TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 CHAPTER.........................................................................................................................................5
INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................5
2 CHAPTER.........................................................................................................................................7
LITERATURE STUDY AT SSGC....................................................................................................7
3 CHAPTER.......................................................................................................................................71
EXPERIMENTAL WORK..............................................................................................................71
.............................................................................................................................................................83
4 CHAPTER.......................................................................................................................................84
RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS........................................................................................................84
5 CHAPTER.......................................................................................................................................2
CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................................2
REFERENCES..................................................................................................................................3
Page | 1
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 2!1" F#$$%&'M%()$ S(&%*+(, C-./)&#0-* #* AWS 1G&-2/ I3...............................................
TABLE 2!2" F#$$%&'M%()$ S(&%*+(, C-./)&#0-* #* AWS 1G&-2/ III3............................................
TABLE 2!"3" T,% (4/%0 -5 %$%6(&-7%08 D#) 9 (,% (4/% -5 /)00%0 5-& :,#6, #( #0 20%7...................11
TABLE 2!4" T,% %$%.%*()$ 6-./-0#(#-* -5 .)+*%0#2. A*-7%.....................................................4
TABLE 2!5" T,% %$%.%*()$ 6-./-0#(#-* -5 ;#*6 )*-7%..................................................................5<
TABLE 2!=" T,% C2&&%*( R%>2#&%7 5-& C)(,-7#6 P&-(%6(#-*........................................................55
TABLE 2!7" D#55%&%*( /-:%& 02//$4 040(%. 5-& ICCP )*7 (,%#& #*/2( 0-2&6%0...................55
TABLE 2!8" R%0#0()*6% #* -,. -5 0#*+$% ?%&(#6)$ )*-7% #* 1<<<!-,.'66 S-#$..............................=1
Page | 2
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 2!1" S,-:#*+ (,% W%$7#*+ P&-6%00 -5 G)0 P#/%$#*% )( SSGC.........................................15
FIGURE 2!2" S,-:#*+ W%$7#*+ D%5%6( #* G)0 P#/%$#*%.................................................................21
FIGURE 2!3" X!R)40 F#$. -5 W%$7 T)@%* )( SSGC......................................................................2=
FIGURE 2!4" E>2#/.%*( 5-& U$(&)0-*#6 (%0( )( SSGC...................................................................28
FIGURE 2!5" E>2#/.%*( 5-& H47&- (%0(#*+ )( C&%06%*( S(%%$ M#$$0 N-&#)A)7............................3<
FIGURE 2!=" G)$?)*#6 6-&&-0#-* -5 ) .)+*%0#2. 0,%$$ (,)( :)0 6)0( )&-2*7 ) 0(%%$ 6-&%........34
FIGURE 2!7" P$)(% :,#6, :)0 #..%&0%7 #* 0%):)(%&8 6&%?#6% 6-&&-0#-*............................34
FIGURE 2!8" T,% /#((#*+ -5 ) 3<4 0()#*$%00 0(%%$ /$)(% A4 )* )6#7!6,$-&#7% 0-$2(#-*...................35
FIGURE 2!" W%$7 7%6)4 #* ) 0()#*$%00 0(%%$. T,% &%+#-*0 )$-*+ :,#6, (,% +&--?%0...................3=
FIGURE 2!1<" I./#*+%.%*( 5)#$2&% -5 )* %$A-: (,)( :)0 /)&( -5 ) 0(%). 6-*7%*0)(% $#*%.
..............................................................................................................................................................37
FIGURE 2!11" P,-(-.#6&-+&)/, 0,-:#*+ #*(%&+&)*2$)& 0(&%00 6-&&-0#-* 6&)6@#*+ #*
A&)00.....................................................................................................................................................38
FIGURE 2!12" C)(,-7#6 P&-(%6(#-* :#(, G)$?)*#6 A*-7%............................................................45
FIGURE 2!13" C)(,-7#6 P&-(%6(#-* :#(, I./&%00%7 C2&&%*(.......................................................47
FIGURE 2!14" R%6(#5#%& )( SSGC.....................................................................................................5=
FIGURE 2!15" S,-:0 E$%6(&-*#6 C-*(&-$ U*#( )( SSGC................................................................58
FIGURE 2!1=" S,-:0 M-72$%0 5-& S-$)& S40(%.............................................................................5
FIGURE 2!17" S,-:0 P-(%*(#)$ S2&?%4 )( S#(% B#0#(.......................................................................==
FIGURE 3!18" W%$7%7 0)./$%..................................................................................................72
FIGURE 3!1" B#6@%&0 D#).-*7 6-*% )*7 B#6@%&0 H)&7*%00 T%0(%& .........................................75
FIGURE 3!2<" H)&7*%00 T%0(%&.................................................................................................7=
FIGURE 3!21" D#)+&). O5 T%*0#$% T%0( S/%6#.%*........................................................................78
FIGURE 3!22" S6,%.)(#6 7#)+&). 5-& (%*0#$% (%0(#*+ .)6,#*%.....................................................7
FIGURE 3!23" 1)3 S/%6#.%* 20%7 5-& C,)&/4 )*7 IC-7 #./)6( (%0(0...........................................8<
FIGURE 3!24" AA&)0#?% 62((#*+ .)6,#*%........................................................................................81
Page | 3
FIGURE 3!25" M-2*(#*+ M)6,#*%.............................................................................................81
FIGURE 3!2=" G&#*7#*+ M)6,#*%....................................................................................................82
FIGURE 3!27" P-$#0,#*+ .)6,#*%.....................................................................................................82
FIGURE 3!28" E(6,#*+ A+%*(0..........................................................................................................83
FIGURE 3!22" M%()$$2&+#6)$ M#6&-06-/%......................................................................................83
FIGURE 4!3<" H)C X1<<...................................................................................................................85
FIGURE 4!31" P)&%*( M%()$ X1<<...................................................................................................85
FIGURE 4!32" W%$7%7 X1<<.............................................................................................................85
FIGURE 4!33" C-*()#*%& 9 0)./$% -5 :)(%& -5 2*/&-(%6(%7 0)./$%0 1)5(%& 4 .-*(,03.............87
FIGURE 4!34" C-*()#*%& 9 0)./$% -5 :)(%& #* :,#6, 0)./$%0 )&% /&-(%6(%7 :#(, A$2.#*2.
..............................................................................................................................................................87
FIGURE 4!35" C-*()#*%& 9 0)./$% -5 :)(%& #* :,#6, 0)./$%0 )&% /&-(%6(%7 :#(, ;#*6 ..........87
Page | 4
1 CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION
Welding is today used extensively for joining materials together and there is
no doubt that it has been the most significant factor in the phenomenal growth of all
industries. Very complex geometries can effectively be joined to give complete
continuity in the structure and there are very fair fabrications which do not some
where, contain a welded joint. Welding products range from the very sophisticated
space vehicles to simple garden tools.
