:: Basic Networking Tutorial ::

What is a computer Network?

A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one
another over a shared network medium.A computer network is a collection of two or
more connected computers. When these computers are joined in a network, people can
share files and peripherals such as modems, printers, tape backup drives, or CD-R!
drives. When networks at multiple locations are connected usin" services available from
phone companies, people can send e-mail, share links to the "lobal #nternet, or conduct
videoconferences in real time with other remote users. As companies rely on applications
like electronic mail and database mana"ement for core business operations, computer
networkin" becomes increasin"ly more important.
$very network includes%
At least two computers &erver or Client workstation.
'etworkin" #nterface Card(s )'#C*
A connection medium, usually a wire or cable, althou"h wireless
communication between networked computers and peripherals is also
possible.
'etwork peratin" system software, such as !icrosoft Windows '+ or
,---, 'ovell 'etWare, .ni/ and 0inu/.
Types of Networks:
LANs (Local Area Networks)
A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one
another over a shared network medium. 0A's are networks usually confined to a
"eo"raphic area, such as a sin"le buildin" or a colle"e campus. 0A's can be small,
linkin" as few as three computers, but often link hundreds of computers used by
thousands of people. +he development of standard networkin" protocols and media has
resulted in worldwide proliferation of 0A's throu"hout business and educational
or"ani1ations.
WANs (Wide Area Networks)
Wide area networkin" combines multiple 0A's that are "eo"raphically separate. +his is
accomplished by connectin" the different 0A's usin" services such as dedicated leased
phone lines, dial-up phone lines )both synchronous and asynchronous*, satellite links, and
data packet carrier services. Wide area networkin" can be as simple as a modem and
remote access server for employees to dial into, or it can be as comple/ as hundreds of
branch offices "lobally linked usin" special routin" protocols and filters to minimi1e the
e/pense of sendin" data sent over vast distances.
nternet
+he #nternet is a system of linked networks that are worldwide in scope and facilitate data
communication services such as remote lo"in, file transfer, electronic mail, the World
Wide Web and news"roups.
With the meteoric rise in demand for connectivity, the #nternet has become a
communications hi"hway for millions of users. +he #nternet was initially restricted to
military and academic institutions, but now it is a full-fled"ed conduit for any and all
forms of information and commerce. #nternet websites now provide personal,
educational, political and economic resources to every corner of the planet.
ntranet
With the advancements made in browser-based software for the #nternet, many private
or"ani1ations are implementin" intranets. An intranet is a private network utili1in"
#nternet-type tools, but available only within that or"ani1ation. 2or lar"e or"ani1ations,
an intranet provides an easy access mode to corporate information for employees.
!ANs (!etropolitan area Networks)
+he refers to a network of computers with in a City.
"#N ("irtual #ri$ate Network)
34' uses a techni5ue known as tunnelin" to transfer data securely on the #nternet to a
remote access server on your workplace network. .sin" a 34' helps you save money by
usin" the public #nternet instead of makin" lon"6distance phone calls to connect securely
with your private network. +here are two ways to create a 34' connection, by dialin" an
#nternet service provider )#&4*, or connectin" directly to #nternet.
%ategories of Network:
Network can &e di$ided in to two main categories:
4eer-to-peer.
&erver 6 based.
#n peer-to-peer networkin" there are no dedicated servers or hierarchy amon" the
computers. All of the computers are e5ual and therefore known as peers. 'ormally each
computer serves as Client7&erver and there is no one assi"ned to be an administrator
responsible for the entire network.
4eer-to-peer networks are "ood choices for needs of small or"ani1ations where the users
are allocated in the same "eneral area, security is not an issue and the or"ani1ation and
the network will have limited "rowth within the foreseeable future.
+he term Client7server refers to the concept of sharin" the work involved in processin"
data between the client computer and the most powerful server computer.
The client'ser$er network is the most efficient way to pro$ide:
Databases and mana"ement of applications such as &preadsheets, Accountin",
Communications and Document mana"ement.
'etwork mana"ement.
Centrali1ed file stora"e.
+he client7server model is basically an implementation of distributed or cooperative
processin". At the heart of the model is the concept of splittin" application functions
between a client and a server processor. +he division of labor between the different
processors enables the application desi"ner to place an application function on the
processor that is most appropriate for that function. +his lets the software desi"ner
optimi1e the use of processors--providin" the "reatest possible return on investment for
the hardware.
Client7server application desi"n also lets the application provider mask the actual location
of application function. +he user often does not know where a specific operation is
e/ecutin". +he entire function may e/ecute in either the 4C or server, or the function may
be split between them. +his maskin" of application function locations enables system
implementers to up"rade portions of a system over time with a minimum disruption of
application operations, while protectin" the investment in e/istin" hardware and
software.
The () !odel:
pen &ystem #nterconnection )&#* reference model has become an #nternational
standard and serves as a "uide for networkin". +his model is the best known and most
widely used "uide to describe networkin" environments. 3endors desi"n network
products based on the specifications of the &# model. #t provides a description of how
network hardware and software work to"ether in a layered fashion to make
communications possible. #t also helps with trouble shootin" by providin" a frame of
reference that describes how components are supposed to function.
+here are seven to "et familiar with and these are the physical layer, data link layer,
network layer, transport layer, session layer, presentation layer, and the application layer.
4hysical 0ayer, is just that the physical parts of the network such as wires, cables,
and there media alon" with the len"th. Also this layer takes note of the electrical
si"nals that transmit data throu"hout system.
Data 0ink 0ayer, this layer is where we actually assi"n meanin" to the electrical
si"nals in the network. +he layer also determines the si1e and format of data sent
to printers, and other devices. Also # don(t want to for"et that these are also called
nodes in the network. Another thin" to consider in this layer is will also allow and
define the error detection and correction schemes that insure data was sent and
received.
