30 YEARS OF PUBLIC MANAGEMENT REFORMS: HAS THERE BEEN A

PATTERN?
CHRISTOPHER POLLITT
A BACKGROUND PAPER FOR THE WORLD BANK CONSULTATION
EXERCISE
Institutional details
Christopher Pollitt
BOF/ZAP Research Professor of Public Management
Public Management Institute
Katholiee !ni"ersiteit #eu"en
Parstraat $% &bus '()*+
B,'))) #eu"en
Belgium
Christopher-Pollitt.soc-uleu"en-be
') /0AR1 OF P!B#IC MA2A30M024 R0FORM15 6A1 460R0 B002 A
PA440R27
Introduction
#et me immediatel8 confess that this paper 9as 9ritten for another purpose- It is "er8
much an academic o"er"ie9: not 9ritten 9ith an8 prescripti"e or ad"isor8 intent- ;hat
is more: it is focused on the de"eloped 9orld: not at all on de"eloping countries-
6o9e"er: 9hen 2ic Manning in"ited us to participate in the ;orld Ban<s consultation
e=ercise it did occur to me that this might ne"ertheless mae useful bacground reading-
1ome of the obser"ations appl8 e"en more to man8 de"eloping countries than to the
de"eloped 9orld- 4here is also perhaps some correcti"e "alue in remembering that: far
from public management reform ha"ing been routinel8 successful in the de"eloped 9orld
but being beset 9ith difficulties in the de"eloping 9orld: it appears fre>uentl8 to ha"e
been problematic in both- 6umilit8 is undersung as a management reform "irtue-
I ha"e added: at the end: a fe9 possible ?lessons< that might be dra9n from this anal8sis-
6as there been a pattern7
4he ans9er is , 8es: there has been a discernable pattern to the public management
reforms 9hich ha"e s9ept o"er so man8 of the 0uropean: 2orth American and
Australasian countries &not to spea of else9here+ in the three decades since @*A)- 1i=
prominent elements of this pattern are set out belo9-
First: public management reform itself &hereafter PMR+ has become a more prominent
political topic- It has emerged from the dust8 bacrooms of administrati"e change to
feature: sometimes at least: as a maBor agenda item in part8 manifestos and go"ernment
programmes &Pollitt and Boucaert: C)@@: chapter @+- It has ac>uired its o9n national
and international net9ors and communities: 9hich embrace not onl8 public ser"ants
themsel"es: academics and a fe9 politicians: but also: 9ith increasing "oice and
influence: management consultants &2ational Audit Office: C))(D 1ahlin,Andersson and
0ng9all: C))CD 1aint,Martin: C))%+-
1econd: the 2e9 Public Management &2PM+ ideolog8 of treating go"ernment as if it
9ere a business has informed man8 changes in man8 countries &Pollitt and Boucaert:
C)@@: passim+- More recentl8 2PM has been partl8 diluted and partl8 merged 9ith other
streams of reform ideas- It is not: as some ha"e alleged: ?dead< &Eunlea"8 et al: C))(+:
but it has e"ol"ed &6ood and Peters: C))$+- ;e 9ill come to all that later-
4hird: the 9idespread popularit8 of 2PM ideas does not mean that the de"eloped 9orld
has con"erged on the 2PM paradigm- In fact the impact of 2PM ideas has been highl8
"ariable: for reasons that 9e 9ill enumerate- And other: ri"al models ha"e graduall8
become discernable: although each seems as slipper8 and potentiall8 inconsistent as 2PM
itself &3oldfinch and ;allas: C)@)D Pollitt and Boucaert: C)@@: chapter @+-
C
Fourth: 9e should note one "er8 common element- It is that reform tal is often much
more ambitious than the formal decisions that e"entuall8 get taen: and that there is then
fre>uentl8 a substantial implementation gap bet9een 9hat 9as decided and 9hat finall8
gets put into operational practice- 4his is captured in the no9 9idel8,used stages model
of tal: decisions: practice and results &Pollitt: C))CD C))FaD 3oldfinch and ;allis: C)@)+-
4his feature carries the strong implication that in our assessments 9e need to be careful
to treat lie 9ith lie5 to compare tal 9ith tal and practices 9ith practices: and not
confuse the different stages- 4he pattern of tal ma8 9ell be a poor guide to the pattern
of practice-
Fifth: e"aluations of PMR ha"e been ambiguous or uncon"incing in man8 cases 9here
the8 ha"e been attempted- In e"en more cases , in fact probabl8 in most cases , no
credible e"aluation &and certainl8 no independent: scientificall8,designed e"aluation+ has
been carried out &Pollitt: @**%D Pollitt: C))*D Pollitt and Boucaert: C)@@: Appendi= B+-
PMR has fre>uentl8 been more an act of faith than a piece of e"idence,based
polic8maing- 4he recent e=plosion of international comparati"e indicators of good
go"ernance &and the lie+ has not fundamentall8 changed this state of affairs-
1i=th: instances of c8cling or alternation in PMR are not uncommon &Pollitt: C))A: pp%@,
%*+- Eecentralising measures are follo9ed: after an inter"al: b8 centraliGing measures-
Intensi"e and detailed performance measurement is succeeded b8 a phase during 9hich
reformers sa8 that measurement and audit must be lightened: and operational
management freed from the unreasonable burden of monitoring- 4his is certainl8 not a
uni"ersal pattern: but it occurs fairl8 fre>uentl8 &and has recentl8 been sanctified in
management,spea as ?re,balancing<+- It appears to be connected 9ith the long ago,
obser"ed fact that public administration faces a number of inherentl8 difficult trade,offs:
9here opting for one direction brings benefits but also: ine"itabl8 penalties: so that: after
a 9hile: the penalties seem to loom large 9hile the benefits become too familiar and
taen for granted: so that a ne9 generation of reformers turn bac to the opposite
direction &6ood: @*F(D 6ood and Hacson @**@D Pollitt and Boucaert: C)@@: chapter FD
1imon: @*$(+
Eeepening the ans9er I @ I the gro9th of PMR
;h8 has PMR become such a prominent topic7 Fe9 9riters ha"e focused on this
>uestion: but 9e ma8 haGard a fe9 suggestions-
Almost e"er8 part8 9ith a hope of po9er that contests elections in ;estern 0uropean and
