CURRENT RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Volume 7, Number 17
Submitted: July 16, 2002
First Revision: August 13, 2002
Seond Revision: August 13, 2002
Ae!ted: August 13, 2002
"ubli#tion d#te: August 1$, 2002
EFFECTS OF SOCIAL COHESIVENESS AND COOPERATIVE
INCENTIVES ON SMALL GROUP LEARNING OUTCOMES
%l#ine &'#!m#n
('e )niversity o* Sydney
ABSTRACT
Research into the effects of cooperative learning on academic performance has produced
conflicting results. This study aimed to assess whether these effects varied with the
incentive structure under which groups worked and with the level of social cohesiveness
between group members. Eighty-nine 5
th
and 6
th
grade students were assigned randomly to
one of four conditions in a 2 incentive! by 2 cohesiveness! factorial design. Results
indicated that students who received rewards based on their individual contributions to an
overall group product outperformed those who received rewards based on an overall
group product alone. "tudents in the former condition also made significantly greater pre-
post increases on a sociometric scale. #n contrast$ students who worked in groups that
were high in social cohesiveness performed marginally worse than those who worked in
low cohesive groups. #mplications of these results for theory and practice in the area are
discussed.
+2,3-
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+2,$-
&oo!er#tive le#rning str#tegies #re no/ /idely #dvo#ted #s # me#ns by /'i' s'ools #n
im!rove students0 soi#l integr#tion 1e2g2, "ettigre/, 1,,342 5es!ite t'is, reent surveys
suggest t'#t strutured sm#ll grou! met'ods '#ve not *ound /ides!re#d #!!li#tion in
l#ssroom settings 1Autil, et #l2, 1,,342 5es!ite t'eir !ositive e**ets on soi#l #nd !erson#l
outomes, rese#r' into t'e e**ets o* t'ese met'ods on ##demi !er*orm#ne '#s
!rodued on*liting results 1Sl#vin, 1,,642 Redued e**ets o* oo!er#tive le#rning '#ve
o*ten been #sribed to motiv#tion#l losses t'#t our in t'e grou! !roess2 %6#m!les o*
su' losses inlude 7*ree.rider7 e**ets, in /'i' some members #llo/ ot'er members to do
#ll t'e /or8 1e2g2, 9err : ;runn, 1,334, #nd 7su8er7 e**ets, /'ere 'ig'.#'ieving
members redue t'eir e**orts to #void '#ving to do #ll t'e /or8 19err, 1,3342
Sl#vin 11,,64 '#s #rgued t'#t in order to '#ve !ositive e**ets on student #'ievement,
oo!er#tive le#rning s'ould inor!or#te t/o 8ey om!onents: <rou! re/#rds #nd
individu#l #ount#bility2 =n t'is vie/, members o* oo!er#tive grou!s s'ould reeive
re/#rds b#sed on t'e !er*orm#ne o* t'eir grou!s #s # /'ole2 Sl#vin #rgued t'#t /it'out
t'is om!onent, students /ould not be motiv#ted to inter#t e**etively on t'eir #ssigned
t#s8s2 Sl#vin *urt'er sti!ul#ted, 'o/ever, t'#t grou! re/#rds /ould not be e**etive in
motiv#ting all students unless t'e !er*orm#ne o* grou!s /#s e6!liitly determined by t'e
individual #'ievements o* grou! members2 Sl#vin !osed t'#t /it'out t'e l#tter om!onent,
t'e !ositive e**ets o* t'e grou! re/#rd system on member motiv#tion /ould be lost
t'roug' di**usion o* res!onsibility #mongst grou! members #nd resulting 7*ree rider7 #nd
7su8er7 e**ets2
('ese !ro!ositions '#ve been su!!orted t'roug' # reent met#.#n#lysis o* oo!er#tive
le#rning ev#lu#tions2 Sl#vin 11,,64 umul#ted t'e e**ets o* ,, studies t'#t om!#red t'e
#'ievement e**ets o* oo!er#tive le#rning #nd more tr#dition#l individu#listi or
om!etitive instrution#l #!!ro#'es2 >'en t'e #!!ro#'es /ere l#ssi*ied by t'e riteri#
outlined #bove 1i2e2, inlusion or non.inlusion o* grou! re/#rd #nd individu#l
#ount#bility om!onents4, t'e medi#n e**et si?e *or #!!ro#'es t'#t used bot' grou!
re/#rds #nd individu#l #ount#bility /#s 0232, #s om!#red /it' # medi#n e**et si?e o*
0207 *or met'ods t'#t used grou! re/#rds only or individu#l #ount#bility only2 ('e
medi#n e**et si?e *or met'ods t'#t did not inor!or#te eit'er o* t'ese om!onents /#s
02162
@t'er rese#r'ers in t'e *ield 1e2g2, &o'en, 1,,$A 9o'n, 1,,1A S'#!s : Be/is, 1,,14,
'o/ever, '#ve e6!ressed onerns #bout t'e use o* inentives b#sed on individu#l grou!
member !er*orm#ne2 For e6#m!le, &o'en 11,364 st#tes t'#t 7i* t'e t#s8 is '#llenging #nd
interesting, #nd i* students #re su**iiently !re!#red *or s8ills in grou! !roess, students /ill
e6!eriene t'e !roess o* grou!/or8 itsel* #s 'ig'ly re/#rding222+N-ever gr#de or ev#lu#te
students on t'eir individu#l ontributions to t'e grou! !rodut7 1!!2 6,.7042 Alt'oug' t'ese
rese#r'ers do not e6!liitly reCet t'e notion t'#t !roviding grou! re/#rds *or individu#l
!er*orm#ne /ill '#ve !ositive e**ets on le#rning in oo!er#tive grou!s, t'ey #rgue t'#t
t'e s#me e**ets #n be #'ieved in ot'er, more desir#ble /#ys2
Advo#tes o* t'e soi#l o'esion !ers!etive 1e2g2, Jo'nson : Jo'nson, 1,,2A &o'en, 1,36A
S'#r#n : S'#r#n, 1,764 #rgue t'#t t'e e6tent to /'i' oo!er#tive grou! members su**er
*rom t'e motiv#tion#l losses desribed #bove /ill de!end l#rgely on t'e o'esiveness o* t'e
grou!2 For e6#m!le, Jo'nson : Jo'nson 11,,$4 #ssert t'#t 7222t'e 'ig'er t'e o'esiveness
o* # grou!, t'e more !rodutive it tends to be,7 /'ere grou! o'esiveness is b#sed on
7members li8ing e#' ot'er, desiring to ontinue to be !#rt o* t'e grou!, #nd being s#tis*ied
/it' t'eir grou! members'i!7 1!22642 Alt'oug' t'e one!t o* grou! o'esiveness is bro#d
#nd multi*#eted, t'is vie/ 1i2e2, t'#t it is !rim#rily # *untion o* t'e level o* inter!erson#l
#ttr#tion bet/een grou! members4 '#s domin#ted rese#r' into t'e e**ets o* grou!