'etwork 0ayer, this layer provides the definition for the connection of two
dissimilar networks.
+ransport 0ayer, this layer allows data to be broken into smaller packa"es for data
to be distributed and addressed to other nodes )workstations*.
&ession 0ayer, this layer helps out with the task to carry information from one
node )workstation* to another node )workstation*. A session has to be made
before we can transport information to another computer.
4resentation 0ayer, this layer is responsible to code and decode data sent to the
node.
Application 0ayer, this layer allows you to use an application that will
communicate with say the operation system of a server. A "ood e/ample would
be usin" your web browser to interact with the operatin" system on a server such
as Windows '+, which in turn "ets the data you re5uested.
Network Architectures:
*thernet
$thernet is the most popular physical layer 0A' technolo"y in use today. ther 0A'
types include +oken Rin", 2ast $thernet, 2iber Distributed Data #nterface )2DD#*,
Asynchronous +ransfer !ode )A+!* and 0ocal+alk. $thernet is popular because it
strikes a "ood balance between speed, cost and ease of installation. +hese benefits,
combined with wide acceptance in the computer marketplace and the ability to support
virtually all popular network protocols, make $thernet an ideal networkin" technolo"y
for most computer users today. +he #nstitute for $lectrical and $lectronic $n"ineers
)#$$$* defines the $thernet standard as #$$$ &tandard 8-,.9. +his standard defines rules
for confi"urin" an $thernet network as well as specifyin" how elements in an $thernet
network interact with one another. :y adherin" to the #$$$ standard, network e5uipment
and network protocols can communicate efficiently.
+ast *thernet
2or $thernet networks that need hi"her transmission speeds, the 2ast $thernet standard
)#$$$ 8-,.9u* has been established. +his standard raises the $thernet speed limit from ;-
!e"abits per second )!bps* to ;-- !bps with only minimal chan"es to the e/istin"
cable structure. +here are three types of 2ast $thernet% ;--:A&$-+< for use with level =
.+4 cable, ;--:A&$-2< for use with fiber-optic cable, and ;--:A&$-+> which utili1es
an e/tra two wires for use with level 9 .+4 cable. +he ;--:A&$-+< standard has
become the most popular due to its close compatibility with the ;-:A&$-+ $thernet
standard. 2or the network mana"er, the incorporation of 2ast $thernet into an e/istin"
confi"uration presents a host of decisions. !ana"ers must determine the number of users
in each site on the network that need the hi"her throu"hput, decide which se"ments of the
backbone need to be reconfi"ured specifically for ;--:A&$-+ and then choose the
necessary hardware to connect the ;--:A&$-+ se"ments with e/istin" ;-:A&$-+
se"ments. ?i"abit $thernet is a future technolo"y that promises a mi"ration path beyond
2ast $thernet so the ne/t "eneration of networks will support even hi"her data transfer
speeds.
Token ,ing
+oken Rin" is another form of network confi"uration which differs from $thernet in that
all messa"es are transferred in a unidirectional manner alon" the rin" at all times. Data is
transmitted in tokens, which are passed alon" the rin" and viewed by each device. When
a device sees a messa"e addressed to it, that device copies the messa"e and then marks
that messa"e as bein" read. As the messa"e makes its way alon" the rin", it eventually
"ets back to the sender who now notes that the messa"e was received by the intended
device. +he sender can then remove the messa"e and free that token for use by others.
3arious 4C vendors have been proponents of +oken Rin" networks at different times and
thus these types of networks have been implemented in many or"ani1ations.
+--
2DD# )2iber-Distributed Data #nterface* is a standard for data transmission on fiber optic
lines in a local area network that can e/tend in ran"e up to ,-- km );,> miles*. +he
2DD# protocol is based on the token rin" protocol. #n addition to bein" lar"e
"eo"raphically, an 2DD# local area network can support thousands of users.
#rotocols:
'etwork protocols are standards that allow computers to communicate. A protocol
defines how computers identify one another on a network, the form that the data should
take in transit, and how this information is processed once it reaches its final destination.
4rotocols also define procedures for handlin" lost or dama"ed transmissions or @packets.@
+C47#4 )for .'#<, Windows '+, Windows A= and other platforms*, #4< )for 'ovell
'etWare*, D$Cnet )for networkin" Di"ital $5uipment Corp. computers*, Apple+alk )for
!acintosh computers*, and 'et:#&7'et:$.# )for 0A' !ana"er and Windows '+
networks* are the main types of network protocols in use today.
Althou"h each network protocol is different, they all share the same physical cablin".
+his common method of accessin" the physical network allows multiple protocols to
peacefully coe/ist over the network media, and allows the builder of a network to use
common hardware for a variety of protocols. +his concept is known as @protocol
independence,@
&ome #mportant 4rotocols and their job%
#rotocol Acronym ts .o&
4oint-+o-4oint +C47#4 +he backbone
protocol of the
internet. 4opular
also for intranets
usin" the internet
+ransmission Control
4rotocol7internet
4rotocol
+C47#4 +he backbone
protocol of the
internet. 4opular
also for intranets
usin" the internet
#nternetwork 4acka"e
$/chan"e7&e5uenced
4acket $/chan"e
#4<7&4< +his is a standard
protocol for 'ovell
'etwork peratin"
&ystem
'et:#& $/tended .ser
#nterface
'et:$.# +his is a !icrosoft
protocol that doesn(t
support routin" to
other networks
2ile +ransfer 4rotocol 2+4 .sed to send and
receive files from a
remote host
Byper +ransfer 4rotocol B++4 .sed for the web to
send documents that
are encoded in
B+!0.