2orth American states no9 feels obliged to sa8 something about PMR- 0ach has to
aspire to ?run things better<- 6istoricall8 speaing that is a recent de"elopment- In the
@*%)s and %)s part8 manifestos 9ere not full of PMR: the8 9ere full of promises of
substanti"e ne9 programmes and polices- Management reforms &or ?machiner8 of
go"ernment< changes as the8 9ere sometimes called+ 9ere usuall8 regarded as rather dr8:
technical issues I not something either headline 9riters or most politicians needed to tae
much interest in- 6o9e"er: as a number of political scientists and sociologists ha"e
noted: since the @*F)s politics in the ;est ha"e become less ideological and substanti"e
'
but more ?technical< and ?presentational<- 4he 9elfare state has been built: and no9 the
Bob is restraining its unaffordable further gro9th: or e"en managing a gentle decline-
Public management has become not simpl8 an adBunct to other policies: but a polic8 in
itself &BarGela8: C))@+- How things are to be organized becomes almost as important as
what things are to be done- And ho9 things are to be presented is also crucial I policies
can no longer be e=pected to spea for themsel"es: the8 must be designed and presented
so as to catch the current public mood: as re"ealed b8 professional polling and focus
groups: and channeled and amplified b8 the mass media5
?One of the e8 implications of this emphasis on go"ernment as techni>ue is to
contest those models of go"ernment that 9ish to "ie9 it solel8 I or e"en mainl8 I
as a manifestation of "alues: ideologies: 9orld"ie9s: etc-< &Eean: @***: p'@+
Management: of course: is identified 9ith both dimensions of techni>ue I first: 9ith ho9
to s>ueeGe e"er8 last drop of output from e"er8 dollar spent and: second: 9ith ho9 to
maret polic8 ideas and decisions in 9a8s that 9ill ma=imiGe ac>uiescence and minimiGe
opposition-
In addition: po9er is draining a9a8 from the nation state I up9ards: to international
net9ors: and in some cases do9n9ards: to regional or local bodies &though this should
be understood in a nuanced 9a8: not as a Gero sum game I e-g- 6eld: C))$+- 1o for
national politicians ?technical politics< means proBecting the idea that 8ou can do more
9ith lessD that 8ou can cut out 9aste and increase efficienc8- 6ence: during the @*A)s:
the huge e=plosion: on both sides of the Atlantic: of concern 9ith ?management< in
general: and ?efficienc8< in particular &Pollitt: @**)+- In a boo 9hich celebrates the
coming of age of public management as a policy >uestion: BarGela8 9rote that5
?beginning in the @*F)s: the potential for polic8 change in the area of public
management increased: as economies suffered stagflation and public perceptions
of bureaucrac8 became more negati"e< &BarGela8: C))@: p@+
1ince that time 9e ha"e seen a ne9 communit8 I one might almost sa8 industr8 I come
into being- It is a cross,sectoral: international net9or of public management ?e=perts<:
people based in go"ernments or agencies or consultancies or occasionall8 in academia:
and 9ho more and more fre>uentl8 mo"e bet9een these different roles- 4he8 s9ap ideas:
compete for contracts and attend conferences together- 4he8 dra9 on an e=tensi"el8
common and rapidl8 changing stoc of generic management ideas &1ahlin,Andersson and
0ng9all: C))C+- 4he8 feed on a continuous flo9 of lucrati"e contracts from go"ernments
&2ational Audit Office: C))(+- More and more go"ernments ha"e set up one or more
specialist management reform units: such as the Prime Minister<s Public 1er"ice Eeli"er8
!nit &!K+: the Public Management Eepartment of the Finnish Ministr8 of Finance: the
French Eirectorate 3eneral for 1tate ModerniGation: the 2or9egian Ministr8 of
3o"ernment Administration and Reform: and so on- Members of these organiGations
ma8 themsel"es ha"e consultanc8 e=perience or the8 ma8 become consultants
after9ards: trading on their e=perience gained near the heart of go"ernment reforms &for
multiple e=amples of this interpenetration: see Barber: C))F+- More profoundl8: these
units and departments help to institutionaliGe ?moderniGation< and ?reform<: continuousl8
putting for9ard programmes and targets: dra9ing attention to ne9 management ideas and
techni>ues and generall8 eeping the rest of central go"ernment ?on its toes< &for a "i"id
account of ho9 intrusi"e this can become: see again Barber: C))F+- 1uch international
$
net9ors are: of course: immeasurabl8 facilitated b8 the ad"ent of the Internet- 2othing
lie this e=isted in the @*%)s or e"en ?()s-
All this has constituted a ind of ?multiplier< effect- A communit8 has gro9n up in
9hose interests it is to create ne9 ideas and techni>ues: and therefore further reform-
4here is nothing necessaril8 sinister about this: e"en if it can often be construed as a form
of self,interest- It is simpl8 that more and more people tae up public sector roles after
some training in ?management<: and more and more consultancies depend on 9inning
and subse>uentl8 sustaining contracts to facilitate reform &1aint Martin: C))%+- For
e=ample: the !K public sector spent appro=imatel8 JC-A billion on consultants in C))%,(:
a ''K increase on 9hat the le"el had been onl8 t9o 8ears pre"iousl8 I in fact central
go"ernment spent more on consultants per emplo8ee than did comparator pri"ate sector
firmsL &2ational Audit Office: C))(: pp% and @%+-
Eeepening the ans9er I C I the business of go"ernment
4he language of public administration has changed enormousl8 o"er the past three
decades- One main trend I at least in Anglophone countries I has been to9ards the
9idespread adoption of titles: terms and concepts from the 9orld of pri"ate sector
business- 4hus departments and agencies 9hich 9ish to do something no9 ha"e to
present a ?business case< for itD numerous senior public ser"ice positions are no9
