. I assume that the
Honble High Court has approved the Scheme of Amalgamation.
24. File the Honble High Court Order with ROC in Form No. 21. The merger
becomes effective once the Honble High Court Order is filed with the ROC.
Advantages of Amalgamations :
1.Scale of economy
2. Use of common resources
3. Increase of goodwill
4.Avoidence of internal competition
The main benefits or advantages of amalgamation are as follows:
1.Operating Economics: Expenses associated with business and its allied
activities.
2.Diversification: It means to have presence (establishment) in different business
ventures, which are not related to each other.
3.Financial Economics: It means expenses associated with the acquisition of funds
required to run the business
4.Growth: amalgamated company grow faster than individual companies.
5.Managerial Effectiveness: Manager's skill to attain the desired outcome in the
business operations.
6.Helps to Face Competition: Business strategies that help to face market
competition with ease and confidence.
7.Revival of Sick Units: Restarting the earlier shutdown companies.
8.Tax Advantages: When one of the amalgamated companies enjoys a subsidized
rate of taxation.
9.Increase in Market Share: Increasing the combined sales of the amalgamated
companies
10.Increases GoodWill: Creates goodwill in the market.
11.Miscellaneous Advantages: It helps to increase the market price , It promotes
the brand value

DisAdvantages of Amalgamations :
1.Culture Clash :
When two firms merge, it is more than a coming together of two names or brands
-- it is a real merger of people who bring along a specific corporate culture
2. Dis-economies of Scale:
When businesses merge, it is often to achieve economies of scale. Larger
organizations are typically able to produce goods and services more efficiently
and at a lower per-unit cost than smaller businesses because fixed costs are
spread out over a larger number of units
3. Consumer Perceptions :
When two companies merge, they need to consider how consumers view the two
firms and whether or not they view them in a compatible way
4. Layoffs :
Merging two businesses is often a good method for reducing the labor force of
the two organizations. For instance, a company may combine its two offices into
one and reduce the number of staff performing the same duties
5.Disclosing of competition: Healthy competition may be eliminated
6.Elemination of share holder: reluctant shareholders may try to prevent an
amalgamation - the minority shareholders may have to be paid out in cash
7. Adjustment Period :
Mergers require an adjustment period to combine the operations of the two
companies.
8. Stress :
The uncertainty surrounding mergers can create a high level of stress for
employees. Even before the merger becomes official, there can be uncertainty
about its impact on jobs, as mergers sometimes cause the need for job
elimination
9. Less Flexibility:
Mergers can cause two relatively small, nimble organizations to become one less
flexible large entity. Decisions that used to be made quickly may now have to pass
through several layers of management. Slower decision-making may result in lost
opportunities in the marketplace.
10.Possible Failure:
There is no guarantee that a merger will succeed. Mergers can fail for a number of
reasons, such as a poorly structured financial arrangement. Even if the merger
deal is financially sound, it is always possible that divergent corporate cultures will
not mesh or that workers will not be able to adapt to the changes required of
them.
CLASSIFICATION OF AMALGAMATIONS / MERGER :
1. Horizontal amalgamation: It means combination two companies dealing
with same business inorder to increase the share and also the business
competition. Horizontal mergers take place where the two merging
companies both produce similar product in the same industry
2. Vertical amalgamation : It is an amalgamation takes place between
amalgamated companies with customer or with supplier. Vertical mergers
occur when two firms, each working at different stages in the production of
the same good. In this form, the companies in merger decide to combine all
the operations and productions under one shelter
3. Conglomerate amalgamation : Main purpose is diversification of risk.
Conglomerate mergers take place when the two firms operate in different
industries. Conglomerate merger is a kind of venture in which two or more
companies belonging to different industrial sectors combine their
operations.