o'esiveness on #'ievement #nd !rodutivity 1Dogg : Abr#ms, 1,3342 =n summ#ry,
#dvo#tes o* t'e grou! o'esiveness !ers!etive !ose t'#t motiv#tion#l losses #ssoi#ted
/it' 7*ree.rider7 #nd 7su8er7 e**ets #re less li8ely to our in 'ig'ly o'esive grou!s,
m#8ing t'e use o* grou! re/#rds b#sed on t'e individu#l le#rning o* grou! members
redund#nt2
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('e results o* t/o e#rly studies !rovide some su!!ort *or t'e !ro!osition t'#t students
#'ieve more /'en t'ey /or8 in 'ig'ly o'esive grou!s2 =n t'e *irst o* t'ese 1S'#/ :
S'#/, 1,624, seond.gr#ders studied s!elling in eit'er 'ig' o'esive grou!s 1in /'i' no
member reCeted #ny ot'er member, #nd some !ositive 'oies /ere re!resented4 or lo/
o'esive grou!s 1/'ere no member 'ose #ny ot'er member, #nd some reCetions /ere
re!resented42 <rou!s /or8ed toget'er *or t'ree d#ily sessions, #nd om!leted tests on t'e
m#teri#l overed on t'e seond #nd t'ird d#ys o* t'is study !eriod2 A signi*i#nt !ositive
orrel#tion bet/een grou! o'esiveness #nd #'ievement /#s *ound in t'e seond, but not
in t'e t'ird session tests2
=n t'e seond study 1St#m, 1,734, *i*t'.gr#ders om!leted # !eer nomin#tion s#le 1e2g2,
#s8ing t'em to indi#te /'i' members o* t'eir l#ss /ere t'eir Fbest *riendsG4 #nd /ere
t'en #ssigned to *our.member oo!er#tive grou!s eit'er on t'e b#sis o* mutu#l nomin#tions
1t'e 'ig' o'esiveness ondition4 or on # r#ndom b#sis 1t'e lo/ o'esiveness ondition42
%#' grou! t'en om!leted bot' # onvergent t'in8ing t#s8 1i2e2, # series o* #rit'meti /ord
!roblems4 #nd # divergent t'in8ing t#s8 1i2e2, /riting o* # grou! !oem42 St#m re!orted t'#t
soiometri#lly 'osen grou!s !er*ormed signi*i#ntly better on t'e divergent t'in8ing t#s8,
#lt'oug' t'ere /ere no signi*i#nt di**erenes on t'e onvergent t'in8ing t#s82
<iven t'ese results, it is !ossible t'#t both grou! o'esiveness #nd grou! re/#rd
ontingenies m#y #t #s moder#tors o* le#rning in oo!er#tive grou!s2 =n 'ig'ly o'esive
grou!s, t'e motiv#tion#l losses desribed #bove m#y be less li8ely to our, m#8ing t'e
!ositive e**ets o* using grou! re/#rds *or individu#l member ontributions to #n over#ll
!rodut unneess#ry2 @n t'e ot'er '#nd, t'e use o* grou! re/#rds b#sed on t'e individu#l
le#rning o* #ll students in t'e grou! m#y redue or !revent t'e s#me motiv#tion#l losses,
t'us m#8ing redund#nt #ny !ositive e**ets o* 'ig' o'esiveness #mongst grou! members2
=n #ddition to its t'eoreti#l interest, t'is Huestion '#s im!ort#nt !r#ti#l im!li#tions *or
t'e use o* oo!er#tive le#rning in s'ool settings2 =* bot' !roedures 1i2e2, !l#ing students
into 'ig'ly o'esive grou!s #nd using inentives b#sed on individu#l ontributions to #
grou! !rodut4 #n be used to #'ieve t'e s#me outome 1i2e2, reduing motiv#tion#l
losses4, edu#tors ould selet t'e !roedure most onsistent /it' t'eir o/n ideologies,
intervention go#ls, #nd !r#ti#l onstr#ints2 For e6#m!le, some te#'ers m#y *ind using
grou! re/#rd ontingenies im!r#ti#l due to t'e dem#nds m#de on t'eir time #nd
resoures2 @n t'e ot'er '#nd, /'en im!roving soi#l rel#tions'i!s bet/een students is #
!rim#ry or onurrent intervention go#l, !l#ing students into 'ig'ly o'esive grou!s 1e2g2,
grou!s in /'i' students indi#te # !re*erene *or /or8ing toget'er4 /ould le#rly be
ounter!rodutive2
('e go#l o* t'e !resent study /#s to determine t'e e**ets o* soi#l o'esiveness #nd
inentive strutures on oo!er#tive le#rning outomes2 ('ree ty!es o* outome me#sures
/ere used: Student #'ievement tests, # !ereived grou! o'esiveness s#le, #nd
soiometri !eer r#tings2 ('e l#tter t/o me#sures /ere inluded to #ssess #ny oll#ter#l
e**ets o* t'e e6!eriment#l !roedures on grou! !roesses2
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METHOD
Participants
%ig'ty.nine students *rom t'ree element#ry.level l#sses !#rtii!#ted in t'is study2 ('e
t'ree l#sses /ere dr#/n *rom # s'ool in # rel#tively 'ig' soio.eonomi Austr#li#n
suburb2 &l#ss A om!rised 31 *i*t'.gr#de students 117 m#les, 1$ *em#les42 &l#ss ;, # s!lit
*i*t'Isi6t'.gr#de l#ss, inluded 16 *i*t'.gr#de students 110 m#les, 6 *em#les4 #nd 13 si6t'.
gr#de students 13 m#les, 7 *em#les42 &l#ss & inluded 27 si6t'.gr#de students 113 m#les, 1$
*em#les42 Jedi#n #ges #t t'e st#rt o* t'e intervention /ere 10 ye#rs, 2 mont's *or t'e *i*t'.
gr#de s#m!le, #nd 11 ye#rs, 3 mont's *or t'e si6t'.gr#de s#m!le2
Curriculu Mat!rials
('e ##demi t#s8s /ere dr#/n *rom #n e6!erimenter.develo!ed /or8boo8 o* !r#tie
items2 ('ese items /ere org#nised into ,6 s8ill obCetives, /'i' overed *our m#Cor #re#s:
Fr#tions #nd 5eim#lsA Rel#tions #nd t'e Number SystemA Je#surement, St#tistis, #nd
S!#e, #nd Story "roblems2 >it'in t'e /or8boo8, e#' obCetive !resented # /or8ed
e6#m!le *or students to *ollo/ so t'#t t'ey /ere #ble to /or8 rel#tively #utonomously
during lessons2 Students /ere #lso given #ess to #ns/er boo8s during lessons so t'#t
t'ey ould 'e8 t'eir o/n /or82
Students /or8ed on t'eir o/n individu#li?ed instrution#l !rogr#ms during lessons, /'i'
/ere b#sed on t'eir !er*orm#ne on t'e urriulum.b#sed !retest desribed belo/2 As e#'
item in t'is !retest orres!onded to one o* t'e obCetives in t'e /or8boo8, students
om!leted #ll obCetives in t'e /or8boo8 t'#t orres!onded to items #ns/ered inorretly
or not #ns/ered on t'e !retest2 A*ter reeiving t'eir m#r8ed !retests, students reorded t'e
numbers o* #ll su' items on # !#ge t'#t #!!e#red #t t'e beginning o* e#' /or8boo8
setion, #nd /or8ed *rom t'ese lists *or t'e rem#inder o* t'e *our./ee8 e6!eriment#l !eriod
D!p!n"!nt M!asur!s
"ociometric Rating "cale. ('e soiometri r#ting s#le /#s used to #ssess studentsK
#ttitudes to/#rds ot'er members o* t'eir l#ss2 ('ese sores /ere t'en used to #ssign
students to grou!s /it'in t'e 'ig' #nd lo/ o'esiveness onditions, #s /ell #s to #ssess t'e
im!#t o* t'e di**erent onditions on r#tings bet/een grou! members2 =niti#lly, bot' # F!l#y
/it'G #nd # F/or8 /it'G dimension 1e2g2, see @den : As'er, 1,774 /ere inluded2
Do/ever, #s # ne#r !er*et orrel#tion /#s *ound bet/een r#tings on t'ese t/o s#les
#ross #ll t'ree l#sses 1rs 02,34, me#n sores /ere obt#ined *or r#tings #ross t'e t/o
s#les #nd used bot' in t'e #ssignment o* students to oo!er#tive grou!s, #nd in t'e
#n#lysis o* t'e results2 A more det#iled desri!tion o* t'is s#le is inluded in A!!endi6 A2
Sores on e#' subs#le r#nged *rom 1 to E2
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+2,7-
%roup &ohesiveness "cale. (o determine /'et'er oo!er#tive grou!s /'ose members
'ose to /or8 toget'er /ere !ereived #s more o'esive t'#n t'ose /'ose members
e6!liitly 'ose not to /or8 toget'er, #ll students om!leted #n eig't.item grou!