designated as ?chief e=ecuti"e<D organiGations are e=pected to ?benchmar< and ?business
process re,engineer<D ci"il ser"ice training curricula are saturated 9ith sessions on
?leadership< and ?inno"ation< &Pollitt and Op de Beec: C)@)+- One pea in this trend
came in @**F: 9hen the then !1 Mice President: charged 9ith a maBor reform of the
federal ci"il ser"ice: published a gloss8: cartoon,festooned boolet entitled Businesslike
government: lessons learned from Americas best companies &3ore: @**F+- It is eas8 to
forget ho9 foreign this ind of terminolog8 9ould ha"e sounded $) 8ears ago: 9hen the
public ser"ice had its o9n terms for most of these roles and acti"ities- ?CitiGens and
businesses e=pect the same le"els of access and personaliGation from public ser"ices as
the8 recei"e from leading pri"ate sector organiGations such as AmaGon and 4esco- 4he8
e=pect to be able to access information from multiple locations and in 9a8s that suit them
rather than the pro"iders< &6-M-3o"ernment: C)@): p*+-
4his lo"e affair 9ith a ?businesslie approach< ma8: or ma8 not: ha"e come to an end
9ith the business,induced global financial crisis of C))A,* &it is too earl8 to be sure I and
9e should note that the !K go"ernment<s praise for supermaret management , abo"e ,
post dates the crisis+- /et e"en if it has been badl8 dented: this 9a8 of thining has no9
penetrated so man8 public sector organiGations: and has been promoted to an entire
generation of public ser"ice managers: so its effects 9ill surel8 not disappear o"ernight-
Furthermore: it is not onl8 that business thining has been ingrained in minds: business
practices ha"e also been embedded in standard operating procedures: including budgeting
and accountanc8 rules &2e9berr8 and Pallot: C))%+ and personnel regulations5
?In almost all N0!O Member 1tates the differences bet9een ci"il ser"ants and
other public emplo8ees and ci"il ser"ants and pri"ate sector emplo8ees ha"e
become fe9er- 1till: a fe9 member states stic to the traditional patterns and
%
maintain at least some traditional features- Other Member 1tates ha"e almost
entirel8 aligned the 9oring conditions 9ithin the public ser"ice and bet9een the
public, and pri"ate sector< &Eemme and Moilanen: C)@): p@'*+
Another de"elopment that has gathered pace o"er the past >uarter centur8 has been the
e"olution of critical: large,scale public I4 s8stems 9hich are essentiall8 supplied:
maintained and run b8 for,profit transnational corporations5
?N3Oo"ernments no longer run their o9n I4 functions- 4o get their s8stems built:
de"eloped: and managed the8 increasingl8 rel8 on the global I4 industr8:
specificall8 the giant ?s8stems integrator< companies such as 0lectronic Eata
s8stems &0E1+: IBM,Accenture: Cap,3emini,0rnst and /oung: #ocheed Martin
and their lie< &Eunlea"8 et al: C))(a: p@+
In short: business,lie practices are no9 embedded in the 9arp and 9eft of man8 &but not
all+ public ser"ices in man8 &but not all+ countries- ;hether this is something to be
celebrated: cautiousl8 9elcomed: or deepl8 regretted remains an on,going debate-
One further aspect of go"ernment,as,business thining should also be mentioned- Hust as
public ser"ants ha"e been enBoined to thin of themsel"es as ser"ice providers: 9oring
to a business plan: so go"ernments ha"e fre>uentl8 redefined citiGens 9ho use public
ser"ices as consumers- Again: this has been contro"ersial: at least in academia: and man8
9ords ha"e been spent delineating the differences bet9een ?citiGens<: ?clients<: and
?consumers<- One research proBect sho9ed ho9: in the !K in the decade after 2e9
#abour came to po9er in @**F: the go"ernment had ad"anced the concept of a ?critical
citiGen,consumer< as a e8 figure in a number of its sectoral policies- 0"idence that such
a paragon actuall8 e=isted , at least in large numbers , 9as not: ho9e"er: forthcoming-
1ur"e8s seem to indicate that the public can be >uite discriminating bet9een different
circumstances and conte=ts: and do not particularl8 9ant to be treated as acti"el8,
choosing: information seeing rational decision,maers in man8 of their interactions 9ith
public authorities &Clare et al: C))F+-
Eeepening the ans9er I ' I limited con"ergence on 2PM
1ome influential "oices ha"e claimed that there has been con"ergence: and that that
con"ergence has been to9ards the 2PM model- 6ere are Bust three e=amples of that I
the first a leading American professor: the second an e>uall8 9ell,no9n Australian and
the third a more recent academic o"er"ie95
?4he mo"ement has been so striing because of the number of nations that ha"e
taen up the reform agenda in such a short time and because of ho9 similar their
basic strategies ha"e been< &Kettl: C))%: p@+
?4here are "arious ideas of 9hat is in"ol"ed in public management reforms-
6o9e"er: as the process has continued there has been con"ergence as to 9hat is
in"ol"ed in the reforms< &6ughes: C))': p%@+
?no doubt 2PM represented a global trend that affected public sector decision
maing 9orld9ide< &3ualmini: C))A: pF%+
(
4his is an interpretation from 9hich I beg to differ- I can understand 9h8: looing at the
surface polic8 commitments in certain countries at certain times: obser"ers might arri"e
at the conclusion that con"ergence 9as taing place- But I 9ould argue that either a
9ider &geographic+ and/or a deeper &implementation,focused+ anal8sis 9ould lead in a
"er8 different direction-
4here are at least three reasons 9h8 man8 go"ernments chose to resist or onl8 reluctantl8
or selecti"el8 embrace the trend to 2PM- ;e could call these ?reach< ?grip< and
?moti"ation<- 1ome national go"ernments ha"e limited reach: in the sense that their
constitutional and structural position does not permit them to carr8 out 9ide,ranging
reforms right across the public sector- 4he8 cannot ?do< blanet 2PM e"en if the8 9ant
