Behaviour of Electromagnetic Radiation in Gravitational Fields

PHOTO-GEOMETRODYNAMICS (DRAFT)
JAMES SPEARS
Abstract. Hubbles law is accounted for completely a result of the geometry of spacetime. Introducing a point mass origin about which a spherically symmetric space-time is
defined, the instantaneous trajectory of particles traversing Eddington-Finkelstein radial
null geodesics are used to argue higher-dimensional locations of coordinate singularities
in (u, r) and (v, r) space. Combining (u, r) or (v, r) into a single four-dimensional radial parameter and introducing a fifth coordinate, five-dimensional space-time manifolds
are defined. It is then shown that Hubbles redshift vs. distance relationship can be
described, with the scaled five-dimensional line element, as the gravitational redshift in
five-dimensional space-time calculated using the projection of the path of the photon
between four-dimensional radial shells, onto the path between three-dimensional radial
shells.
Date: April 1, 2015.

1
JAMES SPEARS
1. Introduction
When a skilled experimentalist wields a knowledge of the natural sciences exacting the
unknown, the task of the theorist is to explain how the laws of nature have always allowed
for such curiosities. The focus of this article is the relationship credited to Edwin P. Hubble
[?]; who, observed a correlation that exists between a) the apparent distance, and b) the
redshift of spectral data concerning electromagnetic radiation emitted from stellar objects.
2. Interpreting the Light-like Interval
For completeness and clarity of procedure begin with the special relativistic case. The
invariant interval for the flat Minkowski space-time is given [?] in line element form as
(1)
ds2 = c2 dt2 + dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 .
Applying a coordinate transformation from cartesian to spherical polar and geometrizing

the unit system such that c = 1, the line element becomes
(2)
ds2 = dt2 + dr2 + r2 d2 ,
where
(3)
d2 := d2 + sin2 d2 .
Consider intervals along the radial line d = d = 0. Combining this with the stipulation
that light-like intervals satisfy
(4)
ds2 = 0 ,
the relation depicting the signature characteristic of world line of the photon in special
relativity becomes evident
(5)
dt = dr .
Simple integration of both the right and left hand side reveals
(6)
t = r + const. .
The constant of integration in this case represents time information relating to the path of
the photon.
In the presence of a point mass M , Schwarzschilds solution provides the idealized means
to interpret light traversing space and time. The solution has the familiar line element form
[?]

dr2
rs 2
+ r2 d2 ,
dt +
(7)
ds2 = 1
r
1 rrs
in spherical polar coordinates and geometrized units c = G = 1 where rs = 2M . Considering intervals along the radial line d = d = 0 and applying the condition (4) for light-like
intervals presents the equality

rs 2
dr2
.
(8)
1
dt =
r
1 rrs
Separating like terms and taking the square root of the left and right hand side,
(9)
dt =
dr
.
1 rrs
Straightforward integration reveals

(10)

r rs
+ const. ,

t = r + rs ln
rs
Where once again the constant of integration represents information about the location of
the photon at a specific point in time. Defining a term r such that

r rs

,
(11)
r = r + rs ln
rs
allows for the Eddington-Finkelstein coordinate transformations [?] u, and v in compact
notation where
(12)
u := t r ,
and
(13)
v := t + r .
Substituting the coordinate u, the line element (7) becomes

rs 2
du 2dudr + r2 d2 ,
(14)
ds2 = 1
r
known as out-going Eddington-Finkelstein coordinates. Considering null geodesics ds2 = 0
along the radial line d = d = 0, (14) has the solutions
(15)
u = 2r + const.,
and
(16)
u = const. .
Making a similar substitution for v, the line element (7) is then given

rs 2
dv + 2dvdr + r2 d2 ,
(17)
ds2 = 1
r
known as in-going Eddington-Finkelstein coordinates. Considering null geodesics ds2 = 0
along the radial line d = d = 0, (17) has the solutions
(18)
v = 2r + const.,
and
(19)
v = const. .
JAMES SPEARS
3. Instantaneous Trajectory of Light in the Presence of Mass

The trajectory of a particle travelling radial null geodesics (15) or (18) in (u, r) or (v, r)
space for some point (u , r ) or (v , r ) on the path P are given by the equations of lines
tangent to (15) or (18) respectively. These are
(20)
2r + 2r
2r |r + const. ,
uT =
rs
1 r
and
(21)
2r 2r
+ 2r |r + const. .
vT =
rs
1 r
Where the constants in equations line (36) and (37) are equal to the constants in equations
line (15) and (18) respectively. In the last section these constants were both set equal to
zero. Thus the singularity, with respect to a particle travelling a path tangential to (15)
or (18) at r , lies at coordinates (us , rs ) or (vs , rs ) where
(22)
(us , rs ) = (uT |rs , rs ) ,
and
(23)
(vs , rs ) = (vT |rs , rs )
where again rs = 2M in units c = G = 1. Combining coordinates (u, r) or (v, r) into

a single four-dimensional radial parameter R (u, x, y, z) we have that the trajectory of a
particle travelling null geodesics (15) or (18) crosses the event horizon
s

r rs 2
+1 ,

(24)
Rs = rs 4 ln
rs
from the origin in (u, r) and (v, r) space.
4. Dimensional Independence of Event, and Dependence of Measurement
Here it is supposed that for a photon at a constant radial distance r at a constant
time u or v (depending on the coordinate transformation used) has a trajectory equal to
the line tangent to the null geodesic in (u, r) or (v, r) space. In order for this event to be
independent of dimension it is claimed that there must exist a particle in higher dimensions
of space and time which our observation is a projection of. We claim that there must exist
a particle in five-dimensions of space and time which has a five-dimensional instantaneous
trajectory that projects onto the instantaneous trajectory in four-dimensions of space and
time.
When a measurement is made however, it is supposed there is complete dependance
on the dimension of the observer. Meaning that the when one takes a measurement of
physical phenomenon involving light one must also consider the higher dimensions of space
and time and the projection of particles traversing space and time though these spaces.
5. Implementing the (u, r), (v, r) Coordinate Singularity