o'esiveness s#le #t !osttest2 St#tements in t'is s#le #re !resented in A!!endi6 ;2 ('ese
items /ere #d#!ted *rom # me#sure develo!ed by Din8le et #l2 11,3,4 to me#sure
intr#grou! identi*i#tion /it'in grou!s o* ollege students2 =tems in t'e s#le me#sure #
number o* !ere!tions ommonly identi*ied #s entr#l to t'e notion o* grou! o'esiveness2
('ese inlude students0 desire to m#int#in ingrou! st#tus 1Jo'nson : Jo'nson, 1,,$4,
!ere!tions o* /'et'er oo!er#ting /it' t'e grou! /ill en'#ne t'e li8eli'ood o* !erson#l
go#l #'ievement 1S'#r#n : S'#r#n, 1,764, #nd emotion#l ties to t'e grou! 1Judr#8,
1,3,#, 1,3,b42 ('e /ording o* t'e items /#s modi*ied *rom t'e origin#l s#le desribed
by Din8le et al. to be more re#dily understood by !rim#ry.#ged 'ildren2 Res!ondents
r#ted t'eir #greement /it' e#' item on # *ive.!oint s#le 1r#nging *rom strongly #gree to
strongly dis#gree42 ;#sed on #n #n#lysis o* !retest sores in t'is study, t'e intern#l
onsisteny o* t'e over#ll s#le /#s re#son#bly 'ig' 1#l!'# L 023642 Sores on t'is s#le
r#nged *rom # minimum o* 3 to # m#6imum o* $02
'ath (chievement. ('e !rim#ry me#sure o* m#t'em#tis #'ievement /#s # 76.item,
e6!erimenter.develo!ed test t'#t #ssessed #ll s8ills overed in t'e *our./ee8 urriulum
unit2 (/o !#r#llel *orms /ere develo!ed2 Some o* t'e items reHuired students to selet
#ns/ers *rom # number o* #ltern#tives 1i2e2, multi!le 'oie *orm#t4, but most reHuired
/or8ed !roblem solutions2 %#' o* t'e items orres!onded to one o* t'e obCetives in t'e
"roCet >or8boo82 ('e test /#s #dministered /it' # 60.minute time limit2 (o obt#in #n
estim#te o* t'e !#r#llel.*orms reli#bility o* t'e test, 1E6 students 131 m#le, 77 *em#le4 *rom
gr#des $ to 7 in # se!#r#te st#te !rim#ry s'ool om!leted Forms A #nd ; o* t'e test /it' #
one./ee8 test.retest interv#l2 ('is #n#lysis indi#ted 'ig' !#r#llel *orms reli#bility
estim#tes *or gr#des E #nd 6 1023, #nd 02,0, res!etively42 Sores on e#' *orm o* t'is test
r#nged *rom 0 to 762
A st#nd#rdi?ed me#sure o* m#t'em#tis #'ievement /#s #lso used to !rovide #n
inde!endent me#sure o* study outomes2 (ests 2A #nd 2; *rom t'e )rogressive
(chievement Tests in 'athematics 1Austr#li#n &ounil *or %du#tion#l Rese#r', 1,3$#4
/ere seleted *or t'eir relev#ne to t'e Austr#li#n m#t'em#tis urriulum2 ;ot' tests #re in
multi!le.'oie *orm#t 1$7 items in (est 2A #nd E7 items in (est 2;4, #nd #re #dministered
/it' # $E.minute time limit2 =n t'e 1,33 st#nd#rdi?#tion 1see Austr#li#n &ounil *or
%du#tion#l Rese#r', 1,3$b4, 9R.20 reli#bilities o* 02,1 to 02,$ /ere obt#ined *or t'ese
tests in # s#m!le o* *i*t'. to sevent'.gr#de students2 R#/ sores on (est 2A r#nged *rom 0
to $7, /'ile t'ose on (est ; r#nged *rom 0 to E72
Pr#c!"ur!
"retesting *or #ll l#sses /#s onduted in t/o sessions on onseutive d#ys during t'e
/ee8 !rior to t'e st#rt o* t'e intervention2 ('e urriulum.b#sed !retest /#s given *irst,
*ollo/ed by t'e st#nd#rdi?ed #'ievement !retest2
('e e6!eriment#l onditions /ere im!lemented during studentsK d#ily 1one.'our4 m#t'
lessons, over # !eriod o* *our s'ool /ee8s2 ('e e6!erimenter visited #ll !#rtii!#ting
l#sses during e#' intervention session to ensure t'#t t'e !roedures /ere im!lemented #s
!resribed2 (/o d#ys be*ore t'e st#rt o* t'e intervention, students in e#' l#ss reeived
t'eir m#r8ed urriulum.b#sed !retests #nd # "roCet >or8boo8 #nd /ere brie*ed on t'e
b#si !roedures t'ey /ould *ollo/ during t'e *our./ee8 intervention !eriod2 ('is gener#l
brie*ing session /#s onduted by t'e e6!erimenter2 %#' /ee8, l#sses *oused on #
di**erent to!i 1e2g, Fr#tions #nd 5eim#ls42 At t'e end o* t'e /ee8, #ll students
om!leted # Hui? t'#t /#s # !#r#llel *orm o* t'e relev#nt setion in t'e !re. #nd !osttests2
+2,7-
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+2,3-
Sm#ll !ri?es 1e2g2, sti8ers, !enils4 /ere #/#rded on t'e b#sis o* m#8ing # t'ree.!oint
im!rovement on t'e sore obt#ined *or t'#t setion o* t'e !retest2 ('is im!rovement system
/#s used to ensure t'#t #ll students 1reg#rdless o* initi#l #bility level4 /ould '#ve #n eHu#l
o!!ortunity to ontribute to t'eir grou!Ks !er*orm#ne 1see Sl#vin, 1,,642 >ee8ly
erti*i#tes #nd !ri?es /ere #/#rded !ublily on t'e d#y #*ter t'e end.o*./ee8 Hui? *or
students in #ll onditions 1Cust !rior to t'e beginning o* t'e ne6t e6!eriment#l session4, #nd
/ere #lled in #l!'#beti#l order2 ('ese re/#rds /ere used to est#blis' t'e t/o inentive
onditions desribed in t'e ne6t setion2
"osttesting /#s onduted over t'ree onseutive d#ys immedi#tely #*ter t'e l#st d#y o* t'e
intervention2 ('e <rou! &o'esiveness #nd t'e soiometri s#les /ere om!leted in t'e
*irst session, *ollo/ed by t'e urriulum.b#sed #nd t'e st#nd#rdi?ed #'ievement tests,
res!etively
E$p!ri!ntal C#n"iti#ns
Follo/ing t'e !retesting sessions, students in e#' o* t'e t'ree l#sses /ere #ssigned
r#ndomly 1str#ti*ying *or urriulum b#sed !retest sores #nd se64 to eit'er t'e 'ig' or t'e
lo/ grou! o'esiveness ondition2 ('us, #!!ro6im#tely '#l* o* t'e students in e#' l#ss
/ere #ssigned to e#' ondition2
=n t'e 'ig' o'esiveness ondition, students /ere #ssigned to *our.member oo!er#tive
grou!s so t'#t t'ere /ere no neg#tive r#tings bet/een members 1i2e2, no r#tings less t'#n 0
on t'e r#ting s#le4, #nd e#' member r#ted #t le#st one ot'er member o* t'e grou!