to- 4here are po9erful sub,national authorities 9ith their o9n po9ers and ideas: and it is
unliel8 that: at an8 gi"en moment: all these 9ill be of the same ideological orientation or
polic8 preference as their central go"ernments- 3erman8 and the !1A are prominent
e=amples &and: indeed: in such countries it ma8 9ell be local go"ernments that are the
leading standard,bearers for PMR+- 1o in these countries: unlie: sa8 France or the !K:
it is hard for a central go"ernment: ho9e"er enthusiastic: to transform the 9hole of the
public sector- In fact: internationall8: comprehensi"e: s8nchroniGed public sector reform
is rare almost to "anishing point-
3o"ernments also "ar8 in terms of their grip I that is ho9 firml8 and effecti"el8 the8 are
able to transmit their demands and instructions do9n their o9n "ertical hierarchies- In
some cases transient or minorit8 go"ernments face po9erful public sector unions or
strong professional groupings: and are unable to carr8 through radical change- 1ome
recent Belgian federal go"ernments 9ould fall into this categor8: as 9ould some 2ordic
coalition go"ernments- In other cases , such as the 4hatcher and Blair administrations in
the !K , a single part8 go"ernment 9ith a substantial maBorit8 and disciplined part8
support lasts for man8 8ears and is able to face do9n union and professional resistance-
Finall8: there is the >uestion of motivation- 1ome national go"ernments ha"e been
effusi"el8 enthusiastic about 2PM ideas: others ha"e been cautiousl8 9elcoming and
others still ha"e acti"el8 resisted them- 4hus one could number the Reagan and
3-;-Bush presidencies: and the 4hatcher premiership: as strongl8 pro,2PM: 9hile man8
of the 2ordic go"ernments since @**) ha"e been cautiousl8 and selecti"el8 9elcoming of
some 2PM instruments , for e=ample b8 accepting performance management: but
resisting the 9idespread application of maret mechanisms 9ithin basic public ser"ices
&Pollitt and Boucaert: C)@@+- At the other end of the scale the Mitterand Presidenc8 in
France and the 0! Commission under 1anter 9ere regimes that 9ere distinctl8 critical of
?Anglo,1a=on< ideas- 1ubse>uentl8 the Kinnoc Reforms &0! Commission+ and the
1aroG8 administration in France pro"ed some9hat more recepti"e to certain 2PM
concepts: but in each case the ?con"ersion< 9as both muted and hea"il8 ?translated< into
the local institutional circumstances &BeGes: C)@)D Pollitt and Boucaert: C)@@+-
If 9e tae all three reasons together , reach: grip and moti"ation , one can see that 2e9
Zealand @*A$,*' and the !K @*F*,C)@) 9ere rather e=ceptional- 4he8 9ere among a
>uite small group of countries 9here reach: grip and moti"ation all permitted: or
F
encouraged: a general mo"ement in an 2PM: business,lie direction- 4he8 9ere not: as
some commentators belie"ed: protot8pes of a 9a"e that 9ould s9eep across the globe-
4he8 9ere certainl8 the origins of a 9a"e: but one 9hich encountered a series of "er8
different sea shelf and coastal formations: so that in some places it came ashore lie a
tsunami 9hile in others it 9as reduced to a mere murmur: and hardl8 noticed: or 9as
e"en e=cluded b8 cultural and institutional sea9alls- One can hardl8 call 2PM a global
phenomenon 9hen: for man8 8ears: it had such limited effects on central go"ernments in
states as important as France: 3erman8 and Hapan- /et in @**C Osborne and 3aebler had
famousl8 9ritten that5
?If the rise of entrepreneurial go"ernment is an ine"itable shift rather than a
temporar8 fadPone 9ould e=pect it to happen in other nations Nthan the !1AO as
9ell- And to a startling degree: it has- A similar process of transformation is
under9a8 throughout the de"eloped 9orld< &Osborne and 3aebler: @**C: p'CA+
1ince then: 9hate"er plausibilit8 this theor8 of con"erging transformation ma8 once ha"e
had has e"aporated- ;e ha"e accumulated a small mountain of scholarl8 studies
sho9ing ho9 2PM has been adapted: translated: diluted: superseded or do9nright
reBected b8 a large number of countries &e-g- BarGela8 and 3allego: C)@)a: bD BeGes:
C)@)D Bori and Man Berel: C))FD Christensen: C))*: Christensen and #Qgreid: C))@D
3oldfinch and ;allis: C)@)D Kicert: @**FD Kicert C))AD Kuhlmann: C)@)D Ongaro:
C))*D Pollitt: C))(: C))FaD 1chroter: C)@)D 1mullen: C)@)+- A maBor recent stud8 of ci"il
ser"ice reforms in the CF 0! states arri"ed at the conclusion that5
?different historical traditions and cultures as 9ell as 6R s8stems ha"e a
considerable impact on public management moderisation paths and on the
outcomes of 6R reforms< &Eemme and Moilanen: C)@): pC$'+
2PM: of course: is no longer ?ne9<- Indeed: it has been referred to as ?middle aged<
&6ood and Peters: C))$+ or e"en dead< &Eunlea"8 et al: C))(b+- Hust as some earlier
9riters hailed a con"ergence to9ards 2PM: some more recent commentators ha"e
proclaimed a ?progression of paradigms< 9ith traditional bureaucrac8 leading to an 2PM
phase: 9hich in turn ga"e 9a8 to a post 2PM phase "ariousl8 characteriGed as net9ors:
Boined,up go"ernment and: most per"asi"el8: ?go"ernance< &Pollitt and 6upe: C)@@+-
?4he need for effecti"e go"ernance ofPinteractions: and therefore for ne9 forms of
public management such as net9or steering 9ill increaseP< &Kicert et al: @**F: p@*)+-
Or ?it has been argued here that the 2P3 N2e9 Public 3o"ernanceO has become the
dominant regime of public polic8 implementation and public ser"ices deli"er8P<
&Osborne et al: C)@): p$@$+-
6o9e"er: it seems that ?the problems 9hich e=ist 9ith persistent arguments for a 2PM
con"ergence also e=ist for the successor Rpost,2PMS m8th< &3oldfinch and ;allis: C)@):
p@@))+- Once more: certain trends , real enough in certain periods in certain countries ,
ha"e been amplified: simplified and generaliGed so that the8 can be presented as a
