Biology in Context Module 1

ECOSYSTEMS
1
Common plants and animals have many interesting
adaptations, and many relationships among organisms can be
studied in a local environment.
Context
Cicada shedding its skin
ADAPTATIONS
Take a look at yourself; you are a well-adapted organism. You have jointed legs, which allow you
to move, to walk, to leap and to run. Consider your hands. They are marvellous instruments capable
of delicate work, manipulating objects, grasping, catching and turning. You have adaptations that
help you to keep warm. You shiver and dress in warm clothes. You have a digestive system, which
enables you to eat and get nutrients from a variety of foods. You are a well-adapted creature. You
have lungs, which allow you to breathe. Yet humans live in such a variety of environments that
it is difcult to argue that you are adapted best for a particular land environment. Certainly you
have many adaptations for a life on land and are poorly adapted for life in water. You would nd it
easier to survive in a mild temperate environment that is rich in resources, but your kind survives in
every land environment. Humans even successfully venture into seemingly impossible habitats for
short periods of time, under the sea and in space. In these habitats we take articial environments
with us; we live within a capsule, submarine or space station. A human, however, is a little peculiar.
What allows you to do this? Your most extraordinary adaptation is your brain (see Figure 1.1.1).
Your brain is unlike those of other animals because you have few innate behaviours. Your brain is
capable of learning throughout your lifetime. This is your greatest adaptation because it allows you
to survive in a changing world and in many habitats. But what is an adaptation?
Students learn to:
identify some adaptations of living things to factors in their environment
identify and describe in detail adaptations of a plant and an animal from
the local ecosystem
dene the term adaptation and discuss problems associated with inferring
characteristics of organisms as adaptations for living in a particular habitat.
ORGANISMS ARE ADAPTED TO
THEIR ENVIRONMENT
1.1
5 ECOSYSTEMS
Figure 1.1.1 The brain consumes about 20% of your bodys energy but makes up only 2% of your body weight.
Is it worth it?
6 BIOLOGY IN CONTEXT: THE SPECTRUM OF LIFE
cockroaches (see Figure 1.1.4). Bacteria dwell on your skin
despite your frequent washing and dust mites live off the
dust in your home, which is mainly made up of human
skin cells that you and your family have lost (see Figure
1.1.3). Even birds and mammals may use your house as a
substitute tree.
It is easy to identify some adaptations. The hair on
our head keeps our head warm. It is an adaptation. When
we are cold, our hands turn blue as our blood vessels
leading to our extremities such as our feet, nose and hands
contract to reduce the ow of blood to these areas. This
reduces heat loss and it is an adaptation. When we are
hot, we may sit in the shade to cool down; this is also an
adaptation. Adaptations are characteristics of organisms
that help the species to survive.
Organisms possess a variety of adaptations that take
advantage of benecial aspects of living in particular
environments as well as adaptations to cope with the
difculties. Adaptations are often classied as structural,
physiological or behavioural. The terms are largely self-
explanatory. If the adaptation is a physical feature, it is
a structural adaptation. Ears, the streamlined shape of
a sperm cell, and the attened body of a cockroach are
structural adaptations. Physiological adaptations include
processes such as the kangaroos digestive processes, which
allow it to gain nutrients from tough dry grasses, and
shivering to keep ourselves warm. Behavioural adaptations
are simply behaviours such as putting on a jumper, a snail
coming out to feed when it is wet, or the nocturnal activity
of a possum. Often a behaviour, a structure and physiology
all combine to provide a survival strategy. A spider spins
a web (behavioural), has spinnerets from which the web
is secreted (a structure), and produces the silk within
specialised tissues as a result of a sequence of chemical
reactions (physiology). As you read through this unit, try
to identify each adaptation as physiological, behavioural
or structural.
ADAPTATIONS OF ORGANISMS IN
YOUR ENVIRONMENT
Watching wildlife programs or reading books about
exotic animals and plants could make you think that
animals with interesting adaptations can only be found
in outback Australia, Africa or the jungles of South
America. However, you share your environment with
many organisms with fascinating adaptations.
Sometimes the environment has changed a great
deal from that to which the animals and plants were
originally adapted. Sudden changes can be caused by
catastrophic events such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions
and meteors. Humans can also change environments
enormously and quickly. Yet, your house is inhabited
by many organisms. Your bed is probably the home of
bed mites (see Figure 1.1.2). Your kitchen is visited by
Figure 1.1.2 A bed bug. Sleep well!
Figure 1.1.3 A dust mite. Identify some adaptations from the
photograph
Figure 1.1.4 A wingless Australian cockroach. Identify an adaptation
that it does not share with the cockroaches that invade our houses
7 ECOSYSTEMS
as they move through different parts of the environment.
Many spiders, such as the orb spinner spider, spin a web
and mainly catch and feed on ying insects. Others such
as the huntsman spider lie in wait, attened against the
bark of trees. They use their excellent eyesight to spot prey
and their well-muscled limbs allow them to pounce on
their prey. Their prey includes the many insects that crawl
over the trees bark. Other spiders have still more elaborate
adaptations to capture their prey. The net-casting spider
is another common spider. It weaves a web but, unlike
the orb spinner, it holds this web as a net between its four
front limbs. Hanging from a thread, it waits for insects
to crawl below and hurls its net onto them to trap them.
Like the huntsman, it requires, and has, excellent eyesight,
which allows it to cast its net with accuracy.
A less common spider is the magnicent spider. The
magnicent spider is one of the two Australian spiders that
use a chemical-baited sex trap to capture its preymale
moths. Female moths produce a scent to attract males. The
male moths can detect tiny amounts of this scent and they
y towards it in order to mate. The magnicent spider also
produces droplets of the chemical with this same scent.
To catch a moth, the spider dangles a droplet of scent on
a silk thread. When a male moth approaches, the spider
twirls the thread in a circular motion. The moth ies
towards the sex scent with amorous intent and is trapped
in the moving thread.
All of the spiders described above are well adapted
to their environments. They have many adaptations in
common. They are all well camouaged and have similar
body structure. They have eight jointed legs, which allow
them to move quickly and nimbly. They also have jaws to
grasp their prey and a poisonous bite. They all digest their
prey by secreting a digestive uid over it. Their prey is
digested outside the body and the spider then sucks it dry
to obtain its food. Spiders, like most animals, have a range
of adaptations, some peculiar to their environment. Others
enable survival across a range of habitats. These spiders
may all inhabit the same environment but each inhabits a
different part of it. They use different feeding strategies to
catch different prey in different ways. The special part of
an environment occupied by a species is called its niche.
Varied adaptations
Many species of plants and animals have adaptations
in which they mimic features of other organisms. Some
plants attract ies, as pollinators, by smelling like rotting
esh. Needless to say such foul smelling plants are not
Animal adaptation: spiders
In order to analyse the adaptations of organisms in
environments, we will consider one group of organisms
common in environments inhabited by humansspiders
(see Figure 1.1.5). You may have spiders that weave their
webs on your window ledges and ceilings. You may have
had a huntsman spider invade your bedroom. Many of
the spiders around your home feed on insects. Part of a
spiders environment includes its food source. Different
spiders are adapted to capture different insects, or insects
Figure 1.1.5 Magnicent spider using pheromones to attract and
catch moths
often favoured by home gardeners. These types of chemical
mimicry are less common than visual forms of mimicry.
The Australian ichnumen orchid, for example, is shaped like
a large female wasp, and males try to mate with the ower.
In attempting to mate, they spread pollen from one ower
to another. You have probably noticed large spots on the
wings of some butteries, which mimic the eyes of a larger
organism. It is thought that these may be an adaptation to
frighten their predator. While such a display may work for
some species, others are adapted to be difcult to see. Some
insects are shaped so like a leaf or twig that they are almost
impossible to see (see Figure 1.1.6).
Plant adaptation: old man banksia
Many animals are part of our environment. We also share
our environment with many plants. If you live in an area
with well-maintained gardens, you may nd it difcult to
determine how each plants characteristics are adaptations
to their environment. One way to study adaptations of
these organisms is to nd out about their natural habitats.
If you have access to natural bushland, you will nd it
easier to identify plant adaptations and determine how
these enable the plants to survive. Many Australian
plants can be found in suburban gardens, city parks,
the countryside, reserves and national parks.
The adaptations of one plant will be considered here
as an example. If you saw an old man banksia growing
in a suburban garden, you might wonder at its ower and
bark. Some of these features seem to provide no adaptive
advantage and the production of the huge ower and thick
bark would be expensive in the consumption of energy and
materials. However, the huge ower, in any habitat, seems
easy to explain as a reproductive adaptation. The ower
produces large amounts of nectar. The ower advertises the
nectar to birds, insects and some small mammals that come
to feed. As they feed, they inadvertently collect pollen,
transferring it to other banksias on which they feed. Thus,
the ower is a reproductive adaptation.
In its habitat of poor sandy soil, the banksias thick
corky bark protects it so that buds beneath the bark spring
to life and allow the banksia to grow back after a bushre,
even though its leaves and many of its branches have
been burnt. The woody fruit of the banksia also protect the
seeds from re, and after re they open up to release the
seeds. The seeds fall to the ground and germinate in the
ash-enriched soil to produce a new generation of banksias.
The banksia roots consist of a dense network of ne roots
(proteoid roots), which are capable of obtaining nutrients
from the very poor soils it inhabits. Thus, the old man
banksia (Banksia serrata, see Figure 1.1.7) is well adapted
to its environment, which includes re and poor soil.
However, if you had seen this banksia as it struggled to
survive in an over-watered suburban garden with rich soil,
you might have incorrectly concluded that it was a poorly
adapted species. We humans sometimes have peculiar ideas
about what is an ideal environment. We sometimes think
that for plants, an ideal environment is plenty of water,
rich soils and ample sunlight. Yet, an ideal environment is
usually the environment to which an organism is adapted
even when this environment might seem harsh to us.
Figure 1.1.6 What is this insects most striking adaptation?
Figure 1.1.7 Banksia serrata. The banksia was named after Joseph
Banks, who arrived in Australia with Captain James Cook. It was also
famous as an evil character in childrens stories
9 ECOSYSTEMS
DEFINING ADAPTATION
Organisms live in and are part of an environment.
Adaptations can be dened as characteristics that make
an organism suited to its environment. This view of
adaptation is useful to a biologist questioning whether a
certain characteristic helps an organism to survive. The
biologist needs to study the organisms environment to
see how the adaptation is suited to this environment.
Sometimes there is a clear match between the characteristic
and the environment. The stick insect is well camouaged
so that it can lie hidden among the dead twigs of trees
it inhabits. The centipedes at body shape and many
legs allow it to push through the soil and leaf litter as it
hunts small prey. However, it is not always easy to infer
that a characteristic has evolved as an adaptation to a
particular habitat. Organisms are products of evolution.
This means that a present-day organisms characteristics
are the products of millions of years of change. During
these millions of years, the ancestors of present-day
organisms survived in different habitats to which they
were adapted. Hence, the characteristics of organisms are
not all adaptations to their current environments but may
have been inherited from ancestors. This is most obvious
among organisms that have drastically changed their
habitats over their evolutionary history. Dolphins and
whales, for example, are thought to have evolved from
land-dwelling mammals that gradually became adapted to
aquatic existence. Whales and dolphins are very successful
animals. They are well adapted to life in water. Their ns
and ukes combine with their streamlined shape to propel
them at great speeds through the viscous medium they
inhabit. Their lungs, though, seem an odd adaptation.
Lungs are characteristics of air-breathing land vertebrates.
It is likely that the lungs of whales and dolphins do
not indicate a particular adaptation for their aquatic
environment. Rather, they have lungs because they have
evolved from land-dwelling air-breathing ancestors and
lungs were an adaptation to their ancestors environment.
Therefore, in studying organisms, we need to be careful
not to assume that all characteristics are adaptations to
the organisms present environment. Some characteristics
may be leftover adaptations to environments inhabited
by ancestors. Other characteristics may have no adaptive
advantage at all but may be features that provide no
signicant advantage or disadvantage.
THE ENVIRONMENT
In this unit, you have seen how organisms are adapted
to their environment. The organisms environment
includes both the living things with which it shares its
environment, such as the predators and prey, and its non-
living surroundings, such as the quality of the soil and the
frequency of bushres. The environment is a product of
the interactions between the many organisms and the non-
living aspects of the environment that exist together. In the
next unit, we begin the study of these relationships so that
environments and the organisms that inhabit them can be
better understood. In Chapters 2, 4 and 5, more adaptations
of a variety of Australian organisms to their environment
are discussed in detail.
SUMMARY 1.1
Adaptations are inherited characteristics of organisms
that increase the chance of survival of the species.
Adaptations are also often described as characteristics of
organisms that are suited to the organisms habitats.
It is sometimes difcult to infer that the characteristic
of an organism is an adaptation to its particular habitat
because:
the organism may be observed outside the habitat in
which it evolved, for example, in a suburban garden
the characteristic may provide no particular advantage
in a particular habitat but has been inherited from
ancestral organisms that inhabited different habitats
it may simply be difcult to be certain how a
particular characteristic helps a species to survive.
Organisms have a range of adaptations to their
habitats. Plants and animals in your environment have
a range of adaptations. Many are well adapted to life
in a house and its surroundings.
Closely related organisms, such as spiders, share
some adaptations such as body structure, limbs
for locomotion and external digestion, but they
have specialised adaptations that suit them to their
particular habitat, such as the strategies they use to
capture prey.
QUESTIONS 1.1
1 What is an adaptation?
2 Give an example of an adaptation you possess. Explain
why this is an adaptation.
3 Name one organism that can be found in your home.
Identify one of its adaptations.
4 Describe three adaptations of animals from this unit.
Identify each as structural, behavioural or physiological.
5 Describe three adaptations of plants from this unit. How
does each increase the chance of survival?
6 Figure 1.1.8 shows a cup-moth caterpillar. Cup-moth
caterpillars live on eucalypts. When disturbed, the
cup-moth caterpillar sends out bunches of poisonous
spikes, which give a severe sting. From the information
provided, list two adaptations of the cup-moth
caterpillar. Why is it advantageous for the cup-moth
caterpillar to be brightly coloured?
7 Why is it difcult to infer that some characteristics
of organisms are adaptations to living in a particular
habitat?
8 (a) A puffball fungus releases thousands of spores
simultaneously. What would be the adaptive
advantages of this reproductive strategy? What
is one disadvantage of this strategy?
(b) Figure 1.1.9 shows a human fetus inside the womb.
What is one advantage of this type of reproductive
strategy? What are two disadvantages?
9 The cicada (see Figure 1.1.10) is a commonly seen
organism in Australia during summer. Biologists think
it lives underground for about 57 years before coming
out of the ground to change form and mate.
During summer, males produce a spectacular
drumming noise. Two students thought that the
drumming was an adaptation. Look carefully at
the cicada shown and use your knowledge from
observations of cicadas to answer the following.
(a) One student inferred that the drumming noise
was used to scare away birds and other
predators. Another student thought it might
be to attract other cicadas.
(i) Why do you think cicadas drum? Explain
your reasoning.
(ii) How would you test these different ideas?
(b) Most cicadas come out of their holes at night
when they change from their underground
form to their ying, tree-dwelling form. Why
do you think they do this at night?
(c) One type of cicada, commonly called a double
drummer, comes out in the day-time but
usually in great numbers at the same time.
How might this be an adaptation?
(d) A cicada has a thin pointed tube, going from
the mouth region along the centre at the front
of the body, which is visible outside the body.
Cicadas feed on trees and when underground
on tree roots. Why might this tube be a
feeding adaptation?
(e) Suggest three other adaptations cicadas have.
10 Is school an adaptation? If it is an adaptation,
would you classify it as structural, behavioural
or physiological?
Figure 1.1.8 A cup-moth caterpillar Figure 1.1.9 A human fetus inside the womb Figure 1.1.10 A cicada emerging from its shell
11 ECOSYSTEMS
YOUR ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY
Take a look at your environment. Your environment includes rocks and soil, the air you breathe and
water you drink, as well as the buildings in which you live. And you are not alone. You share your
environment with a variety of plants and animals. Some are too small to see, such as the bacteria
on your skin and the viruses that give you a cold. Others, such as trees, can be huge. These plants,
animals and other parts of your environment do not just exist together. They interact with each other.
Plants provide food and oxygen for animals. Animals provide carbon dioxide for plants. Trees
provide shelter and nesting sites. Animals pollinate owers and disperse seeds. Plants and animals
need the suns light and warmth. Soil is held in place by roots and enriched by leaf litter and
animal droppings.
Ecology is the study of such interrelationships between organisms and the interrelationships
between organisms and their non-living (physical) surroundings. Therefore, ecology can be
simply dened as the study of how organisms interact with other organisms and their physical
surroundings.
Consider one local environment inhabited by a school student. A description of the school
environment might include details about buildings and classroom interiors, climate and topography,
gymnasium facilities and the size of the asphalt playgrounds, the types and numbers of students and
teachers, the availability of shade trees and lawns, the pigeons that feast on leftovers between recess
and lunch, and the availability of junk food at the tuckshop. In short, a complete inventory of the
environment would include both the abiotic (non-living things) and biotic (living things).
An ecologist would not be satised with such a description as an ecological study of the
environment because the fundamental purpose of ecology is to understand the way in which these
things interact. For example, what inuence does the climate have on the growth of the shade
trees? How do these trees affect the distribution of students during lunch? What inuence do school
holidays have on the availability of food scraps for pigeons and how do the pigeons respond to
uctuating food supplies? In other words, an ecologist is not merely interested in a description of
the environment but wants to observe and explain, rst, the way in which organisms affect and are
affected by other organisms and, second, the way in which organisms affect and are affected by
their non-living surroundings.
ECOSYSTEMS AND COMMUNITIES
The basic unit of study in ecology is an ecosystem. The set of interacting organisms in an area
together with their non-living surroundings makes up an ecosystem. It can be dened as a self-
sustaining group of organisms interacting with its environment. Ecosystems may vary enormously in
Students learn to:
identify the factors that determine the distribution and abundance
of a species in each environment.
Ecosystems: environments,
ecology and communities
1.2
size and complexity. An ecosystem could be an ocean or a
coral reef, a creek or an aquarium, a forest or a rotting log,
the Earth itself or a Petri dish culture of microbes.
Ecosystems may vary in size, but they all have a
boundary within which the processes occurring can be
studied and across which the energy and material inputs
and outputs can be examined. The boundary is usually
set for the convenience of the study. In this way, within
an area of bushland one ecologist might study a forest
ecosystem, another, the neighbouring woodland ecosystem,
a third, the nearby heath ecosystem, and still another may
choose to study the whole area as a single ecosystem (see
Figure 1.2.1). Each has clear boundaries set for the purpose
of the study.
An ecosystem can be thought of as being made up of
two interrelated partsthe biotic and abiotic components.
The set of interacting organisms within an ecosystem is
called a community. In ecology, the term community
does not usually refer to a single species but refers to
all the many different interacting plants and animals in
the area.
When studying a specic ecosystem, it is convenient to
name it. Hence, the ecosystem that is composed of the blue
gum forest community and its abiotic environment can be
called the blue gum forest ecosystem.
Naming ecosystems and communities is useful because
it allows a biologist to communicate something about an
environment simply with a name.
Figure 1.2.1 Prole of a bushland ecosystem
SUMMARY 1.2
Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with
other organisms and their physical surroundings.
The non-living aspects of the environment are called the
physical or abiotic components.
The organisms or living things in the environment are
the biological or biotic components of the environment.
An ecosystem is the basic unit of study in ecology.
An ecosystem is a self-sustaining group of organisms
interacting with its environment.
An ecosystem consists of the biotic (living) and
abiotic (non-living) components of an area.
Ecosystems vary in size and complexity.
The interacting organisms within an ecosystem
are called a community.
Communities are made up of different plants
and animals.
A specic community or ecosystem is often
named by stating its dominant species and
its vegetation structure (e.g. blue gum forest
community and blue gum forest ecosystem).
Key:
tall red gums
stunted grey gums
grass
13 ECOSYSTEMS
QUESTIONS 1.2
1 Name two plants and two animals, other than humans,
that are part of your environment.
2 On a map that shows your school or home, identify at
least two ecosystems.
3 Use a common name to identify an ecosystem near
where you live or near your school that you could study.
4 What is each of the following?
(a) ecology
(b) ecosystem
(c) community
5 What are the two components that make up an ecosystem?
6 What two groups of components make up an organisms
environment?
7 Give one example from this unit and one example from
your own experience for:
(a) an interaction between organisms
(b) an interaction between organisms and their
physical surroundings.
8 What is the basic unit of study in ecology?
9 Is mainland Australia one ecosystem or many? Explain.
10 What two features of a community or ecosystem are
often included in their name?
11 (a) Copy Figure 1.2.2 into your book.
(b) Draw lines to indicate the boundaries of three
ecosystems. Suggest possible names for each.
Figure 1.2.2 An aerial view of three ecosystems
In Units 1.3 and 1.4, you will learn how abiotic factors inuence the distribution of plants and animals.
When you study an organism in an ecosystem, there are two questions that often spring to mind:
how many of them are there, and where are they? The region where an organism is found is its
distribution. The number of individuals in an ecosystem is its abundance.
DISTRIBUTION
The distribution of an organism usually shows the locations in which it can be found. Distributions
on a large scale, such as the distribution of an organism in Australia, can be determined by such
methods as trapping, personal sightings, and the observation of tracks or traces. The data are
collected and the distribution is then often shown on a map (see Figure 1.3.1).
Students learn to:
examine trends in population estimates for some plant and animal
species within a local ecosystem.
The distribution and abundance
of organisms
1.3
Figure 1.3.1 Satin bowerbird and its distribution in Australia
When studying a smaller ecosystem, the distribution of
a particular organism is sometimes described on maps of
the area (see Figure 1.3.2). The method used to determine
the distribution usually depends on the nature of the
ecosystem itself, the characteristics of the organism under
study, and the resources available to the researcher. The
methods used to study the distribution of feral cats in a
city like Sydney, for example, might differ considerably
from the method used to study the distribution of banksias
in a coastal reserve.
Transects
The distribution of plants can generally be determined by
identifying individual plants and describing their location
in an area. This is usually done by marking out a straight
line across an area, noting the types of plants present, and
plotting their position along this line on a diagram. This
indicates the distribution of plants along a cross-section
of the ecosystem. This cross-section is called a transect
(see Figures 1.2.1 and 1.3.3). Although plants are most
often the subject of transect studies, the distribution of
animals that tend to stay in the same place, such as those
on a rock platform, can also be examined with the aid
of transects.
On a transect, it is common practice to sketch the
topography of the cross-section as a single line and sketch
the plants as they occur along the line to show their
distribution. Typically, a vertical scale indicates the height
of the plants and the distance across the area is indicated
along a horizontal scale. Sometimes important factors that
may inuence the distribution, such as changes in soil
type or depth, can also be indicated on the transect (see
Figure 1.3.3).
If a different perspective is desired, a series of transects
residential
eucalypts
privet
lantana
Key:
tea tree
grass
1 km
residential
oval
industry
c
r
e
e
k
H
e
i
g
h
t