Determining the metric tensor g describing the the five-dimensional space-time is in
other words finding solutions to the Einstein field equations, which in this case are a set
of 15 second-order partial differential equations. The complete form of the Einstein field
equations in Einsteins summation notation are written
1
G R g R + g = 8T .
2
Naming these components we have G , called the Einstein tensor, R is the Ricci tensor,
g is the general metric tensor, R is the Ricci scalar curvature, T is the stress energy
tensor, and is the cosmological constant. We will take the stress energy tensor to be
zero, that is T = 0. We will also assume a cosmological constant of zero = 0. The field
equations take the form
(25)
1
R g R = 0
2
The reader will see that we begin assuming there exists a solution of a certain exponential
form of the general metric tensor. The Ricci tensor and the Ricci scalar curvature will be
defined shortly, but here the reader can note that these components are functions of the
coefficients of the general metric tensor. So it is sensible to begin by assuming there exists
a solution of a general form in order to further manipulate the components before an
explicit solution is found. Using the mathematical definitions of the non-trivial, non-zero
components of the field equations we will substitute our supposed solution in its general
form and state the field equations in this way. There will come a point where given certain
initial conditions and restrictions we know the solution to have, we are able to deduce closed
form relations characteristic of the physics behind these mathematical objects. The explicit
form of this solution is supposed to be known using equation line (24) as the location of
the coordinate singularity in (u, r) and (v, r) space as per our assumptions. The geodesic
equation is given
d2 x
dx dx
+
=0,
ds2
ds ds
where s is a scalar parameter of motion (for example we will implement the equation using
proper time ), is the Christoffel symbol defined shortly, and x is the th coordinate.
After our deductions we will be able to express this equation of motion in terms of the
unknown constant of integration. Being the general relativistic equivalent of Newtons laws
of motion, defining straight paths in curved spaces, will be used to deduce the sign of the
constant of integration found in the explicit form (g in terms of R, M , and r ). Since
we know the location of the coordinate singularity, or we should say, the four-dimensional
location that the instantaneous path of a photon at (u , r ) or (v , r ) will cross the event
horizon, the system of differential equations needs only to be shown to be satisfied by the
proposed solution. It is in a way the converse argument used to deduce the exact form of
the Schwarzschild solution by four-dimensional free fall. However we are jumping ahead,
that realization is yet to be made.
(26)
JAMES SPEARS
We can now define the terms required to proceed. R is the Ricci tensor and is defined
by summing the Riemann tensor R

over one index
The Christoffel symbol
+ ,
x
x
x
is defined
1
g
2
+ = R .
x

g
g
g
+
x
x
x

.
We note here the scalar curvature R g R . Where g are the coefficients of the
matrix inverse of g .
5.1. Determining the general form of the line element. The invariant interval ds2
for the flat five-dimensional Minkowski space-time representing the special relativistic
case is given in Einstein summation notation and line element form as
ds2 = dx dx = c2 dT 2 + du2 + dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 = c2 dT 2 + dv 2 + dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 ,

with coordinates defined x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 = (T, x, y, z, u) or x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 = (T, x, y, z, v)
in geometrized units c = 1. We see has the definition
1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
.
0
0
1
0
0
=
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 1
The tensor serves the same purpose as the general metric tensor g featured in the
Einstein field equations of general relativity for which we wish to solve. In the special
case there are no energy densities to be considered when the measurements made by a
system of ideal observers are to be calculated. This concept will be useful when setting
some of the restrictions of the general case mentioned earlier. The supposition that the
space-time be asymptotically flat is made and means that at an infinite distance from an
object of mass the space-time will reduce to the special relativistic case.
We wish to define the curvature of space-time about a spherically symmetric, nonrotating object of mass in a vacuum. Thus it is sensible to define the origin of our coordinate system at the centre of the mass M , in question. It is also beneficial to change the
coordinate system from cartesian coordinates to four-dimensional spherical polar analog
coordinates using the transformation
x = R sin sin sin ,
y = R sin cos sin ,
z = R cos sin ,
u = R cos
or
v = R cos
By making such a transition we will see we have reduced the number of coefficients of
g we need to solve for in the general case. After taking the differential of the above
coordinate transformation and substituting the values in to the equation for the line element
in cartesian coordinates, the line element of the Minkowski space-time in spherical polar
coordinates is shown to take the form
ds2 = c2 dT 2 + dR2 + R2 d2 + R2 sin2 d2 + R2 sin2 sin2 d 2 .

With coordinates defined x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 = (T, R, , , ) in geometrized units c = 1 where
c in this instance is the speed of the five-dimensional photon. Notice that for constant T
and constant R the metric is that of a three-sphere.
We must now generalize the line element for introducing curvature while retaining our
initial assumptions. We have mentioned that the solution is static. By definition this
means two things are true. 1: The metric is unchanged if one applies a reversal of time
T T , and 2: the metric is independent of T . Spherical symmetry implies that under a
reversal of coordinates , , and the metric is unchanged. Thus our
solution must remain independent of these coordinates as well. The conditions we have just
outlined have the consequence of diagonalizing the metric such that if we are to introduce
metric coefficients the line element takes the form
ds2 = g00 dT 2 + g11 dR2 + g22 d2 + g33 d2 + g44 d 2 .
The definition of spherical symmetry may be made more precise by requiring that every
point in the space-time where dr = dt = 0, lies on a two-surface which is a two-sphere that
has the line element [?].

dl2 = f (R, T ) d2 + sin2 d2 + sin2 d 2
We may state there exists a function f (R, T ) and define our radial coordinate as the root of
such a function defined as the radius of curvature of the three-sphere. Doing so makes our
notational reference to the radial coordinate some what arbitrary. We note the flexibility
of our notation and continue to use the coordinate R.
Our line element satisfying conditions for being static and spherically symmetric is then
of the form
ds2 = (R)dt2 + (R)dR2 + R2 sin2 d2 + R2 sin2 sin2 d 2 ,
where (R) and (R) are radially dependant functions. It is advantageous to elaborate on
our dependance. As our functions (R) and (R) at this time are completely arbitrary,
we further define such functions having exponential forms which is permitted so long as
g00 < 0 and g11 > 0. This will also make our future calculations easier. So we define
(R) = e2(R) ,
and
(R) = e2(R) ,
JAMES SPEARS
making our line element

ds2 = e2(R) dT 2 + e2(R) dR2 + R2 d2 + R2 sin2 d2 + R2 sin2 sin2 d 2 .
In matrix form the general metric tensor g may be written
2(R)
e
0
0
0
0
0
e2(R) 0
0
0
2
.
g =
0
R
0
0
0
2
2
0
0
0 R sin
0
2
2
2
0
0
0
0
R sin sin
5.2. Solving for the Christoffel symbols. We are now in a position to solve the Einstein
field equations. Let us begin by solving for the Christoffel symbols. Firstly we will deduce
some of the non-zero elements. Recall

g
g
1 g
= g
+
.
2
x
x
x
We notice that if we are to solve for every Christoffel symbol, that equates to 125 corresponding equations. Diagonalizing the metric has provided us a method by which we may
deduce some of the trivially zero symbols. Note that the metric g is a diagonal matrix
i.e. g = 0 for 6= . Thus the Christoffel symbols for which 6= are zero. We restate
the Christoffel symbol

g g g
1
= g
+
.
2
x
x
x
Immediately we notice for 6= 6= the term is trivially zero, again for reason that g
is a diagonal matrix. We will refer to 6= 6= as case (1). The next case examined is
=

g g g
1
1 g
g
,
= g
+
=
2
x
2
x
x
x
which we will refer to as case (2). Similarly note if we were to swap and , the Christoffel
symbols take the form

