The Persistence of Sail in the

Age of Steam
Underwater Archaeological Evidence
from the Dry Tortugas
The Plenum Series in Underwater Archaeology
Series Editor:
J. Barto Arnold III
Institute of Nautical Archaeology
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
Maritime Archaeology: A Reader of Substantive and Theoretical
Contributions
Edited by Lawrence E. Babits and Hans Van Tilburg
The Persistence of Sail in the Age of Steam: Underwater
Archaeological Evidence from the Dry Tortugas
Donna J. Souza
A Continuation Order Plan is available for this series. A continuation order will bring
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upon actual shipment. For further information please contact the publisher.
The Persistence of Sail in the
Age of Steam
Underwater Archaeological Evidence
from the Dry T ortugas
Donna J. Souza
Brown University
Providence, Rhode Island
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
On f i l e
Li br ar y of Congress Cat al ogi ng-i n-Publ i cat i on Data
I SBN 978-1-4899-0141-5 I SBN 978-1-4899-0139-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-0139-2
Springer Science+Business Media New York 1998
Originally published by Plenum Press, New York i n 1998
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1998
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Foreword
In Archaeology Under Water (1966: 19), pioneer nautical archaeologist George
Bass pointed out how much easier it is to train someone who is already an
archaeologist to become a diver than to take trained divers and teach them to do
archaeology. While this is 'generally true, there have also been occasions when
well-trained and enthusiastic sport-divers have been willing to accept the train-
ing and discipline necessary to conduct good archaeological science, becoming
first-rate scholars in the process. Dr. Donna Souza's book is the product of just
such a transition. It shows how a sport-diver and volunteer fieldworker can
proceed through a rigorous graduate program to achieve research results that are
convincing in their own right and point toward new directions in the discipline
as a whole.
What is new in this book for maritime archaeology? Perhaps the most
obvious and important feature of Dr. Souza's archaeological and historical
analysis of the wreck at Pulaski Reef and its contemporaries in the Dry Tortugas
National Park, Florida, is the way it serves as a means to a larger end---namely
an understanding of the social history of the transition from sail to steam in late
nineteenth century maritime commerce in America. The relationship between
changes in technology and culture is a classic theme in anthropology, and this
study extends theme into the domain of underwater archaeology. The entire
study is grounded in the recognition that the invention of steam propulsion did
not lead to its immediate and universal adoption in maritime commerce, even
after most technical problems with steam engineering had been resolved. While
navies were fairly quick to embrace steam propulsion for warships from the
1860s onward, they tended to ignore or' devalue the use of steam-powered
machinery for other purposes aboard ship. Naval vessels tended to be heavily
manned, especially during the period when combined sail-and-steam propulsion
was dominant. Seagoing commercial ships, on the other hand, were operated
with smaller crews and much higher ratios of tons per seaman, mainly to reduce
v
vi
Foreword
operating costs. In this context of mercantile costcutting, it was common for
ships in the bulk-carrier trades to continue to operate under sail alone and to rely
increasingly upon steam-powered deck machiinery to augment the labor of
ever-shrinking crews. With possibly the most comprehensive collection of asso-
ciated steam deck machinery and related gear (cables, anchors, hand tools, etc.)
of any extant shipwreck of this period, the Pula.ski Reef vessel affords a direct
glimpse into the way such costcutting affecte:d material associations in the
archaeological record.
Beyond such proximate factors as steam technology, elements of ship
construction, and the immediate circumstances of the ship's loss, Souza's analy-
sis ventures into the broader social and economic implications of risktaking as
a part of late nineteenth century maritime commerce. Her book offers insights
into why shipowners were willing to ply hazardous routes using less than optimal
technologies and under less than ideal conditions, with the infamous Dry Tor-
tugas ship trap, set in the middle of the heavily traveled Florida Strait, as the
arena for such behavior. While it may still be difficult to prove this in a
statistically definitive way, there are compelling reasons to accept, at least
provisionally, the hypothesis that the Pulaski Reefwreck and other, comparable
shipwrecks in the Dry Tortugas are representative of the mercantile-capitalist
culture that produced them. In other words, Souza's book provides an analytical,
social scientific approach to cultural processes that hitherto have generally been
viewed by maritime archaeologists as historically unique events.
Another important new direction in this book is the willingness to examine
shipwrecks of ordinary, everyday vessels of trade. None of the shipwrecks
discussed in this study could be called famous. This is not a book about celebrity
shipwrecks like those of the Titanic, the Vasa, or the Mary Rose. As Souza's
discussion of the Pulaski Reef vessel's identification makes clear, we cannot
even be certain sometimes about the identities of these ships. They were not
associated with any notable historical events like battles or colorful personalities.