common international direction- Once again: the precise empirical domain and technical
content of these trends is often left "ague 9hile large claims are ne"ertheless ad"anced
for their rele"ance &for earl8 and more recent e=amples of this approach: see: respecti"el8
Kooiman: @**' and Osborne: C)@)+- !ntil 9e can clearl8 distinguish 9hat is go"ernance
and 9hat is not: and until 9e can count the number and densit8 of net9ors in different
A
countries and sectors: and ho9 these ha"e changed o"er time: 9e should e=ercise caution
in our claims for con"ergence- 0"en more challenging: it 9ould be desirable to be able to
lin ?go"ernance< and ?net9ors< to outcomes: and to establish 9hether and 9h8 these
approaches produced better results than traditional bureaucrac8 or 2PM- Mer8 little of
the ?go"ernance< literature seems to meet these criteria- Much of it polariGes bet9een
high le"el: abstract: rather disembedded process models and "er8 local and specific case
studies- 4here is a big gap in the middle-
Eeepening the ans9er , $ , tal: decisions: practices: results
4hose 9ho conduct empirical field research into public management reforms >uite often
find that ?the reform< &9hate"er the particular e=ample ma8 be+ changes steadil8 the
further one mo"es from the original debate to the go"ernment 9hite paper or ministerial
speech: and then through local implementation and on to the final results- It is
challenging for go"ernments to eep a tight hold on reforms as the8 percolate out from
the ministr8 to the further reaches of operational units and sub national le"els of
go"ernment- Indeed: it is not unusual for reforms simpl8 to run out of steam and fail to
reach the frontline at all- Bac in @**$ 1a"oie published a 9idel8,read comparison of the
4hatcher: Reagan and Mulrone8 administrations: in 9hich he pointed out that man8 of
the Mulrone8 go"ernment<s public management polices had failed to carr8 through
implementation to achie"e their proclaimed obBecti"es &1a"oie: @**$+- Mer8 common:
also: is the situation in 9hich a ne9 initiati"e maes a brief impact but: after a fe9 8ears:
all trace of it has disappeared- A fe9 8ears ago colleagues and I rang round 0uropean
public ser"ice >ualit8 initiati"es that had been presented at international >ualit8
conferences t9o and four 8ears pre"iousl8- In an uncomfortabl8 high proportion of cases
our respondents said the8 ne9 nothing about the initiati"e 9e 9ere taling about: or that
it had finished no9-
4able @ helps us to understand 9h8 the spread and impacts of 2PM &or an8 other
fashionable model+ ma8 sometimes be e=aggerated- Basicall8: it is >uicer and easier to
research the headlines of tal and decision than to go out into the field and loo in detail
at operational practices and final outcomes- 4hus: for e=ample: a >uic sur"e8 of official
documentation sho9s that e=ecuti"e agencies in the !K: 19eden: Finland and the
2etherlands all ha"e performance indicator s8stems- 4his could be seen as an e=ample of
con"ergence: 9ith a strong 2PM fla"our &performance measurement and results,oriented
management are central plans in the 2PM model+- 6o9e"er: detailed field9or re"eals:
that these indicators are used in "er8 different 9a8s and 9ith different conse>uences in
the four countries &Pollitt et al: C))$+- 1imilarl8 the 3uamini >uotation at the start of the
section on con"ergence &abo"e+ is based on a sur"e8 of go"ernment legislation: so it
refers onl8 to our ?decision< stage: not to practice or results- Before lea"ing this point 9e
should note that the 4al,Eecision,Practice,Results frame9or has se"eral implications
for comparati"e anal8sis- Inter alia it suggests that 9e should tr8 to compare lie 9ith
lie &decisions 9ith decisions: or results 9ith results+- Comparing &sa8+ tal and
decisions in countr8 A 9ith practice in countr8 B is potentiall8 misleading &and unfair+-
*
14A30 E01CRIP4IO2 R010ARC67
4al More and more people are
taling and 9riting about
a particular idea &e-g-
contracting out+
Tuic and cheap- Monitoring 9hat people are
taling and 9riting about is fairl8
straightfor9ard-
Eecision 4he authorities
&go"ernments: public
boards etc+ publicl8
decide to adopt a
particular reform
Again: >uic and cheap- 4he public decisions of
the authorities can usuall8 be located >uite
>uicl8 &on the 2et: often 9ithout lea"ing one<s
des+
Practice Public sector
organiGations incorporate
the reform into their dail8
operational practices
Probabl8 re>uires e=pensi"e and time,consuming
field9or- 4his needs both funding and access-
Results 4he results &outcomes+ of
the acti"ities of public
agencies change as a
result of the reform
Final outcomes are fre>uentl8 difficult &and
e=pensi"e+ to measure- 0"en more fre>uentl8
there is an attribution problem: i-e- one cannot be
sure ho9 much of the measured change in
outcomes can be attributed to the reform itself: as
opposed to other factors-
TABLE 1. RESEARCHING PUBLIC MANAGEMENT REFORMS
&After Pollitt: C))C+
Eeepening the ans9er , % , faith and e"idence
In @**% I published an article 9hich argued that in man8 cases no serious e"aluation had
been attempted of man8 of the main 2PM reforms and: further: that such e"aluations as
had been instituted had been unable to reach con"incing conclusions on such basic issues
as efficienc8 gains and changes in effecti"eness &Pollitt: @**%+- 4he title 9as
?Hustification b8 faith rather than 9ors7< 3i"en that at the time I thought I 9as doing
little more than stating the ob"ious and bacing it up 9ith an anal8sis of a fe9 9ell,
no9n studies: I 9as surprised at ho9 9idel8 the article 9as subse>uentl8 cited- At the
time of 9riting: in mid C)@@: a maBor 0! Frame9or ProBect is in"estigating the impacts
of 2PM reforms across the 0! &999-cocops-eu+- 4he proBect is far from complete: but