1 g g g
= g
+
= .
2
x
x
x
For the next case which we will refer to as case (3), refer back to the definition of the
Christoffel symbol and let =

1 g g g
1 g
= g
+
= g
.
2
x
x
2
x
x
So far we have reduced the number of Christoffel symbols for which we need to solve from
125 equations to 45 equations. Having significantly reduced the work required we may now
begin solving the equations. Note that the 0 (prime) notation implies the partial derivative
with respect to x1 = R. All 45 Christoffel symbols and the corresponding equations are
given and solved below. Note that any g is a function of at most three variables, either
x1 = R, x2 = , or x3 = and so any partial derivative of a metric coefficient with respect

to variables x0 = T , x4 = will be zero. Note too that in every case we will use the
fact that the inverse of a diagonal matrix is also a diagonal matrix with the corresponding
1
for our calculations.
metric coefficients inverted, that is g = g

000
g00
x0
2g00

g00
x2

=
2g00

g00
x3
003 = 030 =
2g00

004 = 040 =
2g00

011
022
044
100
g33
x0
g00
x1
2g11
g44
x0
2g00

=

101
110
= 0 (R)
2(R)
e
=0
=0
2(R)
e
2
T R
2e2(R)

=0

=0
2
2
T R sin
2e2(R)
2
2
T R sin
2e2(R)
2(R)
R e
2e2(R)
g11
x0
2g11
=0
2e2(R)
2g00

2g00

g22
x0
2(R)
e
2e2(R)
2(R)
T e
2e2(R)
=
2g00

=

033
g11
x0
=0
2e2(R)

g00
x4
2(R)
R e
2e2(R)
2g00

020
2(R)
T e
2e2(R)
g00
x1
001 = 010 =
002

=
=0
=0
= 0 (R)
2(R)
T e
2e2(R)
e2(R)
e2(R)

=0
10
JAMES SPEARS

111
g11
x1
2g11

112
121
113 = 131 =
122 =

133
2g11

g11
x4
144
g44
x1
221
220
212
233

244
g44
x2
2g22

=
2(R)
e
g22
x0
2(R)
e
g22
x3
2g22

=0
=

=
R sin2
e2(R)
R sin2 sin2
e2(R)
2
R R
2R2

=0

=
2
R
2R2
2
R
2R2
2
2
2
R sin sin
2R2
R
e2(R)
2
T R
2R2
2
2
R sin
2R2
2g22

2g22
=0
2e2(R)
2
R R
2e2(R)
g22
x1
g22
x4
=0
2e2(R)

2g22

2g22
242 = 224 =
g33
x2
2(R)
e
2e2(R)
2
2
2
R R sin sin
2e2(R)
232 = 223 =
= 0 (R)

202
2
2
R R sin
2e2(R)
2g11
2g11
2g11

2g11

g11
x3
g22
x1
g33
x1
g11
x2
2g11

114 = 141 =

2(R)
R e
2e2(R)
1
R
=0
=0
= sin cos
= sin cos sin2

200
211
g11
x2
330
g22
x2
2g22

g33
x0
2g33

g00
x3
2g33

322
344
g11
x3
2g33

g22
x3

=0
2(R)
e
2R2
=
2g22

300 =
311
2(R)
e
2R2
2g22

222 =
303
g00
x2

=0
R2
2R2
2
2
T R sin
2R2 sin2

=
=0
2(R)
e
2
2

=0
=0
2R sin

2(R)
e
=0
=
2R2 sin2

2
R
=0
=
2g33
2R2 sin2

g33
2 sin2
R
3
x
333 =
=
=0
2g33
2R2 sin2

g33
2
2
1
x1
3
3
R R sin
31 = 13 =
=
=
2
2
2g33
R
2R sin

g33
2
2
x2
3
3
R sin
32 = 23 =
=
= cot
2g33
2R2 sin2

g33
2 sin2
R
4
x
343 = 334 =
=
=0
2g22
2R2

g44
2 sin2 sin2
R
x3
=
=
= sin cos
2g33
2R2 sin2

g00
2(R)
e
4
x
400 =
=
=0
2
2g44
2R sin2 sin2
11
12
JAMES SPEARS

411 =
g11
x4
2(R)
e
2
2
2
=
=0
2g44
2R sin sin

g22
2
R
4
x
=
=0
422 =
2
2g44
2R sin2 sin2

g33
2 sin2 sin2
R
x4
433 =
=
=0
2g44
2R2 sin2 sin2

g44
2
2
2
0
x
4
4
T R sin sin
=
04 = 40 =
=0
2g44
2R2 sin2 sin2

g44
2
2
2
1
x1
4
4
R R sin sin
=
=
14 = 41 =
2
2
2
2g44
R
2R sin sin

g44
2
2
2
x2
4
4
R sin sin
= cot
24 = 42 =
=
2g44
2R2 sin2 sin2

g44
2 sin2 sin2
R
x3
434 = 443 =
=
= cot
2g44
2R2 sin2 sin2

g44
2 sin2 sin2
R
4
x
=0
444 =
=
2g44
2R2 sin2 sin2
We may now represent the Christoffel symbols in matrix form accounting for all 125
equations.
0
0 (R)
0 (R)
0
0
= 0
0
0
0
0
0 (R)e2(R)
e2(R)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 (R)
0
R
0
e2(R)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
sin
Re2(R)
0
0
0
0
2
sin
R sine2(R)
0
0
=
0
0
0
0
0
1
R
0
0
0
1
R
0
0
0
0
0
=
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
R
0
0
=
0
0
0
13
0
0
0
0
0
0
sin cos
0
2
0
sin sin cos
0
0
0
1
0
0
R
0
cot
0
cot
0
0
0
0
sin cos
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
R
0
0
0
cot
0
0
0
cot
1
0
R cot cot
5.3. Determining the Ricci tensor. Recall, the Ricci tensor is given by summing the
Riemann tensor over one index. The Einstein vacuum field equations are the set of second
order partial differential equations which satisfy
+ = 0 .
x
x
We begin constructing the Ricci tensor by solving for the non-trivial elements which are
(27)
R =
R00 =
0 00
+ 0 0 00
x0
x
100
+ 001 100 111 100 221 100 331 100 441 100 ,
x1