Welding applied to structural steel work has supplanted rivets and bolts,
resulting in higher and cheaper fabrications with simpler connections. A welded
structure because of its cleaner lines is more aesthetically pleasing to the eyes and
leads to reduce, since corrosion traps are mainly eliminated. With the more efficient
joints obtained by welding, continuous beams and girders may be of higher
construction and the rigidity inherent in welded connections simplifies the design of
buildings to plastic theory. Welding also allows greater freedom to the designer in
that the method of joining; permits a wider choice in component parts and the
geometry of the connections, he may reuire.

Welding is also important for the aero
planes, space shuttles and gas pipes. !he tip or the front face of the space shuttle
head is welded, so that it withstands the pressure. "#$
%orrosion in &akistan has not been assessed or documented but it can be
assumed that it is not any way less serious than in other industriali'ed country.
%orrosion is defined as the deterioration of a material because of reaction with its
environment. !o one degree or another, most materials experience some type of
interaction with a large number of diverse environments. (ften, such interactions
impair a material)s usefulness as a result of the deterioration of its mechanical
properties *e.g., ductility and strength+, other physical properties, or appearance.
(ccasionally, to the chagrin of a design engineer, the degradation behavior of a
material for some application is ignored, with adverse conseuences. ",-$
!he first and important step for the pipe line network is the selection of
material, that it should have the desire properties like toughness, ductility, strength,
weldability, wear resistant and corrosion resistant. .urthermore it should also be
economically available in the market. ",/$
Page | 5
%athodic protection is a techniue to protect a buried or immersed metallic
structure by making it the cathode of a galvanic cell or by impressing a current from
an external power source using an inert anode this techniue has been successfully
applied for more than 0/ years and is now accepted as a proven and an established
technology. 1n order to reduce corrosion to manageable levels, cathodic protection
systems must be designed, engineered, installed, operated and maintained to high
standards. "-$
Page | 6
2 CHAPTER
LITERATURE STUDY AT SSGC
2.1 WELDING
INTRODUCTION
&ipelines are constructed from approximately ,- meter double random lengths
of pipe joined together by manual, semi automatic or automatic fusion welding. .or
the pipeline installation, contractor use to accept a range of pipes. !he selection of
welding method is determined by the contractor)s capability, the pipe diameter, wall
thickness and, to a lesser extent, fabrication location. Welding is the critical step in
pipe lying because it dictates the length of time to form the pipeline and a major
impact on the cost of the project.
2ew welding processes are developed nowadays e.g. .riction welding, .lash
butt welding and 3aser ion beam welding. "0$
2.2 WELDING PROCESS
Welding is a process of joining metal which produces coalescence of the
material across the joints by heating to a suitable temperature with or without
pressure and with or without the addition of filler metal. %oalescence is the growing
together of the grain structure of the metals being welded. !here are three critical
parameters4
5eat input4 sufficient energy must be provided to melt the metal and
consumable *W6 m-+.
5eat input rate4 the rate of energy input controls the rate of welding *W 6
m-6m6s+.
7hielding from the atmosphere4 prevents oxidation of the molten melt which
would produce a weak weldment. "8$
Page | 7
2.3 ESSENTIAL BARIABLES
7ome essential variables related to welding are4
1. W%$7#*+ /&-6%00 -& .%(,-7 -5 )//$#6)(#-*"
A change from the welding process or method of application established in
the procedure specification constitutes an essential variable.
2. B)0% M)(%&#)$"
A change in base material constitutes an essential variable. When welding
materials of two separate material groups, the procedure for the higher strength
group shall be used. .or the purpose of this standard, all materials shall be grouped
as follows
7pecified minimum yield strength less than or eual to 8-,///&si *-9/:&a+.
7pecified minimum yield strength greater than 8-,///psi but less than #0,//psi
*88;:&a+
.or materials with specified minimum yield strength greater than or eual to
#0,///psi *88;:&a+ each grade shell receive a separate ualification test.
3. D-#*( D%0#+*"
A major change in joint design *for example from V groove to < groove+
constitutes an essential variable. :inor changes in the angle of bevel or the land of
the welding groove are not essential variables.
4. P-0#(#-*"
A change in position from roll to fixed, or vice versa constitutes an essential
variable for welding.
5. W)$$ T,#6@*%00"
A change from one wall thickness group to another constitutes an essential
variable for welding.
=. F#$$%& M%()$"
!he following changes in filler metal constitute an essential variable4
A change from one filler metal group to another.
.or pipe materials with specified minimum yield strength greater than or eual
to #0,///&si a change in the AW7 classification of the filler metal, changes in
filler metal with in filler metal groups may be made.
Page | 8
!A=3> -?,4 .iller6:etal 7trength %omparison in AW7 *@roup 1+
!A=3> -?-4 .iller6:etal 7trength %omparison in AW7 *@roup 111+
7. E$%6(&#6)$ C,)&)6(%&#0(#60"
A change from A% electrode positive to A% electrode negative or a change in
current from A% to A% constitutes an essential variable.
8. T#.% B%(:%%* P)00%0"
An increase in the maximum time between completion of the root bead and the
start of the second bead constitutes an essential variable.
. D#&%6(#-* O5 W%$7#*+"
A change in the direction of welding from vertical downhill to vertical uphill, or
vice versa, constitutes an essential variable.
Page | 9
1<. S,#%$7#*+ G)0 A*7 F$-: R)(%"
A change from one shielding gas to another or from one mixture of gasses to
another constitutes an essential variable. A major increase or decrease in the
range of flow rates for the shielding gas also constitutes an essential variable.
11. S,#%$7#*+ F$2E"
%hange in shielding flux is also an important variable.
12. S/%%7 O5 T&)?%$"
%hange in the speed of travel also constitutes an important variable.
13. P&%,%)("
A decrease in the specified minimum preheat temperature constitutes an
essential variable.