4. Co - Generic Merger :
Co-generic merger is a kind in which two or more companies in association
are some way or the other related to the production processes, business
markets, or basic required technologies. It includes the extension of the
product line or acquiring components that are all the way required in the
daily operations
DESIGN FOR MACHINABILITY:
Design Guidelines for Machining
The section below contains examples of some design guidelines for machining.
These guidelines may help companies to avoid rejections and rework due to
engineering errors leading to higher cost of quality and delay in the delivery to
customer.
1.Design for manufacturability (also sometimes known as design for
manufacturing or DFM) is the general engineering art of designing products in
such a way that they are easy to manufacture. The basic idea exists in almost
all engineering disciplines, but of course the details differ widely depending on
the manufacturing technology.
2.This design practice not only focuses on the design aspect of a part but also
on the producibility.
3.In simple language it means relative ease to manufacture a product, part or
assembly.
4.DFM describes the process of designing or engineering a product in order to
facilitate the manufacturing process in order to reduce its manufacturing
costs.
The design stage is very important in product design. Most of the product
lifecycle costs are committed at design stage.
The product design is not just based on good design but it should be possible
to produce by manufacturing as well. Often an otherwise good design is
difficult or impossible to produce.
Typically a design engineer will create a model or design and send it to
manufacturing for review and invite feedback. This process is called a design
review.
If this process is not followed diligently, the product may fail at the
manufacturing stage.
If these DFM guidelines are not followed, it will result in iterative design, loss
of manufacturing time and overall resulting in longer time to market.
Hence many organizations have adopted concept of Design for
Manufacturing.
Other factors may affect the manufacturability such as
1. The type of raw material,
2.The form of the raw material,
3. Dimensional tolerances
4. Secondary processing such as finishing.
DESIGN FOR MACHINABILITY:
Design and shape
As machining is a subtractive process, the time to remove the material is a
major factor in determining the machining cost. The volume and shape of the
material to be removed as well as how fast the tools can be fed will determine
the machining time. When using milling cutters, the strength and stiffness of
the tool which is determined in part by the length to diameter ratio of the tool
will play the largest role in determining that speed. The shorter the tool is
relative to its diameter the faster it can be fed through the material. A ratio of
3:1 (L:D) or under is optimum. If that ratio cannot be achieved, a solution like
this depicted here can be used. For holes, the length to diameter ratio of the
tools are less critical, but should still be kept under 10:1.
There are many other types of features which are more or less expensive to
machine. Generally chamfers cost less to machine than radii on outer
horizontal edges. Undercuts are more expensive to machine. Features that
require smaller tools, regardless of L:D ratio, are more expensive.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR ECONOMY :
The top diagram gives the conventional picture (used across the board by
capitalists, socialists and communists alike) of the major factors involved in
economic activity. It begins with the three "factors of production": land, labor,
and manufactured capital.
Land was initially included in recognition of the importance of agriculture, but
as industrialization progressed it has been broadened to represent all raw
materials, like minerals and timber.
Labor covers all direct human inputs into economic activity, although in
practice it has been treated largely as a simple head-count e.g., how big is
the "labor-force" or how many unemployed.
Manufactured Capital refers to buildings, tools, and equipment.
The oval labeled Economic Activity stands for the process by which Labor, with
the aid of Manufactured Capital, converts Land (as raw materials) into Goods
& Services.
Some of these Goods & Services need to be Invested back into the factors of
production to either maintain or improve them. Whatever is left over can then
be Consumed to produce Utility or Welfare for individuals and households.
THE FIVE FORMS OF WEALTH
Environmental Capital (EC) expands beyond the idea of Land to include all
natural systems, such as the atmosphere, biological systems, and even the sun.
Human Capital (HC) expands beyond Labor to include quality as well as
quantity. According to Ekins "Human Capital has three components: health,
knowledge and skills, and motivation."