30 (R)
2(R)2(R)
0
2
00
0
0
e
(R) (R) + (R) (R)
=0.
R
=
R11 =
1 11
+ 1 1 11
x1
x
001
+ 010 001 001 111 221 111 331 111 441 111
x1
30 (R)
00 (R) + 0 (R)2 0 (R)0 (R)
=0
R
2 22
R22 =
+ 2 2 22
x2
x
332 442 122
+
+ 122 212 + 323 332 + 424 442 001 122 111 122 331 122 441 122
=
x2
x2
x1

e2(R) 2 + 0 (R) R 0 (R) R 2 = 0
=
14
JAMES SPEARS
R33 =
=
3 33
+ 3 3 33
x3
x
443 133 233
+331 133 +332 233 +434 443 001 133 111 133 221 133 441 133 442 233
x3
x1
xh2
i

sin2 e2(R) 2 + 0 (R) R 0 (R) R 2 = sin2 R22 = 0
R44 =
4 44
+ 4 4 44
x4
x
144 244 344
+1 4 +3 4 +4 2 0 1 1 1 221 144 331 144 332 244

x1 x2 x3 h 44 14 44 33 22 44 01 44 11 44
i

sin2 sin2 e2(R) 2 + 0 (R) R 0 (R) R 2 = sin2 R33 = 0
For completeness we will show that the remaining values of the Ricci tensor are zero. Once
again we note the Ricci tensor in summation notation
+ = 0 ,
x
x
and notice that the tensor is represented as four individual terms also in summation notation. So we will begin solving term by term for 6= . The first of four terms is written
R =
.
x
We may immediately eliminate all = 0 and = 4 as the Christoffel symbols have
dependance on at most two variables x1 , x2 , and x3 . Summing out the term excluding
=
0 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 4
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
.
x
x1
x2
x3
x2
x3
x1
x3
x1
x2
x1
x2
x3
We refer to pg. 12 and write the terms which are non-trivially zero (do not have corresponding Christoffel symbols equal to zero).
=
001 111 221 331 331 001 111 221

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
x
x2
x2
x2
x2
x2
x3
x3
x3
331 331 332 442 332 442 443 443
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
x3
x3
x1
x1
x3
x3
x1
x2
Referring again to pg. 12 we see all the terms have partial derivatives with respect to
non-dependant variables and thus are all equal to zero. We have shown
=
=0,
x
for all 6= . The second term of the tensor equation is written
.
x
15
Once again we may immediately eliminate all terms where = 0 or = 4 as we know that
there exists no Christoffel symbol with dependance on either x0 or x4 inclusive. We also
have the initial condition that 6= and we expand out the summation as
1 2 3
=
+
+
.
x1
x2
x3
x
Referring again to pg. 12 and find the Christoffel symbols 1 = 0 for 6= . Keeping in
mind = , and eliminating 6= 6=
2 3
212
313
323
+
=
2
+
2
+
2
.
x2
x3
x2
x3
x3
We now refer again to pg. 12 and find the Christoffel symbols 212 , 313 are not functions
of x2 and 323 is not function of x3 . So
=0,
x
for 6= . The third term in the tensor equation is written
.
Expanding out for and
= 00 00 + 01 10 + 02 20 + 03 30 + 04 40 +
10 01 + 11 11 + 12 21 + 13 31 + 14 41 +
20 02 + 21 12 + 22 22 + 23 32 + 24 42 +
30 03 + 31 13 + 32 23 + 33 33 + 34 43 +
40 04 + 41 14 + 42 24 + 43 34 + 44 44 .
We will continue examining the term case by case beginning with (, ) = (0, 1). Once
the summation is written explicitly for the given case we will refer to pg. 14 and state the
non-zero Christoffel symbols if any.
= 010 000 + 011 100 + 012 200 + 013 300 + 014 400 +
110 010 + 111 110 + 112 210 + 113 310 + 114 410 +
210 020 + 211 120 + 212 220 + 213 320 + 214 420 +
310 030 + 311 130 + 312 230 + 313 330 + 314 430 +
410 040 + 411 140 + 412 240 + 413 340 + 414 440 .
We find that every product in the summation has at least one Christoffel symbol equal
to zero. For (, ) = (0, 1) , = 0.
16
JAMES SPEARS
For the case (, ) = (0, 2).

= 020 000 + 021 100 + 022 200 + 023 300 + 024 400 +
120 010 + 121 110 + 122 210 + 123 310 + 124 410 +
220 020 + 221 120 + 222 220 + 223 320 + 224 420 +
320 030 + 321 130 + 322 230 + 323 330 + 324 430 +
420 040 + 421 140 + 422 240 + 423 340 + 424 440 .
to zero. For (, ) = (0, 2) , = 0.
For the case (, ) = (0, 3).
= 030 000 + 031 100 + 032 200 + 033 300 + 034 400 +
130 010 + 131 110 + 132 210 + 133 310 + 134 410 +
230 020 + 231 120 + 232 220 + 233 320 + 234 420 +
330 030 + 331 130 + 332 230 + 333 330 + 334 430 +
430 040 + 431 140 + 432 240 + 433 340 + 434 440 .
to zero. For (, ) = (0, 3) , = 0.
For the case (, ) = (0, 4).
= 040 000 + 041 100 + 042 200 + 043 300 + 044 400 +
140 010 + 141 110 + 142 210 + 143 310 + 144 410 +
240 020 + 241 120 + 242 220 + 243 320 + 244 420 +
340 030 + 341 130 + 342 230 + 343 330 + 344 430 +
440 040 + 441 140 + 442 240 + 443 340 + 444 440 .
We find that every product in the summation has at least one Christoffel symbol equal to
zero. For (, ) = (0, 4) , = 0.
17
For the case (, ) = (1, 0)

= 000 001 + 001 101 + 002 201 + 003 301 + 004 401 +
100 011 + 101 111 + 102 211 + 103 311 + 104 411 +
200 021 + 201 121 + 202 221 + 203 321 + 204 421 +
300 031 + 301 131 + 302 231 + 303 331 + 304 431 +
400 041 + 401 141 + 402 241 + 403 341 + 404 441 .
to zero. For (, ) = (1, 0) , = 0.
For the case (, ) = (1, 2)
= 020 001 + 021 101 + 022 201 + 023 301 + 024 401 +
120 011 + 121 111 + 122 211 + 123 311 + 124 411 +
220 021 + 221 121 + 222 221 + 223 321 + 224 421 +
320 031 + 321 131 + 322 231 + 323 331 + 324 431 +
420 041 + 421 141 + 422 241 + 423 341 + 424 441 .
to zero except for the last term of the summation. For (, ) = (1, 2) , = 2cot R1 .
For the case (, ) = (1, 3)
= 030 001 + 031 101 + 032 201 + 033 301 + 034 401 +
130 011 + 131 111 + 132 211 + 133 311 + 134 411 +
230 021 + 231 121 + 232 221 + 233 321 + 234 421 +
330 031 + 331 131 + 332 231 + 333 331 + 334 431 +
430 041 + 431 141 + 432 241 + 433 341 + 434 441 .
to zero. For (, ) = (1, 3) , = cot R1 .
18
JAMES SPEARS
For the case (, ) = (1, 4)