14. P-0( W%$7 H%)( T&%)(.%*( 1PWHT3"
!he addition of &W5! or a change from ranges or values specified in the
procedure shall each constitutes an essential variable. ",0$
2.4 ELECTRODE CLASSIFICATION
>lectrode classification fall mainly into two categories4 the group that will
weld satisfactorily in all positions and the group that will weld satisfactorily only in
flat and hori'ontal positions. !he >#/,/, >#/,,, and >#/,- group falls into the all
position category. !he >B/-8 type falls into the flat and hori'ontal welding position
category. !hey are all carbon steel core type electrodes. !here are many other
classifications and sub classifications, but a good knowledge of the few basic
electrodes is sufficient for a well rounded understanding of the different
classification working conditions. "8$
2.4.1 C$)00#5#6)(#-* N2.A%& D%0#+*)(#-*
!he letter > always designates electrodes. !he first two digits designate the
tensile strength in thousands of pounds per suare inch *psi+. .or example, if the
first two digits are #/, the minimum tensile strength of the deposited metal would be
#/,/// psi. !he third digit C,D always designate that the electrode will weld
satisfactorily in all positions and a C-D always designates that the electrode will not
weld satisfactorily in all positions. !he fourth digit C/, ,, -, or 8Ddesignates the type
of flux coating and welding current to be used. !he fourth digit cannot be
considered individually but must be combined with the third digit, not only to help
Page | 10
indicate the type of flux coating, but also if more than one type of welding current
can be used successfully. 1t will also give a clue as to the resulting bead face,
surface variation, and penetration pattern. "8$
!ype of electrode Aia !ype of passes
>?#/,/
>?#/,/
,6;
06E-
<p 5ill
Aown 5ill
>?B/,/
>?;/,/
>?9/,/
06E-
F
F
5ot &ass
F
F
>?B/,/
>?;/,/
>?9/,/
E6,#
F
F
.illing G %apping
!A=3> -?4E4 !he types of electrodes, Aia G the type of passes for which it is used
2.5 WELDING PROCESS
!he welding processes most commonly employed today include gas
welding, arc welding, and resistance welding. (ther joining processes include
thermite welding, laser welding, and electron?beam welding.
2.5.1 G)0 W%$7#*+
@as welding is a non?pressure process using heat from a gas flame. !he
flame is applied directly to the metal edges to be joined and simultaneously to a
filler metal in wire or rod form, called the welding rod, which is melted to the joint.
@as welding has the advantage of involving euipment that is portable and does not
reuire an electric power source. !he surfaces to be welded and the welding rod are
coated with flux, a fusible material that shields the material from air, which would
result in a defective weld.
2.5.2 A&6 W%$7#*+
Arc?welding processes, which have become the most important welding
processes, particularly for joining steels, reuire a continuous supply of either direct
or alternating electrical current. !his current is used to create an electric arc, which
generates enough heat to melt metal and create a weld.
Arc welding has several advantages over other welding methods. Arc
welding is faster because of its high heat concentration, which also tends to reduce
distortion in the weld. Also, in certain methods of arc welding, fluxes are not
Page | 11
necessary. !he most widely used arc?welding processes are shielded metal arc, gas?
tungsten arc, gas?metal arc, and submerged arc.
2.5.2.1 S,#%$7%7 M%()$ A&6
1n shielded metal?arc welding, a metallic electrode, which conducts
electricity, is coated with flux and connected to a source of electric current. !he
metal to be welded is connected to the other end of the same source of current. =y
touching the tip of the electrode to the metal and then drawing it away, an electric
arc is formed. !he intense heat of the arc melts both parts to be welded and the point
of the metal electrode, which supplies filler metal for the weld. !his process,
developed in the early -/th century, is used primarily for welding steels.
2.5.2.2 G)0!T2*+0(%* A&6
1n gas?tungsten arc welding, a tungsten electrode is used in place of the
metal electrode used in shielded metal?arc welding. A chemically inert gas, such as
argon or helium, is used to shield the metal from oxidation. !he heat from the arc
formed between the electrode and the metal melts the edges of the metal. :etal for
the weld may be added by placing a bare wire in the arc or the point of the weld.
!his process can be used with nearly all metals and produces a high?uality weld.
5owever, the rate of welding is considerably slower than in other processes.
2.5.2.3 G)0!M%()$ A&6
1n gas?metal welding, a bare electrode is shielded from the air by
surrounding it with argon or carbon dioxide gas or by coating the electrode with
flux. !he electrode is fed into the electric arc, and melts off in droplets to enter the
liuid metal that forms the weld. :ost common metals can be joined by this
process.
2.5.2.4 S2A.%&+%7 A&6
7ubmerged?arc welding is similar to gas?metal arc welding, but in this
process no gas is used to shield the weld. 1nstead, the arc and tip of the wire are
submerged beneath a layer of granular, fusible material formulated to produce a
proper weld. !his process is very efficient but is generally only used with steels.
2.5.3 R%0#0()*6% A*7 T,%&.#(% W%$7#*+
1n resistance welding, heat is obtained from the resistance of metal to the
flow of an electric current. >lectrodes are clamped on each side of the parts to be
Page | 12
welded, the parts are subjected to great pressure, and a heavy current is applied
briefly. !he point where the two metals meet creates resistance to the flow of
current. !his resistance causes heat, which melts the metals and creates the weld.
Hesistance welding is extensively employed in many fields of sheet metal or wire
manufacturing and is particularly adaptable to repetitive welds made by automatic
or semiautomatic machines.
1n thermite welding, heat is generated by the chemical reaction that results
when a mixture of aluminum powder and iron oxide, known as thermite, is ignited.
!he aluminum unites with the oxygen and generates heat, releasing liuid steel from
the iron. !he liuid steel serves as filler metal for the weld. !hermite welding is
employed chiefly in welding breaks or seams in heavy iron and steel sections. 1t is
also used in the welding of rail for railroad tracks. ",#$
2.6 WELDING PASSES
<sually welding process is carried out in so many passes some of them are
explained below4
2.=.1 R--( P)00
!he root pass is the initial and most critical weld. =ecause this weld is laid
down in a straight line without weaving of the weld bead the root pass is sometimes
termed the stringer bead. %onventionally the root pass weld is started at the top of
the pipe at the ,- o)clock position and is run down to the bottom, # o)clock position
in straight line with the brother in law team of two welders working one on each
side of the pipe. !his is down hand welding and is the fastest procedure. <nhand
welding is slightly slower but uses larger electrodes and higher heat input, which
reduces the risk of hydrogen cracking.
.or pipes of diameter above ; in. the welder start and finish together as this
keeps the welding stresses in balance. <p to four welding positions may be needed
on very large diameter pipes both for speed and stress balance. 1t is vital that this
weld completely fuses the inner faces of the pipe joints without leaving unfused
areas or excessive weld metal protruding into the pipe, termed icicles. !hese metal
protrusions may initiate corrosion and will damage pigs. .or large diameter pipes it
is possible to place the root pass from the inside of the pipe as this avoid formation
Page | 13
of the icicles. 5owever this option reuires complex euipment and is only cost
effective for large diameter pipe and long length pipelines.
7emi automatic euipment is commonly used for the root pass though full
automatic euipment is available and is used when the root pass is formed from the
inside of the pipe. After the stringer bead or root pass is completed the internal
clamp is released and moves through the pipe to position the next joint as the pipe is
advanced. ",0$
2.=.2 H-( P)00
!o eliminate any risk of cold cracking of the root pass and the 5AI by
hydrogen a second weld is applied as soon as possible over the root pass. !he hot
pass remelts the first weld slightly and heat treats the 5AI. As a general rule the
temperature of the root pass should not be allowed to fall below ,// J -0
/
% if
cellulosic electrodes are used to ensure that hydrogen migration is effective. As the
pipeline strength increases the inter pass temperature needs to increase, so for
welding grade x#0 and above the temperature reuire would be about ,0/ J -0
/
%.