Social and Organizational Capital (SOC) recognizes a major form of wealth that
is ignored in the conventional diagram. It includes all of the interpersonal
"software" that enables societies and organizations to function: habits, norms,
roles, traditions, regulations, policies, etc
Manufactured Capital (MC) includes, as in the conventional picture, buildings,
tools, and equipment. In this picture, however, the idea of MC is broadened in
two ways. First, the conventional practice is usually to count as MC only
equipment, etc., used by businesses.
Credit Capital (CC) is another reservoir of wealth not included on the
conventional diagram, nor in Ekins work. It is defined here as a reservoir of
credits and promises, so it includes money and debt, but not stocks or deeds,
which are ownership rights tied to other forms of capital.
Among the advantages, we find the following:
1.Competition between different firms leads to increased efficiency.
2. Most people work harder (the threat of losing one's job is a great
motivator).
3. There is more innovation as firms look for new products to sell and cheaper
ways to do their work;
4. Foreign investment is attracted as word gets out about the new
opportunities for earning profit.
5. The size, power, and cost of the state bureaucracy is correspondingly
reduced as various activities that are usually associated with the public sector
are taken over by private enterprises.
6. Many people quickly acquire the technical and social skills and knowledge
needed to function in this new economy;
7. A great variety of consumer goods become available for those who have the
money to buy them; and
8.Large parts of the society take on a bright, merry and colorful air as everyone
busies himself trying to sell something to someone else. Free market responds
quickly to the peoples wants: Wide Variety of goods and services: Efficient
use of resources encouraged:
DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR ASSEMBLY :
Design for assembly (DFA) is a process by which products are designed with
ease of assembly in mind. If a product contains fewer parts it will take less
time to assemble, thereby reducing assembly costs. In addition, if the parts
are provided with features which make it easier to grasp, move, orient and
insert them, this will also reduce assembly time and assembly costs. The
reduction of the number of parts in an assembly has the added benefit of
generally reducing the total cost of parts in the assembly
1. Simplify the design and reduce the number of parts
2. Standardize and use common parts and materials
3. Design for ease of fabrication
(i).For higher volume parts, consider castings or stampings to reduce
machining
(i)Use near net shapes for molded and forged parts to minimize machining and
processing effort.
(iii)Design for ease of fixturing by providing large solid mounting surface &
parallel clamping surfaces
(iv)Avoid designs requiring sharp corners or points in cutting tools - they break
easier
(v)Avoid thin walls, thin webs, deep pockets or deep holes to withstand
clamping & machining without distortion
vi)Avoid tapers & contours as much as possible in favor of rectangular shapes
(vii)Avoid undercuts which require special operations & tools
(viii)Avoid hardened or difficult machined materials unless essential to
requirements
(ix)Put machined surfaces on same plane or with same diameter to minimize
number of operations
x)Design work pieces to use standard cutters, drill bit sizes or other tools
(xi)Avoid small holes (drill bit breakage greater) & length to diameter ratio > 3
(chip clearance & straightness deviation)
4. Design within process capabilities and avoid unneeded surface finish
requirements
5.Mistake proof product design and assembly
6. Design for parts orientation and handling
7. Minimize flexible parts and interconnections
8. Design for ease of assembly
9. Design for efficient joining and fastening.
10. Design modular products
11. Design for automated production.
12. Design printed circuit boards for assembly.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR ACCESSIBILITY :
Accessibility is the degree to which a product, device, service, or environment
is available to as many people as possible. Accessibility can be viewed as the
"ability to access" and benefit from some system or entity.
Accessibility is not to be confused with usability, which is the extent to which a
product (such as a device, service, or environment) can be used by specified
users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction
in a specified context of use.
Principles of Accessibility :
Perceivable : Content should be consumable
- Available through sight, hearing, or touch.
Operable: Interactions should be operable by everyone
- Compatible with keyboard or mouse.
Understandable : Content should be plain and clear to comprehend
- User-friendly, easy to comprehend.
Robust - Works across browsers, assistive technologies, mobile devices, old
devices/browsers, etc. Follows standards.