'etwork 2ile &ervices '2& Allows network
nodes or
workstations to
access files and
drives as if they
were their own.
&imple !ail +ransfer
4rotocol
&!+4 .sed to send $mail
over a network
+elnet .sed to connect to a
host and emulate a
terminal that the
remote server can
reco"ni1e
ntroduction to T%#'# Networks:
+C47#4-based networks play an increasin"ly important role in computer networks.
4erhaps one reason for their appeal is that they are based on an open specification that is
not controlled by any vendor.
What s T%#'#?
+C4 stands for +ransmission Control 4rotocol and #4 stands for #nternet 4rotocol. +he
term +C47#4 is not limited just to these two protocols, however. 2re5uently, the term
+C47#4 is used to refer to a "roup of protocols related to the +C4 and #4 protocols such
as the .ser Data"ram 4rotocol ).D4*, 2ile +ransfer 4rotocol )2+4*, +erminal $mulation
4rotocol )+$0'$+*, and so on.
The (rigins of T%#'#
#n the late ;AC-s, DAR4A )the Defense Advanced Research 4roject A"ency*, in the
.nited &tates, noticed that there was a rapid proliferation of computers in military
communications. Computers, because they can be easily pro"rammed, provide fle/ibility
in achievin" network functions that is not available with other types of communications
e5uipment. +he computers then used in military communications were manufactured by
different vendors and were desi"ned to interoperate with computers from that vendor
only. 3endors used proprietary protocols in their communications e5uipment. +he
military had a multi vendor network but no common protocol to support the
hetero"eneous e5uipment from different vendors
Net work %a&les and )tuff:
#n the network you will commonly find three types of cables used these are the, coa/ial
cable, fiber optic and twisted pair.
Thick %oa/ial %a&le
+his type cable is usually yellow in color and used in what is called thicknets, and has
two conductors. +his coa/ can be used in =---meter len"ths. +he cable itself is made up
of a solid center wire with a braided metal shield and plastic sheathin" protectin" the rest
of the wire.
Thin %oa/ial %a&le
As with the thick coa/ial cable is used in thicknets the thin version is used in thinnets.
+his type cable is also used called or referred to as R?-=8. +he cable is really just a
cheaper version of the thick cable.
+i&er (ptic %a&le
As we all know fiber optics are pretty darn cool and not cheap. +his cable is smaller and
can carry a vast amount of information fast and over lon" distances.
Twisted #air %a&les
+hese come in two flavors of unshielded and shielded.
0nshielded Twisted #air (0T#)
+his is the most popular form of cables in the network and the cheapest form that you can
"o with. +he .+4 has four pairs of wires and all inside plastic sheathin". +he bi""est
reason that we call it +wisted 4air is to protect the wires from interference from
themselves. $ach wire is only protected with a thin plastic sheath.
)hielded Twisted #air ()T#)
#s more common in hi"h-speed networks. +he bi""est difference you will see in the .+4
and &+4 is that the &+4 use(s metallic shield wrappin" to protect the wire from
interference.
-&omethin" else to note about these cables is that they are defined in numbers also. +he
bi""er the number the better the protection from interference. !ost networks should "o
with no less than a CA+ 9 and CA+ = is most recommended.
-'ow you know about cables we need to know about connectors. +his is pretty important
and you will most likely need the RD->= connector. +his is the cousin of the phone jack
connector and looks real similar with the e/ception that the RD->= is bi""er. !ost
commonly your connector are in two flavors and this is :'C ):ayonet 'aur Connector*
used in thicknets and the RD->= used in smaller networks usin" .+47&+4.
*thernet %a&ling
'ow to familiari1e you with more on the $thernet and it(s cablin" we need to look at the
;-(s. ;-:ase,, is considered the thin $thernet, thinnet, and thinwire which uses li"ht
coa/ial cable to create a ;- !bps network. +he cable se"ments in this network can(t be
over ;8= meters in len"th. +hese cables connect with the :'C connector. Also as a note
these unused connection must have a terminator, which will be a =--ohm terminator.
;-:ase=, this is considered a thicknet and is used with coa/ial cable arran"ement such as
the :'C connector. +he "ood side to the coa/ial cable is the hi"h-speed transfer and
cable se"ments can be up to =-- meters between nodes7workstations. Eou will typically
see the same speed as the ;-:ase, but lar"er cable len"ths for more versatility.
;-:ase+, the F+G stands for twisted as in .+4 ).nshielded +wisted 4air* and uses this
for ;-!bps of transfer. +he down side to this is you can only have cable len"ths of ;--
meters between nodes7workstations. +he "ood side to this network is they are easy to set
up and cheapH +his is why they are so common an ideal for small offices or homes.
;--:ase+, is considered 2ast $thernet uses &+4 )&hielded +wisted 4air* reachin" data
transfer of ;--!bps. +his system is a little more e/pensive but still remains popular as
the ;-:ase+ and cheaper than most other type networks. +his on of course would be the
cheap fast version.
;-:ase2, this little "uy has the advanta"e of fiber optics and the 2 stands for just that.
+his arran"ement is a little more complicated and uses special connectors and '#C(s
alon" with hubs to create its network. 4retty darn neat and not to cheap on the wallet.
An important part of desi"nin" and installin" an $thernet is selectin" the appropriate
$thernet medium. +here are four major types of media in use today% +hickwire for
;-:A&$= networks, thin coa/ for ;-:A&$, networks, unshielded twisted pair ).+4* for
;-:A&$-+ networks and fiber optic for ;-:A&$-20 or 2iber-ptic #nter-Repeater 0ink
)2#R0* networks. +his wide variety of media reflects the evolution of $thernet and also
points to the technolo"yIs fle/ibility. +hickwire was one of the first cablin" systems used
in $thernet but was e/pensive and difficult to use. +his evolved to thin coa/, which is
easier to work with and less e/pensive.