!he hot pass is usually placed within 8 to 0 minutes of completing the root pass.
!he maximum allowable delay to avoid falling below the minimum interpass
temperature is about ,/ minutes. Auring the cooling period the root pass must be
cleaned to bare metal to remove lateral slag which induces Cwagon tracksD, named
because of their appearance in the K?ray film. 1f the root pass is allowed to cool then
it may have strength of ,E/ :&a above that of the finished joint. 1f there is an
uncontrolled movement of the pipe then the weld can crack. !his would necessitate
parting the pipe, rebevelling, inspecting and re welding. ",0$
2.=.3 F#$$%& P)00
!he filler weld passes are less critical than the root and hot pass and
automatic and semi?automatic welding machines are often used which can lay down
rapid volumes of weld metal. !he filler passes need to be made with slight weave4
the movement of the molten filler metal from side to side. Weaving helps to insure
complete fusion of the bevel walls. =etween each pas the welds must be cleaned to
bare metal. 7ometimes additional welds are needed at the sides to build up the weld
to the correct thickness. !he welding procedure can leave variations in the thickness
Page | 14
of the weldment so stripper passes may be needed to even up the thickness of the
weldment before the cap pass is applied. ",0$
FIGURE 2!1" S,-:#*+ (,% W%$7#*+ P&-6%00 -5 G)0 P#/%$#*% )( SSGC
2.=.4 C-?%& O& C)/ P)00
!he cap or cover pass is the final welds. !he cap pass is run around the pipe
to fill the residual grove, leaving the weld , to ,.0 mm above the pipe surface and
with an overlap on the outside surface of the pipe around , to - mm. 1f manual arc
welding is used a typical electrode si'e is 0 mm. slightly lower amperage is used to
reduce porosity that can occur from overheating of the weld deposits or from
excessive weaving. %are is also reuired to ensure that the overlap of the cap pass is
fully fused with the parent pipe. ",0$
2.7 PIPE FABRICATION THROUGH WELDING
&ipe for the oil and gas industry in largely restricted to four fabrication
routes4 seamless, longitudinally welded by electrical resistance welding, helical or
spiral welded and longitudinally welded using submerged arc welding. &roduction
of pipe by furnace butt?welding of hot plate, though permitted, cannot produce the
large diameters reuired.
2owadays many pipe fabricators are independent and not part of an
integrated steel company. .abricators also tend to speciali'e in certain pipe
fabrication techniues and few produce pipe material over the full range of
diameters and wall thickness. !he (il and @as Lournal make a regular survey of
pipe fabricators but this listing is not comprehensive as many of the >ast >uropean
and .ar >astern fabricators are omitted from the list. 1ndependent pipe mills form
pipe from plate or coiled plate that is bought from whatever source can provide
suitable material, at an acceptable price. .or the production of a large uantity of
pipe the plate may be sourced from several steel suppliers. !he mechanical
Page | 15
properties of the pipe will be consistent with specification but caution is necessary
regarding the weld procedures as small variations in composition can affect the
uality of the weld achieved. ",E$
2.7.1 S%).$%00 P#/%
7eamless pipe is formed by hot working steel to form a pipe without a
welded seam. !he initially formed pipe may be subseuently cold worked to obtain
the reuired diameter and wall thickness and heat treated to modify the mechanical
properties. A solid bar of steel, termed a billet, is cut from a slab and is heated and
formed by rollers around a piercer to produce a length of pipe. !he :annesmann
mill is perhaps the best known type of piercing mill. 1n this mill the steel billet is
driven between rotating, barrel?shaped rolls set at a slight angle to each other. !he
rolls rotate at about ,// M ,0/ rpm and the billet also rotates. !he piercer is placed
just beyond the point where the billet is suee'ed by the rolls so that as the formed
billet passes through the CpinchD 'one between the two rollers the reducing stress
tend to open the metal over the piercer.
!he piercing mill produces the primary tube that reuires finishing forming
the pipe. !he wall thickness is further reduced and the pipe finished in plug rolling
mills that drive the pipe over long mandrels fitted with plugs of the correct internal
diameter between rollers that extrude the tube to the reuired external diameter. An
older process is the &ilger process. !his process uses eccentric rolls to form the pipe
in discrete stages. A mandrel is inserted into the partly formed pipe from the
piercing mill. !he assembly is driven into the open rolls and, as the rolls rotate back
and forth, seuential sections of the pipe are drawn into the eccentric rolls and outer
diameter formed to the reuired dimension set by the roller eccentricity.
!his type of pipe is generally available in diameters up to ,#?inch but can be
obtained in si'es up to a maximum of -;?inch from a restricted number of suppliers
1ts principal advantages are its good track record in service and that there are no
welds in the pipe sections.
!he larger diameter seamless pipe may be more expensive than pipe
fabricated by the alternative process. Aisadvantages of seamless pipe are a fairly
wide variation of wall thickness, typically N,0O ? ,-.0O and out?of?roundness and
straightness. ",E$
Page | 16
2.7.2 E$%6(&#6)$ R%0#0()*6% W%$7%7 1ERW3 P#/%
>HW pipe is formed from coiled plate steel. !he plate is uncoiled and
sheared to a convenient workable length, flattened and the edges dressed. !he plate
is passed through a seuence of rolls to form the pipe. !he seuence of rolls crimps
the edges of the plate and then progressively bends the body of the plate into a
circular form ready for welding of the longitudinal seam. !he longitudinal seam
weld is made by electrical resistance welding *hence the name of the pipe+. When a
new coil of plate is started it is welded to the end of the previous coil to allow it to
be pulled through the rolling mill. !he pipe formed with a joint in the middle *a
jointer+ is generally not accepted for use for pipelines.
An electrical current is passed across the interface to heat the steel pipe faces
that are to be >HW welded. (nce molten the faces are pressed together to produce
the longitudinal seam weld. !he heating may be by low freuency A% current,
typically #/ M E#/ 5', introduced directly into the pipe by rolling contacts or
induced into the steel with induction coils operating at high freuencies of above
8//,/// 5'. !he later process of producing the pipe is term high freuency induced
*5.1+ >HW pipe.
&ipe for oil and gas pipelines is almost exclusively produce using high
freuency induction welding. !wo American, three >uropean and four Lapanese
manufacturers presently produce the majority of this type of >HW pipe.