(
m
)
Distance (m)
80
60
40
20
0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
grasses
lantana
privet
eucalypts
tea tree
Key:
Figure 1.3.2 Vegetation distribution in a suburban reserve
Figure 1.3.3 Transect through in a suburban reserve
15 ECOSYSTEMS
p53
across an ecosystem can be combined to produce an aerial
view or surface map of the vegetation distribution. Figure
1.3.3 could have been produced this way.
INVESTIGATION 2
Using a transect to study the distribution of plants
ESTIMATING ABUNDANCE
The abundance of an organism is the number of
individuals belonging to the same species in an area. This
can most accurately be determined by simply counting
every individual in an area. The abundance of people in
Australia is determined by counting every person in a
census. However, it is often impossible to locate every
individual in an ecosystem, and even when it is possible, it
is usually too time-consuming and costly. Imagine the time
it would take to identify and count each ant in an ant nest,
let alone a forest ecosystem.
Quadrats
The abundance of a species in an ecosystem is usually
found by taking small samples of the community
and using the data obtained from them to estimate
the population in the ecosystem as a whole. As with
distribution, it is generally easier to nd the abundance
of a plant than of an animal. The abundance of a plant
species is usually determined by marking out a number
of small, randomly selected square areas in the ecosystem.
These squares are called quadrats. The individuals within
the quadrats are counted. The average number per area
(density) is calculated and this can be used to estimate
the abundance in the whole ecosystem (see Figure 1.3.4).
The size of the quadrats used depends on the
characteristics of the organism being studied. A large
organism requires a larger quadrat than a small organism.
An organism whose distribution is even and consistent
requires fewer quadrats than one whose distribution is
Key:
heathland
quadrats
density = 13 Christmas bells per 500 m
2
,
i.e. m
2