Network Topologies:
What is a Network topology?
A network topolo"y is the "eometric arran"ement of nodes and cable links in a 0A',
+here are three topolo"y(s to think about when you "et into networks. +hese are the star,
rind, and the bus.
&tar, a rin" topolo"y features a lo"ically closed loop. Data packets travel in a sin"le
direction around the rin" from one network device to the ne/t. $ach network device acts
as a repeater, meanin" it re"enerates the si"nal
Rin", in a star topolo"y each node has a dedicated set of wires connectin" it to a central
network hub. &ince all traffic passes throu"h the hub, the hub becomes a central point for
isolatin" network problems and "atherin" network statistics.
:us, the bus topolo"y, each node )computer, server, peripheral etc.* attaches directly to a
common cable. +his topolo"y most often serves as the backbone for a network. #n some
instances, such as in classrooms or labs, a bus will connect small work"roups
%ollisions:
$thernet is a shared media, so there are rules for sendin" packets of data to avoid
conflicts and protect data inte"rity. 'odes determine when the network is available for
sendin" packets. #t is possible that two nodes at different locations attempt to send data at
the same time. When both 4Cs are transferrin" a packet to the network at the same time,
a collision will result.
!inimi1in" collisions is a crucial element in the desi"n and operation of networks.
#ncreased collisions are often the result of too many users on the network, which results
in a lot of contention for network bandwidth. +his can slow the performance of the
network from the userIs point of view. &e"mentin" the network, where a network is
divided into different pieces joined to"ether lo"ically with a brid"e or switch, is one way
of reducin" an overcrowded network.
*thernet #roducts:
+he standards and technolo"y that have just been discussed help define the specific
products that network mana"ers use to build $thernet networks. +he followin" te/t
discusses the key products needed to build an $thernet 0A'.
Transcei$ers
+ransceivers are used to connect nodes to the various $thernet media. !ost computers
and network interface cards contain a built-in ;-:A&$-+ or ;-:A&$, transceiver,
allowin" them to be connected directly to $thernet without re5uirin" an e/ternal
transceiver. !any $thernet devices provide an A.# connector to allow the user to
connect to any media type via an e/ternal transceiver. +he A.# connector consists of a
;=-pin D-shell type connector, female on the computer side, male on the transceiver side.
+hickwire );-:A&$=* cables also use transceivers to allow connections.
2or 2ast $thernet networks, a new interface called the !## )!edia #ndependent #nterface*
was developed to offer a fle/ible way to support ;-- !bps connections. +he !## is a
popular way to connect ;--:A&$-2< links to copper-based 2ast $thernet devices.
Network nterface %ards:
'etwork interface cards, commonly referred to as '#Cs, and are used to connect a 4C to
a network. +he '#C provides a physical connection between the networkin" cable and the
computerIs internal bus. Different computers have different bus architecturesJ 4C# bus
master slots are most commonly found on >8C74entium 4Cs and #&A e/pansion slots are
commonly found on 98C and older 4Cs. '#Cs come in three basic varieties% 8-bit, ;C-bit,
and 9,-bit. +he lar"er the number of bits that can be transferred to the '#C, the faster the
'#C can transfer data to the network cable.
!any '#C adapters comply with 4lu"-n-4lay specifications. n these systems, '#Cs are
automatically confi"ured without user intervention, while on non-4lu"-n-4lay systems,
confi"uration is done manually throu"h a setup pro"ram and7or D#4 switches.
Cards are available to support almost all networkin" standards, includin" the latest 2ast
$thernet environment. 2ast $thernet '#Cs are often ;-7;-- capable, and will
automatically set to the appropriate speed. 2ull duple/ networkin" is another option,
where a dedicated connection to a switch allows a '#C to operate at twice the speed.
1u&s',epeaters:
Bubs7repeaters are used to connect to"ether two or more $thernet se"ments of any media
type. #n lar"er desi"ns, si"nal 5uality be"ins to deteriorate as se"ments e/ceed their
ma/imum len"th. Bubs provide the si"nal amplification re5uired to allow a se"ment to be
e/tended a "reater distance. A hub takes any incomin" si"nal and repeats it out all ports.
$thernet hubs are necessary in star topolo"ies such as ;-:A&$-+. A multi-port twisted
pair hub allows several point-to-point se"ments to be joined into one network. ne end of
the point-to-point link is attached to the hub and the other is attached to the computer. #f
the hub is attached to a backbone, then all computers at the end of the twisted pair
se"ments can communicate with all the hosts on the backbone. +he number and type of
hubs in any one-collision domain is limited by the $thernet rules. +hese repeater rules are
discussed in more detail later.
Network Type
!a/ Nodes
#er )egment
!a/ -istance
#er )egment
;-:A&$-+
;-:A&$,
;-:A&$=
;-:A&$-20
,
9-
;--
,
;--m
;8=m
=--m
,---m
Adding )peed:
While repeaters allow 0A's to e/tend beyond normal distance limitations, they still limit
the number of nodes that can be supported. :rid"es and switches, however, allow 0A's
to "row si"nificantly lar"er by virtue of their ability to support full $thernet se"ments on
each port. Additionally, brid"es and switches selectively filter network traffic to only
those packets needed on each se"ment - this si"nificantly increases throu"hput on each
se"ment and on the overall network. :y providin" better performance and more
fle/ibility for network topolo"ies, brid"es and switches will continue to "ain popularity
amon" network mana"ers.