= 040 001 + 041 101 + 042 201 + 043 301 + 044 401 +
140 011 + 141 111 + 142 211 + 143 311 + 144 411 +
240 021 + 241 121 + 242 221 + 243 321 + 244 421 +
340 031 + 341 131 + 342 231 + 343 331 + 344 431 +
440 041 + 441 141 + 442 241 + 443 341 + 444 441 .
to zero. For (, ) = (1, 4) , = 0.
For the case (, ) = (2, 0)
= 000 002 + 001 102 + 002 202 + 003 302 + 004 402 +
100 012 + 101 112 + 102 212 + 103 312 + 104 412 +
200 022 + 201 122 + 202 222 + 203 322 + 204 422 +
300 032 + 301 132 + 302 232 + 303 332 + 304 432 +
400 042 + 401 142 + 402 242 + 403 342 + 404 442 .
to zero. For (, ) = (2, 0) , = 0.
For the case (, ) = (2, 1)
= 010 002 + 011 102 + 012 202 + 013 302 + 014 402 +
110 012 + 111 112 + 112 212 + 113 312 + 114 412 +
210 022 + 211 122 + 212 222 + 213 322 + 214 422 +
310 032 + 311 132 + 312 232 + 313 332 + 314 432 +
410 042 + 411 142 + 412 242 + 413 342 + 414 442 .
to zero except for the last term of the summation. For (, ) = (2, 1) , = 2cot R1 .
19
For the case (, ) = (2, 3)

= 030 002 + 031 102 + 032 202 + 033 302 + 034 402 +
130 012 + 131 112 + 132 212 + 133 312 + 134 412 +
230 022 + 231 122 + 232 222 + 233 322 + 234 422 +
330 032 + 331 132 + 332 232 + 333 332 + 334 432 +
430 042 + 431 142 + 432 242 + 433 342 + 434 442 .
to zero. For (, ) = (2, 3) , = cot cot . For the case (, ) = (2, 4)
= 040 002 + 041 102 + 042 202 + 043 302 + 044 402 +
140 012 + 141 112 + 142 212 + 143 312 + 144 412 +
240 022 + 241 122 + 242 222 + 243 322 + 244 422 +
340 032 + 341 132 + 342 232 + 343 332 + 344 432 +
440 042 + 441 142 + 442 242 + 443 342 + 444 442 .
to zero. For (, ) = (2, 4) , = 0. For the case (, ) = (3, 0)
= 000 003 + 001 103 + 002 203 + 003 303 + 004 403 +
100 013 + 101 113 + 102 213 + 103 313 + 104 413 +
200 023 + 201 123 + 202 223 + 203 323 + 204 423 +
300 033 + 301 133 + 302 233 + 303 333 + 304 433 +
400 043 + 401 143 + 402 243 + 403 343 + 404 443 .
to zero. For (, ) = (3, 0) , = 0.
20
JAMES SPEARS
For the case (, ) = (3, 1)

= 010 003 + 011 103 + 012 203 + 013 303 + 014 403 +
110 013 + 111 113 + 112 213 + 113 313 + 114 413 +
210 023 + 211 123 + 212 223 + 213 323 + 214 423 +
310 033 + 311 133 + 312 233 + 313 333 + 314 433 +
410 043 + 411 143 + 412 243 + 413 343 + 414 443 .
to zero. For (, ) = (3, 1) , = cot R1 .
For the case (, ) = (3, 2)
= 020 003 + 021 103 + 022 203 + 023 303 + 024 403 +
120 013 + 121 113 + 122 213 + 123 313 + 124 413 +
220 023 + 221 123 + 222 223 + 223 323 + 224 423 +
320 033 + 321 133 + 322 233 + 323 333 + 324 433 +
420 043 + 421 143 + 422 243 + 423 343 + 424 443 .
to zero. For (, ) = (3, 2) , = cot cot .
For the case (, ) = (3, 4)
= 040 003 + 041 103 + 042 203 + 043 303 + 044 403 +
140 013 + 141 113 + 142 213 + 143 313 + 144 413 +
240 023 + 241 123 + 242 223 + 243 323 + 244 423 +
340 033 + 341 133 + 342 233 + 343 333 + 344 433 +
440 043 + 441 143 + 442 243 + 443 343 + 444 443 .
to zero. For (, ) = (3, 4) , = 0.
21
For the case (, ) = (4, 0)

= 000 004 + 001 104 + 002 204 + 003 304 + 004 404 +
100 014 + 101 114 + 102 214 + 103 314 + 104 414 +
200 024 + 201 124 + 202 224 + 203 324 + 204 424 +
300 034 + 301 134 + 302 234 + 303 334 + 304 434 +
400 044 + 401 144 + 402 244 + 403 344 + 404 444 .
to zero. For (, ) = (4, 0) , = 0.
For the case (, ) = (4, 1)
= 010 004 + 011 104 + 012 204 + 013 304 + 014 404 +
110 014 + 111 114 + 112 214 + 113 314 + 114 414 +
210 024 + 211 124 + 212 224 + 213 324 + 214 424 +
310 034 + 311 134 + 312 234 + 313 334 + 314 434 +
410 044 + 411 144 + 412 244 + 413 344 + 414 444 .
to zero. For (, ) = (4, 1) , = 0.
For the case (, ) = (4, 2)
= 020 004 + 021 104 + 022 204 + 023 304 + 024 404 +
120 014 + 121 114 + 122 214 + 123 314 + 124 414 +
220 024 + 221 124 + 222 224 + 223 324 + 224 424 +
320 034 + 321 134 + 322 234 + 323 334 + 324 434 +
420 044 + 421 144 + 422 244 + 423 344 + 424 444 .
to zero. For (, ) = (4, 2) , = 0.
22
JAMES SPEARS
For the case (, ) = (4, 3)