abundance = density x total area
= x 5000
= 130 Christmas bells
Christmas bells
10 m
10 m
2.6
100
2.6
100
Figure 1.3.4 Quadrats used to estimate the abundance of Christmas bells in a heath
scattered and erratic. A few small quadrats would sufce
to estimate the population of grass on an oval whereas
many large quadrats would be required to estimate the
abundance of the sparsely scattered cedars in an
Australian rainforest.
When estimating abundance, a number of quadrats are
always selected at random so that any chance variations
within the quadrats will even out. This can be explained if
we compare the sampling procedures with tossing a coin.
To estimate the number of times a tossed coin will land
heads, if tossed a million times, you could take a very
small sample, of only two tosses. If tossed twice, a coin
might land heads twice. This particular sample would
result in an estimate of a million heads in a million
tosses. If a sample of 100 tosses were used, a result closer
to 50/50 would probably be obtained. The estimate from
this larger sample is likely to be more representative of
the actual outcome. The greater the number of quadrats
sampled, the better the abundance estimate is likely to be.
The abundance of animals can also sometimes be
estimated by using quadrats. The abundance of animals
that remain in one place, such as barnacles, sea-squirts or
oysters, can be estimated by using quadrats. So too can the
abundance of large animals in herds on open plains, and
animals that can be easily ushed from denable areas
of undergrowth. Quadrats have been successfully used to
estimate the abundance of zebras, kangaroos, tigers and
ground parrots, for example. Often, however, the fact that
animals move makes the use of quadrats difcult.
INVESTIGATION 3
Using quadrats to measure the abundance
of plants in an ecosystem
The capturemarkingrecapture technique
A less widely used method of estimating abundance is the
capturemarkingrecapture technique. In this procedure,
p54
Figure 1.3.5 An Australian bush rat (Rattus lutreolus), which is not
to be confused with the introduced pest, black rat (Rattus rattus)
which arrived with the First Fleet
Table 1.3.1 Capturemarkingrecapture data on
bush rats
CAPTURE (n
1
) RECAPTURE (n
2
)
Number caught 15 10
Number marked 5 (m
2
)
Abundance =
Number captured Number recaptured
Number marked in recapture
i.e. A =
n
1
n
2
m
2
A =
15 10
5
A = 30
SUMMARY 1.3
The distribution of an organism is the region that it
inhabits.
The distribution of an organism on a large scale is
usually described by plotting on a map the places in
which it is found.
Transects are often used to determine the distribution
of plants.
A diagram of a transect is often used to show the
distribution of plants.
The distribution of animals can often be determined
by personal sightings, trapping or the observation of
tracks and droppings.
The population of an organism is the group of
individuals of the same species in an area.
The abundance of an organism is the number of
individuals of the species in an area.
The abundance of plants and some animals can be
estimated by counting the number of individuals in
randomly selected quadrats.
The abundance of animals can sometimes be estimated
by the capturemarkingrecapture technique.
It is usually easier to determine the distribution and
abundance of plants than of animals because animals
move and may hide.
traps are set in the study area. The animals are captured,
marked and released. Traps are reset in exactly the same
way and under the same conditions a second time. By
comparing the number of marked individuals with the
number captured, the population of the animals in the area
can be estimated (see Table 1.3.1 and Figure 1.3.5).
The capturemarkingrecapture procedure is based on
the assumption that the number of marked individuals in
the second catch is proportional to the number of marked
individuals in the whole population. Using this procedure,
let us say that traps were set and 15 individuals were
captured, marked and released. Then traps were reset
and 10 individuals were captured. If 5 of these 10 were
marked, it is reasonable to assume that half of the total
population is marked. Altogether, 15 individuals were
marked, therefore the total population in the area is 30;
that is, twice the number originally marked. More accurate
estimates can be obtained by repeating the exercise a
number of times and calculating an average.
The capturemarkingrecapture sounds good in
principle but has problems when put into practice. The
technique is based on the assumption that all the marked
animals have dispersed evenly among the total population
after release. It is also based on the assumption that
animals are no more or less likely to be captured in the
rst trapping than in the second or subsequent trappings.
This assumption often does not hold true. Some small
rodents, for example, seem to enjoy the food they get
when rst trapped and seem only too willing to be
recaptured. Other animals may be badly frightened by the
experience and avoid the traps in future. This problem
results in the capturemarkingrecapture technique
sometimes producing unreliable data.
17 ECOSYSTEMS
Estimates are usually used to determine the abundance
and distribution of organisms because it is too difcult or
too expensive to nd every organism in an environment.
QUESTIONS 1.3
1 Distinguish between the terms population and
distribution.
2 Describe how you could determine the distribution of
plants in an ecosystem.
3 How could you estimate the number of weeds in a local
area, for example your garden or backyard, a local park
or pasture?
4 How could you estimate the population of an animal
in your local area, for example the population of
cockroaches in your kitchen, snails in your garden,
dogs in your street or barnacles on a rock platform?
5 Describe how the information in Figure 1.3.6 on the
distribution of koalas might have been determined.
6 Describe how you would estimate the abundance of
tea trees on a coastal sand dune.
7 What factors would inuence the size and number
of quadrats that would be used to estimate the
abundance of an organism?
8 Describe in detail how the abundance of wombats in
an ecosystem could be estimated.
9 Figure 1.3.7 shows the distribution of saltbush shrubs
in an arid ecosystem. Using quadrats, answer the
following questions.
Figure 1.3.6 Koala distribution in Australia
(a) Estimate the saltbush abundance.
(b) What is the saltbush density per 100 square metres?
(c) Feral camels and donkeys are thought to be
damaging the ecosystem by destabilising sand
dunes and feeding on saltbush. Suggest one way in
which the extent of their impact could be measured.
10 A group of biology students, with the help of a park
warden, obtained the data in Table 1.3.2 when using the
capturemarkingrecapture technique to estimate the
abundance of Antechinus stuartii in a woodland on the
New South Wales south coast.
(a) Estimate the Antechinus abundance in the
woodland.
(b) How could the accuracy of the estimate be
improved?
(c) Why might an ecologist be reluctant to use the
capturemarkingrecapture technique?
Figure 1.3.7 Distribution of saltbush in an arid ecosystem
Table 1.3.2 Capturemarkingrecapture data for
Antechinus stuartii in a woodland ecosystem
DAY CAPTURE NUMBER
MARKED
RELEASED
1 (capture) 8 8 8
2 (recapture) 6 3 6
Students learn to:
identify factors determining the distribution and abundance of
species in environments.
Factors determining
distribution and abundance
1.4
The abundance and distribution of organisms are inuenced by a complex range of physical and
biological factors interacting in the environment. The particular combination of inuences that
determine the abundance and distribution of particular organisms is usually unique. However, four
major interrelationships can be identied. These are the organisms interaction with or inuence by:
abiotic environmental factors
availability of resources
other members of the same species
other organisms of different species.
ABIOTIC FACTORS
One of the most important aspects of the abiotic environment for terrestrial organisms is climate.
Typically, the climate and soil characteristics of an ecosystem interact to determine the types of plants
that grow in a region. Since plants generally provide food and shelter for animals, the vegetation in the
ecosystem in turn determines the distribution and abundance of animals. Although all of these (animals,
plants, soil and climate) interact to maintain the ecosystem, it is ultimately the physical environment
that has the most profound inuence on the long-term distribution and abundance of organisms.
Figure 1.4.1 The rainbow lorikeet's natural habitat includes forest and woodland. It thrives in well-treed suburbs where
people have created an environment rich in food.
19 ECOSYSTEMS
While the roles of climate and soil in determining the
character of an ecosystem and community are of critical
importance, it must be remembered that they are not single
factors but represent sets of interacting physical factors.
Climate includes such things as the amount and pattern
of rainfall, average temperature and temperature range,
humidity, and all the regular and irregular atmospheric
phenomena that constitute the weather. Soil characteristics
include the texture, depth, drainage, quantity and dispersal
of humus (decaying material), moisture content and
water-holding ability, and the availability of salts such
as nitrates, phosphates and sulfates. And these are just
some of the non-living factors that combine to provide the
fundamental characteristics of the environment to which
organisms are adapted.
Within a particular ecosystem, the measurement
of these physical factors in the area can often provide
evidence to explain and predict the characteristic patterns
of distribution. Table 1.4.1 lists some of the abiotic factors
that could be examined when studying an ecosystem and
briey states how they can be measured. Further details
are given in Investigation 1.
RESOURCES
Anything an organism uses is a resource. Plants have
a fundamental role in the community as a resource for
animals. Resource needs of animals include such things
as food, living space, shelter, nesting sites, nesting
materials, oxygen and water. The availability of these can
play a critical role in the abundance and distribution of
organisms.
Sometimes the availability of a single resource may be
the single factor that determines the maximum population
of a particular species in an area. Such a factor is called
a limiting factor. For example, many Australian birds,
bats, possums and gliders nest in the hollow branches of
eucalypts. These hollows typically begin to occur in the
dead branches of trees that are about 100 years old; see
Figure 1.4.2. Large hollows suitable for the possums and
parrots may not develop until trees are 150200 years old.
Figure 1.4.2 A possum nested in tree hollow. What might be the
abundance if old trees are cut down?
Table 1.4.1 Abiotic environmental factors and their
measurement
ABIOTIC FACTOR MEASUREMENT*
Light intensity Light meter
Air temperature Thermometer
Daily temperature range Max./min. thermometer
Relative humidity Wet and dry bulb thermometer
Rainfall Rain gauge
Wind Anemometer
Soil temperature Soil thermometer
Soil depth Digging to expose soil prole
and measuring
Soil moisture Comparison of wet and dry
weights
Soil porosity Rate of water ow through
sample
Humus Estimating leaf litter depth and
comparing burnt and unburnt
soil weights
pH Indicator and pH chart
Soil mineral nutrient Soil test kit
* For more detail on measurement techniques see Investigation 1.
INVESTIGATION 1
Measuring physical characteristics of an ecosystem,
and observing incidence of human impact
If these large old trees are logged from forests, the
population of many birds and mammals can decrease
rapidly in a single breeding season. Even if similar
eucalypt species are replanted to produce a young robust
forest, it may be hundreds of years before suitable hollows
p48
reappear. Nevertheless, the populations can to some extent
be preserved if articial nesting boxes are provided and
reserves containing stands of mature trees are established
throughout the forest. Similarly, the provision of nesting
boxes in suburban gardens and reserves can help to
maintain and increase the abundance of many parrots
and possums.
INVESTIGATION 4
Distribution and abundance of animals
A
b
u
n
d
a
n
c
e
Time
no additional
nesting boxes
additional nesting
boxes provided
Figure 1.4.3 The abundance of parrots and the inuence of nesting
sites
Figure 1.4.4 Eucalyptus fruit and owers
SUMMARY 1.4
The distribution and abundance of organisms can
be affected by a variety of factors including abiotic
environmental factors, availability of resources, other
members of the same species, and organisms of
different species.
An examination of variations in these factors within
an ecosystem can often provide an explanation for the
distribution and abundance of organisms within that
ecosystem.
The distribution and abundance of a particular organism
is usually determined by a number of interacting factors.
A resource is anything that is used by an organism.
When a single resource, such as breeding sites or food, is
the factor that limits the abundance of an organism, it is
called a limiting factor.
QUESTIONS 1.4
1 List the four main interrelationships that inuence the
distribution and abundance of organisms.
2 List some of the main abiotic factors that may inuence
the distribution and abundance of an organism.
3 Explain why it can be said that the physical
environment ultimately determines the distribution
and abundance of organisms.
4 (a) Describe the distribution of one plant and animal
in your local area.
(b) For both the plant and animal answer the
following questions.
(i) Why do you think it is found in the areas
shown?
(ii) Is it more common in some places than
others? Explain.
5 Carnivorous plants, which capture and digest insects,
often dominate impoverished, water-logged soils but
are rare where soils are rich and well drained.
(a) What factors inuence their distribution?
(b) Why can they survive in soils where few
other plants can?
6 In terms of the abundance of organisms, what is meant
by a limiting factor? Is there a single limiting factor
controlling the abundance of any organisms in your area?
7 Suggest the main abiotic factors you would examine in
a terrestrial ecosystem and state briey how you could
measure them.
8 Suggest some of the main abiotic factors you would
examine in an aquatic ecosystem.
p55
21 ECOSYSTEMS
Students learn to:
compare the abiotic factors of aquatic and terrestrial environments.
Comparing the abiotic factors of
terrestrial and aquatic environments
1.5
In Unit 1.4, you saw how the abundance and distribution of organisms could be explained in
terms of abiotic factors and resources. In this unit, the abiotic factors of aquatic (water) and
terrestrial (land) environments are compared to illustrate the different abiotic factors and
resources that exist in these two very different environments.
From a human perspective, it is all too easy to regard the aquatic environment as hostile and
unforgiving. Yet water provides an environment in which it is much easier for life to exist than
land does. It is thought that life rst evolved in water, and water is the major component of all
living things.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of how difcult it is to move through a substance. For example, consider
the viscosity of water and honey. If you dropped a ball-bearing into a glass of honey and a glass
of water, the ball-bearing would fall much more slowly through the honey than through the
water. Honey is more viscous than water. If we extend the experiment a little further by dropping
the ball-bearing into a glass containing air, then the ball will fall faster through the air than
through the water. Water is more viscous than air.
Viscosity is an important feature of the aquatic and terrestrial environments and it is one
area in which a terrestrial existence provides an advantage over the aquatic environment. It is
much easier for animals to move through air than through water. Many aquatic animals have a
streamlined shape, which allows them to move more easily in water.
Buoyancy
Buoyancy is a measure of a substances ability to support or hold up an object. For example,
a cork is easily supported by water, but the same cork will fall through air. Water provides
greater buoyancy than air. Air appears to offer no support at all. However, this is not trueair
does provide some support. If you drop a sheet of paper, the buoyancy provided by air can be
observed, but highly specialised adaptations, such as wings, are required to make any use of it.
In this way, water provides an advantage over the terrestrial environment because it provides
greater support for an organism and this support is more than a mere upward thrust. Organisms
are surrounded by water, which not only helps to hold them up but, in some cases, also maintains
their very shape. A jellysh, for example, quickly collapses into a deformed blob when removed
from water.
Temperature variation
The terrestrial environment can experience huge variations
in temperature in very short periods. Within a single day,
variations of 1520C are not uncommon, and far greater
temperature uctuations can occur in desert environments.
Even relatively small bodies of water do not experience
such temperature variations. Water temperatures change
much more slowly and this can be very frustrating
for early summer beach-goers who swelter in high
temperatures on land but nd the water still too cold for
anything more than a quick dip.
Except at the very edges, the temperature of the
oceans remains constant from year to year. Indeed, any
slight variation in oceanic temperature could have quite
disastrous effects. For example, an increase in ocean
temperatures of only a few degrees could change global
weather patterns, melt Arctic and Antarctic ice, and expand
the volume of the ocean enough to ood coastal cities.
Since it is much easier to adapt to a constant
environment than to varying conditions, the constant
temperatures of the aquatic environment are much more
conducive to life than the varied temperatures experienced
on land.
Conduction of heat
Although temperatures remain more constant in water
than on land, organisms tend to lose heat more rapidly in
water. This is because water conducts heat better than air.
People lost at sea probably die more often from heat loss
(hypothermia) than by drowning because heat is so quickly
lost to the surrounding water. Aquatic birds and mammals
whose body temperatures are higher than that of the water
they inhabit must be adapted to prevent this heat loss by
conduction.
Availability of gases
Organisms need oxygen for respiration, and plants need
carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. As almost 20% of
air is oxygen, it is abundant on land except at very high
altitudes. Much less carbon dioxide is available since only
about 0.03% of air is carbon dioxide, but this appears to
adequately provide the needs of photosynthesis in plants.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolve in water. Where
water is in close contact with the air, both are readily
available. In particular, these gases are most abundant
where turbulent water is tossed through the air in places
such as river rapids, waterfalls and breaking ocean waves.
The dissolved gases are then gradually mixed throughout
the water by slow convection currents. Nevertheless,
as water depth increases, the availability of both gases
decreases. Stagnant ponds and pools, too, often lack
sufcient oxygen for the survival of most organisms.
The availability of gases in water is also affected by
temperature. When you heat water, you will notice the
small bubbles that form well before the water boils. These
are bubbles of air that come out of solution as the water
heats up. As temperature increases, the solubility of gases
in water decreases. This means that there is less oxygen
and carbon dioxide in warm tropical seas than in Arctic
and Antarctic oceans. However, the abundance and variety
of life in the tropical marine environment shows that
enough of both gases is available.
Diffusion of gases
The movement of gases through water and air can be
inuenced by wind and currents, but their movement into
and out of cells depends on diffusion. The diffusion of
gases is about 10 000 times faster through air than through
water. As a consequence, air provides a tremendous
advantage for the rapid movement of gases. However, to
gain entry to cells, gases must dissolve in water to pass
through the cell membrane. This is why any surface used
for gas exchange must be moist.
Availability of water
On land, water is at a premium. It is quickly lost from
organisms by evaporation and must be replaced constantly.
In an aquatic environment, water surrounds organisms
and yet it may not be as readily available as you might
imagine. In a freshwater environment, water tends to
constantly diffuse into organisms. This is because cells
contain more ions and organic substances than the
surrounding water. This causes a net movement of water
into the cells. By contrast, in the marine environment,
cells often have a lower concentration of salts than the
surrounding water. Under these conditions, there is a net
movement of water out of the cell (see Figure 1.5.1). (For
more information about this movement of water into and
out of cells, see Unit 2.5.)
Availability of ions
On land, ions (salts) are available in soil water. Plants
absorb these through their roots and animals obtain them
when they feed off plants or other animals. Some soils
lack essential ions and few plants will grow under such
conditions. Conversely, some soils, particularly in Western
23 ECOSYSTEMS
Australia and Victoria, contain excessive salts and this
prevents plant growth because water diffuses from the
roots into the soil rather than from the soil into the plant.
In the marine environment, most ions are available in
abundance. Just as convection currents carry oxygen and
carbon dioxide to the ocean depths, so, too, these same
currents return ions from decomposed organisms to the
surface. Nevertheless, some ions such as those of calcium
are in demand by so many organisms for the production of
calcium carbonate shells that its availability may limit the
abundance of some animals (see Figure 1.5.2).
Light
On land, light is available in abundance. It is generally
only scarce on the oors of dense forests and caves. In
water, light is often at a premium. The surface of water
reects light. This means that only about 70% of the
light that strikes the surface penetrates. Furthermore,
water absorbs light. Therefore, as depth increases, light
availability decreases. On the ocean oors, there is no light
for photosynthesis or vision and both plants and animals
have become adapted to cope with the difculties this
presents (see Figure 1.5.2).
Pressure variations
On land, there are frequent uctuations in pressure.
Typically, these are measured regularly and included
in daily weather reports. However, these variations are
small and have little direct impact on organisms. In
water, by contrast, although pressures do not uctuate,
there is considerable variation. As water depth increases,
pressure increases (see Figure 1.5.2). Pressures are so
(a) cell wall cell membrane
water in
water out
Water diffuses in and out of the
cell across the cell membrane.
More water enters the cell by osmosis than leaves the cell
the concentration of substances is greater inside the cell than outside.
(b)
water in
water out
Water diffuses in and out of the
cell across the cell membrane.
More water leaves the cell by osmosis than enters the cell
the concentration of substances is greater outside the cell than inside.
cell wall cell membrane
Figure 1.5.1 Osmosis in (a) fresh water and (b) salt water
Figure 1.5.2 Comparing surface water and deep ocean water in an ocean
light
light reflected
low pressure
no light
high pressure
ions
from dead
organisms
gases dissolve
waters
waters
Surface
Deep
ions
abundant
gases more
abundant
light penetrates
light absorbed
great on the oors of the deepest oceans that they can
crush submarines. Yet despite the tremendous pressures,
specially adapted animals do inhabit the ocean depths.
These organisms were rst studied by dragging
nets along the ocean oor behind surface ships, but the
animals captured were sometimes so distorted when
brought to the low pressures on the surface that their
original appearance was altered. More recently, specially
designed vessels have permitted some exploration of
this environment. However, the difculties faced by
such research have prompted some scientists to argue
that more is known about outer space than about the
ocean depths.
INVESTIGATION 1
Measuring physical characteristics of an ecosystem
and observing incidence of human impact
Figure 1.5.3 Rock pool
SUMMARY 1.5
Life probably rst evolved in water. Water provides an
environment in which it is easier for life to exist than
on land.
Water is more viscous than air. Therefore, it is more
difcult to move through water than through air.
Water is more buoyant than air. Therefore, water
provides greater support for organisms than air.
Temperatures vary less in water than on land.
Ocean temperatures are fairly constant. Constant
temperatures are easier to adapt to than varying
temperatures.
Water is a better conductor of heat than air. Therefore,
a body immersed in water will rapidly lose heat to
its surroundings.
Gases (e.g. oxygen and carbon dioxide) are available
in greater abundance on land than in water.
The availability of gases decreases with altitude on
land and decreases with depth in water.
Gases diffuse more quickly through air than through
water.
Water can be lost quickly by evaporation from exposed
surfaces on land.
In the freshwater environment, the concentration
gradient favours the movement of water into
most cells.
In the marine environment, most ions (salts)
are readily available. In freshwater, ions are in
very low concentrations. On land, most ions are
readily available in solution in soil water, though
some soils contain an excess of salts while others
contain too little.
Light availability in water decreases with depth.
On land, air pressure may uctuate quickly but it
has little direct effect on organisms.
Air pressure decreases with altitude. Water
pressure increases with depth.
QUESTIONS 1.5
1 List three advantages and three disadvantages for
life in the terrestrial and aquatic environments
that are related to their abiotic characteristics.
2 Why do most sh have a streamlined body
shape?
3 Why do land animals need larger muscles and
bones for support than aquatic animals?
4 Why is the concentration of oxygen higher near
the surface than on the bottom of the oceans?
p48
25 ECOSYSTEMS
In Unit 1.5, you compared the abiotic factors of terrestrial and aquatic environments. This
comparison revealed the different challenges faced by life on land and life in water. You learnt
in Unit 1.1 that an ecologist would be dissatised with this comparison. An ecologist would
want to know about the relationships between the abiotic factors and the organisms that live
in the environment. To consider all the abiotic factors and their varied inuences would be too
large a task in this book. So, in the next two units the effects of selected aquatic and terrestrial
abiotic factors will be analysed. First, the inuence of light availability on aquatic and terrestrial
environments will be considered in this unit. Then, in Unit 1.7 the distribution of communities
across Australia will be explained in terms of a variety of terrestrial abiotic factors including
rainfall, temperature and soil quality.
LIGHT IN WATER
Light provides the energy requirements of virtually all living things. On land, it is generally
abundantly available. In water, useful amounts of light are only available to a depth of about
100 m depending on the water clarity. The lack of light is brought about by two factors: rst,
about 30% of the light that strikes the waters surface is reected; second, water absorbs light.
Water does not absorb all wavelengths of light equally. The different wavelengths of light,
which we see as colours, make up the colour spectrum of white light. If you have been snorkelling
or skin-diving, you will realise that underwater things take on a green or bluish tinge. This is
because the red and orange wavelengths of light are quickly absorbed by water. The degree to
which water absorbs the different wavelengths of light is called the absorbance spectrum of
water (see Figure 1.6.1).
5 Why is the salt calcium carbonate in high demand
in the marine environment?
6 (a) Why do both marine and terrestrial
organisms need to be adapted to avoid
excessive water loss?
(b) Why dont freshwater organisms require
similar adaptations?
7 Why is it eternally dark on the ocean oor?
8 Why dont many aquatic organisms require
mechanisms to regulate their body temperatures?
9 The terrestrial environment is sometimes
described as a two-phase environment, whereas
the aquatic habitat is sometimes said to consist of
a single phase.
(a) Explain what is meant by this statement.
(b) To what extent do you agree?
Students learn to:
identify factors determining the distribution and abundance of organisms
in aquatic environments.
The distribution and abundance
of organisms: the inuence of light
1.6
Green, red and brown algae
Figure 1.6.1 shows the absorbance of light in water. The
graph reveals a major problem for aquatic plants. Water
absorbs the very wavelengths of light that are used most
by chlorophyll for photosynthesis. This means that as
depth increases, not only the quantity but also the quality
of light decreases.
Plants have evolved a variety of adaptations to make
the best possible use of the light available in water. Red
and brown algae contain coloured materials (pigments),
which absorb the light that penetrates to the greatest
depth in water (see Figure 1.6.2). The red pigment
(phycoerythrin) and the brown pigment (fucoxanthin)
absorb the blue and green wavelengths of light. The
energy is then transferred to chlorophyll, which carries out
photosynthesis. This allows red and brown algae to live at
a much greater depth than green algae. If you visit a rock
platform at low tide, it is easy to observe a green band
of algae exposed on the rock surface, a red band of algae
lower on the rock platform, and brown kelp at the greatest
depth, usually covered by water even at low tide.
ANIMAL ADAPTATIONS
The lack of light in deep water also presents major
difculties for aquatic animals. We humans rely heavily
on sight as our main means of obtaining information
about our surroundings, but this is not true of all animals.
Dogs, for example, live largely in a world of smells
because they rely mainly on their sense of smell. Since
sight may be of little consequence to them, the lack of
light in the ocean depths poses few problems for the
animals that dwell there.
Many aquatic animals rely heavily on smell and sound
rather than sight. A few even produce their own light,
which is called bioluminescence. This may help them
attract a mate or lure unsuspecting smaller animals to a
predators wide-set jaws. In this blind world, some animals
use senses that humans do not possess. Electric eels, for
example, are sensitive to the minute electrical impulses
given off by the nerves in the muscles of other animals.
The platypuss bill is similarly sensitive and it detects
prey, such as yabbies, in the same way. Such adaptations
are advantageous both in deep oceans and in shallow,
murky freshwater.
Finally, the problems related to lack of light are not
limited to aquatic habitats. At night, there is little light
in the terrestrial environment. Yet many animals are
nocturnal. In Australia the vast majority of mammals
are most active at night. Many bats, with the exception
of ying foxes, see poorly and yet they are one of the
most successful mammals. In short, it is only our peculiar
human perspective that makes us see darkness and dim
light as a hostile environment. Had this chapter been
written by a bat, it may have discussed adaptations to cope
with the bright light of day!
In this unit, the adaptations of organisms to one abiotic
factor, light, have been considered and the way in which
light availability inuences the distribution of algae has
10 m
100 m
1 m
visible light
ultraviolet infrared
solar energy reaching
ocean surface
only 45% of light energy
reaches 1 metre
about 16% reaches
10 metres
only 1% remains at
100 metres
1000 300 400 500 600 700
Sea surface
i
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
g