Yet such relatively anonymous shipwrecks can be expected to be more repre-
sentative of their parent culture than famomr--and sometimes atypical and
idiosyncratic--ships of the past. Those ships are of interest, of course, but so,
too, are more mundane vessels of the sort adldressed in this study. Souza's
approach in this book foreshadows a better balance between the study of
historically famous shipwrecks and those less famous wrecks that form the
mainstream of long-term cultural-historical processes. Her work in the Dry
Tortugas suggests a role for nautical archaeology in relating the archaeological
record to the kind of historical investigation of maritime historical longue duree
epitomized by French historian Femand Braudel in The Mediterranean and the
Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip 11(1966).
Finally, Souza's approach to the archaeology of the Pulaski Reef wreck
was entirely nondestructive. The level of detail and controls used in this study,
Foreword vii
however, went considerably beyond what maritime archaeologists usually mean
by a predisturbance survey. In keeping with the policy and practices of the
National Park Service----and with their very generous support--her project relied
upon detailed in situ recording that showed how much archaeologists can learn
from a shipwreck site without having to excavate. In some cases, artifacts were
brought to the surface for study and photography and then returned to their
original location on the seabed. Perhaps one could learn more about this and
other shipwrecks by means of excavation, but not without paying a heavy cost
in physical damage to the site and financial commitments connected to conser-
vation, storage, and display of objects following excavations. From a manage-
ment perspective, nondestructive preservation of shipwrecks and other
submerged cultural remains is a high priority that must be balanced against such
costs whenever archaeology is attempted. Souza's book shows what can be done
by well-designed and carefully controlled research that is less intrusive than
conventional excavation and recovery of objects. It serves as a model of the
preservationist approach to underwater archaeology.
It is always deeply satisfying for a scholar and teacher to see a former
student perform brilliantly and achieve worthwhile results. Souza presents
findings that sparkle with original thought and retain the original enthusiasm she
brought to her studies as a sport-diver and underwater volunteer. Her book points
the way to the use of underwater archaeology to address major themes in social
and cultural history in a manner that can be expected to see wider emulation
within the discipline as well as interest by sport-divers who are seriously
concerned with underwater archaeology.
Richard A. Gould
Brown University
Providence, Rhode Island
Preface
Sail still persists today. Though a rare sight in North America and much of
Europe, "tall ships" can be seen occasionally off the coasts and on navigable
lakes. A few times each year tall ships from around the world form regattas and
sail majestically into large city ports such as New York and Boston or arrive as
part of a celebration in areas with rich seafaring traditions such as Newport,
Rhode Island, and Bermuda. These vessels do not, of course, participate in the
merchant trade, at least not in the sense that they transport cargo, but they have
become an integral part oftwo industries. One ofthese has been called the "living
history" industry. In living history attractions, which are generally associated
with museums, a community of the past comes to life with actors in period
costume and, for a fee, the public can learn through observation what life was
like way back when. Jamestown and Williamsburg in Virginia, and Plymouth,
Massachusetts, where a replica of the Mayflower can be seen, have a high
visitation rate and are extremely successful tourist attractions. The other industry
is relatively new and can be called the "adventure" industry. In these experiences,
paying customers actively participate in the activity whether it be a research
project digging for fossils (under the watchful eye of a trained paleontologist),
climbing to the summit of a challenging mountain (under the watchful eye of a
trained guide), or literally learning the ropes by climbing the rigging of a tall
ship (with the benefit ofa safety harness).
Though many things have changed from the great age of sail to today, some
things have not. These ships, frequently owned by organizations or consortia,
are expensive to operate and maintain. The fees paid by modern-day adventurers
provide most of the capital necessary to keep them sailing. It is not the first time
that sailing ships have adapted to the economy in which they operate by finding
a rather specialized niche. Recently, I was fortunate enough to be invited to serve
as a trainee onboard the tall ship "HMS" Rose, a replica of an eighteenth century
British warship certified by the U.S. Coast Guard as a Class A size sailing school
ix
x
Preface
vessel. I learned first hand that another aspect of operating these vessels that has
not changed over the centuries is that sailing them is extremely hard work. When
I was onboard, the Rose had a complement of 13 trainees who had paid for the
experience of a one-week trip that had begun in New York harbor, sailed north
to Newport, Rhode Island, and then south to Bridgeport, Connecticut. It also had
onboard 15 full-time, experienced crew members. For them, this week marked
the last of a 13-month transatlantic, transcaribbean voyage. In an age of high
technology these people and others who serve on vessels like the Rose have
chosen to dedicate themselves to keeping alive the skills and traditions of sailing
large ocean-going vessels.