!ositively 1i2e2, # r#ting o* 1 or more on t'e r#ting s#le42
=n t'e lo/ o'esiveness ondition, students /ere #ssigned to grou!s so t'#t t'ere /ere no
!ositive 'oies #mong members 1i2e2, no r#tings more t'#n 0 on t'e r#ting s#le4, /it'
e#' member r#ting #t le#st one ot'er member neg#tively 1i2e2, # r#ting o* less t'#n 0 on t'e
!retest r#ting s#le42 Assignments to grou!s /ere ounterb#l#ned *or se6 #nd sores on
t'e urriulum.b#sed !retests to ensure t'#t # mi6ture o* m#les #nd *em#les #nd #bility
levels /#s m#int#ined in bot' 'ig' #nd lo/ o'esive grou!s2
>it'in e#' o* t'ese onditions, grou!s /ere t'en #ssigned r#ndomly to one o* t/o
inentive riteri# onditions:
#ndividual contributions* Students in t'is ondition /ere enour#ged to /or8 toget'er #nd
onsult ot'er members in t'eir grou!s be*ore #s8ing *or te#'er #ssist#ne during lessons2
('ese students /ere told t'#t t'ey /ould reeive # erti*i#te #nd # sm#ll !ri?e #t t'e end o*
e#' /ee8 i* #ll members o* t'eir grou! '#d met t'eir individu#l !er*orm#ne go#ls on t'e
end.o*./ee8 Hui? 1i2e2, m#de # t'ree.!oint im!rovement on t'eir initi#l sore *or t'e
relev#nt subsetion o* t'e !retest42 =t /#s m#de le#r t'#t it /#s t'e res!onsibility o* #ll
grou! members to ensure t'#t everyone met t'eir !er*orm#ne go#ls, #nd t'#t no.one in t'e
grou! /ould reeive # erti*i#te or !ri?e unless #ll grou! members '#d #'ieved t'eir
res!etive go#ls
%roup products* Students in t'is ondition *ollo/ed identi#l !roedures to t'ose in t'e
individu#l ontributions ondition during lessons2 Do/ever, t'ese students did not
om!lete individu#l Hui??es #t t'e end o* e#' /ee82 =nste#d, e#' oo!er#tive grou!
om!leted # !#r#llel *orm o* t'e urriulum.b#sed !retest #s # grou! on t'e d#y be*ore t'e
e6!eriment ommened, #nd reeived # grou! !retest sore *or t'e *our subtests2 5uring
t'is grou! !retest, #ll members /ere enour#ged to ontribute to t'e solution o* t'e test
!roblems, #nd to re#' onsensus on e#' #ns/er be*ore moving onto t'e ne6t item2 %#'
grou! #lso om!leted #n over#ll grou! Hui? #t t'e end o* e#' /ee8, identi#l to t'e end.o*.
/ee8 Hui??es om!leted individu#lly by students in t'e ot'er t/o onditions2 <rou!
members /ere told t'#t t'ey s'ould #im to ontribute to t'e solution o* #t le#st t'ree ne/
items on e#' end.o*./ee8 Hui?, #nd t'#t t'ey /ould reeive erti*i#tes #nd !ri?es i* t'eir
grou! #s # /'ole im!roved by t'ree !oints on t'eir grou! !retest sore2 All grou! members
/'o /ere !resent during t'e end.o*./ee8 Hui? reeived # erti*i#te #nd !ri?e i* t'e grou!
#s # /'ole met its !er*orm#ne go#l2
+2,3-
...............
+2,,-
RESULTS
@* t'e 3, students, one /#s #bsent during t'e urriulum.b#sed #'ievement !osttest
sessions, /'ile t'ree 'ose not to om!lete t'e soiometri r#ting s#le2 As none o* t'ese
students ould be tested #t # l#ter d#te, t'eir d#t# sets /ere deleted *rom t'e relev#nt
#n#lyses2 @ver#ll desri!tive st#tistis #nd biv#ri#te orrel#tions *or t'e de!endent
me#sures #re !resented in A!!endi6 &2 For #ll me#sures, t'e e6!eriment#l onditions /ere
om!#red using # 2 1inentive riterion: individu#l ontributions versus grou! !roduts4 by
2 1grou! o'esiveness: 'ig' versus lo/4 by 3 1l#ss: A, ;, or &4 *#tori#l design2 As t'e
outomes /ere not inde!endent /it'in l#sses, l#ss /#s inluded #s #n inde!endent
v#ri#ble in #ll #n#lyses to test *or inter#tion e**ets /it' e6!eriment#l ondition2 <iven
t'e lo/ number o* students in e#' grou!, multiv#ri#te #nd univ#ri#te #n#lyses o* v#ri#ne
#nd ov#ri#ne /ere used r#t'er t'#n 'ier#r'i#l line#r models *or t'ese #n#lyses2
&orrel#tions bet/een individu#l studentsK sores #nd grou! me#n sores /it'in onditions
/ere non.signi*i#nt *or #ll de!endent me#sures 1ps M 02104, !roviding some su!!ort *or
on*ormity to t'e inde!endene #ssum!tion
Gr#up C#%!si&!n!ss Outc#!s
Sores on t'e grou! o'esiveness s#le /ere subCeted to # univ#ri#te #n#lysis o* v#ri#ne
1AN@VA42 Je#ns #nd st#nd#rd devi#tions *or !osttest sores on t'e <rou! &o'esiveness
S#le #re s'o/n in (#ble 12 ('e 2 1grou! o'esiveness4 by 2 1inentive riteri#4 by 3
1l#ss4 AN@VA on t'ese sores indi#ted no signi*i#nt m#in e**et *or l#ss 1+12,774 L
12,0, p M 020E4, *or inentive riteri#, or *or grou! o'esiveness 1bot' +s N 142 All t/o./#y
inter#tions /ere #lso non.signi*i#nt 1 L 020E42
Ta'l! () M!ans an" Stan"ar" D!&iati#ns *#r Sc#r!s #n t%! Gr#up C#%!si&!n!ss Scal!
B+ Inc!nti&! an" C#%!si&!n!ss C#n"iti#n






=nentive &ondition &o'esiveness &ondition
<rou! &o'esiveness S#le
N "osttest Je#n
=ndividu#l &ontributions Bo/ 22 2E2$E162,04
Dig' 23 2E2$3162034
(ot#l $E 2E2$7162$24
<rou! "roduts Bo/ 20 2321E162204
Dig' 2$ 2E22,162E04
(ot#l $$ 2$2321623,4
&oll#!sed <rou! Je#ns Bo/ $2 2$236162604
Dig' $7 2E233162234
(ot#l 3, 2$2,01623,4



+2,,-
...............
+300-
('ere /#s, 'o/ever, # signi*i#nt t'ree./#y inter#tion 1+12,774 L $23$, p , 020E42 Sim!le
inter#tion tests !er*ormed *or e#' level o* l#ss indi#ted # signi*i#nt inter#tion
bet/een !er*orm#ne riteri# #nd grou! o'esiveness in l#ss ; 1+11,774 L ,272, p , 02016,
!#rti#l et# sHu#red L 02314, but not in eit'er o* t'e ot'er l#sses 1ps M 0201642 &ell me#n
ontr#sts indi#ted t'#t t'e e**et o* grou! o'esiveness /#s signi*i#nt in t'e grou!