= 030 004 + 031 104 + 032 204 + 033 304 + 034 404 +
130 014 + 131 114 + 132 214 + 133 314 + 134 414 +
230 024 + 231 124 + 232 224 + 233 324 + 234 424 +
330 034 + 331 134 + 332 234 + 333 334 + 334 434 +
430 044 + 431 144 + 432 244 + 433 344 + 434 444 .
to zero. For (, ) = (4, 3) , = 0. After our analysis of the third term we find that
it is trivially zero in every instance except for R12 = R21 , R13 = R31 , and R23 = R32 . We
have
2 cot
| , {1, 2}
cot
| , {1, 3}
R
cot cot | , {2, 3}
0 | ,
/ {1, 2} , {1, 3} , or {2, 3}
We now examine the fourth and final term comprising the Ricci tensor equation that is
written
.
Following our same techniques we begin by expanding out for and
= 000 0 + 001 1 + 002 2 + 003 3 + 004 4 +
110 0 + 111 1 + 112 2 + 113 3 + 114 4 +
220 0 + 221 1 + 222 2 + 223 3 + 224 4 +
330 0 + 331 1 + 332 2 + 333 3 + 334 4 +
440 0 + 441 1 + 442 2 + 443 3 + 444 4 .
We will continue examining the term case by case beginning with (, ) = (0, 1). Once
again once we have stated the case explicitly we will refer to pg.12 and note any non-zero
23
Christoffel symbols.
= 000 010 + 001 110 + 002 210 + 003 310 + 004 410 +
110 010 + 111 110 + 112 210 + 113 310 + 114 410 +
220 010 + 221 110 + 222 210 + 223 310 + 224 410 +
330 010 + 331 110 + 332 210 + 333 310 + 334 410 +
440 010 + 441 110 + 442 210 + 443 310 + 444 410 .
to zero. For (, ) = (0, 1) , = 0.
For the case (, ) = (0, 2).
= 000 020 + 001 120 + 002 220 + 003 320 + 004 420 +
110 020 + 111 120 + 112 220 + 113 320 + 114 420 +
220 020 + 221 120 + 222 220 + 223 320 + 224 420 +
330 020 + 331 120 + 332 220 + 333 320 + 334 420 +
440 020 + 441 120 + 442 220 + 443 320 + 444 420 .
to zero. For (, ) = (0, 2) , = 0.
For the case (, ) = (0, 3).
= 000 030 + 001 130 + 002 230 + 003 330 + 004 430 +
110 030 + 111 130 + 112 230 + 113 330 + 114 430 +
220 030 + 221 130 + 222 230 + 223 330 + 224 430 +
330 030 + 331 130 + 332 230 + 333 330 + 334 430 +
440 030 + 441 130 + 442 230 + 443 330 + 444 430 .
to zero. For (, ) = (0, 3) , = 0.
For the case (, ) = (0, 4).
= 000 040 + 001 140 + 002 240 + 003 340 + 004 440 +
110 040 + 111 140 + 112 240 + 113 340 + 114 440 +
220 040 + 221 140 + 222 240 + 223 340 + 224 440 +
330 040 + 331 140 + 332 240 + 333 340 + 334 440 +
440 040 + 441 140 + 442 240 + 443 340 + 444 440 .
to zero. For (, ) = (0, 4) , = 0.
24
JAMES SPEARS
For the case (, ) = (1, 0).

= 000 001 + 001 101 + 002 201 + 003 301 + 004 401 +
110 001 + 111 101 + 112 201 + 113 301 + 114 401 +
220 001 + 221 101 + 222 201 + 223 301 + 224 401 +
330 001 + 331 101 + 332 201 + 333 301 + 334 401 +
440 001 + 441 101 + 442 201 + 443 301 + 444 401 .
to zero. For (, ) = (1, 0) , = 0.
For the case (, ) = (1, 2).
= 000 021 + 001 121 + 002 221 + 003 321 + 004 421 +
110 021 + 111 121 + 112 221 + 113 321 + 114 421 +
220 021 + 221 121 + 222 221 + 223 321 + 224 421 +
330 021 + 331 121 + 332 221 + 333 321 + 334 421 +
440 021 + 441 121 + 442 221 + 443 321 + 444 421 .
to zero except the second last term of the summation. For (, ) = (1, 2) , =
2 cot R1 .
For the case (, ) = (1, 3).
= 000 031 + 001 131 + 002 231 + 003 331 + 004 431 +
110 031 + 111 131 + 112 231 + 113 331 + 114 431 +
220 031 + 221 131 + 222 231 + 223 331 + 224 431 +
330 031 + 331 131 + 332 231 + 333 331 + 334 431 +
440 031 + 441 131 + 442 231 + 443 331 + 444 431 .
to zero. For (, ) = (1, 3) , = cot R1 .
For the case (, ) = (1, 4).
= 000 041 + 001 141 + 002 241 + 003 341 + 004 441 +
110 041 + 111 141 + 112 241 + 113 341 + 114 441 +
220 041 + 221 141 + 222 241 + 223 341 + 224 441 +
330 041 + 331 141 + 332 241 + 333 341 + 334 441 +
440 041 + 441 141 + 442 241 + 443 341 + 444 441 .
25
to zero. For (, ) = (1, 4) , = 0.
For the case (, ) = (2, 0).
= 000 002 + 001 102 + 002 202 + 003 302 + 004 402 +
110 002 + 111 102 + 112 202 + 113 302 + 114 402 +
220 002 + 221 102 + 222 202 + 223 302 + 224 402 +
330 002 + 331 102 + 332 202 + 333 302 + 334 402 +
440 002 + 441 102 + 442 202 + 443 302 + 444 402 .
to zero. For (, ) = (2, 0) , = 0.
For the case (, ) = (2, 1).
= 000 012 + 001 112 + 002 212 + 003 312 + 004 412 +
110 012 + 111 112 + 112 212 + 113 312 + 114 412 +
220 012 + 221 112 + 222 212 + 223 312 + 224 412 +
330 012 + 331 112 + 332 212 + 333 312 + 334 412 +
440 012 + 441 112 + 442 212 + 443 312 + 444 412 .
to zero except for the second last term of the summation. For (, ) = (2, 1) , =
2 cot R1 .
For the case (, ) = (2, 3).
= 000 032 + 001 132 + 002 232 + 003 332 + 004 432 +
110 032 + 111 132 + 112 232 + 113 332 + 114 432 +
220 032 + 221 132 + 222 232 + 223 332 + 224 432 +
330 032 + 331 132 + 332 232 + 333 332 + 334 432 +
440 032 + 441 132 + 442 232 + 443 332 + 444 432 .
26
JAMES SPEARS
For the case (, ) = (2, 4).