!he pressure exerted on the faces during the weld forming process result in
the molten metal at the faces being suee'ed outward to form stubs of metal above
and below the weld. Any debris or oxides on the steel faces is discharged in the
stubs of metal. !he stubs of metal are trimmed off and the weld is inspected using
ultrasonic probes. !he weld is then locally heat treated to anneal the weld and heat?
affected 'one.
!he weld is extremely fine as the bulk of the molten metal is suee'ed out. 1t
is not possible to detect the weld by eye and it is prudent to specify that a paint line
mark the weld line. 7amples of weld are cut from the ends of pipe for
metallographic inspection, analysis, tensile, ductile and toughness testing. !he
invisibility of the weld has lead to attempt to pass off >HW pipe as seamless.
>HW pipe is the main competitor to seamless pipe. 1t is cheaper than
seamless and it can have considerably tighter tolerances on wall thickness. &ipe
Page | 17
lengths are typically standard length J 0/ mm and the pipe can be produced in
lengths up to -B. !hrough A&1 7pecification 03 permits a wide tolerance on wall
thickness, N,9.06?;O, typical modern wall thickness tolerances are J 0 O. 1t is also
claimed that pipe wall thickness can be specified to /., mm and non?A&1
7pecification 03 si'es are available. !hese tight tolerances can have a cost benefit
as the smaller tolerance in wall thickness and circularity permit a more rapid set up
and lend themselves to semi?automatic and automatic welding processes. ",8$
2.7.3 U!O!E 1-& SAW3 L-*+#(27#*)$$4 W%$7%7 P#/%
<?(?> pipe is formed from individual plates of steel by firstly forming plate
into a <, then into a tube *(+. After longitudinally welding, the pipe is then
expanded *>+ to ensure circularity. =ecause the longitudinal weld is produced using
the submerged arc welding process the pipe is sometimes termed 7AW pipe.
7ubmerged arc welding is process where an electric arc is submerged or
hidden beneath a granular material. !he electric acc provides the necessary heat to
melt and fuse the metal. !he granular material, called flux; completely surrounds
the electric arc, shields the arc and the metal from the atmosphere. A metal wire is
fed into the weld 'one underneath the flux.
!ab plates are fixed to the steel plate and the plate cut to exact si'e and the
edges dressed. !he edges are then crimped and the complete plate is progressively
bent into a <?shape and then into a tube in presses. !he (?press leaves a residual
/.- M /.8O compression in the pipe. A higher compression is provided for pipe for
sour service. !he butting edges are tack welded at the tab plates to prevent
movement during the main welding. !he butting edges of the tube are then welded
along using submerged arc welding with multiple head welding devices. At least
two welding passes are made. .irst the internal weld is formed and then the pipe is
rotated through ,;/P and a second external weld pass made. !he tab plates are
provided to allow the weld to start and finish beyond the end of the pipe to ensure a
uality weld at the start and end of the pipe.
<?(?> pipe is used for the larger diameter pipelines. 1t is competitive with
seamless pipe for the intermediate diameters *,8?inch to -;?inch+. .or the smaller
diameter pipes the pipe fabricator may use cut down plate because producing
narrow plate is less economical. =ecause inclusions and segregation tend to
concentrate at the centre of the plate a pipe formed from a split plate may have
Page | 18
inclusions and segregation adjacent to the weld. 7uch pipe may be unsuitable for
sour service. 1f split plates are to be used then an odd number should be cut to avoid
the centre line of the original plate abutting the longitudinal weld. ",E$
2.7.4 H%$#6)$ 1S/#&)$3 W%$7%7 P#/%
A coil of hot?coiled plate is uncoiled, straightened and flattened and the
edges dressed. !he plate is then helical wound to form a pipe. !he width of the strip
and the angle of coiling determine the pipe diameter. As the pipe is formed the
helical seam is welded using inert gas welding or submerged arc welding *7AW+
first internally and as the seam rotates to the top position the external weld is made.
A continuous length of pipe is produced. After forming the pipe is passed through a
seuence of rollers to ensure circularity.
!he pipe weld is tested using radiography or ultrasonic testing and the pipe
is then cut to the reuired lengths. !he pipe joints are hydrostatically tested before
being re?inspected. 1f the pipe passes inspection then it is end?faced or beveled, the
end protector caps are fitted and pipe transported to the pipe racks.
!he end of the coiled plate is welded to the start of the next pate coil and this
result in a weld perpendicular to the helical weld forming the pipe. !his weld joint
should not be less than E// mm from the end of the pipe. !his weld may not receive
the same degree of scrutiny as the helical welds and the pipe specification may need
to call for an additional inspection of these welds after the hydro testing stage.
5elical welded pipe can be made in a wider range of diameters and wall
thickness than nominal A&1 7pecification 03 si'es. 1t can also be produced in long
lengths above the normal double random length of ,- m. because the pipe is formed
from late the wall thickness tolerances are good being similar to <?(?> pipe though
there may higher out?of?roundness. 1t has been used for large diameter pipelines,
both crude oil and gas, but is generally considered a less reliable material than <?(?
> formed pipe. 1t is cheaper than <?(?> and is widely used for caissons, sleeves,
low?pressure hydrocarbon service, dried gas service and water transportation where
the service is moderate. ",E$
Page | 19
2.8 WELDING DEFECTS
Aifferent welding defects are listed below
1. I*)7%>2)(% P%*%(&)(#-* :#(,-2( H#+,!$-: 1IP3"
1nadeuate penetration without high?low *1&+ is defined as the incomplete
filling of the weld root. 1& shall be considered a defect should any of the following
conditions exist4
a+ !he length of an individual indication of 1& exceeds , in. *-0mm+.
b+ !he aggregate length of indications of 1& is any continuous ,- in. *E//+ length
of weld exceeds , in. *-0mm+.
c+ !he aggregate length of indications of 1& exceeds ;O of the weld length in any
weld less than ,- in. *E//mm+ in length. "#$
2. I*)7%>2)(% P%*%(&)(#-* D2% (- H#+,!$-: 1IPD3"
1nadeuate penetration due to high low *1&A+ is defined as the condition that
exists when one end of this is exposed *or unbonded+ because adjacent pipe or
fitting joints are misaligned. 1&A shall be considered a defect when any of the
following conditions exist4
a+ !he length of an individual indication of 1&A exceeds - in. *0/mm+.
b+ !he aggregate length of indications of 1&A in any continuous ,- in. *E//+
c+ 3ength of weld exceeds E in. *B0mm+. "#$
3. I*)7%>2)(% C&-00 P%*%(&)(#-*"
1nadeuate cross penetration is defined as face imperfection between the
first inside pass and the first outside pass that is caused by inadeuate penetrating
the vertical land faces. 1%& shall be considered a defect if any of the following
conditions exists4
a+ !he length of an individual indication of 1%& exceeds - in. *0/mm+.