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
Quick distribution of scholarly research. There is no need to wait for months,
for example, for an article to fit with the theme of a journal before it can be
published.
Free worldwide access for a large audience. This way makes it possible for
people without connections to a scholarly institution to have access to results
of scholarly research.
Greater visibility of scholarly output for both the researcher and the research
institution. This can have a status-heightening effect.
Research shows that open access publications are cited more often on the
average than closed publications.
Efficient archiving and availability.
Guaranteed sustainable storage and accessibility.
Disadvantages
Prestige. Faculties and management teams often base their evaluation of a
scholar and the value of research on citation indices and the Journal Impact
Factor of the scholarly journal in which the researcher published. This
mentality must change before open access can replace the traditional form of
publishing.
Quality control. In contrast with the strictly regulated process of peer review,
quality control differs from one publication to the next in open access. The
quality control is especially low in repositories; some repositories also contain
dissertations as well as theses (RePub, however, does not contain theses). The
methods of quality control in open access journals vary greatly.
APCs (Article Processing Charges). Open access journals often ask for APCs,
which are meant to be paid by the author or the scholarly institution.
Consequently, new scholars (primarily) are not in the financial position to
publish in open access journals.
Fewer options among journals with status/high impact factor.
General Principles
Allow for flexibility
Provide choices in features and ways that tasks can be accomplished
Accommodate right- and left-handed use
Allow the user to customize settings whenever possible
Keep in mind that people may be using adaptive technologies
Be simple and intuitive
Do not design something differently from user expectations just to be different
Eliminate unnecessary complexity , Provide feedback
Minimize errors
Provide warnings , Build fail-safe features when possible
Do not establish patterns when you want people to pay attention
Include redundant modalities
Redundancy provides flexibility for different user preferences, system
configurations, or user abilities. This can be accomplished by using more than
one way to represent, display, and enter data, such as:
using both a beep and a menu bar flash to notify a user of an error using text
to label images
redundantly allowing a user to issue commands by typing or selecting
something with a pointer
Avoid side effects
Side effects are actions that occur as the result of user actions that do not
seem to the user to be related to the primary goal of the action. For instance,
when starting a program that changes system configurations (such as screen
and sound settings) it should change them back when the program is not being
used.
Side effects should be avoided because they cause particular problems for
novice users and disabled users who may have difficulty detecting or
correcting certain types of side effects.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR ASSEMBLY :
An assembly line is a manufacturing process (most of the time called a
progressive assembly) in which parts (usually interchangeable parts) are added
as the semi-finished assembly moves from work station to work station where
the parts are added in sequence until the final assembly is produced. By
mechanically moving the parts to the assembly work and moving the semi-
finished assembly from work station to work station, a finished product can be
assembled much faster and with much less labor than by having workers carry
parts to a stationary piece for assembly.
Assembly lines are the common method of assembling complex items such as
automobiles and other transportation equipment, household appliances and
electronic goods.
The principles of assembly are these:
(1) Place the tools and the men in the sequence of the operation so that each
component part shall travel the least possible distance while in the process
of finishing.
(2) Use work slides or some other form of carrier so that when a workman
completes his operation, he drops the part always in the same place
which place must always be the most convenient place to his handand if
possible have gravity carry the part to the next workman for his operation.
(3) Use sliding assembling lines by which the parts to be assembled are
delivered at convenient distances.
[

An assembly line is a manufacturing process (most of the time called a
progressive assembly) in which parts (usually interchangeable parts) are
added as the semi-finished assembly moves from work station to work
station where the parts are added in sequence until the final assembly is
produced. By mechanically moving the parts to the assembly work and
moving the semi-finished assembly from work station to work station, a
finished product can be assembled much faster and with much less labor
than by having workers carry parts to a stationary piece for assembly.
Assembly lines are the common method of assembling complex items such
as automobiles and other transportation equipment, household appliances
and electronic goods.