This volume presents results of an archaeological investigation of ship-
wreck sites that explored these two aspects of merchant sailing: the need to
generate capital and the desire to maintain skills and traditions that had devel-
oped over centuries. It has been noted by some maritime historians that sailing
vessels continued to operate for many decades after the introduction of steam
propulsion. Some researchers have asked why this was the case and point to a
myriad of problems associated with early steam technology and present evidence
from the perspective of the development of steam propulsion. None, however,
have explored how merchant sailing vessels were able to eke out a living once
the steamships became efficient and profitable. The changes brought about
through the development and eventual refinement of steam propulsion affected
the merchant sailing industry in ways that are observable in the archaeological
record and, as we shall see, the study of cultural materials located at shipwreck
sites can help to explain the persistence of sail in the age of steam.
This work represents one component of an overall project conducted in the
Dry Tortugas National Park by the Submerged Cultural Resources Unit of the
National Park Service. Since 1990 faculty and students from Brown University
have assisted the Park Service in documenting shipwreck sites and establishing
an inventory of submerged cultural resources within the park boundaries. In 1993
the Submerged Cultural Resources Unit began a multiyear remote-sensing
survey of the Dry Tortugas National Park. The survey is part of the National Park
initiative System-wide Archaeological Inventory Program (SAIP) currently be-
ing conducted in order to survey, inventory, and evaluate cultural resources
within National Park Service jurisdiction. Toward this end and to develop a
cost-effective and nondestructive technique of archaeological management field
operations for the park, the Submerged Cultural Resources Unit has developed
a general approach to remote-sensing surveys: a Global Positioning Satellite-
based (GPS) Archaeological Data Acquisition Platform (ADAP).
The primary objective of ADAP is to enhance remote-sensing surveys by
automating and integrating the collection of field data. From the field data,
archaeologists use geographic information systems (GIS) to chart and document
the resources at National Park sites. The ADAP system was deployed in the Dry
Preface
xi
Tortugas as part of the 1993 survey field season and has proven so successful
that it has become the model for all National Park Service underwater archae-
ological field operations. It was during this phase of the survey that the Pulaski
Site was discovered.
In that same year the Submerged Cultural Resources Unit published Dry
Tortugas National Park, Submerged Cultural Resources Assessment, in which
Larry Murphy discussed the known and potential archaeological resources in
what was then known as Fort Jefferson National Monument. In that volume he
outlined a general framework and a series of domains for future cultural re-
sources research and management in the Dry Tortugas National Park. The
research design for the project that is the focus of this volume was developed
within that framework.
The work on the Pulaski Site began in 1994 with a two-day field recon-
naissance to determine the suitability of the site to provide sufficient materials
to test the hypotheses in the research design and to determine the feasibility of
working at a remote, exposed site. A temporary baseline was put in place to assist
divers to orient themselves and to identify feature locations around the site.
Several significant features were examined, photographed, and videotaped. A
visual inspection of the outlying areas was conducted in order to determine if a
more methodical wide-area survey was warranted for a future field season.
Several additional features were located during this survey. Based upon the
results of the reconnaissance it was determined that the Pulaski Site contained
sufficient materials to address the research questions, and a permanent datum
marker was placed at the site.
The 1995 field season concentrated on mapping and documenting the
surface features of the Pulaski Site. Eight divers participated on the project and
spent more than 440 hours underwater during the field season. A major consid-
eration in the assessment of the Pulaski Site and the fundamental philosophy of
the Submerged Cultural Resources Unit is the conservation of shipwrecks and
underwater archaeological sites. Except for the removal of small amounts of
material for identification and analysis, all work performed on the Pulaski Site
was low impact and concentrated on mapping the details of the site. Portable
artifacts were photographed in situ, but a few selected artifacts were removed
from the site for more detailed recording and analysis. After these artifacts had
been fully documented they were placed back onto the site in their original
locations. Each artifact was drawn and photographed and assigned a feature
number. The entire site was measured and mapped using a combination of direct
measurement and the baseline trilateration method. Each trilaterated point was
plotted onto a field map, then each plotted point was used as the datum for a
series of direct measurements.
Measurements taken at the site were recorded using the English system of
feet and inches rather than in the metric system because shipbuilders traditionally
xii
Preface
use units offeet and inches in the construction of ships. In addition, the minimum
size requirements for anchors, chains, and rigging are specified in feet and inches
in contemporary documentary sources. In this volume, measurements in feet and
inches have been converted to metric where appropriate.