Bridges:
+he function of a brid"e is to connect separate networks to"ether. :rid"es connect
different networks types )such as $thernet and 2ast $thernet* or networks of the same
type. :rid"es map the $thernet addresses of the nodes residin" on each network se"ment
and allow only necessary traffic to pass throu"h the brid"e. When a packet is received by
the brid"e, the brid"e determines the destination and source se"ments. #f the se"ments are
the same, the packet is dropped )@filtered@*J if the se"ments are different, then the packet
is @forwarded@ to the correct se"ment. Additionally, brid"es do not forward bad or
misali"ned packets.
:rid"es are also called @store-and-forward@ devices because they look at the whole
$thernet packet before makin" filterin" or forwardin" decisions. 2ilterin" packets, and
re"eneratin" forwarded packets enable brid"in" technolo"y to split a network into
separate collision domains. +his allows for "reater distances and more repeaters to be
used in the total network desi"n.
*thernet )witches:
$thernet switches are an e/pansion of the concept in $thernet brid"in". 0A' switches
can link four, si/, ten or more networks to"ether, and have two basic architectures% cut-
throu"h and store-and-forward. #n the past, cut-throu"h switches were faster because they
e/amined the packet destination address only before forwardin" it on to its destination
se"ment. A store-and-forward switch, on the other hand, accepts and analy1es the entire
packet before forwardin" it to its destination.
#t takes more time to e/amine the entire packet, but it allows the switch to catch certain
packet errors and keep them from propa"atin" throu"h the network. :oth cut-throu"h and
store-and-forward switches separate a network into collision domains, allowin" network
desi"n rules to be e/tended. $ach of the se"ments attached to an $thernet switch has a
full ;- !bps of bandwidth shared by fewer users, which results in better performance )as
opposed to hubs that only allow bandwidth sharin" from a sin"le $thernet*. 'ewer
switches today offer hi"h-speed links, 2DD#, 2ast $thernet or A+!. +hese are used to
link switches to"ether or "ive added bandwidth to hi"h-traffic servers. A network
composed of a number of switches linked to"ether via uplinks is termed a @collapsed
backbone@ network.
,outers:
Routers filter out network traffic by specific protocol rather than by packet address.
Routers also divide networks lo"ically instead of physically. An #4 router can divide a
network into various subnets so that only traffic destined for particular #4 addresses can
pass between se"ments. 'etwork speed often decreases due to this type of intelli"ent
forwardin". &uch filterin" takes more time than that e/ercised in a switch or brid"e,
which only looks at the $thernet address. Bowever, in more comple/ networks, overall
efficiency is improved by usin" routers.
What is a network firewall?
A firewall is a system or "roup of systems that enforces an access control policy between
two networks. +he actual means by which this is accomplished varies widely, but in
principle, the firewall can be thou"ht of as a pair of mechanisms% one which e/ists to
block traffic, and the other which e/ists to permit traffic. &ome firewalls place a "reater
emphasis on blockin" traffic, while others emphasi1e permittin" traffic. 4robably the
most important thin" to reco"ni1e about a firewall is that it implements an access control
policy. #f you donIt have a "ood idea of what kind of access you want to allow or to deny,
a firewall really wonIt help you. #tIs also important to reco"ni1e that the firewallIs
confi"uration, because it is a mechanism for enforcin" policy, imposes its policy on
everythin" behind it. Administrators for firewalls mana"in" the connectivity for a lar"e
number of hosts therefore have a heavy responsibility.
Network -esign %riteria:
$thernets and 2ast $thernets have desi"n rules that must be followed in order to function
correctly. !a/imum number of nodes, number of repeaters and ma/imum se"ment
distances are defined by the electrical and mechanical desi"n properties of each type of
$thernet and 2ast $thernet media.
A network usin" repeaters, for instance, functions with the timin" constraints of $thernet.
Althou"h electrical si"nals on the $thernet media travel near the speed of li"ht, it still
takes a finite time for the si"nal to travel from one end of a lar"e $thernet to another. +he
$thernet standard assumes it will take rou"hly =- microseconds for a si"nal to reach its
destination.
$thernet is subject to the @=->-9@ rule of repeater placement% the network can only have
five se"ments connectedJ it can only use four repeatersJ and of the five se"ments, only
three can have users attached to themJ the other two must be inter-repeater links.
#f the desi"n of the network violates these repeater and placement rules, then timin"
"uidelines will not be met and the sendin" station will resend that packet. +his can lead to
lost packets and e/cessive resent packets, which can slow network performance and
create trouble for applications. 2ast $thernet has modified repeater rules, since the
minimum packet si1e takes less time to transmit than re"ular $thernet. +he len"th of the
network links allows for a fewer number of repeaters. #n 2ast $thernet networks, there are
two classes of repeaters. Class # repeaters have a latency of -.K microseconds or less and
are limited to one repeater per network. Class ## repeaters have a latency of -.>C
microseconds or less and are limited to two repeaters per network. +he followin" are the
distance )diameter* characteristics for these types of 2ast $thernet repeater combinations%
+ast *thernet %opper +i&er
'o Repeaters
ne Class #
Repeater
ne Class ##
Repeater
+wo Class ##
Repeaters
;--m
,--m
,--m
,-=m
>;,mL
,K,m
,K,m
,,8m
L 2ull Duple/ !ode , km
When conditions re5uire "reater distances or an increase in the number of
nodes7repeaters, then a brid"e, router or switch can be used to connect multiple networks
to"ether. +hese devices join two or more separate networks, allowin" network desi"n
criteria to be restored. &witches allow network desi"ners to build lar"e networks that
function well. +he reduction in costs of brid"es and switches reduces the impact of
repeater rules on network desi"n.
$ach network connected via one of these devices is referred to as a separate collision
domain in the overall network.