!roduts, but not in t'e individu#l ontributions, inentive ondition 1+11,774 L 3262, p ,
02003, !#rti#l
2
L 02$3A +11,774 L 222$, p M 02003, res!etively42 ('is indi#tes t'#t
students in 'ig' o'esive grou!s re!orted 'ig'er o'esiveness sores t'#n t'ose in t'e lo/
o'esive grou!s in t'e grou! !roduts ondition in &l#ss ;2
('e *#t t'#t t'ere /#s no signi*i#nt m#in e**et *or ondition on t'e grou! o'esiveness
s#le does suggest t'#t members o* 'ig' o'esive grou!s did not #tu#lly !ereive t'eir
grou!s to be more o'esive t'#n t'ose in lo/ o'esive grou!s2 ('us, /'ile t'e grou!s
di**ered initi#lly in t'e e6tent to /'i' members liked one #not'er, t'is did not le#d to #
more gener#l !ere!tion o* 'ig' o'esiveness2
Ac%i!&!!nt Outc#!s
Sores on t'e t/o #'ievement tests 1urriulum.b#sed #nd st#nd#rdi?ed4 /ere subCeted to
# multiv#ri#te #n#lysis o* ov#ri#ne 1JAN&@VA4, /it' orres!onding !retest sores
entered #s ov#ri#tes2 Sreening !roedures *or on*ormity to univ#ri#te #nd multiv#ri#te
#n#lysis o* v#ri#ne #ssum!tions !rodued s#tis*#tory results2 "retest me#ns #nd st#nd#rd
devi#tions *or t'e urriulum.b#sed #nd st#nd#rdi?ed tests #re !resented in (#bles 2 #nd 3,
res!etively2 A 2 1!er*orm#ne riteri#4 by 2 1o'esiveness4 by 3 1l#ss4 multiv#ri#te
#n#lysis o* v#ri#ne 1JAN@VA4 on t'ese sores indi#ted # signi*i#nt m#in e**et *or
l#ss 1- . 0223, +1$,1E24 L $23$, p , 020E4, /it' univ#ri#te #n#lyses o* v#ri#ne
1AN@VAs4 indi#ting signi*i#nt e**ets *or bot' t'e urriulum.b#sed #nd st#nd#rdi?ed
tests 1+12,764 L 1120$, p , 0202E, !#rti#l et# sHu#red L 0222A +12,764 L 72$E, p , 0202E,
!#rti#l et# sHu#red L 0216, res!etively42 ('ere /ere, 'o/ever, no signi*i#nt m#in e**ets
eit'er *or grou! o'esiveness 1- . 0201, +12,7E4 N 14 or inentive riteri# 1- . 0201,
+12,7E4 N 14, #nd #ll multiv#ri#te t/o. #nd t'ree./#y inter#tions /ere #lso non.signi*i#nt
1 L 020E42 ('us, !retest sores did not di**er signi*i#ntly #ross t'e e6!eriment#l
onditions, eit'er /it'in l#sses or #ross t'e *ull t'ree.l#ss s#m!le2
+300-
...............
+301-
Ta'l! ,) M!ans an" Stan"ar" D!&iati#ns *#r Sc#r!s #n t%! Curriculu-Bas!" T!st '+
Inc!nti&! an" C#%!si&!n!ss C#n"iti#n









=nentive
&ondition
&o'esiveness
&ondition
N
"retest
Je#n
"osttest
Je#n
AdCusted
"osttest Je#n
=ndividu#l
&ontributions
Bo/
2
2
3627,11$27E4 $,21$11321$4
$,2E7
Dig'
2
3
372E211E23$4 $720$11$2604
$72EE
(ot#l
$
E
3721711$23,4 $320711327,4
$32E6
<rou! "rodut
Bo/
1
,
332701132E64 $$23211221,4
$62,7
Dig'
2
$
$02E$11E2E64 $723E11E2774
$$26$
(ot#l
$
3
372$311$2,24 $622311$21,4
$E231
&oll#!sed Je#ns
Bo/
$
1
3E23211$2114 $721311227$4
$3227
Dig'
$
7
3,20611E2364 $722011E20$4
$6210
(ot#l
3
3
3723011$2324 $72171132,$4
$7213



+301-
...............
+302-
Ta'l! .) M!ans an" Stan"ar" D!&iati#ns *#r Sc#r!s #n t%! Stan"ar"i/!"
Ac%i!&!!nt T!st B+ Inc!nti&! an" C#%!si&!n!ss C#n"iti#n



=nentive
&ondition
&o'esiveness
&ondition
N
"retest
Je#n
"osttest
Je#n
AdCusted
"osttest Je#n
=ndividu#l
&ontributions
Bo/
2
2
272311,26,4 312771102204 312,0
Dig'
2
3
262321102034 302E21112E64
31220
(ot#l
$
E
272311,27,4 312131102314
312EE
<rou! "rodut
Bo/
1
,
262$01322,4 312111112134
33206
Dig'
2
$
3021611120E4 3322E1112,34
31207
(ot#l
$
3
232$E1,2,74 322301112E34
32206
&oll#!sed Je#ns
Bo/
$
1
2721$132,74 312$61102E14
322$3
Dig'
$
7
232E31102614 312,11112734
3121$
(ot#l
3
3
272371,23$4 312701112124
31231












+302-
...............
+303-
('e multiv#ri#te test *or t'e rel#tions'i! bet/een ombined !re. #nd !osttest sores /#s
signi*i#nt 1- . 02,7, +1$,1$34 L 3$276, p , 020E42 )niv#ri#te regressions indi#ted
signi*i#nt rel#tions'i!s bet/een ombined !retest sores #nd !osttest sores on bot' t'e
urriulum.b#sed 1+11,7$4 L 2212,0, p , 0202E, !#rti#l et# sHu#red L 02364 #nd t'e
st#nd#rdi?ed #'ievement tests 1+11,7$4 L 101277, p , 020E, !#rti#l et# sHu#red L 027342
('us, use o* t'ese !retest sores #s ov#ri#tes !rodued # signi*i#nt redution in !osttest
error v#ri#ne2 (ests *or 'eterogeneity o* regression #ross t'e 12 ells o* t'e design /ere
#lso non.signi*i#nt 1ps M 02104, indi#ting t'#t t'e #ssum!tion o* regression 'omogeneity
/#s ten#ble2
('e multiv#ri#te test *or t'e t'ree./#y inter#tion /#s not signi*i#nt 1- . 0203, +1$,1$34 L
12$3, p M 020E4, #nd t'ere /ere no signi*i#nt multiv#ri#te or univ#ri#te t/o./#y
inter#tions 1#ll +s N 142 ('e multiv#ri#te + *or t'e l#ss m#in e**et /#s signi*i#nt,
'o/ever 1- . 0236, +1$,1$34 L 320,, p , 020E4, /it' univ#ri#te AN&@VAs indi#ting
signi*i#nt e**ets on bot' t'e urriulum.b#sed test 1+12,7$4 L 13212, p , 0202E, !#rti#l
et# sHu#red L 02334 #nd t'e st#nd#rdi?ed #'ievement test 1+12,7$4 L 32,E, p , 0202E,
!#rti#l et# sHu#red L 021,42 ('us, inlusion o* l#ss #s #n inde!endent v#ri#ble !rodued #
signi*i#nt redution o* error v#ri#ne in #'ievement !osttest sores2
('e JAN&@VA indi#ted # signi*i#nt m#in e**et *or inentive riterion on #dCusted
!osttest sores 1- . 0212, +12,734 L $2,$, p , 020E42 ('e e**et *or grou! o'esiveness #lso
#!!ro#'ed signi*i#ne 1- . 0206, +12,734 L 2227, p L 021142 As t'e #dCusted /it'in.ells
orrel#tion bet/een urriulum b#sed #nd st#nd#rdi?ed !osttest sores /#s signi*i#nt 1r L
02$0, ;#rtlettKs 'i.sHu#re114 L 12273, p , 020E4, bot' univ#ri#te #nd ste!do/n +s /ere
used in t'e inter!ret#tion o* t'ese e**ets2 As t'e urriulum.b#sed me#sure !rovided #
diret test o* t'e m#teri#l overed in t'e !rogr#m, sores on t'is test /ere entered !rior to
st#nd#rdi?ed #'ievement sores in t'e ste!do/n #n#lysis2 All univ#ri#te #nd ste!do/n +s
/ere tested *or signi*i#ne #t ;on*erroni.#dCusted #l!'# levels to m#int#in nomin#l
*#mily/ise #l!'# #t or belo/ 020E *or e#' set2
)niv#ri#te AN&@VAs indi#ted # signi*i#nt e**et *or inentive riterion on t'e
urriulum.b#sed test 1+11,7$4 L 722E, p , 0202E, !#rti#l et# sHu#red L 020,4, but not on t'e
st#nd#rdi?ed #'ievement test 1+11,7$4 N 142 As indi#ted in (#ble 2, t'e e**et on t'e
urriulum.b#sed me#sure *#vored t'e individu#l ontributions ondition2 ('e univ#ri#te
e**et *or grou! o'esiveness #!!ro#'ed signi*i#ne *or sores on t'e urriulum b#sed
test 1+11,7$4 L $2E0, p L 020$, !#rti#l et# sHu#red L 02064 but not *or sores on t'e
st#nd#rdi?ed #'ievement test 1+11,7$4 L 1233, p M 0202E42 As indi#ted in (#ble 2, t'e
m#rgin#l e**et on t'e urriulum.b#sed test *#vored t'e lo/ o'esiveness ondition2
S#ci#!tric Outc#!s
Je#ns #nd st#nd#rd devi#tions *or !re. #nd !osttest sores on t'e soiometri s#le #re #lso
s'o/n in (#ble $2 (o determine /'et'er t'ere /ere signi*i#nt di**erenes bet/een t'e
onditions on t'ese sores, # 2 by 2 by 3 AN&@VA /#s !er*ormed2 Ag#in, t'e AN&@VA
indi#ted # signi*i#nt rel#tions'i! bet/een t'e !re. #nd !osttests 1+11,734 L 632,,, p N
020001, !#rti#l et# sHu#red L 02$74, but no signi*i#nt !retest by ondition inter#tion
e**ets 1ps M 021E4, indi#ting t'#t t'e use o* ov#ri#ne #n#lysis /#s ten#ble2
+303-
...............