d
e
p
t
h
Wavelength
(nm)
Figure 1.6.1 Light absorbance by water
A
b
s
o
r
b
a
n
c
e
violet blue green yellow orange red
water
(5 m deep)
Light
phycoerythrin
fucoxanthin
chlorophyll-a
Figure 1.6.2 Absorption of light by pigments in green (chlorophyll),
red (phycoerythrin) and brown (fucoxanthin) algae
27 ECOSYSTEMS
been described. Variations in many other abiotic factors
also inuence the distribution of organisms in aquatic
environments. These include:
- llc sall conccnlialion of llc walci, ianging fiom llc
extremely salty Dead Sea to fresh water with almost
no salt
- lcmpcialuic vaiialions, wlicl iangc fiom lol spiings
and geysers through warm tropical seas to freezing
Antarctic oceans
- picssuic diffcicnccs, ianging fiom low picssuics in
surface waters to extreme pressure in deep ocean
trenches
- vaiialion in availablc gascs, ianging fiom low in waim,
stagnant ponds to plentiful in the turbulent waters of
oceans and cold streams
- llc availabilily of sulfalcs foi clcmosynllclic baclciia
near hot gas outlets on the ocean oor.
These and other factors inuence the distribution of
various organisms, since different organisms are adapted
to different conditions.
SUMMARY 1.6
Light provides the energy needs of virtually all
organisms.
Water reects and absorbs light. Therefore as depth
increases, the amount of available light decreases.
The colours of light absorbed most by water are
similar to those absorbed most by chlorophyll
(see Figure 1.6.1). The wavelengths needed for
photosynthesis are quickly absorbed by water.
Red and brown algae contain red and brown pigments,
which absorb the light that penetrates to the greatest
depth.
Red and brown algae are more abundant in deeper
water than are green algae.
Algae are distributed near the water surface and not
at great depths in water.
Life is abundant near hot gas outlets on the ocean
oor where chemosynthetic bacteria are the producers.
QUESTIONS 1.6
1 Why is light generally more abundant on land than
in water?
2 Describe the main problems for photosynthesis in
water that are related to light.
3 Why do objects collected under water sometimes
have a different colour when they are brought
to the surface?
4 (a) Explain why red and brown algae can
survive at greater depths of water than
green algae.
(b) How does this explain the distribution of
redbrown and green algae on a rock
platform?
5 Do red and brown algae contain chlorophyll?
Explain.
6 What is the advantage for a terrestrial plant in
growing tall?
7 Describe how aquatic animals are adapted to
environments with no light.
8 Use library resources to investigate how abiotic
factors inuence the distribution and adaptations
of organisms in an aquatic environment. Two
of the most interesting ecosystems you could
investigate are:
(a) coral reefs, such as the Great Barrier Reef
(b) ecosystems found near hot gas outlets and
near mid-ocean ridges on the ocean oor.
Students learn to:
describe the roles of photosynthesis and respiration in the
transformation of energy in ecosystems
identify the general equation for aerobic cellular respiration and
outline this as a summary of a chain of biochemical reactions
identify the uses of energy by organisms
describe the ow of energy through a natural ecosystem
describe the role of decomposers in an ecosystem.
The ow of energy and matter
in an ecosystem
1.7
USES OF ENERGY BY ORGANISMS
The energy available to organisms in an ecosystem is used in a variety of ways, including movement,
making sound, carrying out chemical reactions as part of cellular metabolism, producing heat and, in
some organisms, producing light. You are probably familiar with using energy for sound, movement
and heat as you talk, walk and maintain your body temperature, but energy is also used by some
organisms to produce light. Glow worms, ash-light sh and reies, for example, all use chemical
energy to produce light. This process is bioluminescence, which is a spectacularly efcient process
because, unlike all human systems devised to provide light, when organisms convert chemical energy
into light energy almost no heat is produced. Thus, organisms again demonstrate that biology and
evolution have succeeded in developing efcient systems beyond the capacity of human invention. The
efciency of this light-producing system is one reason for their extensive study by biologists. Another
is the sheer beauty of the biochemical systems and the extraordinariness of the organisms.
ENERGY TRANSFER AND LOSS
It is a fundamental law of science that energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can, however, be
changed from one form to another. In an electric toaster, for example, electrical energy is converted
into mainly heat energy. When a match burns, chemical energy is converted into heat and light energy.
When you shout, some of the chemical energy in glucose is converted into sound energy. (This actually
involves a series of energy changesyou might like to try to draw up a list of them.) However, these
energy transfers are not perfect. Whenever energy is changed from one form to another, some energy is
lost. In car engines, for example, a lot of the energy we would like to see transformed into moving the
car is lost as waste heat and sound.
ENERGY TRANSFER THROUGH ECOSYSTEMS
In ecosystems, the initial source of energy for the community is light. Plants absorb some of the
light energy from the sun. Some of this light energy is converted, through photosynthesis in the
chloroplasts, into chemical energy in glucose molecules. This glucose can then be transported to other
parts of the plant. Typically, about half of it is broken down in respiration to make energy available
for cellular processes. The rest of the glucose is converted into larger carbohydrates and other organic
compounds (see Figure 1.7.1).
29 ECOSYSTEMS
are very different biochemically.
When animals (herbivores) eat and digest plants, the
complex carbohydrates are converted back into glucose.
This glucose can be broken down by respiration in the
animal cells to provide the animals energy requirements
(see Figure 1.7.2). Similarly, when animals (carnivores) eat
other animals, they can make use of the chemical energy
stored in the substances of the dead animals body.
THE CYCLING OF MATTER IN
ECOSYSTEMS
In photosynthesis, the carbon dioxide obtained from
air and the water absorbed from the soil are used to
produce glucose. From this, other carbohydrates can
be manufactured within the plant cells. Some of the
carbohydrates are used, together with the nitrates, sulfates
and phosphates, which have been absorbed from the soil,
to produce proteins and nucleic acids. Other elements
obtained from the soil and incorporated into plant tissues
include calcium, magnesium, iodine, cobalt, molybdenum,
and many others. In this way, matter from the physical
surroundings, in the form of simple salts and gases, is
absorbed by the plant and converted into complex organic
Figure 1.7.1 Energy transfer from light to plant cells
Figure 1.7.2 Energy transfer from plants to animals
Photosynthesis and respiration are both processes made
up of a chain of chemical reactions, which are controlled
in cells by many enzymes and factors. Two equations can
be used to summarise these complex processes.
Photosynthesis is often summarised as:
carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
This summary shows the reactants in photosynthesis
(carbon dioxide and water), the energy source (light) and
the products (glucose and oxygen). It does not show the
many steps involved in the process. Nor does it show the
role of enzymes and other factors.
Respiration is often summarised as:
glucose + oxygen water + carbon dioxide + energy
Again this reaction tells nothing of the many steps or
enzymes or factors in the process but it does summarise
the equation, showing the reactants and the products,
and indicates that energy is made available as a result of
the process. In living systems, photosynthesis converts
light energy into chemical energy, and respiration serves
to make this energy available for cellular functions.
Respiration and photosynthesis are not opposite reactions;
the steps in the reactions are very different. The reactions
light
photosynthesis glucose
transported
throughout the
plant
respiration
energy for cell
processes
chlorophyll
light energy
converted into other
carbohydrates
(starch, sugar etc.)
eaten by animal
carbohydrates
digested to
glucose
respiration
energy for
animal
processes
plant
converted
into other
substances
substances, some of which are used to produce the plants
tissues. When an animal eats a plant, some of the digested
material is used to produce the animals tissues.
The role of decomposers
When a plant or animal respires, water and carbon
dioxide are returned to the atmosphere. As animals
release waste urine or faeces, materials are returned to
their surroundings. When plants and animals die, they are
decomposed, returning their remaining nutrients to their
physical surroundings. The decomposers, mainly bacteria
and fungi, recycle matter. They decompose dead plant
and animal material, making nutrients available to plants
(see Figure 1.7.3). The result is a transfer of matter from
organisms to the physical environment. These materials
can then be taken in again by plants to continue the
cycle. Unlike energy, matter moves in a cycle through the
ecosystem. It is transferred from the physical surroundings
to plants, from plants to animals, and from plants and
animals back to the physical surroundings.
This matter cycle is actually made up of a number
of cycles including, among others, the carbon/oxygen
and nitrogen cycles and the water cycle. These cycles are
described in Figures 1.7.41.7.6.
Although, in time, all the matter is eventually recycled
through ecosystems, within a specic ecosystem matter
can enter and be lost across ecosystem boundaries.
Nevertheless, no ecosystem can sustain a long-term
net loss of matter. In time, a balance must be achieved
between the gain and loss of matter.
Figure 1.7.3 How matter is cycled through an ecosystem
salts urine faeces
death and
decay
water plants animals
carbon
dioxide
respiration
Figure 1.7.4 The carbonoxygen cycle (simplied)
31 ECOSYSTEMS
denitrifying bacteria
in waterlogged soil
dead animals
and plants
animal
waste
nitrifying bacteria
plant protein
made with nitrates
and absorbed by
plant roots
nitrogen gas
in the air
Lightning
produces
nitrates.
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in root
nodules of acacias
peas, beans and
clover
nitrates in
the soil
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in
the soil
Animals eat plants,
synthesising animal
protein.
animal
protein
Figure 1.7.5 The nitrogen cycle (simplied)
Figure 1.7.6 The water cycle (simplied)
precipitation as rain,
snow, hail, sleet
water stored as ice
and snow
clouds and water vapour
Water evaporates from
oceans, land, forests, farms,
lakes, rivers, swamps.
ocean
lakes
forest
rivers
underground water
ground run-off
Students learn to:
identify examples of allelopathy, parasitism, mutualism and commensalism
in the ecosystem and the role of organisms in each type of relationship
outline factors that affect numbers in predator and prey populations in the
area studied
describe and explain the short-term and long-term consequences on the
ecosystem of species competing for resources.
Interrelationships among
organisms
1.8
SUMMARY 1.7
Light energy from the sun is the original source of
energy for ecosystems.
Plants convert light energy to chemical energy in
glucose through photosynthesis.
Animals obtain energy in the form of chemical energy
in food. This is mainly in the form of carbohydrates.
The chemical energy in glucose is made available to
plant and animal cells through cellular respiration.
Organisms never obtain all the energy available in their
food source because energy is constantly being used
and lost by organisms as waste heat; and energy is lost
in every energy transfer.
Energy is lost from plants and animals mainly as waste
heat energy. This results in a loss of energy from the
ecosystem.
Energy is not recycled in an ecosystem.
Matter is recycled in an ecosystem.
The recycling of matter in an ecosystem occurs
through a number of interconnected cycles (see Figures
1.7.41.7.6).
QUESTIONS 1.7
1 What is the original source of energy in ecosystems?
2 (a) In what form do cells obtain energy for use in
cellular processes?
(b) By what process is light energy converted into this?
(c) By what process is the energy made available
within cells?
3 What substances in plants are the main source of
energy for animals?
4 When an animal eats plants, it never obtains all the
energy in the plants it eats. Why?
5 In the physical environment, what substances provide
the initial source of material for living things?
6 (a) What substances in plants provide the main
sources of materials for animals?
(b) How do plants obtain these substances?
7 How do plants and animals release matter to the
physical environment?
8 What eventually happens to all the matter in a
community?
9 People sometimes remove dead logs from forests for use
in replaces, and leaf litter for use as garden mulch.
Explain the long-term consequences of these actions
in relation to the ow of matter and energy within the
ecosystem.
10 When areas of natural vegetation are cleared for
agriculture, the land sometimes turns out to be
impoverished and inadequate for crops.
(a) Where have all the nutrients gone?
(b) How was the original ecosystem maintained?
11 A group of people are isolated and have only grain and
chickens as food sources. Should they:
A feed the grain to the chickens and eat the
chickens?
B feed the grain to the chickens and eat the eggs
the chickens lay?
C eat the grain and the chickens?
Explain your answer.
33 ECOSYSTEMS
INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
MEMBERS OF DIFFERENT SPECIES
Within a community, two organisms sometimes have no
observable effect on each other. However, different species
within an ecosystem can often inuence one another.
Some of the main types of interrelationships are considered
in this unit.
Mutualism
A relationship between two organisms in which both
benet is called mutualism. Examples of mutualism
include the alga and fungus that make up a lichen, the
alga and polyp that make up coral acacias with their
nitrogen-xing bacteria, and the bacteria in the digestive
systems of many herbivores that digest cellulose.
No large animals can digest cellulose. All grazing
animals must rely on symbiotic bacteria or protozoa in
their digestive systems to break down cellulose. Kangaroos
have an additional stomach near the beginning of the
digestive tract. This contains the bacteria and protozoa that
break down the cellulose in grass. Both the kangaroo and
the bacteria benet from the relationship. The kangaroo
obtains access to an additional food source and the
bacteria have a habitat with a constant environment and
an ample supply of food. All herbivores have symbiotic
protozoa and bacteria in the gut, but few can match the
efciency of the kangaroos digestion.
Commensalism
Commensalism is a relationship between two organisms in
which only one benets and the other is unaffected. Some
examples of commensalism include the anemone sh and
the sea anemone, and the remora sh and the shark. The
anemone sh lives among the tentacles of sea anemones,
gaining protection from predators. The anemone appears to
receive no benet. The remora hitches a ride on sharks. It
gains a free ride and feeds on scraps from the sharks food
but appears to provide no service to the sharks.
Parasitism
Parasitism is a relationship in which one organism lives
in or on another organism and feeds from it. The organism
in, on or off which a parasite lives is called its host. Well-
adapted parasites cause little harm to their host. Their host
remains healthy and able to provide them with a habitat
and food. Many tapeworms live attached to the lining
of the digestive system of their host animal and absorb
digested food without causing any serious harm. Some less
well-adapted parasites cause discomfort, which irritates
the host and triggers responses aimed at getting rid of the
parasite. Ticks and eas, for example, feed off dogs, who
scratch and gnaw at their coats in an attempt to remove
them. Some parasites, such as disease-causing bacteria,
bring about illness and can kill their host. These disease-
causing parasites are called pathogens.
Allelopathy
Allelopathy is a relationship in which one organism
directly hinders the growth or development of another by
releasing toxins. Some plants and fungi produce antibiotics
that prevent the growth of bacteria. Sir Alexander
Flemings discovery that bacteria did not grow around the
fungus Penicillium notatum led to the development of the
antibiotic penicillin.
Plants may also release substances that inhibit the
growth of other plants. Sometimes substances are secreted
by the roots. Lantana is an introduced plant that has
become a pest in the Australian bush. It not only crowds
out native species by competing for soil nutrients and
light but also appears to release substances into the soil
that inhibit the growth of some native species. Plants
may also indirectly inhibit the growth of other plants. The
decomposition of pine needles can result in soils that are
too acidic for the germination and growth of many plants.
Inhibition is not limited to exotic plants. The decay of
eucalyptus leaves, for example, can render soils unsuitable
for some introduced plants. In each of these cases, the
plants chance of survival has been increased by reduced
competition for resources.
Predation
A relationship in which one organism eats another is
called a predatorprey relationship, or predation. The
term is usually only applied to relationships in which one
animal eats another. Dingoes and wallabies, lions and
zebras, orb-spinner spiders and beetles are all examples of
predatorprey relationships.
Predatorprey relationships often have a major impact
on the abundance of organisms. Indeed, prey and predator
populations are sometimes so closely related that graphs of
their abundance may look very similar. Figure 1.8.1 shows
the effects of a predatorprey relationship between two
mites that were studied under laboratory conditions.
The shape of the graphs can be explained in the
following way. The predator mite eats the mite of a
different species, which is its prey. When the prey
population increases, there is more food for the predator
and therefore the predator population increases. As the
with the limpet (Cellana) (see Figure 1.8.2). Both feed on
the algae growing on the rocks. The periwinkle moves
faster, but feeds less efciently than the limpet. If the
periwinkles are removed, the limpet population increases.
Where there are many periwinkles, there are few limpets.
Nevertheless, some algae are always left behind by the
periwinkles and this ensures the continued survival of
the limpets.
Consequences of competition
When two species compete for the same resources, one
of the species usually loses. In the short term, this results
in a decrease in the abundance of one of the species. The
effects of competition on the population of organisms
Figure 1.8.2 Black periwinkle (Nerita) (top) and limpet (Cellana)
(bottom) compete for food
predator population increases, more prey is consumed.
The predator population falls again because there is less
food, and the cycle begins once more. This causes the
populations of both organisms to uctuate in the same
pattern. Both the predator and the prey graphs have a
similar shape, but the predator population change always
lags behind that of the prey and the predator population is
usually less than the prey population.
Such obvious relationships are seldom observed under
natural conditions because many variables interact to
inuence the abundance of both predators and prey. In
particular, where predators have a variety of food sources,
such simple patterns are not observed.
Competition
Competition is a relationship in which two organisms
compete for a limited resource. Competition between
organisms in the same place for the same set of resources
usually results in the elimination of the less successful one.
The introduction of dingoes and, more recently, feral cats
and foxes has been blamed for the reduced population of
some native carnivores in parts of Australia.
Sometimes organisms are fairly evenly matched in their
competition for resources. Such organisms may coexist
indenitely. In rainforest, for example, the availability
of light is often at a premium for seedlings. Therefore,
there is constant competition for light. Nevertheless, no
single species dominates and the rainforest remains an
exceptionally diverse community. Competition is most
intense within a single species population because all the
individuals require the same resources.
Occasionally one species is more successful than
another and yet both continue to coexist. On the rock
platform, the black periwinkle (Nerita) competes for food
prey
predator
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
25
20
15
10
5
P
r
e
d
a
t
o
r