b+ !he aggregate length of indications of 1%& in any continuous ,- in. *E//+
length - in. *0/mm+. "#$
Page | 20
4. I*6-./$%(% F20#-*"
1ncomplete fusion is defined as a surface imperfection between the weld
metal and the base material that is open to the surface. 1ncomplete fusion is
considered a defect if any one of the following conditions exists4
a+ !he length of an individual indication of 1. exceeds , in. *-0mm+.
b+ !he aggregate length of indications of 1. in any continuous ,- in. *E//mm+
length of weld exceeds , in.
c+ !he aggregate length of indications of 1. exceeds ;O of the weld length in any
weld less than ,- in. in length. ",0$
5. I*6-./$%(% F20#-* D2% (- C-$7 L)/"
1ncomplete fusion due cold lap is defined as an imperfection between two
adjacent weld beads or between or between the weld metal and the base metal that is
not open to the surface. . 1.A shall be considered a defect if any of the following
conditions exists4
a+ !he length of the individual indication of 1.A exceeds - in. *0/mm+.
b+ !he aggregate length of indications of 1.& in any continuous ,- in. length of
weld exceeds - in.
c+ !he aggregate length of indications of 1.A exceeds ;O of the weld length.
=. I*(%&*)$ C-*6)?#(4"
1nternal concavity is defined as that a bead that is properly fused to and
completely penetrates the pipe wall thickness along both sides of the bevel, but
whose center is somewhat above the inside surface of the pipe wall. !he magnitude
of concavity is the perpendicular distance between an axial extension of the pipe
wall surface and the lowest point on the weld bead surface. ",0$
FIGURE 2!2" S,-:#*+ W%$7#*+ D%5%6( #* G)0 P#/%$#*%
Page | 21
7. B2&* T,&-2+,"
A burn through is defined as a portion of the root bead where excessive
penetration has caused the weld puddle to be blown into the pipe. .or pipe with an
outside diameter greater than or eual to -.EB0 in. *#/.Emm+, a =! shall be
considered if any of the following conditions exist4
a+ !he maximum dimension exceeds Q in. *#mm+ and the density of the =!
image exceeds that of thinnest adjacent thinnest material.
b+ !he maximum dimension exceeds the thinner of the nominal wall thickness
joined, and the density of the =utt image exceeds that of the thinnest adjacent
parent material.
c+ !he sum of the maximum dimensions of separate =! whose image density
exceeds that of the thinnest adjacent parent material exceeds R in. *,Emm+ in
any continuous ,- in. length of weld or the total weld length, whichever is
less.
.or pipe with an outside diameter less than -.EB0 in. =! shall be considered a defect
when any of the following conditions exists4
a+ !he maximum dimension exceeds Q in. *# mm+ and the density of the =!
image exceeds that of the thinnest adjacent parent material.
b+ !he maximum dimension exceeds the thinner of the nominal wall thicknesses
joined, and the density of the =! image exceeds that of the thinnest of the
adjacent material.
c+ :ore than one =! of any si'e is present and the density of the more than one
of the images exceeds that of the thinnest adjacent parent material. ",0$
8. S$)+ I*6$20#-*0"
A slag inclusion is defined as a non metallic solid entrapped in the weld
metal or between the weld metal and the parent material. >longated slag inclusions
*>71+ e.g. continuous or broken slag lines or wagon tracks are usually found at the
fusion 'one. 1solated slag inclusions *171+ are irregular shaped and may be located
anywhere in the weld. .or evaluation purposes, when the si'e of a radiographic
indication of slag is measured, the indication maximum dimension shall be
considered its length.
Page | 22
.or pipe with an outside diameter greater than or eual to -.EB0 in. *#/.E mm+, slag
inclusions shall be considered a defect should any of the following conditions exist;
a+ !he length of an >71 indication exceeds - in. *0/ mm+.
b+ !he aggregate length of >71 indications in any continuous ,- in. length of
weld exceeds - in.
c+ !he width of an >71 indication exceeds ,6,# in. *,.# mm+.
d+ !he aggregate length of 171 indications in any continuous ,- in. length of weld
exceeds R in. *,E mm+.
e+ !he width of an 171 indication exceeds ,6; in. *E mm+.
f+ :ore than four indications of an 171 with the maximum width of ,6; in. are
present in any continuous ,- in. length of weld.
g+ !he aggregate length of >71 and 171 indications exceeds ;O of the weld
length.
.or pipe with an outside diameter less than -.EB0 in. * #/.E mm +, slag inclusion
shall be considered a defect if any of the following conditions exist;
a+ !he length of an >71 indication exceeds E times the thinner of the nominal
joined.
b+ !he width of an >71 indication exceeds ,6,# in. *,.# mm+.
c+ !he aggregate length 171 indications exceeds - times the thinner of the
nominal wall thicknesses joined and the width exceeds R the thinner of the
nominal wall thicknesses joined.
d+ !he aggregate length of >71 and 171 indications exceeds ;O of the weld
length. ",0$
. P-&-0#(4"
&orosity is defined as gas trapped by solidifying weld metal before the gas
has a chance to rise to the surface of the molten puddle and escape. &orosity is
generally spherical but may be elongated or irregular in shape, such as piping
*wormhole+ porosity. When the si'e of the radiographic indication produced by a
pore is measured, the maximum dimensions of the indication shall apply to the
criteria a through b. 1ndividual or scattered porosity shall be considered a defect
should any of the following conditions exist;
Page | 23
a+ !he si'e of an individual pore exceeds ,6; in. *E mm+.
b+ !he si'e of an individual pore exceeds ,6; in. of the thinner of the nominal
wall thicknesses joined.
%luster porosity *%&+ that occurs in any pass except the finish pass shall comply
with the criteria of CaD %& that occurs in the finish pass shall be considered a defect
should any of the following conditions exist4
a+ !he diameter of the cluster exceeds R in. *,E mm+.
b+ !he aggregate length of %& in any continuous ,- in *E//mm+ length of weld
exceeds R in *,Emm+.
c+ An individual pore with in a cluster exceeds ,6,# in *-mm+ in si'e.
5ollow bead porosity is defined as elongated linear porosity that occurs in the
root pass.
5= shall be considered a defect if any one of the following conditions exists4
a+ !he length of individual indication of exceeds R in *,Emm+.
b+ !he aggregate length of indications of 5= in any continuous ,- in *E//mm+
length of weld exceeds - in. *0/mm+.
c+ 1ndividual indications of 5=, each greater than Q inches *# mm+ in length, are
separated by less than - in. *0/mm+.
d+ !he aggregate length of all indications of 5= exceeds ;O of the weld length.