earl8 findings based on a meta anal8sis of academic and practitioner documentation from
most 0! states is that the number of studies 9hich con"incingl8 connect data on changes
in efficienc8 or effecti"eness to specific management reforms is modest indeed &Pollitt
and Ean: C)@@+- 0"identl8 the @( 8ears in bet9een the @**% stud8 and COCOP1 in C)@@
ha"e seen relati"el8 little change in this particular respect-
4here are good reasons 9h8 con"incing e"aluations are so thin on the ground- 4hese are
both technical and moti"ational &Pollitt: C))*+- 4echnicall8: reforms are often composed
of man8 different: if related: inter"entions: and ma8 9ell tae place at the same time as
other changes: so sorting out e=actl8 9hich inter"ention or combination of inter"entions
produced e=actl8 9hich results can be a formidable undertaing- Furthermore: results
@)
often de"elop o"er time: so that an e"aluation conducted at reform plus one 8ear ma8
8ield a different picture from a later e"aluation at reform plus three 8ears- For e=ample: a
do9nsiGing and refocusing reform ma8 8ield poor results after t9el"e months: 9hen staff
are still 9orried and resentful: and the positi"e results of the refocusing ha"e 8et to come
to fruition- 3i"en more time: ho9e"er: staff 9ill become accustomed to the ne9 regime:
and 9ill ha"e learned and honed the ne9 procedures: gi"ing a much better set of results
o"erall- Ideall8: also: an e"aluation 9ould commence 9ell before the reform: so as to
collect a full set of data on the ex ante situation: for later comparison 9ith the ex post- In
practice this is seldom achie"ed- Another desideratum of classic e"aluation , a control
group , is e"en rarer &although occasionall8 one ma8 find ?natural e=periments<: such as
9hen performance measurement regimes di"erge in 0ngland: ;ales and 1cotland ,
Be"an: C)@)+-
Moti"ationall8: politicians are not necessaril8 comfortable 9ith the elongated timescales
in"ol"ed in most large scale administrati"e reforms- 4he8 ma8 hope to gain udos from
the original reform announcement and launch: but ho9 man8 of them e=pect to be around
in: sa8: fi"e 8ears time 9hen the full range of impacts 9ill be much clearer7 Further: if
the8 are e=perienced in such matters the8 ma8 9ell suspect that the results 9ill include
une=pected as 9ell as e=pected effects: and that the o"erall impact 9ill turn out to be less
pure and less radical than the promises made at the time of the reform launch- 4he
moti"ation to in"est in s8stematic long term e"aluations is therefore less than
o"er9helming- At the same time both politicians and management consultants are
members of professions that must al9a8s ha"e something ne9 to sa8 &3oldfinch and
;allis: C)@): pp@@@@,@@@C+- 1e"eral scholars ha"e traced ho9 past failures can be
forgotten in the bright ne9 da9n of the ne=t round of reform &Brunsson: C))(D
1undstrom: C))(+- Others ha"e sho9n ho9: in those countries 9here the barriers to
reform are relati"el8 lo9: politicall8,dri"en reforms can arri"e helter,selter: 9ith little
chance to learn much in depth from the pre"ious reform before it is replaced b8 the latest
idea &Pollitt: C))Fb+-
2one of this is to sa8 that e=perience and e"idence is 9holl8 ignored- 4he relati"e
absence of high >ualit8 formal e"aluations is not the same thing as an absence of
learning- #earning does go on: but seldom in te=tboo fashion- Programmes deemed:
ho9e"er accuratel8 or inaccuratel8: to ha"e been failures become the things to be a"oided
in the ne=t round of reform- 4rial and error does seem to be a common learning mode:
e"en if the trials are political trials and the errors are often media,amplified dramas-
2either is the sparsit8 of formal e"aluations uni>ue to 2PM,t8pe reforms- If 9e loo at
net9oring: partnership and go"ernance,t8pe reforms 9e find a similar stor8- 4o begin
9ith: definitions of net9ors and go"ernance are multiple and slipper8 and methods for
counting and measuring net9ors and net9or interactions are either primiti"e or 9holl8
absent &Pollitt and 6upe: C)@@+- Onl8 a fe9 papers of the man8 papers using these
concepts manage to conduct 9hat might be regarded as an orthodo= scientific anal8sis of
outcomes &e-g- Meier and O<4oole: C))@+- 1tudies of the outcomes of net9or
go"ernance are particularl8 thin on the ground- Apart from the famous Meier and
O<4oole studies of 4e=as school districts &e-g- Meier and O<4oole: C)@)+: e"en the fe9
@@
9orth8 attempts that ha"e been made contain measures of ?outcomes< 9hich are both
subBecti"el8 perceptual and hea"il8 laden 9ith process,lie elements &such as
?in"ol"ement of actors< and 9hether inno"ati"e ideas are de"eloped during the proBect ,
KliBn et al: C)@)+-
One ind of e"aluation that has blossomed since the beginning of the C@
st
centur8 is
international comparisons of general aspects of go"ernment: such as ?good go"ernance<:
?bureaucratic >ualit8<: ?transparenc8< and so on &Pollitt: C)@@+- Comparing general
features of go"ernance in different states is comple= and difficult- 4hat has not stopped
anal8sts producing large numbers of purportedl8 comparati"e indices of "arious aspects
of go"ernment and go"ernance &e-g- Accenture: C))*D Ad"isor8 3roup on Reform of the
Australian 3o"ernment Administration: C))*D O0CE: C))*+- 4he ;orld Ban<s ?;orld
3o"ernance Indicators< &;3Is+ ha"e probabl8 been the best,no9n measures &Arndt:
C))A+: but one source lists more than $)) indicators &IAEB: C))F+- 4he !K has arguabl8
the 9orld<s most seriall8,reformed public sector: and it 9as notable that a C))A Cabinet
Office report ga"e great prominence to international comparisons: including a preface
from the then Prime Minister in 9hich he said he 9anted ?e"er8 element of our public
ser"ices to be the best in the 9orld< &Cabinet Office: C))A: pF+- 1ome 9ell,informed
commentators see this gro9th in international comparison as an almost irresistible force