= 000 042 + 001 142 + 002 242 + 003 342 + 004 442 +
110 042 + 111 142 + 112 242 + 113 342 + 114 442 +
220 042 + 221 142 + 222 242 + 223 342 + 224 442 +
330 042 + 331 142 + 332 242 + 333 342 + 334 442 +
440 042 + 441 142 + 442 242 + 443 342 + 444 442 .
to zero. For (, ) = (2, 4) , = 0.
For the case (, ) = (3, 0).
= 000 003 + 001 103 + 002 203 + 003 303 + 004 403 +
110 003 + 111 103 + 112 203 + 113 303 + 114 403 +
220 003 + 221 103 + 222 203 + 223 303 + 224 403 +
330 003 + 331 103 + 332 203 + 333 303 + 334 403 +
440 003 + 441 103 + 442 203 + 443 303 + 444 403 .
to zero. For (, ) = (3, 0) , = 0.
For the case (, ) = (3, 1).
= 000 013 + 001 113 + 002 213 + 003 313 + 004 413 +
110 013 + 111 113 + 112 213 + 113 313 + 114 413 +
220 013 + 221 113 + 222 213 + 223 313 + 224 413 +
330 013 + 331 113 + 332 213 + 333 313 + 334 413 +
440 013 + 441 113 + 442 213 + 443 313 + 444 413 .
to zero. For (, ) = (3, 1) , = cot R1 .
For the case (, ) = (3, 2).
= 000 023 + 001 123 + 002 223 + 003 323 + 004 423 +
110 023 + 111 123 + 112 223 + 113 323 + 114 423 +
220 023 + 221 123 + 222 223 + 223 323 + 224 423 +
330 023 + 331 123 + 332 223 + 333 323 + 334 423 +
440 023 + 441 123 + 442 223 + 443 323 + 444 423 .
27
For the case (, ) = (3, 4).

= 000 043 + 001 143 + 002 243 + 003 343 + 004 443 +
110 043 + 111 143 + 112 243 + 113 343 + 114 443 +
220 043 + 221 143 + 222 243 + 223 343 + 224 443 +
330 043 + 331 143 + 332 243 + 333 343 + 334 443 +
440 043 + 441 143 + 442 243 + 443 343 + 444 443 .
to zero. For (, ) = (3, 4) , = 0.
For the case (, ) = (4, 0).
= 000 004 + 001 104 + 002 204 + 003 304 + 004 404 +
110 004 + 111 104 + 112 204 + 113 304 + 114 404 +
220 004 + 221 104 + 222 204 + 223 304 + 224 404 +
330 004 + 331 104 + 332 204 + 333 304 + 334 404 +
440 004 + 441 104 + 442 204 + 443 304 + 444 404 .
to zero. For (, ) = (4, 0) , = 0.
For the case (, ) = (4, 1).
= 000 014 + 001 114 + 002 214 + 003 314 + 004 414 +
110 014 + 111 114 + 112 214 + 113 314 + 114 414 +
220 014 + 221 114 + 222 214 + 223 314 + 224 414 +
330 014 + 331 114 + 332 214 + 333 314 + 334 414 +
440 014 + 441 114 + 442 214 + 443 314 + 444 414 .
to zero. For (, ) = (4, 1) , = 0.
For the case (, ) = (4, 2).
= 000 024 + 001 124 + 002 224 + 003 324 + 004 424 +
110 024 + 111 124 + 112 224 + 113 324 + 114 424 +
220 024 + 221 124 + 222 224 + 223 324 + 224 424 +
330 024 + 331 124 + 332 224 + 333 324 + 334 424 +
440 024 + 441 124 + 442 224 + 443 324 + 444 424 .
to zero. For (, ) = (4, 2) , = 0.
28
JAMES SPEARS
For the case (, ) = (4, 3).

= 000 034 + 001 134 + 002 234 + 003 334 + 004 434 +
110 034 + 111 134 + 112 234 + 113 334 + 114 434 +
220 034 + 221 134 + 222 234 + 223 334 + 224 434 +
330 034 + 331 134 + 332 234 + 333 334 + 334 434 +
440 034 + 441 134 + 442 234 + 443 334 + 444 434 .
to zero. For (, ) = (4, 3) , = 0.
Thus we may conclude for 6= where the Ricci tensor is given in summation notion
R =
R =
00+
0 0 +
2 cot
R
cot
R
+ = 0
x
2 cot
R
cot
R
, {1, 2}
| , {1, 3}
.
0 0 + cot cot cot cot | , {2, 3}
0 0 + 0 0 | ,
/ {1, 2} , {1, 3} , or {2, 3}
5.4. Defining the Ricci scalar curvature. We may now contract the Ricci tensor R
to obtain the Ricci scalar curvature R. The scalar curvature is defined R g R [?].
For our case we note
R = g 00 R00 + g 11 R11 + g 22 R22 + g 33 R33 + g 44 R44
5.5. The Einstein Tensor. Before we continue to solve for a more explicit form of the
line element we will construct the Einstein tensor. Recall
1
G R g R + g = 8T .
2
For our purposes the Einstein field equations reduce to the original vacuum field equations
of General Relativity [?].
1
G R g R = 0 ,
2
29
5.6. Explicit Form of the Line Element. We have a general form from which we can
easily construct the field equations using the functions e2(R) , and e2(R) , although we are
able to solve for a more explicit form. We will do so by referencing the Ricci tensor and
noting the components of R in terms of (R), (R), R, , and which are not trivially
equal to zero.

30 (R)
20 (R)20 (R)
0
2
00
0
0
=0.
R00 = e
(R) (R) + (R) (R)
R
30 (R)
=0
R

R22 = e2(R) 2 + 0 (R) R 0 (R) R 2 = 0
h
i

R33 = sin2 e2(R) 2 + 0 (R) R 0 (R) R 2 = sin2 R22 = 0
h
i

R44 = sin2 sin2 e2(R) 2 + 0 (R) R 0 (R) R 2 = sin2 R33 = 0
R11 = 00 (R) + 0 (R)2 0 (R)0 (R)
Adding the first and second equations,

R00 + R11 =
30 (R) 30 (R)
+
R
R

=0,
provides the relation

0 (R) + 0 (R) = 0 ,
(R) + (R) = K | K is a constant .
We now are in a position to note some restrictions on the functions (r), and (r), and
thus our solution. We know that at an infinite distance from the object of mass M , the
space-time must be that of a nearly Minkowski space. Mathematically,
lim e2(R) = 1 ,
and
lim (R) = 0,
and
lim e2(R) = 1 ,
implies
R
lim (R) = 0 .
Now that we have deduced 0 (R) + 0 (R) = 0, we may rewrite R22 , as

R22 = e2(R) 2 20 (R) R 2 = 0 ,
1 0 (R) R = e2(R) .
For which we can check has the solution