Types of )er$ers:
-e$ice )er$ers
A device server is defined as a speciali1ed, network-based hardware device desi"ned to
perform a sin"le or speciali1ed set of server functions. #t is characteri1ed by a minimal
operatin" architecture that re5uires no per seat network operatin" system license, and
client access that is independent of any operatin" system or proprietary protocol. #n
addition the device server is a @closed bo/,@ deliverin" e/treme ease of installation,
minimal maintenance, and can be mana"ed by the client remotely via a Web browser.
4rint servers, terminal servers, remote access servers and network time servers are
e/amples of device servers which are speciali1ed for particular functions. $ach of these
types of servers has uni5ue confi"uration attributes in hardware or software that help
them to perform best in their particular arena.
#rint )er$ers
4rint servers allow printers to be shared by other users on the network. &upportin" either
parallel and7or serial interfaces, a print server accepts print jobs from any person on the
network usin" supported protocols and mana"es those jobs on each appropriate printer.
4rint servers "enerally do not contain a lar"e amount of memoryJ printers simply store
information in a 5ueue. When the desired printer becomes available, they allow the host
to transmit the data to the appropriate printer port on the server. +he print server can then
simply 5ueue and print each job in the order in which print re5uests are received,
re"ardless of protocol used or the si1e of the job.
!ultiport -e$ice )er$ers
Devices that are attached to a network throu"h a multiport device server can be shared
between terminals and hosts at both the local site and throu"hout the network. A sin"le
terminal may be connected to several hosts at the same time )in multiple concurrent
sessions*, and can switch between them. !ultiport device servers are also used to
network devices that have only serial outputs. A connection between serial ports on
different servers is opened, allowin" data to move between the two devices.
?iven its natural translation ability, a multi-protocol multiport device server can perform
conversions between the protocols it knows, like 0A+ and +C47#4. While server
bandwidth is not ade5uate for lar"e file transfers, it can easily handle host-to-host
in5uiry7response applications, electronic mailbo/ checkin", etc. And it is far more
economical than the alternatives of ac5uirin" e/pensive host software and special-
purpose converters. !ultiport device and print servers "ive their users "reater fle/ibility
in confi"urin" and mana"in" their networks.
Whether it is movin" printers and other peripherals from one network to another,
e/pandin" the dimensions of interoperability or preparin" for "rowth, multiport device
servers can fulfill your needs, all without major rewirin".
Access )er$ers
While $thernet is limited to a "eo"raphic area, remote users such as travelin" sales
people need access to network-based resources. Remote 0A' access, or remote access, is
a popular way to provide this connectivity. Access servers use telephone services to link
a user or office with an office network. Dial-up remote access solutions such as #&D' or
asynchronous dial introduce more fle/ibility. Dial-up remote access offers both the
remote office and the remote user the economy and fle/ibility of @pay as you "o@
telephone services. #&D' is a special telephone service that offers three channels, two C>
Mbps @:@ channels for user data and a @D@ channel for settin" up the connection. With
#&D', the : channels can be combined for double bandwidth or separated for different
applications or users. With asynchronous remote access, re"ular telephone lines are
combined with modems and remote access servers to allow users and networks to dial
anywhere in the world and have data access. Remote access servers provide connection
points for both dial-in and dial-out applications on the network to which they are
attached. +hese hybrid devices route and filter protocols and offer other services such as
modem poolin" and terminal7printer services. 2or the remote 4C user, one can connect
from any available telephone jack )RD>=*, includin" those in a hotel rooms or on most
airplanes.
Network Time )er$ers
A network time server is a server speciali1ed in the handlin" of timin" information from
sources such as satellites or radio broadcasts and is capable of providin" this timin" data
to its attached network. &peciali1ed protocols such as '+4 or udp7time allow a time
server to communicate to other network nodes ensurin" that activities that must be
coordinated accordin" to their time of e/ecution are synchroni1ed correctly. ?4&
satellites are one source of information that can allow "lobal installations to achieve
constant timin".
# Addressing:
An #4 )#nternet 4rotocol* address is a uni5ue identifier for a node or host connection on
an #4 network. An #4 address is a 9, bit binary number usually represented as > decimal
values, each representin" 8 bits, in the ran"e - to ,== )known as octets* separated by
decimal points. +his is known as @dotted decimal@ notation.
$/ample% ;>-.;KA.,,-.,--
#t is sometimes useful to view the values in their binary form.
;>- .;KA .,,- .,--
;---;;--.;-;;--;;.;;-;;;--.;;--;---
$very #4 address consists of two parts, one identifyin" the network and one identifyin"
the node. +he Class of the address and the subnet mask determine which part belon"s to
the network address and which part belon"s to the node address.
Address %lasses:
+here are = different address classes. Eou can determine which class any #4 address is in
by e/aminin" the first > bits of the #4 address.
Class A addresses be"in with -///, or ; to ;,C decimal.
Class : addresses be"in with ;-//, or ;,8 to ;A; decimal.
Class C addresses be"in with ;;-/, or ;A, to ,,9 decimal.
Class D addresses be"in with ;;;-, or ,,> to ,9A decimal.
Class $ addresses be"in with ;;;;, or ,>- to ,=> decimal.
Addresses be"innin" with -;;;;;;;, or ;,K decimal, are reserved for loopback and for
internal testin" on a local machine. NEou can test this% you should always be able to pin"
;,K.-.-.;, which points to yourselfO Class D addresses are reserved for multicastin".
Class $ addresses are reserved for future use. +hey should not be used for host addresses.
'ow we can see how the Class determines, by default, which part of the #4 address
belon"s to the network )'* and which part belon"s to the node )n*.