or: at the "er8 least: one unliel8 to be stemmed in the near future &6ood et al: C))A+-
!nfortunatel8: ho9e"er: the popularit8 of these league tables has made onl8 a modest
contribution to9ards helping us understand ho9 effecti"e particular t8pes of management
reform ha"e been- 4his is because the measures tend to be highl8 aggregated: and these
aggregate ?results< cannot usuall8 be traced bac to specific reforms- 1ometimes: indeed:
the aggregate is itself a some9hat incoherent Bumble of inputs: processes: outputs: and
outcomes: the o"erall meaning of 9hich is "er8 hard to discern &Pollitt: C)@)+-
Eeepening the ans9er , ( , c8cling and alternation
In a long term stud8 of administrati"e reforms in the !1 federal go"ernment: #ight noted
a strong tendenc8 for oscillations and alternations &?tides<+ around certain basic trade,off
issues &#ight: @**F+-
1imilar c8cling can be seen the histor8 of !K reform- In @*AA the 4hatcher go"ernment
launched a maBor restructuring programme to car"e out large blocs of operational
acti"it8 and place them in e=ecuti"e agencies that 9ould be ?at arm<s length< from
ministerial departments &Oli"er: C))'D Pollitt et al: C))$+- Euring the ensuing decade
more than @') ne9 agencies 9ere set up: and at the pea the8 collecti"el8 emplo8ed
more than F)K of !K ci"il ser"ants- In C))C an official re"ie9 b8 the Blair go"ernment
concluded that this multiplication of agencies had brought impro"ements: but that it had
increased the distance bet9een ministries and operational management and led to a loss
of polic8 co,ordination &Office of Public 1er"ices Reform: C))C+- A number of agencies
9ere then merged 9ith each other or dra9n bac into departments or at least subBect to
tighter ministerial control &4albot and Hohnson: C))F+- 4he @*A)s impulse to
@C
decentraliGation had been replaced 9ith a desire for more central control and co,
ordination-
;ithin the @' 8ear life span of the Blair/Bro9n 2e9 #abour administration &@**F,C)@)+
central go"ernment<s approach to performance measurement s9ung from moderate to
intense and bac again: so that b8 the end the go"ernment 9as officiall8 distancing itself
from its former period of intense central targetr8: and proclaiming the need for
professional ser"ice deli"erers to ha"e greater freedom to tae their o9n decisions and set
their o9n targets &Cabinet Office: C))A+- 4he coalition go"ernment that succeeded them
too this rhetoric further: denouncing their predecessor<s performance measurement
regime as inhibiting of local inno"ation: and declaring a ?bonfire of targets<- 1oon:
ho9e"er: ne9 frame9ors of ?milestones< and ?standards< appeared: and operational
managers could be forgi"en for thining that in practice the8 still had a great deal of
up9ards performance reporting to do-
;hilst the metaphor of c8cling does ser"e 9ell to describe certain mo"ements in public
management reform: it should not be interpreted too literall8- ;hen a s8stem c8cles
bet9een centralisation and decentraliGation that does not mean that it returns to e=actl8
the same point that it had reached some 8ears before- If there is an alternation bet9een
an urgent priorit8 for increased efficienc8: and then: later: an e>uall8 strong emphasis on
accountabilit8 and transparenc8: that does not mean that in the later part of the alternation
efficienc8 sins bac to 9here it 9as before the efficienc8 dri"e- 4hus: for e=ample: the
dri"e for efficienc8 in phase one ma8 9ell raise efficienc8: but it does not ha"e to fall
bac &or certainl8 not the 9hole 9a8 bac+ during the succeeding phase t9o focus on
accountabilit8 and transparenc8- 4hus: o"er time: e"en if attention s9ings bet9een t9o
&or more+ prime goals: the le"els to 9hich the8 are achie"ed continues to increase o"er
time &Pollitt: C))A: pp%(,%*+- 4ransparenc8 in C)@@ is generall8 far greater than it 9as
t9ent8 or thirt8 8ears ago: e"en if there are some fallings bac: and some deliberate
attempts to re"erse to the trend &Roberts: C))(+-
Reflections
A pattern there is: but 9hat is perhaps Bust as significant as the pattern itself is 9hat it is
not- 4hus: despite the claims of some obser"ers: there is not a clear pattern: s9eeping
through the 9orld in a succession of paradigmatic stages I 2PM: net9ors: go"ernance:
or an8thing of that nature- 2either is there a stable pattern of e"idence,based progress5
most states do not appear to ha"e launched carefull8,e"aluated reform programmes: then
modified them in the light of the findings: then mo"ed on to a higher le"el- Indeed:
careful: formal e"aluation has been the e=ception rather than the rule: and 9here it has
occurred it has usuall8 been inconclusi"e-
On the other hand a purel8 fashion,dri"en model does not fit "er8 9ell either- Fashions
there ha"e been &and continue to be+: but in each case the fashion is less than uni"ersal:
9ith important states resisting the latest "ersion of modernit8: or ad"ancing their o9n
alternati"es- And there is e"idence of some empirical learning: e"en if it is patch8 and
discontinuous- 2e9 Zealand and the !K both retreated from the e=treme fragmentation
@'
induced b8 the 2PM reforms of the @*A)s and @**)s- 4he !1 changed its organiGational
procedures for handling emergencies after 6urricane Katrina- 2one of these 9ere
fashion mo"es I on the contrar8: the8 represented learning from unsatisfactor8
e=periences- Formal e"aluations ma8 not ha"e been the dri"ing force in these cases: and
such e"aluations as there 9ere ma8 ha"e fallen a long 9a8 short of the models ad"anced
in e"aluation te=tboos: but there 9ere some: and there is no reason to assume that the8
pla8ed no part at all in the shifts of direction-
;hat 9e see: therefore: is a stor8 of fashion,influenced trial and error: 9ith some strong