In addition to the survey of the primary wreck site, a wide-area survey was
conducted by divers using diver propulsion vehicles to determine if the site
represented a single event or ifthere were materials superimposed from multiple
wrecks and strandings. This wide-area survey aided in an attempt to locate
additional materials that could be associated with the vessel at the Pulaski Site,
but which lay outside the primary wreck site are:a. This survey yield,ed several
fragments of iron plating that were determined to be associated witly'the site.
Other nearby areas originally ground-truthed as part of the /1993 SAIP
remote-sensing field survey that contained identifiable cultural materials were
revisited and investigated. Materials determined to be associated with the Pulaski
Site were recorded and photographed for further identification n ~ analysis.
During the 1996 field season efforts conentrated on locating and docu-
menting features below the sediment in addition to collecting and verifying
specific detailed data about objects that were originally located during the 1995
field season. Nine divers participated on the project and spent in excess of 41 0
hours underwater during the field season. Baselines 1, 2, and ~ were reset and
all major features were relocated. A reconnaissance of the site indicated that
while there had been dramatic shifting of sediment, no other processes had
impacted the site since the previous season.
Areas that contained ferrous objects were identified through the use of a
metal detector. Once these areas had been identified, divers fanned away sedi-
ment to locate the objects, which were then examined to determine if further
excavation was warranted. As a result of this process three major areas of the
Pulaski Site were identified as containing material relevant to the research design
and the sediment was removed with a suction dredge. Once the objects were
exposed they were documented in situ and then the area was backfilled. Features
71 to 90 were located and recorded in this manner.
In addition to the documentation of additional features found at the Pulaski
Site, photographs and detailed measurements were taken at other sites known to
exhibit a variety of deck machinery to determine what comparisons could be
made to the features located at the Pulaski Site. Materials at four sites--B002-
006 (Iron Ballast Site), the Nine Cannon Site, the "Windjammer" Site, and
B013-030--were documented in this manner. These sites contained materials
that ranged from components of a variety of deck and steam machinery to nearly
complete examples of windlasses and capstans. While the materials at these
shipwreck sites have been previously documented by the Submerged Cultural
Resources Unit, no analysis or interpretation within the framework of the project
presented in this volume has been produced.
Preface
xiii
The chapters of this book are presented in the order in which the work was
accomplished. The introduction discusses the questions and assumptions that
were formulated as part of the research design and the underlying theoretical
framework used to test the assumptions. After a brief history of the Dry Tortugas
in Chapter 1, Chapter 2 contains a description of the Pulaski Site, the centerpiece
of the study, and the processes that have affected its formation. This is followed
by the analysis and interpretation of the materials (Chapter 3). A profile of the
wrecked vessel based on the analysis is presented along with an evaluation of
the histories of two vessels known to have wrecked on Pulaski Reef. Based upon
these histories, Admiralty Court records, and the archaeology of the Pulaski Site,
an identification of the vessel is made. Chapter 4 contains descriptions and
relevant data from five other shipwreck sites in the Dry Tortugas that are used
as a comparison to the materials located at the Pulaski Site. Chapter 5 discusses
the economic, technological, and cultural context of the merchant shipping
industry in the nineteenth century. Data from historical documents and other
relevant sources are presented in an evaluation of risk from a nineteenth century
perspective. The conclusions reached regarding the persistence of sail in the age
of steam are presented in the final chapter (Chapter 6).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The successful completion ofa project such as this cannot be accomplished
by anyone individual and I would like to offer my thanks to all those who were
helpful and supportive through each phase of this research. I am greatly indebted
to Richard A. Gould and Douglas D. Anderson of Brown University, who not
only provided guidance and advice, but were valued members of my field team.
I thank Martha S. Joukowsy of Brown University for her insight into aspects of
this research that I otherwise would have neglected. I extend a special word of
thanks to Jeremy Green of the Western Australian Maritime Museum for his
valuable comments and suggestions.
Larry Murphy of the Submerged Cultural Resources Unit of the National
Park Service was instrumental in all aspects of this research and gave me the
research opportunity of a lifetime. I thank Dan Lenihan, Director of the Sub-
merged Cultural Resources Unit, for his continued support of the Brown Univer-
sity crew's efforts in the Dry Tortugas. Adriane Askins, Matt Russell, Brett
Seymour, Tim Smith, Sue J. Smith, and Fran Dey of the Submerged Cultural
Resources Unit all helped this project in countless ways. Jim Bradford of the
National Park Service also provided assistance and advice in the field.