a
b
u
n
d
a
n
c
e
P
r
e
y

a
b
u
n
d
a
n
c
e
1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time (weeks)
Figure 1.8.1 The predatorprey relationship of two mites
35 ECOSYSTEMS
SUMMARY 1.8
The distribution and abundance of organisms is
inuenced by a range of factors, which include the
abiotic environment, the availability of resources,
interaction with other species and interaction with
members of the same species.
An examination of variations in these factors within
an ecosystem often provides an explanation for the
distribution and populations of organisms within the
ecosystem.
Members of different species within an ecosystem may
have no signicant impact on each other (see Table
1.8.1).
Competition between species may result in elimination
of one species or the species adapting to occupy
distinct niches. In the short term, the abundance and
distribution of at least one of the species are reduced.
QUESTIONS 1.8
1 List the four main interrelationships that inuence the
distribution and abundance of organisms.
2 State two types of relationship in which the organisms
are not harmed and give an example of each.
3 State two types of relationship in which an organism is
harmed and give an example of each.
4 Use two specic examples to explain how
relationships within species can inuence their
distribution and abundance.
5 In some predatorprey relationships, predators
tend to prey more heavily on the young, weak
and sick than on the strong and healthy. How
might such a relationship benet the prey in the
long term?
Table 1.8.1 Relationships between different species
RELATIONSHIP DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
Mutualism Both organisms benet Lichen (fungus and alga)
Commensalism One benets; the other unharmed Anemone sh and anemone
Predation One organism eats another Dingo eats wallaby
Parasitism One organism lives in or on another, obtaining food from it Tick on dog
Competition Organisms compete for a limited resource Periwinkle and limpet compete for algae
Allelopathy One organism directly prevents the development of a
competing organism by releasing toxins
Lantana secretions inhibit native plants
can be observed under laboratory conditions. In such
experiments, the grain beetle Calandra is more successful
than beetle Rhizopertha. Where they coexist, this results in
a decrease in the Rhizopertha population. If competition
between species continues in an ecosystem, one of the
species can be eliminated from the area. In the long
term, this can result in the extinction of the less
successful species.
Over long periods, organisms evolve and adapt to
their environment. Competition is one pressure in the
environment that inuences the evolution of organisms.
Partly as a result of competition, organisms evolve
to occupy a particular niche within each ecosystem.
An organisms niche in an ecosystem results from a
combination of the abiotic and biotic factors the species
uses in its habitat. As a result of competition and
evolution, organisms of different species do not occupy
the same niche in the same ecosystem. The black
periwinkle (Nerita) and the limpet (Cellana) feed on the
same food resource and share the same environment in the
same ecosystem but they occupy different niches because
they feed in different ways.
6 State whether the situations described below are:
(i) allelopathy
(ii) mutualism
(iii) commensalism
(iv) competition
(v) parasitism
(vi) predatorprey relationships.
(More than one answer may be chosen.)
(a) The pollination of orchids by bees as they search
for nectar.
(b) The killing of lyre birds by feral cats.
(c) The digestion of wood in the gut of termites by
microorganisms.
(d) The infection of humans by the malaria
plasmodium.
(e) The building of nests in trees by magpies.
(f) Water moccasin snakes dwelling beneath trees
where herons nest, eating edglings that fall from
the nests but preventing egg-eating predators from
climbing the trees to raid the nests.
7 Describe two different types of relationship you have
observed in your environment.
8 (a) Biologists think that relationships should not be
called detrimental. Why might it be wrong in
biology to call a predatorprey relationship
detrimental?
(b) The word allelopathy comes from two Greek
wordsallos meaning other and pathos meaning
suffering. Do you think allelopathy is a good term
to describe the relationship between lantana and
the native plants it inhibits?
9 The graph (see Figure 1.8.3) shows the population
change in duckweed in an aquarium. It is hypothesised
that predation by water snails is limiting population
size. Briey outline an experiment to test this
hypothesis. Redraw the graph to show how it would
appear if the results:
(a) supported the hypothesis
(b) refuted the hypothesis.
10 Figure 1.8.4 shows the population graphs of a number
of organisms: a, b, c, d and x.
If x is the prey, which organism is most likely to be its
predator? Explain.
11 Figure 1.8.5 shows populations of two paramecia
grown under laboratory conditions.
(a) Explain the decrease in Paramecium caudatum
population when it coexists with P. aurelia.
(b) Suggest why P. caudatum is not extinct.
140
120
100
80
60
40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A
b
u
n
d
a
n
c
e
Time (weeks)
Figure 1.8.3 Changes in duckweed population
A
b
u
n
d
a
n
c
e
a
b
x
c
d
Time
Figure 1.8.4 The abundance of organisms a, b, c, d and x
37 ECOSYSTEMS
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Days
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