Class A -- ''''''''.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnn.nnnnnnn
Class : -- ''''''''.''''''''.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn
Class C -- ''''''''.''''''''.''''''''.nnnnnnnn
#n the e/ample, ;>-.;KA.,,-.,-- is a Class : address so by default the 'etwork part of
the address )also known as the 'etwork Address* is defined by the first two octets
);>-.;KA././* and the node part is defined by the last , octets )/./.,,-.,--*.
#n order to specify the network address for a "iven #4 address, the node section is set to
all @-@s. #n our e/ample, ;>-.;KA.-.- specifies the network address for ;>-.;KA.,,-.,--.
When the node section is set to all @;@s, it specifies a broadcast that is sent to all hosts on
the network. ;>-.;KA.,==.,== specifies the e/ample broadcast address. 'ote that this is
true re"ardless of the len"th of the node section.
#ri$ate )u&nets:
+here are three #4 network addresses reserved for private networks. +he addresses are
;-.-.-.-78, ;K,.;C.-.-7;,, and ;A,.;C8.-.-7;C. +hey can be used by anyone settin" up
internal #4 networks, such as a lab or home 0A' behind a 'A+ or pro/y server or a
router. #t is always safe to use these because routers on the #nternet will never forward
packets comin" from these addresses
&ubnettin" an #4 'etwork can be done for a variety of reasons, includin" or"ani1ation,
use of different physical media )such as $thernet, 2DD#, WA', etc.*, preservation of
address space, and security. +he most common reason is to control network traffic. #n an
$thernet network, all nodes on a se"ment see all the packets transmitted by all the other
nodes on that se"ment. 4erformance can be adversely affected under heavy traffic loads,
due to collisions and the resultin" retransmissions. A router is used to connect #4
networks to minimi1e the amount of traffic each se"ment must receive.
)u&net !asking
Applyin" a subnet mask to an #4 address allows you to identify the network and node
parts of the address. +he network bits are represented by the ;s in the mask, and the node
bits are represented by the -s. 4erformin" a bitwise lo"ical A'D operation between the
#4 address and the subnet mask results in the 'etwork Address or 'umber.
2or e/ample, usin" our test #4 address and the default Class : subnet mask, we "et%
;---;;--.;-;;--;;.;;;;----.;;--;--- ;>-.;KA.,>-.,-- Class : #4 Address
;;;;;;;;.;;;;;;;;.--------.-------- ,==.,==.---.--- Default Class : &ubnet !ask
;---;;--.;-;;--;;.--------.-------- ;>-.;KA.---.--- 'etwork Address
-efault su&net masks:
Class A - ,==.-.-.- - ;;;;;;;;.--------.--------.--------
Class : - ,==.,==.-.- - ;;;;;;;;.;;;;;;;;.--------.--------
Class C - ,==.,==.,==.- - ;;;;;;;;.;;;;;;;;.;;;;;;;;.--------
C#DR -- Classless #nterDomain Routin".
C#DR was invented several years a"o to keep the internet from runnin" out of #4
addresses. +he @classful@ system of allocatin" #4 addresses can be very wastefulJ anyone
who could reasonably show a need for more that ,=> host addresses was "iven a Class :
address block of C==99 host addresses. $ven more wasteful were companies and
or"ani1ations that were allocated Class A address blocks, which contain over ;C !illion
host addressesH nly a tiny percenta"e of the allocated Class A and Class : address space
has ever been actually assi"ned to a host computer on the #nternet.
4eople reali1ed that addresses could be conserved if the class system was eliminated. :y
accurately allocatin" only the amount of address space that was actually needed, the
address space crisis could be avoided for many years. +his was first proposed in ;AA, as
a scheme called &upernettin".
+he use of a C#DR notated address is the same as for a Classful address. Classful
addresses can easily be written in C#DR notation )Class A P 78, Class : P 7;C, and Class
C P 7,>*
#t is currently almost impossible for an individual or company to be allocated their own
#4 address blocks. Eou will simply be told to "et them from your #&4. +he reason for this
is the ever-"rowin" si1e of the internet routin" table. Dust = years a"o, there were less
than =--- network routes in the entire #nternet. +oday, there are over A-,---. .sin"
C#DR, the bi""est #&4s are allocated lar"e chunks of address space )usually with a subnet
mask of 7;A or even smaller*J the #&4Is customers )often other, smaller #&4s* are then
allocated networks from the bi" #&4Is pool. +hat way, all the bi" #&4Is customers )and
their customers, and so on* are accessible via ; network route on the #nternet.
#t is e/pected that C#DR will keep the #nternet happily in #4 addresses for the ne/t few
years at least. After that, #4vC, with ;,8 bit addresses, will be needed. .nder #4vC, even
sloppy address allocation would comfortably allow a billion uni5ue #4 addresses for
every person on earth
*/amining your network with commands:
4in"
4#'? is used to check for a response from another computer on the network. #t can tell
you a "reat deal of information about the status of the network and the computers you are
communicatin" with.
4in" returns different responses dependin" on the computer in 5uestion. +he responses
are similar dependin" on the options used.
4in" uses #4 to re5uest a response from the host. #t does not use +C4
.#t takes its name from a submarine sonar search - you send a short sound burst and listen
for an echo - a pin" - comin" back.
#n an #4 network, Qpin"I sends a short data burst - a sin"le packet - and listens for a sin"le
packet in reply. &ince this tests the most basic function of an #4 network )delivery of
sin"le packet*, itIs easy to see how you can learn a lot from some Qpin"sI.
+o stop pin", type control-c. +his terminates the pro"ram and prints out a nice summary
of the number of packets transmitted, the number received, and the percenta"e of packets
lost, plus the minimum, avera"e, and ma/imum round-trip times of the packets.