1<. C&)6@0"
%racks shall be considered a defect should any of the following conditions exists4
a+ !he cracks, of any si'e or location in the weld, are not shallow crater crack or
star crack.
b+ !he crack is the shallow crater crack or star crack with a length that exceed
06E- in *8mm+. "8$
11. U*7%&62((#*+"
<ndercutting is defined as a groove melted into the parent material to the toe
or roots of the weld and left unfilled by weld metal. <ndercutting adjacent to the
cover pass *><+ or root pass *1<+ shall be considered a defect if any of the
following conditions exists4
a+ !he aggregate length of indications of >< and 1< in any combination, in any
continuous ,- in. *E//mm+ length of weld exceeds - in. *0/mm+.
Page | 24
b+ !he aggregate length of >< and 1<, in any combination, exceeds ,6# of the
weld length. "8$
12. A662.2$)(#-* -5 I./%&5%6(#-*0"
>xcluding incomplete penetration due to high?low and under cutting, any
accumulation of imperfections *A1+ shall be considered a defect if any of the
following conditions exists4
a+ !he aggregate length of indications in any continuous ,- in. *E//mm+ length
of weld exceeds - in. *0/mm+.
b+ !he aggregate length of indications exceeds ;O of the weld length."8$
13. P#/% -& F#((#*+ I./%&5%6(#-*0"
1mperfections in pipe or fittings detected by radio?graphic testing shall be
reported to the company. !heir disposition shall be as directed by the company. "8$
2.9 INSPECTION TESTING OF WELD
2..1 R)7#-+&)/,4 1X!&)40 )*7 G)..) R)403
K?rays are an electromagnetic radiation delivered in uanta or parcels of
energy is opposed to continuous delivery. !hey move at the speed of light in straight
lines; are invisible; are not deviated by a lens; ioni'e or liberate electron from matter
through which they can pass and they destroy living cells.
@amma rays are similar to K?rays but differ in wavelength, K?rays having a
continuous or broad spectrum while @amma rays are made up of isolated
wavelengths and have a line spectrum depending upon the element used. 1ridium
has two distinct types of atoms, one with a mass number of ,9, and the other with a
mass number of ,9E. !he later has extra two neutrons in its nucleus. !hese are
stable isotopes suffer radioactive decay or change into the stable form over a period
of time and the type of radiation and the period of time for which it is given out
determines its suitability for a particular use. ",,$
2..1.1 X!&)40 M%(,-7
K?rays are produced by an K?ray tube which consists of an evacuated glass
bulb with two arms. (ne arm houses the cathode, a filament which is heated by an
electric current as in electric light bulb, and this heated filament gives off a stream
of an electrons.
Page | 25
FIGURE 2!3" X!R)40 F#$. -5 W%$7 T)@%* )( SSGC
1n the other arm is the anode, which is a metal stem. =y placing a high
voltage of the order of E/ to 0// SV and upwards between anode and cathode the
electrons are attracted at high speed to the anode and are focused into a beam by
means of a focusing cup. .ixed in the anode at an angle to the electron beam is the
anti cathode. !his is a dense, high melting point slab of metal such as tungsten, on
to which the electron beam impinges and is arrested. !he resulting loss of kinetic
energy appears as heat and K?rays and the later emerge from the tube at right angles
to its axis. !he tube current, which indicates the intensity of flow of the electrons, is
in mill amperes and the intensity of the radiation is somewhat proportional to this
:A value.
!he rays can penetrate solid substances but, in doing so, a certain portion of
the rays is absorbed and the amount of absorption depends upon the thickness of the
substance and its density. !he denser and thicker the substance, the smaller the
proportion of K?rays that will get through. K?ray film is made many layers on a base
of cellulose triacetate or polyester, the small silver halide crystals which are
sensitive to the K?rays being suspended in a gelataine.
!he film is placed in a rigid or flexible cassette with intensifying screen on
either side so as to improve the image. !he weld or object to be radiograph is placed
in the cassette in the path of the rays. And after exposure for a short time, depending
upon the thickness or object, the film is developed either manually or automatically.
!he weld will appear as a light bend across the K?ray negative. Any defect in the
weld can be seen as a dark area of faults such as blow holes, porosity, and slag
inclusion. ",0$
Page | 26
2..1.2 G)..)!R)4 M%(,-7
3ike K?rays gamma rays show a shadow graph on a sensiti'ed film and are
interpreted in the same way. !he advantages of radioisotope sources for
radiographic purposes are that they need no power supply or cooling system. !heir
small focus makes them very suitable for weld inspection in narrow pipes and
because some radio isotopes have high power of penetration, thick specimens can be
radio graphed at shortened exposure time. !hey have, however, harder radiation
than an K?ray tube so that the image has less contrast and interpretation is more
difficult. Also the activity decreases appreciably with those radio isotopes that have
a short half life so that their radioactivity depends upon the time, since renewal and
a time? activity curve must be consulted when using them. !he radioactivity of the
source cannot be varied or adjusted and since it cannot be switched off, it has to be
effectively shielded.
!he radioactive source is a pellet of a substance in a welded stainless steel
container about ,0 mm long by 0mm diameter. !he pellet is a cylinder of the pure
metal cobalt?#/ and iridium?,9- and a pressed and sintered pellet of thulium
dioxide M thulium ?,B/. !hese radioactive pellets don)t induce radioactivity in the
container and the source can be returned. After a certain period depending upon its
half life, to the makers to be re energi'ed in an atomic reactor.
!he source must be stored inside a container with a dense radiation shield,
usually made of lead, tungsten or even depleted uranium where it is kept until
actually in use. (ne type has shutter mechanism for exposure, another type has the
source mounted inside the removable portion of the shield, which can be detached
and used like a torch so that the radiation appears forwards, away from the operators
body and shielded in the backwards direction. !his type is useful for most work,
including pipe welds.
A third type has the radio isotope mounted on a flexible cable and contained
within a shielded container. 1t can be pushed along the guide tube by remote control
and can be positioned in otherwise awkward places. With this type, positioning and
source changing is easily performed. &ipeline crawlers for various diameter pipes
are used, carrying the radio isotope and enabling it to be positioned in the pipe
center to give a radial beam of radiation when exposed. !he film is placed around
Page | 27
the outside of the pipe enabling the radio inspection at that point to be performed
with one exposure. !he crawler can be battery operated and travels on wheels with
forward, reverse, expose and stop controls, the positioning within the pipes being
controlled to a few millimeters accuracy. ",0$
2..2 U$(&)0-*#6 T%0(#*+
<ltrasonic testing applies waves above the freuency limit of human
audibility and usually in the freuency range /.# to 0 :5'. A pulse consisting of
number of these waves is projected into the specimen under test. 1f a flaw exists in
the specimen an echo is reflected from it and from the type of echo the kind of flaw
that exists can be deduced.