p
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

d
e
n
s
i
t
y
Combined cultures
Separate cultures
P. aurelia
P. caudatum
P. aurelia
P. caudatum
Figure 1.8.5 Competition between paramecium
12 Two types of barnacles often live in the same
ecosystem. These are the brown barnacle
(Chthamalus) and the grey barnacle (Balanus).
Figure 1.8.6 shows a typical distribution of these
barnacles on rocks. The grey barnacle is thought
to be unable to survive as high on rocks as the
brown barnacle because it is less tolerant of dry
conditions. Develop a hypothesis to explain the
distribution of the barnacles shown. Suggest one
way in which you could test this hypothesis.
(a)
ocean
low tide
high tide
grey
barnacles
(b)
ocean
low tide
high tide
brown
barnacles
(c)
ocean
low tide
high tide
brown
barnacles
grey
barnacles
c
h
t
h
a
m
a
l
u
s
b
a
l
a
n
u
s
Figure 1.8.6 Distribution of barnacles. (a) Distribution of the
grey barnacle in the absence of the brown barnacle. (b) Distribution
of the brown barnacle in the absence of the grey barnacle.
(c) Distribution of the grey and brown barnacles in co-existence
PRODUCERS AND CONSUMERS
Plants are called producers because they use light energy to produce organic substances from the
material they take in from their physical surroundings. Therefore, plants provide the initial food source
on which all organisms depend for their matter and energy needs. In this way, plants provide the
foundation on which a community is built.
Animals eat or consume other living things. Therefore, they are called consumers. An organism that
feeds on plants is a rst-order consumer. An organism that feeds on a rst-order consumer is called
a second-order consumer, and so on. Consumers that break down or decompose dead organisms are
called decomposers. Many bacteria and fungi are decomposers. For example, a wallaby is a rst-order
consumer because it eats grass; a dingo, which eats the wallaby, is a second-order consumer; and the
bacteria that bring about the decay of the dead wallaby and dingo are decomposers.
FOOD CHAINS
With the exception of plants, all organisms in a community obtain their material and energy needs
from their food. Therefore, a description of the feeding patterns within a community actually indicates
the direction in which energy and matter are transferred through the community. This can be achieved
by drawing a ow chart indicating who feeds on whom. When this follows a single line without
branching, it is called a food chain (see Figure 1.9.1). In a food chain, the arrow shows the direction
in which the energy and matter ow. Hence, the arrow always points away from the organism that is
the food and towards the animal that is eating or consuming it.
From the food chain shown in Figure 1.9.1, you should be able to see that the consumers
occupy different levels. The level occupied by a consumer is referred to as a feeding or trophic level.
First-order consumers occupy the rst trophic level; second-order consumers occupy the second trophic
level, and so on.
Figure 1.9.1 Producers and consumers in a food chain
Students learn to:
describe the role of decomposers in ecosystems
explain trophic interactions between organisms in an ecosystem,
using food chains, food webs and pyramids of biomass and energy.
Food webs
1.9
producer rst-order consumer second-order consumer
grass wallaby dingo
39 ECOSYSTEMS
energy and matter through a community. The availability
and ow of energy and matter have a major bearing on
the structure and make-up of the community. Therefore,
any alteration to the food web in a community may have
far-reaching consequences. Hence, food webs can often
be used to predict and explain the effects of changes
within the community. For example, a farmer may want to
eliminate foxes from the community because they prey on
the sheep (see Figure 1.9.2). However, from the food web
it can be seen that the destruction of the fox population
may not be in the farmers best interests. The elimination
of foxes could also lead to an increase in the population
of pests (i.e. insects, mice and rabbits). These may, in turn,
eat more grass and reduce the amount of fodder available
to sheep. It may be that the presence of foxes in the
ecosystem actually increases the productivity of the farm.
In this way, food webs provide information that can help
in the management and preservation of ecosystems.
Consumers can also be described according to the type
of food they eat. Animals that eat plants are herbivores.
Those that eat other animals are carnivores, and organisms
that eat both plants and animals are omnivores. However,
this system is not precise because omnivores and
carnivores can occur at a number of different levels.
CONSTRUCTING FOOD WEBS
The feeding patterns in communities are complex.
Therefore, they can never be described by a single food
chain. The energy ow through a community actually
occurs through a complex network of interconnected food
chains called a food web (see Figure 1.9.2).
Food webs can be drawn in a variety of ways but to
ensure quick, effective communication, it is convenient to
follow a consistent pattern. When drawing a food web, the
producers are usually placed at the bottom; the consumers
are generally grouped according to their trophic level and
placed in order from lowest to highest level up the page
(see Figure 1.9.2). Because some organisms often occupy
more than one trophic level, it is not always possible to
adhere strictly to this pattern. The hawk, for example
(see Figure 1.9.2) is a second-order consumer because
it eats mice and a third-order consumer because it also
eats birds. It therefore occupies both the second and third
trophic levels.
Sometimes it is difcult to construct a food web
because it is not always easy to observe an organism
feeding.
USING FOOD WEBS
Food webs are constructed to help us to understand how a
community functions. They provide a concise description
of the feeding patterns, which determine the ow of
Figure 1.9.2 A simplied food web
insects mouse rabbit sheep honeyeater
emu wren fox human
hawk
grass shrubs
Figure 1.9.3 Stable and unstable biomass pyramids
producers
Key:
herbivores
carnivores
unstable
stable
unstable unstable
ENERGY PYRAMIDS
Energy pyramids show the amount of energy at each
trophic level in a community. They are similar to biomass
pyramids because energy is transferred throughout a
community as food. The lower the organism on a food
chain, the more energy it has available to it. Figure
1.9.4 compares the energy pyramid of a human who is
a vegetarian with a human whose diet consists only of
meat. As at least 10% of the energy is lost at each trophic
level, the vegetarian human makes much more efcient
use of the energy available in the ecosystem than the
human carnivore. Note that the human carnivore requires
approximately ten times the energy in producers as
the human as vegetarian. This has implications for the
population of humans on Earth. The human population
that can be supported on Earth is very much affected by
human diet. If humans were to consume more plants and
less meat, then the Earth could provide food for a larger
human population.
INVESTIGATION 5
Food webs
BIOMASS PYRAMIDS
Just as the ow of energy through an ecosystem is an
important aspect of an ecological study, so too is the
transfer of matter within an ecosystem. The total amount
of mass in a community is called its biomass. Since
matter is lost from the community at each trophic level,
the biomass of the producers is usually greater than that
of the rst-order consumers and their biomass is, in turn,
greater than that of the second-order consumers, and so
on. This trend can be readily seen in biomass pyramids,
which show the biomass of the organisms at each trophic
level. The biomass of organisms is usually expressed as a
percentage of the communitys total biomass (see
Figure 1.9.3).
This allows us to compare the amounts of matter at
each trophic level and indicates the efciency with which
matter is transferred through the community. Furthermore,
because energy is transferred through the community as
chemical energy in matter, it also indicates how efciently
the energy is being transferred.
The normal pattern of a biomass pyramid may
occasionally be altered for a short time. Disease or drought
can sometimes rapidly decrease the plant biomass. When
this occurs, the consumer biomass may represent a larger
than normal proportion of the community biomass for
a short time (see Figure 1.9.3). However, the small plant
biomass would not be able to provide sufcient energy or
matter to support the consumers. This biomass pyramid is
therefore unstable and many consumers typically die off
or emigrate. Eventually, the characteristic stable biomass
pyramid shape reappears (see Figure 1.9.3).
Food webs describe the direction of ow of energy and
matter. Biomass pyramids show the amount of matter at
each trophic level. Energy pyramids show the amount of
energy at each trophic level. Because they provide different
information about an ecosystem, biomass pyramids and
food webs are best used together to describe the energy
and matter transfer through a community.
(a)
(b)
corn beans wheat apples
human
human
cattle
sheep
chicken
corn wheat grass
pigs
Figure 1.9.4 Energy pyramid of a human (a) vegetarian; (b) carnivore
SUMMARY 1.9
Plants are producers. Producers make the organic
materials on which all other organisms depend for food.
Animals are consumers. Consumers obtain food from
other organisms. They obtain energy and matter from
the organisms they eat.
Organisms that break down dead organisms and the
waste products of organisms are decomposers.
Many bacteria and fungi are decomposers.
Decomposers are consumers.
A food chain or web is a ow chart showing the
feeding patterns within a community.
Food chains and food webs show the ow of energy
and matter through a community.
p56
41 ECOSYSTEMS
A food web is made up of a set of interconnecting food
chains.
Food webs can be used to explain and predict changes in
the community.
Biomass pyramids usually indicate the relative amount
of matter in the organisms of a community.
Energy pyramids indicate the relative amount of energy
transferred to each trophic level.
In a stable community, biomass and energy decrease
rapidly as the trophic level increases.
Biomass and energy pyramids can be used to predict and
explain changes in a community.
QUESTIONS 1.9
1 Dene the following terms:
(a) producer (e) carnivore
(b) consumer (f) omnivore
(c) decomposer (g) biomass.
(d) herbivore
2 State whether the organisms listed below are (i)
producers, (ii) consumers, (iii) decomposers, (iv)
herbivores, (v) carnivores or (vi) omnivores:
(a) sheep (f) Tasmanian devil
(b) grass (g) bread mould
(c) carrot (h) kangaroo
(d) human (i) mushroom
(e) wattle (j) worm.
3 Draw a simple food chain for a human who only
eats beef.
4 Which of the biomass pyramids in Figure 1.9.5 is most
likely to represent the biomass in a stable ecosystem?
5 Contrast the information about a community
conveyed by a food web, a biomass pyramid and
an energy pyramid.
6 Draw a food web for a community in which periwinkles and
limpets feed on seaweed, octopuses feed on crabs, crabs feed
on periwinkles and limpets, starsh feed on limpets, seals eat
crabs, and octopuses and seagulls eat crabs and starsh.
7 On an excursion, a group of biology students observed a
community and collected the following information. Use
it to construct a food web.
During the day, parrots were seen feeding on grass roots.
New Holland honeyeaters took nectar from banksias. Scale
insects were found on the bark of young banksias, tea trees
and eucalypts. Bees visited a variety of plants including
banksias, tea trees and eucalypts. Wallabies were seen grazing
on patches of grass in the woodland. At night, sugargliders
licked the sap from eucalypts and competed with ringtail
possums for banksia nectar. The house mouse ate grass seeds
and scraps left over from visitors on picnics. The Antechinus
preyed on the house mouse and small beetles that were
commonly found nibbling grass. Lyrebirds also fed on beetles
they found when scratching the ground. Yabbies abounded in
small ponds where they scavenged on the dead and decaying
material (detritus) that settled to the bottom. Foxes and quolls
were not sighted, but their droppings were collected and
found to contain the following:
Fox droppingsbeetle exoskeletons and wings,
yabbie shells, house mouse and Antechinus fur.
Quoll droppingsparrot feathers and house-mouse fur.
8 Consider the information in the food web from question 7.
(a) Name the producers.
(b) State the consumer level of the house mouse.
(c) Name an organism that occupies more than one
trophic level.
(d) State one short-term consequence of poisoning
the insects.
(e) State which organisms would have the highest
biomass.
(f) State which organisms in the food web would be at
the greatest risk from biomagnication of poisons.
9 Draw a possible biomass pyramid for the community
described in question 6.
10 In a lake, for every 1000 kilojoules (kJ) of light energy
converted into carbohydrate by algae, small aquatic
animals obtain about 150 kJ of energy. Of this 150 kJ,
30 kJ is transferred to smelt. Trout feeding on smelt
obtain about 6 kJ of energy. If you eat the trout, you
obtain only 1.2 kJ of energy from the trout.
(a) Draw a food chain for this community.
(b) Draw an energy pyramid for this community.
Figure 1.9.5 Biomass pyramids
C
B
A
Students learn to:
identify the impact of humans in the ecosystem studied.
Human impacts on ecosystems
1.10
Humans have an impact on their environment. In this they are not unusual. However, what is unusual
is that the changes have been rapid and widespread. Modern afuent societies place huge demands
on the resources of the Earths ecosystems. High levels of consumption result in high levels of waste
and pollution. Ecosystems are often degraded or eliminated. Forests have been cleared for timber
and agriculture. Other ecosystems have been destroyed because they were favoured dwelling places
for humans. Fragile estuaries and coastal sand dunes, for example, provide homes with water views.
Humans have moved throughout the Earths continents and islands. Our transport is rapid and covers
huge distances. Organisms that once were isolated are now faced with species that humans have
introduced from other continents. In Australia, introduced foxes, rabbits, feral cats and pigs have preyed
on or competed with native species, damaging the complex fabric of ecosystems. All these activities
reduce the range, distribution and species diversity of natural ecosystems.
Most humans have changed from hunters and gatherers to being members of agricultural and then
urban societies. As hunters and gatherers, our activities had relatively little impact on ecosystems. By
contrast, agricultural and urban societies have greatly disturbed ecosystems, altering the natural ow
of energy and recycling of matter (see Table 1.10.1).
Table 1.10.1 Comparison of disturbed and undisturbed ecosystems
URBAN AGRICULTURAL NATURAL
Diversity Little; humans dominate Little; single crop species
or animal dominate
Great
Complexity/stability Simple, unstable imbalance of
animals over plants
Simple, unstable
monocultures
Complex, stable
Energy input Mainly fossil fuels, nuclear,
hydroelectric
Mainly light and fossil fuels Light only
Energy use Excessive burning with rapid
heat output and energy loss
inefcient
Mainly photosynthesis and
respiration with gradual heat
output and energy loss
Matter recycling Very inefcient, little recycled Inefcient, some recycled Efcient, recycled
COMPARISON OF THE EFFICIENCY OF DISTURBED AND
UNDISTURBED ECOSYSTEMS
Recycling of matter
In natural ecosystems, matter is recycled by decomposers. There is no long-term net loss of materials
from the ecosystems. They are therefore self-sustaining. Agricultural ecosystems are constantly
suffering a loss of matter: crops are harvested, lambs and cattle slaughtered. They are transported
out of agricultural ecosystems into urban ones. The urban ecosystem is therefore constantly gaining
43 ECOSYSTEMS
Energy use
In natural ecosystems, the main energy input is light
from the sun. This is absorbed by plants, converted into
chemical energy and used slowly over long periods of time
by plants and animals. This energy is gradually changed
into heat energy and released. In urban ecosystems, fossil
fuels provide a large component of the energy input. When
they are burnt, the result is a rapid release of heat energy.
Both urban and agricultural ecosystems are unstable.
In agricultural ecosystems, diseases can spread rapidly
and destroy virtually all the vegetation in an area because
vast areas are dominated by a single species. Similarly,
insect pests that feed on crops can often reach plague
proportions.
In agricultural and urban ecosystems, where there
are few species, food webs are very simple. Simple food
webs are unstable because there are few alternative food
supplies if one is lost. Natural ecosystems are diverse and
more stable because they have complex food webs.
Because urban and agricultural ecosystems are simple
and unstable, they require a very large energy input to
maintain them. This energy is used for such activities as
clearing and preparing land, planting crops, building dams,
supplying insecticides and fertilisers, and transporting food
and waste.
POLLUTION
Human activities produce a variety of wastes that
can contaminate ecosystems. These wastes pollute the
environment and may degrade the habitat of other species
and humans themselves.
matter from the agricultural ecosystem. The agricultural
ecosystem often requires frequent applications of minerals
from fertilisers or careful crop management to replace the
lost nutrients.
Soil erosion resulting from agricultural practices is
regarded by many as the most important conservation
issue in Australia for the twenty-rst century. Indeed,
vast areas of Australia are at risk of becoming deserts (see
Figure 1.10.1). It has been estimated that soil degradation
costs approximately $600 million a year in lost agricultural
production. We can only guess at the cost of its impact on
the natural ecosystem.
In the urban ecosystem, the inux of matter results in
the production of massive amounts of waste. Some wastes
contain contaminants that pollute the environment. Most
waste is often not recycled within the ecosystem but is
typically dumped into natural ecosystems. In Sydney, most
of the waste sewage is dumped into the ocean, where it
damages beaches and aquatic ecosystems before being
decomposed.
Even the air is imported into urban ecosystems from
natural and agricultural systems because there are too
few plants in cities to recycle the oxygen from the carbon
dioxide produced by the animals and the burning of fossil
fuels. Indeed, in recent times the production of carbon
dioxide has outstripped the ability of the constantly
decreasing natural ecosystems to convert the carbon
dioxide into oxygen. This imbalance has resulted in an
increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere, causing the greenhouse effect, which many
scientists claim is responsible for a gradual rise in the
temperature of the Earths atmosphere.
very high
high
Key:
moderate
low
Figure 1.10.1 (a) Areas at risk of desertication in Australia. (b) Human activity is making some deserts bigger
(a) (b)
Most pollution is caused by humans from developed
countries. Pollution is the result of our consumption of
goods. Agriculture, which provides our food, and the
bleaching of the paper on which you write, for example,
can contaminate rivers and streams. The industries that
supply you with the things you want, such as a car,
also pollute the environment. These contaminants may
pollute the water systems, the air and soil. The sources
and types of water and air pollution are many. Some of
these are shown in Table 1.10.2 and Figure 1.10.2. If you
look carefully at the data in Table 1.10.2 you will see that
transport is a major cause of air pollution. If you travelled
by bus or car to school you contributed to this pollution.
Even if you went to school by train, the electricity used to
drive the train may have been produced by burning coal,
which pollutes the air.
BIOMAGNIFICATION
Food webs can be used to predict the ow and possible
long-term effects of contaminants that pollute an
ecosystem. The concentrations of some pesticides, such as
DDT, and heavy metals, like lead, mercury and cadmium,
increase along the food chain; that is, higher order
consumers tend to have higher concentrations of these
Table 1.10.2 Air pollution
POLLUTANT POSSIBLE HARMFUL EFFECTS MAJOR NON-NATURAL SOURCE
Particulates: smoke, dust, grit Corrosion and deterioration of building materials;
eye, nose and throat irritation
Combustion of fossil fuels; motor vehicles;
incinerators; industries; road construction etc.
Sulfur dioxide Formation of acid rain; corrosion; chest irritation;
bronchitis
Combustion of fossil fuels; smelting of
mineral ores
Carbon monoxide By binding with haemoglobin in the blood,
oxygen absorption is reducedmay be fatal;
impaired nerve functions; heart disease
Combustion of fuels
Nitrogen oxides Formation of acid rain, which is formed when
nitrogen oxides combine with water in the
atmosphere; plant growth retarded; corrosive;
eye and throat irritation
Motor car engines
Ozone Irritation and disturbed functions of eyes, nose
and lungs; death of leaves of plants; damage to
rubber and textiles
Reaction between oxygen and nitrogen in
the air
Hydrocarbon vapours Retarded plant growth; abnormal growth of buds
and leaves; carcinogenic
Motor car engines; solvents in paints and
dry-cleaning
Lead compounds Toxic; reduction of brain function Motor car exhaust; smelters
Radioactive materials Increased risk of mutation; cancer; genetic
disturbances
Nuclear weapons; radioactive waste dumps
Peroxacetyl nitrate (PAN) Plant leaves attacked; eye irritation; lung
functions disturbed
Chemical changes in the atmosphere due to
the suns action on other pollutants
Figure 1.10.2 Source of water pollution. Research two of the
problems identied to outline the cause, effects and possible
solutions
Cities located on coasts may pipe sewage
into ocean after only minimum treatment.
Landll is often made up of dangerous
chemicals large urban centres generate
huge quantities of nutrient-rich efuent;
other pollutants are detergents, oils from
motor vehicles, soil from building blocks.
45 ECOSYSTEMS
substances in their tissues than lower order consumers.
This occurs for two reasons. First, these substances are
only broken down very slowly and therefore accumulate
in an organisms body tissues over its lifetime. Second,
the transfer of energy from one organism to the next by
feeding is inefcient. Therefore, a predator must eat large
quantities of prey to supply its energy and material needs.
While the energy transfer is such that the predator
might only obtain 20% of the energy available in its food,
it unfortunately accumulates almost all the DDT and heavy
metals that were taken in by its prey. In this way the
concentration of these substances is magnied along the
food chain. This is known as biomagnication.
This biomagnication of DDT has resulted in a decline
in the number of offspring produced by some birds of prey,
including herring gulls, falcons, eagles and ospreys. These
birds are higher order consumers. The concentration of
DDT in these birds may be 250 times that in the non-living
surroundings. Such high concentrations of DDT seem to
prevent the formation of eggs or result in the production
of eggs with thin, brittle shells, which tend to break
prematurely during brooding.
In aquatic ecosystems, where food webs are often very
complex and food chains can be very long, magnications
80 000 times greater than the non-living surroundings
have been observed. In Japan, the biomagnication of
Precipitation may fall through polluted
air, dissolving atmospheric pollutants.
Agricultural yields are boosted by
the addition of fertiliser; run-off
from these can cause bacterial, algal
and plant blooms in river systems.
Agricultural practices frequently
involve the use of toxic chemicals
for pest and weed control. These
may become dissolved in surface
run-off and transported to rivers.
Logging practices may
expose soil to erosion.
Clearing increases soil
erosion, leading to
sedimentation of streams.
Mining and quarrying may cause
sedimentation problems.
algal bloom
(cyanobacteria)
Pollution from industry is extensive and often
involves toxic wastes, such as heavy metals.
Irrigation may mobilise salt and lead
to salinisation of rivers (and soil).
Aerial spraying of pesticides
and herbicides may directly
contaminate water.
national and international agreements to reduce energy
consumption, promote recycling, prevent dumping
of wastes and reduce the destruction of natural
ecosystems
education to promote lifestyle changes that reduce
consumption and encourage recycling
preventing the import and accidental release of
introduced species
maintaining a range of habitats to promote diversity
(e.g. national parks and reserves)
regenerating natural ecosystems where they have been
destroyed or degraded
farming native animals and crops rather than
introduced species
establishing sustainable quotas to reduce the impact of
the removal of plants (e.g. trees for timber) and animals
(e.g. sh) taken from natural ecosystems.
These and other strategies are easy to outline but they
are difcult to implement because the management of the
worlds resources not only is a matter for biology, but also
involves a complex set of interacting inuences including
politics, economics and culture.
The difculties involved in developing an agreed,
worldwide strategy to reduce human impact on ecosystems
have promoted an emphasis on actions by each individual
rather than governments alone.
mercury released from industry into Minnamatta Bay
resulted in the deaths of fty-two people. These people
regularly ate sh from the bay over a long period and
suffered mercury poisoning. Cats, another higher order
consumer in the community, also suffered. Mercury
poisoning attacks the nervous system, so these diseased
cats often shook and jittered uncontrollably. Hence, the
illness became known as the disease of the dancing cat.
The levels of mercury and other heavy metals in sh at
Australian sh markets are regularly monitored. In Sydney,
for example, this thorough testing has occasionally
resulted in swordsh, a higher order consumer,
being withdrawn from sale because of heavy metal
concentrations above recommended levels. A knowledge
of food webs allows the types of sh that are at risk to be
identied and helps to ensure that contaminated sh are
not sold.
HUMAN WANTS AND SUSTAINING
ECOSYSTEMSFINDING A BALANCE
The high energy demands and lack of recycling in human-
dominated ecosystems make them unsustainable. Strategies
are required to reduce demand and increase recycling and
to maintain remaining natural ecosystems. Strategies to
achieve this include:
SUMMARY 1.10
Humans have had a range of impacts on ecosystems.
These include the destruction of ecosystems (e.g.
clearing forests and estuaries), introduction of species
that compete with or prey on native species, and
pollution of ecosystems with contaminants that affect
the survival of organisms.
The use of energy and matter in most human-
dominated ecosystems in developed countries is not
sustainable.
A variety of strategies can be used to balance human
activities and needs in ecosystems to conserve, maintain
and protect the quality of the environment, but these
are difcult to implement due to economic, cultural and
political pressures.
Energy use and ow in undisturbed ecosystems is
more efcient than energy ow through disturbed
ecosystems (e.g. agricultural and urban ecosystems).
Matter recycling in undisturbed ecosystems is more
efcient than matter recycling through disturbed
ecosystems (e.g. agricultural and urban ecosystems).
QUESTIONS 1.10
1 List three main ways in which humans have a
detrimental impact on ecosystems. For each of
these, suggest one way in which the impact could
be reduced.
2 How is the ow of energy in natural ecosystems
different from that in disturbed ecosystems?
3 How is recycling of matter in disturbed ecosystems
different from that in natural ecosystems?
4 Suggest two reasons why it is difcult to implement
47 ECOSYSTEMS
strategies to protect the quality of the environment.
5 Identify one way in which you could reduce your
detrimental impact on the environment.
6 David Suzuki once said that if you really want a
species to survive, eat it. What might he have meant
by this?
7 The list below indicates some strategies humans
employ to reduce their impact on the environment:
maintaining treed areas in pastures
contour ploughing
recycling
biological control
the Kyoto agreement.
Research two of these and explain how they reduce
human impact on ecosystems.
8 Table 1.10.3 shows the energy consumption per capita
in a variety of countries. Graph energy consumption
against population.
Briey comment on any trend you can infer from the
graph.
Is human impact on ecosystems mainly a result of
overpopulation? Suggest one other factor that seems
to inuence human energy consumption.
9 Some poisons used to kill insect pests in lawns are
sprayed at night because they break down quickly
when exposed to light. These poisons are extremely
toxic and can kill birds even in small concentrations.
When used correctly, why might these very toxic
poisons often cause less damage to the community
than less poisonous substances such as DDT and
heavy metals? Explain.
10 Research one agreement, activity or event to reduce
detrimental human impact at the following levels:
international
national
local area or local government
individual.
Table 1.10.3 Human energy consumption per person,
selected countries (2003)
COUNTRY POPULATION
(MILLIONS)
ENERGY PER PERSON
(GIGAJOULES)
Bangladesh 147 6.76
Nigeria 134 32.63
India 1069 21.52
Indonesia 220 31.81
Brazil 176 44.84
China 1289 47.81
Turkey 71 46.44
Japan 128 169.70
Germany 83 176.53
United States 292 327.38
Australia 20 240.38
Investigations 15 should be carried out in two different
ecosystems or in an ecosystem that contains a variety of
vegetation types. In this way, comparisons can be made
and the important factors contributing to the existence
and maintenance of the ecosystem can be more easily
identied.
Ideally, one of the two ecosystems should be in your
local area so that frequent visits are possible. Name the
ecosystems and communities studied.
The aim of this sequence of practical work is to study
an ecosystem and identify interrelationships between
living and non-living things and interrelationships
between living things in the area.
Take care to ensure that the ecosystem is disturbed
as little as possible by your investigations.
INVESTIGATION 1:
MEASURING PHYSICAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN
ECOSYSTEM, AND OBSERVING
INCIDENCE OF HUMAN IMPACT
Students:
observe and measure a variety of abiotic
characteristics in ecosystems and relate them to
the distribution of organisms
1 INVESTIGATIONS
tabulate data, calculate means, graph changes
against time, evaluate the variability in measurements
identify the impact of humans in the ecosystems
studied.
Information
An examination of the physical characteristics of an
ecosystem can provide a basis for understanding the
interrelationships that exist within an ecosystem. In
particular, it can help to explain the existence and extent
of the ecosystem as well as the distribution and abundance
of organisms within it.
The aims of this exercise are to provide experience in
the use of a wide range of procedures that can be used in
your eld work to study physical environmental factors,
and to use the data collected to explain the distribution
of organisms in the ecosystems studied.
Ideally, these abiotic factors should be measured
over a long period of time. Brief visits to ecosystems can
sometimes provide very misleading data. Climatic factors,
in particular, are best measured over many years or at least
over the seasons. If it is not possible to visit your study
area regularly throughout the year, additional data can
sometimes be obtained from students who have studied
the ecosystem in previous years.
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
woodland bare rock closed heath woodland closed forest
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Distance (m)
H
e
i
g
h
t