&ample pin" session
4#'? localhost );,K.-.-.;*% =C data bytes
C> bytes from ;,K.-.-.;% icmpRse5P- ttlP,== timeP, ms
C> bytes from ;,K.-.-.;% icmpRse5P; ttlP,== timeP, ms
C> bytes from ;,K.-.-.;% icmpRse5P, ttlP,== timeP, ms
C> bytes from ;,K.-.-.;% icmpRse5P9 ttlP,== timeP, ms
C> bytes from ;,K.-.-.;% icmpRse5P> ttlP,== timeP, ms
C> bytes from ;,K.-.-.;% icmpRse5P= ttlP,== timeP, ms
C> bytes from ;,K.-.-.;% icmpRse5PC ttlP,== timeP, ms
C> bytes from ;,K.-.-.;% icmpRse5PK ttlP,== timeP, ms
C> bytes from ;,K.-.-.;% icmpRse5P8 ttlP,== timeP, ms
C> bytes from ;,K.-.-.;% icmpRse5PA ttlP,== timeP, ms
localhost pin" statistics
;- packets transmitted, ;- packets received, -S packet loss
round-trip min7av"7ma/ P ,7,7, ms
meikroT
+he +ime +o 0ive )++0* field can be interestin". +he main purpose of this is so that a
packet doesnIt live forever on the network and will eventually die when it is deemed
@lost.@ :ut for us, it provides additional information. We can use the ++0 to determine
appro/imately how many router hops the packet has "one throu"h. #n this case itIs ,==
minus ' hops, where ' is the ++0 of the returnin" $cho Replies. #f the ++0 field varies
in successive pin"s, it could indicate that the successive reply packets are "oin" via
different routes, which isnIt a "reat thin".
+he time field is an indication of the round-trip time to "et a packet to the remote host.
+he reply is measured in milliseconds. #n "eneral, itIs best if round-trip times are under
,-- milliseconds. +he time it takes a packet to reach its destination is called latency. #f
you see a lar"e variance in the round-trip times )which is called @jitter@*, you are "oin" to
see poor performance talkin" to the host
N)L((20#
'&0M.4 is an application that facilitates lookin" up hostnames on the network. #t
can reveal the #4 address of a host or, usin" the #4 address, return the host name.
#t is very important when troubleshootin" problems on a network that you can verify the
components of the networkin" process. 'slookup allows this by revealin" details within
the infrastructure.
N*T)TAT
'$+&+A+ is used to look up the various active connections within a computer. #t is
helpful to understand what computers or networks you are connected to. +his allows you
to further investi"ate problems. ne host may be respondin" well but another may be less
responsive.
#config
+his is a !icrosoft windows '+, ,--- command. #t is very useful in determinin" what
could be wron" with a network.
+his command when used with the 7all switch, reveal enormous amounts of
troubleshootin" information within the system.
Windows ,--- #4 Confi"uration
Bost 'ame . . . . . . . . . . . . % cowder
4rimary D'& &uffi/ . . . . . . . %
'ode +ype . . . . . . . . . . . . % :roadcast
#4 Routin" $nabled. . . . . . . . % 'o
W#'& 4ro/y $nabled. . . . . . . . % 'o
W#'& 4ro/y $nabled. . . . . . . . % 'o
Connection-specific D'& &uffi/ . %
Description . . . . . . . . . . . %
WA' )4447&0#4* #nterface
4hysical Address. . . . . . . . . % ---=9->=---------
DBC4 $nabled. . . . . . . . . . . % 'o
#4 Address. . . . . . . . . . . . % ;,.A-.;-8.;,9
&ubnet !ask . . . . . . . . . . . % ,==.,==.,==.,==
Default ?ateway . . . . . . . . . % ;,.A-.;-8.;,=
D'& &ervers . . . . . . . . . . . % ;,.;-,.,>>.,
,->.;,K.;,A.,
Traceroute
+raceroute on .ni/ and 0inu/ )or tracert in the !icrosoft world* attempts to trace the
current network path to a destination. Bere is an e/ample of a traceroute run to
www.berkeley.edu%
T traceroute www.berkeley.edu
traceroute to amber.:erkeley.$D. );,8.9,.,=.;,*, 9- hops ma/, >- byte packets
; sf;-e9.wired.net ),-C.,,;.;A9.;* 9.;9= ms 9.-,; ms 9.C;C ms
, sf--e,s,.wired.net ),-=.,,K.,-C.99* ;.8,A ms 9.88C ms ,.KK, ms
9 paloalto-cr;-.bbnplanet.net );9;.;;A.,C.;-=* =.9,K ms >.=AK ms =.K,A ms
> paloalto-br;.bbnplanet.net );9;.;;A.-.;A9* >.8>, ms >.C;= ms 9.>,= ms
= sl-sj-,.sprintlink.net )>.-.;.CC* K.>88 ms 98.8-> ms K.K-8 ms
C ;>>.,9,.8.8; );>>.,9,.8.8;* C.=C- ms C.C9; ms C.=C= ms
K ;>>.,9,.>.AK );>>.,9,.>.AK* K.C98 ms K.A>8 ms 8.;,A ms
8 ;>>.,,8.;>C.=- );>>.,,8.;>C.=-* A.=-> ms ;,.C8> ms ;C.C>8 ms
A f=--.inr-CCC-eva.berkeley.edu );A8.;,8.;C.,;* A.KC, ms ;-.C;; ms ;-.>-9 ms
;- f---.inr-;-K-eva.:erkeley.$D. );,8.9,.,.;* ;;.>K8 ms ;-.8C8 ms A.9CK ms
;; f8--.inr-;---eva.:erkeley.$D. );,8.9,.,9=.;--* ;-.K98 ms ;;.CA9 ms ;,.=,- ms
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