+30$-
Ta'l! 0) M!ans an" Stan"ar" D!&iati#ns *#r Sc#r!s #n t%! S#ci#!tric Scal! B+
Inc!nti&! an" C#%!si&!n!ss C#n"iti#n









('e AN&@VA on soiometri !osttests indi#ted # m#rgin#lly signi*i#nt m#in e**et *or
inentive ondition 1+11,734 L 22,6, p L 020, !#rti#l et# sHu#red

L 020$4, but #ll ot'er e**ets
/ere non.signi*i#nt 1+s N 142 As indi#ted by t'e me#ns in (#ble $, t'e m#in e**et *or
inentive indi#ted signi*i#ntly 'ig'er sores *or t'e individu#l ontribution ondition2
DISCUSSION
('ese results indi#te t'#t students /'o /or8ed in oo!er#tive grou!s #nd reeived grou!
re/#rds b#sed on individu#l ontributions to t'e grou! !rodut m#de signi*i#ntly gre#ter
=nentive &ondition
&o'esiveness
&ondition
Soiometri S#le
N "retest Je#n
"osttest
Je#n
AdCusted
"osttest Je#n
=ndividu#l
&ontributions
Bo/ 21 220612$04 222212E74 22,$
Dig' 22 327312$04 326112$34 22,$
(ot#l $3 22,$12,E4 22,312364 22,$
<rou! "roduts Bo/ 1, 220112$$4 220712$E4 223$
Dig' 2$ 3272123,4 323312$34 2276
(ot#l $3 22,$12,E4 223012304 2230
&oll#!sed <rou!
Je#ns
Bo/ $0 220$12$14 221E12E24 223,
Dig' $6 327E123,4 32$,12$64 223E
(ot#l 36 22,$12,E4 223712334 2237
g#ins on # urriulum.b#sed #'ievement test t'#n t'ose /'o reeived re/#rds b#sed #n
over#ll grou! !rodut2 Sl#vin 11,,64 !redited t'#t use o* grou! re/#rds *or individu#l
!er*orm#ne /ould '#ve !ositive e**ets on le#rning in oo!er#tive grou!s by elimin#ting
*#tors t'#t le#d to grou! motiv#tion losses2 As members #re m#de individu#lly
#ount#ble *or t'e grou!Ks suess, t'is !reludes #ny di**usion o* res!onsibility bet/een
grou! members, elimin#ting motiv#tion#l losses #ssoi#ted /it' 7*ree.rider0 #nd 7su8er7
e**ets2
+30$-
...............
+30E-
('e 'y!ot'esis t'#t members o* grou!s /'o 'ose to /or8 toget'er /ould !er*orm better
t'#n t'ose in ot'er grou!s /#s not su!!orted2 =ndeed, it /#s *ound t'#t students in 'ig'
o'esive grou!s #tu#lly !er*ormed m#rgin#lly worse t'#n t'ose in lo/ o'esive grou!s2
('us, t'e motiv#tion#l losses disussed #bove #!!e#r to '#ve been more, r#t'er t'#n less,
!ronouned in grou!s /'ere members 'ose to /or8 toget'er2 =n*orm#l observ#tions o*
'ig' #nd lo/ o'esive grou!s suggested t'#t members o* 'ig' o'esive grou!s inter#ted
more t'#n t'ose in lo/ o'esive grou!s, but t'#t t'ese inter#tions /ere l#rgely o**.t#s82
('is result is not onsistent /it' t'e results re!orted by S'#/ : S'#/ 11,624 #nd by St#m
11,7342 Do/ever, #s noted, bot' o* t'ese studies #!!e#r to '#ve used grou! !rodutivity,
r#t'er t'#n individu#l #'ievement me#sures2 ('e disre!#ny in t'e results o* t'ese
studies #nd t'e !resent one suggests t'#t #lt'oug' members /'o li8e one #not'er m#y
oordin#te t'eir e**orts more e**etively in # grou! t#s8 1e2g2, # grou! Hui? or #ssignment4,
#s suggested by t'e S'#/ : S'#/ #nd St#m results, t'ey m#y not learn more individu#lly
*rom /or8ing /it' ot'er students t'#t t'ey li8e2
('e results #lso indi#ted # signi*i#nt e**et on t'e soiometri s#le *or inentive
riterion2 =nterestingly, t'is e**et *#vored t'e individu#l ontributions ondition2 =t is
!ossible t'#t t'is /#s due to t'e im!rovement.b#sed soring system used in t'e !resent
study2 >'en t'e urriulum m#teri#ls used #re #!!ro!ri#tely t#s8.#n#ly?ed 1ensuring t'#t
e#' ne/ s8ill introdued builds on !revious ones4, t'is system ensures t'#t e#' member
o* t'e grou! '#s #n eHu#l o!!ortunity to ontribute to t'e grou!Ks suess 1Sl#vin, 1,,642
Furt'er, t'e use o* t'is system im!oses # struture t'#t ensures t'#t t'e grou! is not
domin#ted by t'e ontributions o* one or t/o 'ig'.st#tus members2 <ordon All!ort 11,E$4
s!ei*ied t'#t intergrou! ont#t /ould !romote !ositive rel#tions bet/een m#Cority #nd
minority grou! members only /'en !#rtii!#nts eng#ged in eHu#l st#tus inter#tion in t'e
!ursuit o* ommon go#ls2 ('e result obt#ined 'ere m#y sim!ly re*let t'e *#t t'#t t'is #n
only be #'ieved /'en grou! !roesses #re strutured by inentives t'#t im!ose eHu#l
o!!ortunities *or #ll grou! members to ontribute2
('e results o* t'is study s'ould, 'o/ever, be inter!reted in lig't o* t'e *#t t'#t t'ere /#s
no signi*i#nt di**erene bet/een t'e onditions on t'e !ereived grou! o'esiveness s#le2
('us, /'ile t'e level o* inter!erson#l #ttr#tion bet/een grou! members di**ered initi#lly
#ross t'e t/o onditions, t'is did not le#d to !redited di**erenes in o'esiveness
!ere!tions2 ('is outome m#y re*let t'e n#ture o* t'e grou! o'esiveness s#le used2
('e e6!eriment#l m#ni!ul#tion used in t'e !resent study *oused on social o'esiveness,
/'ile t'e o'esiveness s#le *oused more 1#lt'oug' not e6lusively4 on task-based
o'esiveness2 D#8m#n 11,764 de*ined t#s8.b#sed o'esiveness #s membersK Fs'#red
ommitment to t'e t#s8 o* t'e grou!G 1!2 1E1742 =n # met#.#n#lysis o* studies t'#t e6!lored
t'e e**ets o* o'esiveness on grou! !rodutivity, Jullen : &oo!er 11,,$4 *ound t'#t, on
#ver#ge, orrel#tion#l studies reve#led # !ositive rel#tions'i! bet/een t#s8.b#sed
o'esiveness #nd grou! !rodutivity, but # negative rel#tions'i! !rodutivity #nd soi#l
o'esiveness2 @t'er #ut'ors 1e2g2, D#8m#n, 1,76, Bott : Bott, 1,6E4 '#ve #lso !osed t'#t
inre#ses in inter!erson#l #ttr#tion /ill le#d to !roess losses in grou!s by inre#sing t'e