C
1
(r) = ln 1 + 2 ,
2
R
and so may write

C
2(R)
2(R)
e
=e
= 1+ 2
R
Setting the constant of integration C will be the final step in determining the explicit
form of the invariant interval ds2 of this five-dimensional static spherically symmetric
solution. We have already supposed to known the coordinate location of the singularity, or
30
JAMES SPEARS
as it should be more clearly stated the location the photon having trajectory tangential to
the radial null geodesic in (u, r) or (v, r) space cross the event horizon. Although the sign
of the constant of integration resulting from the solution of the Einstein field equations
will tell us the sign. The line element ds2 have the form
ds2 = e2(R) dT 2 + e2(R) dR2 + R2 d2 + R2 sin2 d2 + R2 sin2 sin2 d 2 .
For the proper time interval d 2 along the radial line dR = d = d = d = 0 metric
simplifies to
d 2 = ds2 = e2(R) dT 2 ,
2
dT
= e2(R) ,
d
dT
= e(R) .
d
Recall the geodesic equation
d2 x
dx dx
=
d 2
d d
which defines the path of matter in curved space. By supposing the release of a test particle
from rest we are given dx = dx = 0 for = 6= 0. Thus the only term in our summation
is
0 2
2
d2 x1
d2 R
dx
dT
1
1
+ 00
=
+ 00
=0.
2
2
d
d
d
d
d2 R
1 d 2(R)
= 0 (R) e2(R) = 0 (R) e2(R) =
e
,
2
d
2 dR
and so we have
1 d
d2 R
=
d 2
2 dR
C
1+ 2
R

=
C
R3

.
The second derivative of the radial distance of a particle released in a gravitational field
in the classical Newtonian theory is given by Newtons second law of motion which states
F = ma ,
where
GM m
r2
and so supposing the direction of acceleration
use equation line (24) pg. 4 and state
s
F =
C = 2M
d2 r
GM
=
2
d
r2
is independent of dimension we are able to

4 ln
2 r

2M
.
2M
31
We recall e2(R) = e2(R) , and express the line element of the introduced geometry,
which describes the space-time exterior (at radial distances R > R0 where R0 is the fourdimensional radius of the body) of a static, spherically symmetric four-dimensional object
of mass M .
r

2 r 2M
4
ln
2M

2M
dR2
2
2
dT 2 +
r
(28) ds = c 1

r 2M
R2
2M 4 ln2 2M
1
R2
+ R2 d2 + R2 sin2 d2 + R2 sin2 sin2 d 2 .
6. Parameterizing u, and v as scalars of motion
Returning to the four-dimensional space-time and defining a coordinate transformation
of a scaled line element, one may parameterize the coordinates u, and v as the scalars of
motion in (u, r) and (v, r) space. Let
(29)
u := n (t r ) ,
and
(30)
v := n (t + r ) .
Substituting the coordinate transformations into the line elements

rs 2
du 2ndudr + n2 r2 d2 ,
(31)
ds2 = 1
r
and

rs 2
(32)
ds2 = 1
dv + 2ndvdr + n2 r2 d2 .
r
respectively produces

n2 dr2
rs 2
+ n2 r2 d2 ,
dt +
(33)
ds2 = n2 1
r
1 rrs
the product of the Schwarzschild line element and a constant n2 . Radial null geodesics
ds2 = d = d = 0 of (22) and (23) are
(34)
u = 2nr + const.,
(35)
u = const.
and
(36)
v = 2nr + const. ,
(37)
v = const. .
32
JAMES SPEARS
respectively. Now, considering the space-like interval d where dt = d = d = 0 in the

space-time defined by line element (33), the definition for proper distance is given
Z
dr
p
,
(38)
=n
1 rrs
P
for some path P . In order to parameterize u and v as scalars of motion it must be shown
that both u and v are proportional to , given by equation line (38), to within a constant.
Suppose this is the case.
The condition of simultaneous reception implies an intersection of null geodesics at a
minimum of one point, the reception point (u , r ) or (v , r ). This is achieved by setting
the constants of integration. Suppose constants abbreviated const. in lines (15) and (29)
or (18) and (31) are initially set to zero. The difference between two in-going null curves
(15) and (29), and out-going null curves (18) and (31) respectively at the reception point
r is given by the expression
(39)
u = 2r |r (n 1) ,
and
(40)
v = 2r |r (1 n) .
And so, the in-going null curves (20) of the out-going transformation (22) and the outgoing null curves (21) of the in-going transformation (23) which intersect the null curves
(15) and (18) (having constants abbreviated const. equal to zero in both cases) at the
reception point r are given
(41)
u = 2nr 2r |r (n 1) ,
and
(42)
v = 2nr + 2r |r (1 n)
respectively. We can now solve for the interval between emissions at r . This difference is
given again for the in-going null curves of the out-going transformation and the out-going
null curvres of the in-going transformation respectively
(43)
u = 2r |r (n 1) 2r |r (n 1) ,
and
(44)
v = 2r |r (1 n) 2r |r (1 n) .
Combing relations (43) and (44) with the definition of proper distance (33); for each
the transformations u and v, the difference between emission and reception ur r
vr r increase and decrease 1:1 with proper distance of null geodesics (15) and (25)
(18) and (27) over the path P for u, v respectively. Thus u and v are indeed scalars
motion for the scaled null geodesics (34), (35), and (36), (37) respectively.
of
or
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Behaviour of Electromagnetic Radiation in Gravitational Fields

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Behaviour of Electromagnetic Radiation in Gravitational Fields

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PHOTO-GEOMETRODYNAMICS (DRAFT)

Date: April 1, 2015.

ds2 = c2 dt2 + dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 .

Applying a coordinate transformation from cartesian to spherical polar and geometrizing

ds2 = dt2 + dr2 + r2 d2 ,

Straightforward integration reveals

Substituting the coordinate u, the line element (7) becomes

3. Instantaneous Trajectory of Light in the Presence of Mass

(us , rs ) = (uT |rs , rs ) ,

(vs , rs ) = (vT |rs , rs )

where again rs = 2M in units c = G = 1. Combining coordinates (u, r) or (v, r) into

5. Implementing the (u, r), (v, r) Coordinate Singularity

by summing the Riemann tensor R

The Christoffel symbol

making our line element

x1 = R, x2 = , or x3 = and so any partial derivative of a metric coefficient with respect

= sin cos sin2

443 133 233

144 244 344

+1 4 +3 4 +4 2 0 1 1 1 221 144 331 144 332 244

001 111 221 331 331 001 111 221

For the case (, ) = (0, 2).

For the case (, ) = (1, 0)

For the case (, ) = (1, 4)

For the case (, ) = (2, 3)

For the case (, ) = (3, 1)

For the case (, ) = (4, 0)

For the case (, ) = (4, 3)

cot cot | , {2, 3}

For the case (, ) = (1, 0).

For the case (, ) = (2, 4).

For the case (, ) = (3, 4).

For the case (, ) = (4, 3).

0 0 + cot cot cot cot | , {2, 3}

Adding the first and second equations,

provides the relation

Now that we have deduced 0 (R) + 0 (R) = 0, we may rewrite R22 , as

Recall the geodesic equation

Substituting the coordinate transformations into the line elements

respectively. Now, considering the space-like interval d where dt = d = d = 0 in the

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