This project would not have been possible without the dedication of several
divers who volunteered their time and energy. Stephen Lubkemann and Rebecca
Upton of Brown University, Eugene Rowe, William May, and Rick Mullens
xiv
Preface
brought a variety of skills to the project and each made a significant contribution to
its success. I wish to also thank Robin Leveillee and Patrick Malone, who partici-
pated as volunteers in nondiving, yet essential, capacities in the field. I especially
would like to thank David L. Conlin of Brown University, who acted as field
assistant during the 1995 field season, and Brenda Lanzendorf of Brown University
who participated as a volunteer diver in 1995 and as field assistant in 1996.
I thank Wayne Landrum and the entire staff of the Dry Tortugas National
Park for their limitless support, patience, and hospitality. I would like to extend
a special thanks to Roy Applegliese, who was always there when we needed him,
and to Al Walsh, who literally kept things going. Captain Cliff Green and Captain
Linda Vannerman of the Activa provided transportation, training, friendship, and
good conversation.
I am very much indebted to Helen Schmierer, Daniel O'Mahony, Steven
Thompson, Frederick Lynden, and Merrily Taylor of the Brown University
Library. I thank Alan Leveillee for his assistance with the field map and Artemis
Joukowsky of Brown University for his interest in the risk and insurance
component of the project. I thank David S. French, Senior Vice-President of the
Marine Division of American International Underwriters, and Joseph F. O'Do-
herty, Vice-President of American International Marine Agency, for their input
regarding the marine insurance business and for their hospitality. I wish to thank
Marilyn Lytle, Counsellor at Law, of Bigham Englar Jones & Houston, for
sharing her experience and providing insight into some of the fine points of the
law of wreck and salvage. The staff oflibrarians at the G. W. Blunt White Library
at the Mystic Seaport Museum provided endless hours of patient assistance and
advice. Cliff Raymond of the Ideal Windlass Company generously allowed me
to have access to his files and provided a mountain of material and information
about the development of anchor windlasses and deck machinery.
And, finally and most especially, I wish to acknowledge the contributions
made by my husband, Richard, and my daughter, Jenn. I am delighted that
Richard was a valued member of my field team during the 1996 field season, but
his dedication to my work began many years ago and has continued, unwaver-
ingly, throughout. Over these years I have watched Jenn grow from a child into
a fine, independent woman. I am proud of what she has become. I will not say
"thank you," for that phrase does not, and could not, begin to convey the depth
of my gratitude for their love, support, and understanding. For these and count-
less other reasons I wish to dedicate this volume to them, now and always.
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1. The Dry Tortugas ...................................... 9
1.1. Early Trade Routes and Surveys of the Dry Tortugas .......... 12
1.2. The Geography of the Dry Tortugas ........................ 16
1.3. Lighthouses and Aids to Navigation ........................ 19
1.4. Fort Jefferson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23
1.5. The Wrecking Business in the Dry Tortugas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25
2. The Pulaski Site ............ 29
2.1. The Pulaski Reef Survey and Loci Designations .............. 29
2.2. The Pulaski Site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33
2.3. Formation Processes of the Pulaski Site ..................... 34
2.4. Predepositional Formation Processes ....................... 47
3. Archaeology of the Pulaski Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1. Deck Machinery and Ground Tackle .... "' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 49
3.2. Rigging................................................ 65
3.3. Portable Artifacts ....................................... 66
3.4. Site Patterning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 69
3.5. Profile of Vessel Based on Archaeological Analysis ........... 74
3.6. Vessel Identification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76
3.7. Summary of Vessel Identification .......................... 83
xv
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Contents
4. Other Dry Tortugas Sites 85
4.1. Windjammer Site ....................................... 85
4.2. The Maria Louisa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.3. The Iron Ballast Site (B002-006) .......................... 92
4.4. The Nine Cannon Site ................................... 93
4.5. B013-030 . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.6. Summary.............................................. 101
5. Technological Change and Risk-Taking Behavior .............. 103
5.1. Technological Change in the Nineteenth Century Merchant
Marine and Its Effect on the Economy and Labor ............. 106
5.2. Risk and Risk-Taking Behavior ........................... 112
6. Summary and Conclusions ................................ 123
Appendix A: Wrecking Vessels Operating in the Dry Tortugas,
1829-1909 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 133
Appendix B: Block 16 Loci Descriptions ......................... 137
Appendix C: ArtifactInventory ................................ 141
Appendix D: Stud-Link Chain Data ............................. 157
Appendix E: Stud-Link Chain Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 159
Appendix F: Full Text of Adjudication of Materials Salvaged from
Brig Shannon.............................................. 163
Appendix G .................................................. 167
Appendix H: Sail versus Steam Casualty Ratio Data ............. 169
Appendix I: Insurance Data for Vessels Reporting Disasters . . . . . .. 171
References ................................................... 175
Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 181
Index .............................................. 187