(
m
)
Key:
woodland
eucalypt
forest
eucalypt
shrubs
ferns
grass
1,2,3,4,5
sites
for data
collection
Figure I1.1 Vegetation transect
49 ECOSYSTEMS
Recording data
Make measurements at a number of randomly selected
sites along a transect (see Investigation 2) or at
randomly selected sites throughout the area.
On the transect diagram of the area, mark the sites where
recordings were made (see Figure I1.1).
Collect data on as many days as possible.
Indicate the time and date when the data were collected.
Construct a table to record your data (see Tables I1.1
and I2.1).
PART A TEMPERATURE
Temperature range
Materials
maximum/minimum thermometer
Method
1 Use the maximum/minimum thermometer to measure
the maximum and minimum temperature each day.
2 Collect data at a set time each day (e.g. 9 a.m.) and reset
for the following day.
3 Record temperature range for each day and month.
4 Calculate an average maximum and minimum
temperature for each month for which you have data.
5 Use a graph to present maximum and minimum
temperature data.
Atmospheric temperature
Materials
thermometer
Method
1 Use the thermometer to measure the temperature at
regular intervals throughout the day in the shade and in
full sun.
Soil temperature
Materials
soil thermometer or laboratory thermometer
Method
1 If you have a soil thermometer, push it into the ground
to its maximum depth.
If you are using a laboratory thermometer, dig a narrow
hole almost as deep as the thermometer. Gently lower
the thermometer into the hole and rell the hole, leaving
the tip of the thermometer exposed.
2 Leave the thermometer in the soil for about 3 minutes.
3 Check and record the temperature.
4 Repeat as early as possible, in the middle of the day, and
as late as possible.
Questions
1 Were there differences in the temperature recorded in the
ecosystem?
2 Would it be more difcult for an organism to adapt to
an ecosystem with a varied temperature or to one with a
fairly constant temperature? Why?
3 How does temperature inuence water availability?
4 How does temperature inuence the water requirements
of organisms?
5 Did the soil temperature vary as much as the
atmospheric temperature?
6 Why do some animals live in burrows?
PART B LIGHT INTENSITY
Materials
light meter
Method
1 Use the light meter to measure the light intensity at a
range of heights above the ground (e.g. ground level, hip
level and eye level).
2 Repeat at set times in the morning, at midday and in the
afternoon.
3 Rate the light intensity as very high, high, moderate or
very low.
Questions
1 Was the amount of cloud cover similar when the
measurements were made?
2 (a) Were there differences between the light readings
in the ecosystem?
(b) How can you account for the differences?
Table I1.1 An example of a table to record
temperature data
TEMPERATURE (C)
DATE TIME MAXIMUM MINIMUM
1/6/09 9 a.m. 20 8
2/6/09 9 a.m. 20 11
3/6/09 9 a.m. 15 7
4/6/09 9 a.m. 10 4
3 Was there less light available at ground or hip level than
at eye level? How might this inuence the growth of
shrubs and grasses?
PART C RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Materials
wet and dry bulb thermometer (psychrometer)
relative humidity conversion chart
Method
1 Use the wet and dry bulb thermometer and the
conversion chart to measure the relative humidity
at regular intervals throughout the day.
2 Measure the humidity at different heights above the
ground.
Questions
1 (a) Were there differences between the humidity
readings in the ecosystem?
(b) Were some areas generally more humid than the
other areas?
2 How might humidity affect the rate of water loss from
organisms?
3 Use a graph to record humidity for the period of your
study.
PART D RAINFALL
Materials
rain gauge
Method
1 Use a rain gauge to measure rainfall each day.
2 Collect the data at a set time each day (e.g. 9 a.m.) and
empty it for the following day.
Questions
1 Were there differences in the rainfall in the ecosystem?
2 How might rainfall affect other abiotic factors such as
humidity and soil moisture?
3 How might rainfall inuence the organisms in the
ecosystem?
4 Research the mean annual rainfall and monthly or
seasonal rainfall in the ecosystems you studied. Graph
the data to show the rainfall pattern over the year.
PART E WIND
Wind speed
Materials
anemometer or modied Beaufort scale (see Table I1.2)
Method
1 Use the anemometer to measure wind speed at regular
intervals throughout the day.
2 Measure the wind speed at different heights above the
ground (e.g. ground level, hip level and eye level).
3 Note high and low readings if the wind is occurring in
gusts.
4 Rate the wind speed as very high, high, moderate, low or
very low.
Wind direction
Materials
thin piece of cloth on a stick
compass
Method
Use the compass and cloth on a stick to determine the
wind direction.
Wind exposure
Method
Rate the exposure to wind as very high, high, moderate,
low or very low.
Questions
1 (a) Were there differences between the wind readings
or exposure in the ecosystem?
(b) Was one area more exposed to wind than the other?
2 How might wind inuence organisms in an ecosystem?
3 (a) How might wind, rain and temperature interact to
make organisms colder?
(b) What is meant by the chill factor?
4 Was there any evidence of damage caused by winds
or of trees and shrubs leaning in a particular direction
because of a pattern of prevailing winds?
5 Would trees nd it more difcult to withstand high
winds in areas with deep or with shallow soils? Explain.
Table I1.2 Modied Beaufort wind scale
OBSERVATION RATING
Smoke rises vertically or drifts gently; wind
vane does not move.
very low
Wind felt on face; leaves rustle; wind vane
moves.
low
Leaves and twigs constantly moving; raises
dust; small branches move.
moderate
Large branches in motion; difcult to use
umbrellas.
high
Whole trees swaying; twigs and leaves fall
from trees.
very high
51 ECOSYSTEMS
PART F SOIL
Soil pH
Materials
bottle, with holes in its lid, containing talcum powder or
barium sulfate
Petri dish
dropper bottle containing universal indicator
universal indicator pH colour chart
Method
1 Collect a small sample of soil and place it on the Petri
dish.
2 Sprinkle a layer of talcum powder (or barium sulfate) on
the soil.
3 Add a few drops of universal indicator to the talc.
4 Observe the colour and compare it with a colour chart to
nd the pH.
Soil humus
Materials
trowel
30 cm ruler
Method
1 Carefully dig a hole in the soil.
2 Use the ruler to measure the depth of the dark-coloured
topsoil layer.
3 Observe the depth of the leaf litter and humus on top of
the soil.
4 Rate the humus content as very high, high, moderate,
low or very low.
Soil moisture
(Use either Materials 1 or 2 and Methods 1 or 2.)
Materials 1
1 strip of cobalt chloride paper per test
Method 1
1 Place a piece of dry (blue) cobalt chloride paper on a soil
sample.
2 Note the time it takes to change from blue to pink.
(Cobalt chloride paper can be made by soaking lter
paper in a cobalt chloride solution and then drying it. It
should be kept in a dry, sealed container with some silica
gel crystals.)
3 Rate the soil moisture as soggy, wet, damp, dry or
very dry.
OR
Materials 2
plastic bag that can be sealed
glass Petri dish or evaporating dish
chemical balance
oven
Method 2
1 Collect a small soil sample.
2 Place the sample in the plastic bag and seal it.
3 In the laboratory, nd the weight of the soil sample.
4 Place it in the oven on low heat until it has dried out
completely.
5 Reweigh the soil. (The difference between the weight
before and after heating provides a measure of the water
content.)
Soil porosity
Materials
Petri dish
lter funnel
glass wool
25 mL graduated measuring cylinder
beater or jar for water marked at 100 mL
Method
1 Collect a sample of soil and thoroughly dry it on the
dish in the sun or in an oven on low heat.
2 Pack a small amount of glass wool into the lter funnel.
3 Gently pack some of the soil into the lter funnel on top
of the glass wool.
4 Place the funnel over the graduated measuring cylinder.
5 Add 50100 mL of water and time how long it takes
for 10 mL of water to collect in the measuring cylinder.
More water can be used if too little water passes through
the soil.
(If you are going to compare soils from different sites,
ensure that the same quantity of soil, water and glass
wool is used for each test.)
6 Rate the soil porosity as very high, high, moderate, low
or very low.
Soil mineral content
Materials
laboratory or commercial garden soil test kit. (Soil test
kits are available in most school laboratories or can
be obtained from a plant nursery. These can be used
to measure the content of a range of salts, including
nitrates, sulfates and phosphates in soil.)
Method
1 Follow the instructions given in the soil test kit.
2 For each mineral, rate the soil as good, moderate or
poor.
Soil air content
Materials
small clear plastic jar or beaker
trowel
Method
1 Place a sample of soil in a beaker of water and note the
rate at which air bubbles from the soil.
2 When comparing different soils, use the same volume of
soil.
3 Rate the soil air content as very high, high, moderate,
low or very low.
Questions
1 Were there differences in the characteristics of the soils
in the ecosystem? Describe any differences.
2 (a) Briey explain how each of the soil characteristics
studied might inuence the organisms in the
ecosystem.
(b) Was there any evidence that soil type inuenced
the distribution of the vegetation types in the
ecosystem?
3 How might soil porosity inuence soil moisture content?
4 (a) Was there evidence of rotting organic matter in
the soil?
(b) How might this contribute to soil quality?
5 You have measured many different abiotic factors in
your study. Others studying the same area might obtain
data different from yours. How could you account for
this variability in data? Consider a range of abiotic
factors in your answer. Are some methods of measuring
abiotic factors more accurate than others? Explain with
examples.
PART G HUMAN IMPACT
Method
While doing investigations in the ecosystem, record
evidence of human impact, for example:
introduced species
erosion due to human activity
pollution.
Question
How might human impact inuence the sustainability of
the ecosystem studied?
INVESTIGATION 2:
USING A TRANSECT TO STUDY
THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS
Students:
construct a transect to record data
describe and analyse the distribution of plants in
an ecosystem
design a study to investigate factors inuencing
the distribution of plants in an ecosystem.
Information
It is usually too time-consuming to show the position
of every plant in an ecosystem on a map. However, it
is relatively easy to show the distribution of the plants
within a section of the ecosystem. One way of doing this
is to record the plants along a cross-section or prole of
the ecosystem. The line through the area along which this
cross-section is taken is called a transect.
Materials
length of string marked with coloured adhesive tape at
5 m intervals (the string should be long enough to cross
the area to be studied)
compass
metre ruler
small stake (optional)
Method
1 Select a compass heading that cuts across the
ecosystem.
2 Tie the string to a rock, tree or stake.
3 Walk through the ecosystem, gradually unrolling the
string. Use the compass to make sure that you are
walking as near as possible to a straight line.
4 Draw vertical and horizontal axes on your page.
Label the vertical axis height and the horizontal axis
distance (see Figure I1.1). Mark out approximate units
on the axes.
5 Draw a cross-section of the topography of your transect
(see Figure I1.1).
6 At each 5 m interval along the string, note the plants
that lie within 1 m along one side of the transect
and estimate their height. (The plants need only be
53 ECOSYSTEMS
identied in general terms, e.g. grasses, ferns, shrubs,
trees. Bare rock or sand should also be shown.)
7 Use symbols to show these plants on the cross-section
you have drawn (see Figure I1.1).
8 From the transect, identify sites where there appear to
be different types of vegetation.
9 Number these sites on the transect.
10 Measure and record the abiotic factors at these sites
and record the data in a table (see Table I2.1). (See also
Investigation 1 for procedures.)
Questions
1 Describe any variation in plant distribution you
observed.
2 Try to explain these variations in plant distribution in
terms of:
(a) variations in physical environmental factors
(b) interrelationships between organisms.
3 How might the variations in plant distribution inuence
the distribution of animals? (For example, would tree-
or grass-dwelling animals be able to inhabit all areas
of the transect equally?)
4 Design an investigation to determine the factors that
inuence the distribution of one of the plants identied
in the transect.
INVESTIGATION 3:
USING QUADRATS TO MEASURE
THE ABUNDANCE OF PLANTS IN
AN ECOSYSTEM
Students:
use quadrats to study species abundance
describe and analyse the abundance of plants in
an ecosystem
design a study to investigate factors inuencing
the abundance of plants in an ecosystem.
Information
The aim of this exercise is to measure the abundance of
a plant species within an ecosystem. Use either Method 1
or Method 2.
Table I2.1 Physical factors along the transect
PHYSICAL FACTOR SITES
1 2 3 4 5
Temperature (C)
max.
min.
soil