number o* member inter#tions #nd #tivities #/#y *rom t'e t#s82 %ven t'oug' t'ese
!reditions rel#te s!ei*i#lly to grou! !rodutivity outomes, t'e s#me *#tors m#y #lso
#!!ly to individu#l le#rning outomes2 As su', *urt'er ev#lu#tions ould e6!lore t'e
e**ets o* using #ltern#tive #!!ro#'es to inre#sing o'esiveness in oo!er#tive grou!s,
su' #s t'e t#s8 o'esiveness.building str#tegy desribed by Jo'nson et #l2 11,,$4, on
le#rning in oo!er#tive grou!s2
Students in t'e !resent study #lso did not reeive #ny tr#ining in grou! inter#tion s8ills
!rior to t'e intervention2 <iven t'e em!'#sis !l#ed on su' tr#ining by ot'er rese#r'ers
1e2g2, &o'en, 1,,$A Jo'nson et al., 1,,$4, it is !ossible t'#t t'e im!#t o* grou!
o'esiveness #nd inentives /ill v#ry /it' studentsK !re!#redness *or oo!er#tive grou!
/or82 ('us, *uture ev#lu#tions ould e6#mine t'e e**ets o* t'ese *#tors on student
le#rning #s # *untion o* !revious tr#ining in t'e use o* e**etive oo!er#tive inter#tion
s8ills2 Furt'er, t'e !resent study did not inlude s!ei*i me#sures o* grou! inter#tion
!roesses 1e2g2, strutured observ#tion#l d#t#42 ('e in*orm#tion yielded by su' me#sures
/ould gre#tly *#ilit#te inter!ret#tions o* over#ll di**erenes bet/een onditions2 Furt'er
/or8 in t'is #re# ould inor!or#te t'e use o* s'edules simil#r to t'e ones used by >ebb
11,3E4, /'i' !rovide odes *or #ssessing bot' t'e Hu#lity #nd t'e Hu#ntity o* inter#tions
bet/een oo!er#tive grou! members2
+30E-
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+306-
('e results o* t'is study m#y not gener#li?e #ross #ll ty!es o* grou! le#rning t#s8s2 =n
!#rtiul#r, t'is study used onvergent !roblem.solving t#s8s 1i2e2, !roblems in /'i' t'ere
/#s only one orret res!onse4, r#t'er t'#n divergent !roblem.solving t#s8s 1i2e2, !roblems
in /'i' # diversity o* solutions #re reHuired42 =t is !ossible t'#t t'e motiv#tion#l losses
desribed e#rlier tend to our more *reHuently /'en grou!s #re #ssigned to om!lete
onvergent t#s8s2 ;e#use 'ig'.#'ieving students #re li8ely to be #ble to solve onvergent
!roblems more Hui8ly t'#n ot'er members o* t'eir grou!s, lo/er.#'ieving students m#y
be more !rone to !ereiving t'eir e**orts #s redund#nt on t'ese ty!es o* t#s8s2 =n ontr#st,
in divergent !roblem t#s8s, # bro#d r#nge o* !ers!etives is o*ten use*ul2 ('us, *uture
ev#lu#tions ould #ssess inter#tions bet/een t'e e**ets o* inentive struture, grou!
o'esiveness, #nd t#s8 struture on oo!er#tive le#rning outomes in t'e ognitive,
#**etive, #nd soi#l dom#ins2
REFERENCES
All!ort, <2>2 11,E$42 The /ature of )re0udice2 Re#ding, JA: Addison.>esley2
Austr#li#n &ounil *or %du#tion#l Rese#r'2 11,3$#42 The )rogressive (chievement
Tests in 'athematics2 1Forms 1A, 1;, 2A, #nd 2;24 D#/t'orn, Vitori#: ('e Austr#li#n
&ounil *or %du#tion#l Rese#r'2
Austr#li#n &ounil *or %du#tion#l Rese#r'2 11,3$b42 The )rogressive (chievement
Tests in 'athematics* Teacher1s 2andbook2 D#/t'orn, Vitori#: ('e Austr#li#n &ounil
*or %du#tion#l Rese#r'2
Autil, B2R2, Jen8ins, J2R2, >#yne, S292, : V#d#sy, "2F2 11,,342 &oo!er#tive le#rning:
"rev#lene, one!tu#lis#tions, #nd t'e rel#tions'i! bet/een rese#r' #nd !r#tie2
(merican Educational Research 3ournal$ 454!$ $1,.$E$2
&o'en, %2 11,3642 5esigning %roupwork* "trategies for the 2eterogeneous &lassroom.
NO: (e#'ers &ollege "ress2
&o'en, %2 11,,$42 Restruturing t'e l#ssroom: &onditions *or !rodutive sm#ll grou!s2
Review of Educational Research, 6617!, 1.3E2
D#8m#n, J2R2 11,7642 <rou! in*luene on individu#ls2 =n J252 5unnette 1%d24,
2andbook of #ndustrial and 8rganisational )sychology2 &'i#go: R#nd.JN#lly2
Din8le, S2, (#ylor, B2A2, : Fo6.&#rd#mone, 52B2 11,3,42 =ntr#grou! identi*i#tion #nd
intergrou! di**erenti#tion: # multi.om!onent #!!ro#'2 9ritish 3ournal of "ocial
)sychology, 2:, 30E.3172
Dogg, J2A2, : Abr#ms, 52 11,3342 "ocial #dentifications* ( "ocial )sychology of
#ntergroup Relations and %roup )rocesses2 NO: Routledge2
Jo'nson, 52>2, : Jo'nson, R2(2 11,,242 "ositive interde!endene: 9ey to e**etive
oo!er#tion2 =n R2 Dert?.B#?#ro/it? : N2 Jiller, #nteraction in &ooperative %roups* The
Theoretical (natomy of %roup ;earning. NO: &#mbridge )niversity "ress2
+306-
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+307-
Jo'nson, 52>2, : Jo'nson, R2(2 11,,,42 J#8ing oo!er#tive le#rning /or82 Theory into
)ractice$ 4:2!$ 67.732
Jo'nson, 52>2, Jo'nson, R2(2, : Jo'nson.Dolube, %2 11,,$42 The /ew &ircles of
;earning* &ooperation in the &lassroom and "chool2 Ale6#ndri#, VA: ('e Assoi#tion *or
Su!ervision #nd &urriulum 5evelo!ment2
9err, N2B2 11,3342 Jotiv#tion losses in sm#ll grou!s: A soi#l dilemm# #n#lysis2 3ournal
of )ersonality and "ocial )sychology, 65, 31,.3232
9err, N2B2, : ;runn, S2%2 11,3342 5is!ens#bility o* member e**ort #nd grou! motiv#tion
losses: Free.rider e**ets2 3ournal of )ersonality and "ocial )sychology, 66, 73.,$2
9o'n, A2 11,,142 <rou! gr#de grubbing versus oo!er#tive le#rning2 Educational
;eadership, $31E4, 33.372
Bott, A2J2, : Bott, ;2%2 11,7642 <rou! o'esiveness #s inter!erson#l #ttr#tion: A revie/
o* rel#tions'i!s /it' #nteedent #nd onseHuent v#ri#bles2 )sychological 9ulletin, 66, 2E,.