currents but no global tides- It is for9ard,looing stor8: in 9hich more attention has
often been paid to the demands of toda8 and the promise of tomorro9 than to the
e=perience of 8esterda8 &Pollitt: C))FbD Pollitt: C))A+- It is also: for the most part: the
stor8 of a series of processes: rather than a stor8 of discrete e"ents- PMR almost al9a8s
taes time: and the precise nature of a gi"en reform almost al9a8s e"ol"es some9hat as it
goes along- 4hat is 9h8 scholars need to stud8 the process o"er time rather than rel8ing
too hea"il8 on the statements and claims made at the launch of each reform-
It is important to bear in mind the limitations of the particular le"el of anal8sis at 9hich
this paper is pitched- 4his has been a slightl8 stratospheric o"er"ie9: seeing and finding
large: but rather crude patterns o"er a considerable period of time- It ma8 9ell be that an
anal8sis conducted at a more detailed le"el might unco"er different patterns: in the same
9a8 as an o"er"ie9 of an anthill ma8 sho9 chaos: but a tighter focus on: sa8: soldier
ants: 9ill 8ield a much clearer pattern to their acti"ities- 4here is: for instance: a good
case for research at the le"el of specific tools- ;or done on &inter alia+ 4TM and
performance related pa8 ha"e alread8 re"ealed suggesti"e regularities &Hoss and Kogan:
@**%D Perr8 et al: C))*D Zbaraci: @**A+- ;hat such studies tend to sho9 is not that
4TM or PRP al9a8s ha"e the same effect &far from it+ but rather that it ma8 be possible
to identif8 certain conte=tual features 9hich significantl8 raise or lo9er the probabilities
of successful implementation- 4hus 9e can begin to de"elop patterns of tools,plus,
conte=ts: 9hich ma8 help us understand the inds of circumstances in 9hich particular
categories of result are more or less liel8- In some cases such an anal8sis ma8 indicate
that a tool is fairl8 robust: in the sense that it usuall8 produces at least some results across
>uite a 9ide "ariet8 of conte=ts- In other cases: ho9e"er: a tool ma8 depend on so man8
unusual or difficult conditions being in place that it is liel8 to 9or 9ell onl8 in rare and
highl8 fa"ourable conditions &PRP ma8 fall in this categor8+-
4his has been an e=ercise in peering through an a9ful lot of trees to tr8 to discern the
shape of the 9ood- It is ob"iousl8 possible to mae a different selection of e8 elements
than the si= set out at the beginning of this paper- I 9ould argue that these si= are:
ho9e"er: fairl8 firm and 9ell,e"idenced- 4he8 are an important part of the big picture: if
not all of it- ;ith three decades of hindsight the pattern 9e see is one of an enterprise
9hich has been both uncertain and imprecise- 1ignificant successes ha"e been recorded:
but ha"e been balanced b8 man8 failures- O"erblo9n and subse>uentl8 disappointed
claims for prospecti"e achie"ements ha"e not infre>uentl8 earned the mistrust of both
citiGens and public ser"ice staff- A ne9 industr8 has gro9n: but the areas of useful
no9ledge and techni>ue 9hich it has assembled are offset b8 the continued presence of
@$
o"ersimplification: insensiti"it8 to conte=t and histor8 and: in a fe9 cases: do9nright
snaeoil mareting- Public management reform ma8 ha"e become a polic8 sector in its
o9n right: but its theoretical underpinnings appear to be disBointed: its e"idence base is
patch8 and its political identit8 remains as 8et unsure-
#essons for the ;orld Ban7
N4his is the section I ha"e added to the original academic paperO
I 9ould suggest a number of ?lessons< 9hich could be dra9n from the foregoing anal8sis5
@- Big models: such as 2PM or ?good go"ernance< or ?partnership 9oring<: often
do not tae one "er8 far- 4he art of reform lies in their adaptation &often "er8
e=tensi"e+ to fit local conte=ts- And an89a8: these models are seldom entirel8
9ell,defined or consistent in themsel"es- Appl8ing the big models or e"en
standardiGed techni>ues &benchmaring: business process re,engineering: lean+ in
a formulaic: tic,bo= manner can be highl8 counterproducti"e-
C- 4o tae the first point further: the 9hole idea that there is one model or set of
principles that can or should be applied e"er89here is suspect- As man8 scholars
and some practitioners ha"e been obser"ing for decades: there is no ?one best
9a8<- 4he 9hole e=ercise of reform should begin 9ith a careful diagnosis of the
local situation: not 9ith the proclamation of a model &or techni>ue+ 9hich is to be
applied: top do9n- ?2o prescription 9ithout careful diagnosis< is not a bad motto
for reformers-
'- Another: related point is that tas differences reall8 do matter- A maret,t8pe
mechanism ma8 9or >uite 9ell 9hen applied to refuse collection but not 9hen
applied to hospital care- 1ectoral and tas differences are important: and
reformers should be 9ar8 of situations 9here their ad"isor8 team lacs substantial
e=pertise in the particular tass and acti"ities that are the targets for reform-
$- PMR is always political as 9ell as managerial/organiGational- An8 prescription or
diagnosis 9hich does not tae into account the ?9a8 politics 9ors around here<
is inade>uate and incomplete- 1ome ernel of acti"e support from among the
political elite is usuall8 indispensable-
%- PMR is usuall8 saturated 9ith "ested interests: including those of the
consultants/ad"isors: and the e=isting public ser"ice staff- 4o conceptualise it as a
purel8 technical e=ercise 9ould be naU"e-
(- 1uccessful PMR is fre>uentl8 an iterati"e e=ercise: o"er considerable periods of
time- Reformers must adapt and also tae ad"antage of ?9indo9s of opportunit8<-
4his implies a locall8 no9ledgable presence o"er time: not a one,shot ?>uic fi=<
b8 "isiting consultants-
F- It does 9or sometimesL But: as indicated at the outset: humilit8 is not a bad
starting point-
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