24
13
23

24
13

24
13
23

24
13
23

24
13
23
Relative humidity 54% 55% 59% 58% 82%
Wind
speed
direction
exposure
moderate
SW
extreme
moderate
SW
high
moderate
SW
high
moderate
SW
high
minimal
Light intensity
eye level
hip level
group level

moderate
moderate
low

very high
very high
very high

very high
very high
very low

moderate
moderate
very low

low
low
very low
Soil
pH
depth
moisture
humus
air

6
shallow
dry
low
moderate

none
very low
5
shallow
soggy
moderate
very low

7
shallow
damp
moderate
moderate

7
deep
damp
high
moderate
Nutrients
nitrates
phosphates
sulfates
potassium

poor
moderate
moderate
moderate

poor
poor
moderate
moderate

poor
moderate
moderate
moderate

good
good
good
moderate
Materials
tape-measure or string marked at regular intervals with
adhesive tape
metre ruler
Method 1
1 Select the plant species of which you want to measure
the abundances.
2 Choose a quadrat size suitable for the plant being
studied. (A tree may require quadrats of 10 m by 10 m
or more. Grass may require quadrats of less than 1 m
by 1 m.)
3 Note the size of the quadrat to be used.
4 Use string with adhesive tape attached at appropriate
intervals, or a tape-measure, to mark out a square
quadrat.
5 Count the plants that are members of the species under
study.
6 Record the data in a table (see Table I3.1).
7 Repeat steps 46 at a number of randomly selected sites
throughout the ecosystem or at sites along a transect.
8 Estimate the total area of the ecosystem.
9 Calculate the average number of plants per square
metre.
10 To nd the abundance, multiply the average number of
plants per square metre by the number of square metres
in the whole ecosystem.
OR
Method 2
1 Use the transect from Investigation 2.
2 In each 5 m interval along the transect, count the
number of plants of the species under study that are not
more than 1 m away from one side of the string.
3 Record the data for each 1 m 5 m rectangle (see e.g.
Table I3.1).
4 Calculate the average.
5 Estimate the total area of the ecosystem.
6 Calculate the average number of plants per square
metre.
7 To nd the abundance, multiply the average number of
plants per square metre by the number of square metres
in the whole ecosystem.
Questions
1 Explain why the quadrat size chosen was appropriate.
2 How could more accurate data be obtained?
3 Would the same procedure be suitable for estimating
the abundance of bush rats in the ecosystem? Explain.
4 (a) Did each quadrat contain a similar number of
plants?
(b) How even does the distribution of these plants
appear to be?
(c) If the abundance in each quadrat is very different:
(i) how can these differences be explained?
Table I3.1 An example of plant abundance
ABUNDANCE DENSITY
25 m
2
Sample number 1 2 3 4 5
Number of B. paludosa 12 10 5 13 10 10
Species under study: Banksia paludosa
Quadrat size: 5 m 5 m (i.e. 25 m
2
)
Area of ecosystem: 5000 m
2
Average number of B. paludosa per quadrat = 10
Average number per m
2
=
10
25 m
2
Abundance = average number of plants per m
2
area of ecosystem in m
2
i.e. =
10
5000 m
2
25 m
2

= 2000
55 ECOSYSTEMS
(ii) how should you report the abundance data in
the ecosystem?
inuence the distribution of the plant species studied in
this exercise.
INVESTIGATION 4:
DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE
OF ANIMALS
Students:
use tables to record eld data
describe and analyse the abundance and distribution
of animals in an ecosystem.
Information
The distribution of animals within an ecosystem can
be determined in a variety of ways. The distribution of
invertebrates can often involve the trapping and killing of
organisms such as insects. The aim of this exercise is to
determine the distribution and abundance of a variety of
animals with minimum disturbance of the ecosystem.
The procedures below can be carried out at a number
of sites throughout the ecosystem. If they are carried out
at regular intervals along a transect (see Investigation 2),
you may be able to use data collected along the transect to
help you to explain the distribution of animals. It may be
necessary to move some distance from the transect line to
avoid excessive disturbance of the area.
Materials
trowel
pair of gardening gloves
large sheet of white paper or cardboard
open tin can or small soil auger
sweep net
metal spatula or blunt knife
Method
Note any evidence of feeding patterns observed throughout
this exercise, for use in Investigation 5.
WARNING: Take care to avoid snakes, spiders and any
insects that may sting or bite.
PART A LEAF LITTER
1 Rake and turn the leaf litter in about 1 m
2
.
2 Count the organisms present and identify them in
general terms.
3 Spread samples of leaf litter on white paper and watch
for movement.
4 Record the data in a table (see Table I4.1).
PART B SOIL
1 Remove the leaf litter from a small area.
2 Press an empty tin can into the soil.
3 Remove the can, lifting out the soil. If the soil does not
come out with the can, gently dig it out with a trowel.
4 Spread the soil on a sheet of white paper.
5 Count and identify organisms in general terms.
6 Record the data in a table.
PART C ROTTING LOGS AND BRANCHES
1 Use a trowel or stick to break open rotting logs or
branches.
2 Count and identify the organisms in general terms.
PART D GRASSES, SEDGES AND SMALL
SHRUBS
Flying insects
1 Using a sweep net, sweep the net in wide arcs with the
hoop just above the foliage.
2 When the disturbed insects y or jump in, turn the
handle so that the hoop folds up, closing off the
opening to the net.
Insects attached to plants
1 Carefully examine the foliage of a range of shrubs and
grasses.
PART E BARK
1 Use a metal spatula to lift small pieces of bark on
shrubs and trees.
Questions
1 How could animal distribution and abundance be
measured more accurately?
2 Many native mammals are nocturnal. How could these
be observed?
INVESTIGATION 5:
FOOD WEBS
Students:
describe two trophic interactions found between
organisms in the area studied
construct food chains and food webs to illustrate
the relationships between member species in an
ecosystem.
Information
When ecologists construct food webs, they often make
detailed observations of organisms in the eld over a
long period of time, examine the stomach contents of
dead animals and study animal droppings. With adequate
reference materials, fur, feather and seed samples in
stomach contents and droppings can usually be traced to
the specic species of mammal, bird or plant that
was eaten.
3 Were the animals evenly distributed across the different
sites?
4 Try to explain the variation in distribution of at least
two animals.
5 With reference to a specic animal, suggest how each
of the following might have inuenced its distribution
and abundance:
(a) the availability of a resource
(b) a physical environmental factor
(c) an interrelationship with another organism.
inuence the distribution and abundance of an animal
studied in this exercise.
Table I4.1 An example of an animal abundance and distribution record in leaf litter
ANIMALS OBSERVED SITE TOTAL
1 2 3 4 5
NUMBER OBSERVED
Skink 2
Spider A 1
Spider B 1
Amphipods 7
Native cockroach 1
White grub 1
Bull ant 3
Seed ant many
Slater 2
Comments
One skink lost its tail when disturbed.
The amphipods were difcult to count because they jumped about very quickly.
The white grub appeared to be an insect larva.
The seed ants were moving very rapidly along a single line in great numbers. A nest was found near by.
The slaters appeared to be dead.
57 ECOSYSTEMS
The aim of this exercise is to construct a simplied
food web. The exercise is best carried out while completing
Investigations 13.
Materials
10 plastic bags for droppings
dissecting needle
forceps
probe
Petri dish
dissecting microscope or hand lens
plastic gloves
Method
1 Identify and record all the organisms you observe in the
ecosystem.
2 Note any rsthand feeding you observe (e.g. honeyeater
feeding on eucalypt owers, grasshoppers chewing on
grass).
3 Note any secondhand evidence of feeding (e.g. half-
eaten leaves, gnawed bark).
4 Collect animal and bird droppings.
5 Pull apart droppings with probes, dissecting needle and
forceps.
6 Examine the droppings contents under a dissecting
microscope or hand lens.
7 Record the contents of the droppings in a table.
8 Use the data collected and reference books to construct
a food web.
Questions
1 List the types of food sources for which you would not
be able to nd any evidence in animal droppings.
2 List the types of materials that can be found in animal
droppings.
3 Do animal droppings give an accurate view of the food
sources of animals? Explain.
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1 The area of an ecosystem where members of a species are found is known as their:
A distribution
B biomass
C habitat
D abundance.
2 Coral polyps often contain algae living within their tissues, which contribute to their spectacular
colours. The algae generally do not survive outside the polyp and the coral grows more slowly if
the algae are not present. This association could be best described as:
A competition
B commensalism
C allelopathy
D mutualism.
3 The collective name for the members of a particular species living in an ecosystem is a:
A population
B habitat
C family
D community.
4 The map in Figure E1.1 shows the distribution of the common brushtail possum. From this
distribution map, you could conclude that:
A the abundance of the common brushtail possum is greater on the mainland than in Tasmania
B the common brushtail possum is not evenly distributed throughout its range
C changes in vegetation patterns have isolated populations of the common brushtail possum
D none of the conclusions A, B or C is correct.
1
PRACTICE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
Figure E1.1 Distribution of the common brushtail possum in Australia
59 ECOSYSTEMS
5 The main role of bacteria in the ecosystem is to:
A act as chemosynthetic producers
B provide a food source for plankton-feeding aquatic animals
C prevent overpopulation by causing disease
D make minerals in dead organisms available to plants.
6 Since people have been cultivating the land in Australia, the size of the deserts has been
increasing. Which of the following would be most likely to cause marginal crop or grazing lands
to become permanent deserts?
A loss of nutrients to grazing animals
B loss of minerals in harvested crops
C erosion and loss of soil
D insufcient use of organic fertilisers
7 In a forest, ve species of insect-eating birds are found. All of these species are able to survive.
One reason why all might be able to survive is because they:
A eat the same type of insect
B eat in different parts of the forest
C have their populations kept in check by predators
D feed off each other.
8 The graph in Figure E1.2 indicates the loss of water by evaporation from three terrestrial
organisms.
Which organism is most likely to inhabit a moist environment?
A y larva
B crustacean
C adult beetle
D small lizard
9 Figure E1.3 illustrates the appearance of birds in Kakadu National Park after re.
Which of the following birds would you most expect to arrive 4 days after a re?
A black kite
B kookaburra
C owl
D galah
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Temperature (C)
E
v
a
p
o
r
a
t
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

(
m
g
/
c
m
2
/
h
)
fly larva
small
crustacean
adult
beetle
small
lizard
1
3

m
i
n
1
3

d
a
y
s
1
3

w
e
e
k
s
3
4

w
e
e
k
s
M
o
r
e

t
h
a
n
4

w
e
e
k
s
F
i
r
e
H
o
t

a
s
h
C
o
l
d

a
s
h
S
u
c
k
e
r
s
G
r
a
s
s
Bird species
black kite
woodswallow
tree martin
pied butcherbird
grey butcherbird
kookaburra
red-backed kingfisher
forest kingfisher
torresian crow
whistling kite
black falcon
brown falcon
owl
night jar
magpie-lark
straw-necked ibis
red-tailed black cockatoo
partridge pidgeon
little corella
northern rosella
galah
quail
Figure E1.2 Evaporation of water from four animals Figure E1.3 Arrival of birds in Kakadu National Park after re
10 Which of the following roles is not played by bacteria in an ecosystem?
A matter recycling
B energy recycling
C nitrogen xing
D decomposition
SHORT ANSWER AND EXTENDED RESPONSE QUESTIONS
1 The greenhouse effect results in the warming up of the atmosphere. This is mainly caused by
increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. From your knowledge of the
carbon cycle:
(a) suggest two ways in which the greenhouse effect might be reduced
(b) explain why some crop farmers see the increased carbon dioxide concentration as benecial.
2 (a) What are gures (a) and (b) in Figure E1.4?
(b) What information is conveyed by (a) but not by (b)?
(c) What information is conveyed by (b) but not by (a)?
(d) Identify the initial source of energy for this community.
3 (a) What is a resource?
(b) Briey describe how a named resource affected the distribution of a named organism in an
ecosystem you have studied.
4 (a) Identify the main role of decomposers in an ecosystem.
(b) Give examples of two types of decomposers.
5 A farmer decided to grow corn to feed his pigs, which he then sold. He argued that if he collected
the pigs droppings and used them to fertilise his corn, he could continue the process forever.
(a) Explain the main aw in the farmers reasoning.
(b) What eventually happens to all the energy that enters this ecosystem?
6 (a) Identify an ecosystem you have studied.
(b) Describe the method you used to determine the abundance of an animal or plant.
(c) Explain how the accuracy of your estimate could be improved.
7 A student noticed that slaters appeared to be most abundant in moist, dark conditions where
humus was plentiful.
possum sheep rabbit
dingo
grass tree
(a)
(b)
possum sheep rabbit
tree grass
fox
dingo fox
Figure E1.4
61 ECOSYSTEMS
(a) Write a hypothesis that attempts to explain the distribution of slaters in terms of one factor.
(b) Design an experiment to test this hypothesis.
8 A student made the following observations when studying a rock platform.
Periwinkles, chitons and limpets grazed on green algae, which covered the rocks. The octopus
not only dined on small sh, which fed on zooplankton, but also competed with the starsh for
limpets, periwinkles and mussels. The water abounded in phytoplankton and zooplankton. The
zooplankton devoured the phytoplankton, while they themselves fell prey to the mussels and
barnacles, which ltered the water to collect any microscopic organisms.
(a) Use this description to draw a food web for the community.
(b) Identify a second-order consumer.
(c) Identify one of the organisms that would be under the
greatest threat from biomagnication.
(d) Explain one short-term consequence of the elimination of
mussels from the ecosystem.
(e) Identify the organisms which would have the greatest
biomass in this community. Explain your reasoning.
9 The graph shown in Figure E1.5 illustrates the annual Australian
catch of scallops. The arrows indicate the opening of new shing
grounds.
(a) Describe one trend you can infer from the data.
(b) Assume you have been asked to manage the catch of
scallops. Suggest one strategy you would implement to
ensure the catch could be sustained. Briey outline how
you would determine whether your strategy was successful.
10 Use the information presented in Figure E1.6 and Table E1.1 to
account for the distribution of forest and heath.
11 Give an example of mutualism and explain how it is different from commensalism.
12 During an investigation of an ecosystem, you studied evidence of human impact. Describe one
example of a human impact on an ecosystem, and explain how this impact has affected:
(a) the diversity of species in the ecosystem
(b) the sustainability of the ecosystem.
S
c
a
l
l
o
p
s

c
a
u
g
h
t

(
t
o
n
n
e
s
)
Year
1960 1970 1980 1990 1950
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Great Oyster Bay
Norfolk Bay
Port Phillip Bay
North-east Tasmania
Lakes Entrance
Jervis Bay
Bass Strait
Figure E1.5 Annual Australian catch of scallops
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
2
3
4
5
woodland bare rock closed heath woodland closed forest
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Distance (m)
H
e
i
g
h
t

(
m
)
Key:
woodland
eucalypt
forest
eucalypt
shrubs
ferns
grass
1,2,3,4,5
sites
for data
collection
Figure E1.6 Vegetation transect
Table E1.1 Physical factors along the transect
PHYSICAL FACTOR SITES
1 2 3 4 5
Temperature (C)
max.
min.
soil
24
13
23
24
13
24
13
23
24
13
23
24
13
23
Relative humidity 54% 55% 59% 58% 82%
Wind
speed
direction
exposure
moderate
SW
extreme
moderate
SW
high
moderate
SW
high
moderate
SW
high
minimal
Light intensity
eye level
hip level
group level
moderate
moderate
low
very high
very high
very high
very high
very high
very low
moderate
moderate
very low
low
low
very low
Soil
pH
depth
moisture
humus
air
6
shallow
dry
low
moderate
none
very low
5
shallow
soggy
moderate
very low
7
shallow
damp
moderate
moderate
7
deep
damp
high
moderate
Nutrients
nitrates
phosphates
sulfates
potassium
poor
moderate
moderate
moderate
poor
poor
moderate
moderate
poor
moderate
moderate
moderate
good
good
good
moderate
R
a
t
e

o
f

r
e
a
c
t
i
o
n
0
sunrise noon sunset sunrise
photosynthesis
respiration
Figure E1.7 Rates of reaction in a pond
13 The graph shown in Figure E1.7 compares the rates of photosynthesis and respiration in a pond
on a sunny day. Water plants and one species of freshwater sh live in the pond.
(a) Explain why the rate of photosynthesis drops to zero at night, but the rate of respiration
remains fairly constant.
(b) Estimate the times at which the most and least amounts of dissolved oxygen would be
found in the pond.
(c) More sh were added to the pond. A short time later, the same number of sh died.
Moreover, the sh died just before sunrise. Explain how this could be related to the rates
of photosynthesis and respiration in the pond.

Biology in Context Module 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biology in Context Module 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ECOSYSTEMS

You might also like