30,2
Judr#8, "2%2 11,3,#42 5e*ining grou! o'esiveness: A leg#y o* on*usionP "mall %roup
9ehaviour, 2<17!, 37.$,2
Judr#8, "2%2 11,3,b42 <rou! o'esiveness #nd !rodutivity: A loser loo82 2uman
Relations, =, 771.73E2
Jullen, ;2, : &oo!er, &2 11,,$42 ('e rel#tion bet/een grou! o'esiveness #nd
!er*orm#ne: An integr#tion2 )sychological 9ulletin, 775, 210.2272"ettigre/, (2F2 11,,342
=ntergrou! ont#t t'eory2 (nnual Review of )sychology$ 6=, 6E.3E2
S'#!s, %2, : Be/is, &2 11,,142 %6trinsi re/#rds #re edu#tionKs !#st, not its *uture2
Educational ;eadership, 6:, 312
S'#/, J2%2, : S'#/, B2J2 11,6242 Some e**ets o* soiometri grou!ing u!on le#rning in
# seond gr#de l#ssroom2 The 3ournal of "ocial )sychology, 5>, $E3.$E32
Sl#vin, R2%2 11,,242 >'en #nd /'y does oo!er#tive le#rning inre#se #'ievementP
('eoreti#l #nd em!iri#l !ers!etives2 =n R2 Dert?.B#?#ro/it? : N2 Jiller, #nteraction in
&ooperative %roups* The Theoretical (natomy of %roup ;earning. NO: &#mbridge
)niversity "ress2
Sl#vin, R2%2 11,,642 &ooperative ;earning* Theory, Research, and )ractice2 Need'#m,
JA: Allyn : ;#on2
S'#r#n, S2, : S'#r#n, O2 11,7642 "mall-%roup Teaching2 NJ: %du#tion#l (e'nology
"ubli#tions2
+307-
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+303-
St#m, "2J2 11,7342 The Effect of "ociometric %rouping on Task )erformance in the
Elementary &lassroom. 5otor#l 5issert#tion, St#n*ord )niversity2 1)niversity
Jiro*ilms @rder Number 7330$3024
>ebb, N2J2 11,3E42 Student inter#tion #nd le#rning in sm#ll grou!s2 =n R2%2 Sl#vin, S2
S'#r#n, S2 9#g#n, R2 Dert?.B#?#ro/it?, &2 >ebb, : R2 S'mu8 1%ds24, ;earning to
&ooperate, &ooperating to ;earn2 NO: "lenum2
APPENDICES
A) S#ci#!tric Scal!
For t'e soiometri s#le, students /ere !resented /it' # list o* #ll ot'er students in t'eir
l#ss, #nd #s8ed to r#te e6tent to /'i' t'ey /ould li8e to /or8 /it' #nd to s!end t'eir *ree
time /it' e#' !erson n#med, *or e6#m!le:
Do/ mu' /ould you li8e to /or8
/it' t'is !erson in t'e *utureP
Do/ mu' /ould you li8e to
s!end your *ree time /it' t'is
!erson in t'e *utureP
Student
N#me
=5 Not #t
#ll
Not
mu'
5onKt
mind
A
bit
A
lot
Not #t
#ll
Not
mu'
5onKt
mind
A
bit
A
lot
Jo'n
Smit'
QQ
A number o* ste!s /ere t#8en to ensure t'#t studentsK res!onses on t'is s#le rem#ined
on*identi#l2 =n t'e design o* t'e *orm, l#ss membersK n#mes #!!e#red in # *olded setion
o* t'e test, #nd si6 di**erent *orms o* t'e s#le /ere develo!ed *or e#' l#ss, /it' di**erent
ordering o* l#ssmembersK n#mes2 ('ese /ere r#ndomly distributed during testing
sessions, so t'#t r#ting !#tterns /ere not disern#ble #t # dist#ne2 %#' studentsK n#me #lso
#!!e#red #g#inst #n =252 number, #nd t'e list o* n#mes /#s given on # det#'#ble setion o*
t'e test2 >'en students om!leted t'eir *orms, t'ey det#'ed t'e list o* n#mes *rom t'e
*orm2 ('is /#s done to m#8e om!#risons o* *orms bet/een students di**iult, #nd *or
stor#ge !ur!oses2 ('e e6!erimenter 8e!t # list o* t'e =252 numbers #nd n#mes in # se!#r#te
lo#tion so t'#t t'e in*orm#tion ould be used in t'e #ssignment o* students to grou!s2
+303-
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+30,-
B) It!s In t%! Gr#up C#%!si&!n!ss Scal! 1A"apt!" Fr# Hin2l! !t al)3 (4546
12 =0m gl#d = belong to t'is grou!2
22 = *eel 'eld b#8 by t'is grou!2
32 = #m #n im!ort#nt !#rt o* t'is grou!2
$2 = don0t *it in /it' ot'er 8ids in t'is grou!2
E2 = *eel strongly tied to t'is grou!2
62 = don0t t'in8 t'e grou! is t'#t im!ort#nt2
72 = t'in8 t'is grou! /or8ed /ell toget'er2
32 = don0t *eel om*ort#ble /it' t'e ot'er 8ids in t'is grou!2
C) M!ans an" Bi&ariat! C#rr!lati#ns *#r D!p!n"!nt M!asur!s










+30,-
...............
+310-
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY
%l#ine &'#!m#n 1;2A2Dons, "'2524 is # Beturer in t'e S'ool o* 5evelo!ment
#nd Be#rning #t t'e )niversity o* Sydney, /'ere s'e te#'es #nd rese#r'es
N J S5 1 2 3 $ E 6 7
12 <rou! &o'esiveness "osttest
3
, 62,0 623,
120
0
22 Soiometri "retest
3
, 22,E 02,E
021
6
120
0
32 Soiometri "osttest
3
6 2237 0233
021
6 2,0
120
0
$2 &urriulum.;#sed A'ievement "retest
3
,
3723
0
1$23
2
022
0
021
E
021
7
120
0
E2 &urriulum.;#sed A'ievement
"osttest
3
3
$721
7
132,
$ 222
020
$
020
E 2,0
120
0
62 St#nd#rdi?ed A'ievement "retest
3
,
2723
3 ,23$
021
7
020
3
021
1 231 230
120
0
72 St#nd#rdi?ed A'ievement "osttest
3
,
312E
3
1121
1
021
E
020
3
020
7 232 233 232 1200
in rese#r' met'ods, #ssessment, #nd edu#tion#l !sy'ology2 %m#il:
e2'#!m#nRed*#2usyd2edu2#u
+310-
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+311-