FIGURE 2!4" E>2#/.%*( 5-& U$(&)0-*#6 (%0( )( SSGC
!he euipment consists of an electrical unit which generates the electrical
oscillations, a cathode ray tube on which pulse and echo can be seen, and probes
which introduce the waves into the specimen and receive the echo. !he electrical
oscillations are converted into ultrasonic waves in a transducer which consist of
pie'o?electric element mounted in a &erspex block to form the probe, which in use,
has its own face pressed against the surface of the material under test. When a pulse
is injected into the specimen a signal is made on the cathode ray tube. !he echo
from a flaw is received by another probe, converted to an electrical e.m.f. *which
may vary from micro volts to several volts+ by the transducer and is applied to the
cathode ray tube on which it can be seen as signal displaced along the time axis of
the tube from the original pulse.
Page | 28
!he first applications of ultrasonic to flaw detection employed longitudinal
waves projected into the specimen at right angles to the surface. !his presented
problems because it meant that the weld surface had to be dressed smooth before
examination, and more often than not the way in which the flaw oriented, as for
example lack of penetration, made detection difficult with this type of flaw. !he
type of wave used to overcome these disadvantages is one which is introduced into
the specimen at some distance from the welded joint at an angle to the surface *e.g.
-/degree+ and is known as shear wave. !he freuency of the waves *usually -.0 and
,.0 :5' for butt welds+, the angle of incidence of the beam, the type of surface and
the grain si'e, all affect the intensity of the echo which is adjustable by means of a
sensitivity control. !he reference standard on which the sensitivity of the instrument
can be checked consists of steel block E//T,0/T,-.Bmm thickness with a ,.# mm
hole drilled centrally and perpendicularly to the largest face, 0/.;mm from one end.
>choes are obtained from the hole after ,, - or E transverses of the plate and
from the amplitude of the echo the intensity from a hole of known si'e can be
checked. !here are three types of probes which are available4 the single probe, the
twin transmitter receiver probe, and the separate transmitter and receiver probe.
!o make a length scan of the weld the transmitter?receiver unit is moved
continuously along a line parallel to the welded seam so that all points of the whole
area of the welded joint are covered by the scanning beam, double echoes are not
obtained from a single flaw. 1t is evident that varying the distance from the weld to
the probe varies the depth at which the main axis of the beam crosses the welded
joint and moving the probe at right angles to the line is thus known as depth scan. A
spherical flaw will have no directional characteristics and a wave falling upon its
center will be the si'e of flaw. %ylindrical flaws behave in the same way but in the
case of a narrow planar flaw it is evident that optimum echo will be received when
the crack is at right angles to the wave and there will no echo when the crack lies
along the wave, but if the probe is moved to the first echo position the crack is no
longer lying along the beam.
!he probes must make good contact with the specimen and on slightly
curved surfaces a thin film of oil is used to improve the contact. (n surfaces with
greater curvature, as for example when investigating circumferential welds on
drums, curved probes are used. ",E$
Page | 29
2..3 H47&-0()(#6 T%0(
H47&-0()(#6 I*0/%6(#-*"
>ach length of pipe shall withstand, without leakage, an inspection
hydrostatic test to at least the pressure specified. !est pressures for all si'es of
seamless pipe and for welded pipe in si'es ,; in. and smaller, shall be held for not
less than 0 sec. !est pressures for welded pipe in si'es -/ in. and larger shall be held
for not less than ,/ seconds. .or threaded?coupled?pipe, the test shall be applied
with the couplings made up power tight make?up is specified. >xcept si'es greater
than ,- U in. (A may be tested in the plain? end condition. .or threaded pipe
furnished with couplings made up handling tight, the hydrostatic test shall be made
on the pipe in the plain?end or threads only condition or with couplings applied.

FIGURE 2!5" E>2#/.%*( 5-& H47&- (%0(#*+ )( C&%06%*( S(%%$ M#$$0 N-&#)A)7
B%&#5#6)(#-* -5 T%0("
1n order to insure that every length of pipe is tested to the reuired test
procedure, each tester, except those of those of which butt welded pipe is tested,
shall be euipped with a recording gauge that will record the test pressure and
duration of time applied to each length of pipe, or euipped with some positive and
Page | 30
automatic or interlocking device to prevent pipe from being classified as tested until
the test reuirements *pressure and time+ have been complied with.
T%0( P&%002&%0"
!he minimum test pressure shall be standard test pressure or alternate test
pressure or intermediate or higher pressure at the discretion of the manufacturer
unless specifically, or a higher pressure as agreed upon between the purchaser and
manufacturer. !he minimum test pressure for grades, diameters, and wall
thicknesses for all si'es @rades A-0 smaller than 0 96,# in. and those of grade A
and = smaller than - E6; in., the test pressure has been arbitrarily assigned. !he test
pressure for the intermediate wall shall be eual to the next heaviest wall. !he
computed pressures are not an exact multiple of ,/ psi *,// k pa+, they shall be
rounded to the nearest ,/ &si *,// S&a+. ",0$
Page | 31
2.10 CORROSION & DEGRADATION OF MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
%orrosion is defined as the deterioration of a material because of reaction with
its environment. !o one degree or another, most materials experience some type of
interaction with a large number of diverse environments. (ften, such interactions
impair a material)s usefulness as a result of the deterioration of its mechanical
properties *e.g., ductility and strength+, other physical properties, or appearance.
(ccasionally, to the chagrin of a design engineer, the degradation behavior of a
material for some application is ignored, with adverse conseuences.
Aeteriorative mechanisms are different for the three material types. 1n
metals, there is actual material loss either by dissolution *corrosion+ or by the
formation of nonmetallic scale or film *oxidation+. %eramic materials are relatively
resistant to deterioration, which usually occurs at elevated temperatures or in rather
extreme environments; the process is freuently also called corrosion. .or polymers,
mechanisms and conseuences differ from those for metals and ceramics, and the
term degradation is most freuently used. &olymers may dissolve when exposed to a
liuid solvent, or they may absorb the solvent and swell; also, electromagnetic
radiation *primarily ultraviolet+ and heat may cause alterations in their molecular
structure. ";$
2.11 FORMS OF CORROSION
1t is convenient to classify corrosion according to the manner in which it is
manifest. :etallic corrosion is sometimes classified into eight forms4 uniform,
galvanic, crevice, pitting, intergranular, selective leaching, erosionMcorrosion, and
stress corrosion.
2.11.1 U*#5-&. A(()6@
<niform attack is a form of electrochemical corrosion that occurs with
euivalent intensity over the entire exposed surface and often leaves behind a scale
or deposit. 1n a microscopic sense, the oxidation and reduction reactions occur
randomly over the surface. 7ome familiar examples include general rusting of steel
and iron and the tarnishing of silverware. !his is probably the most common form
Page | 32
of corrosion. 1t is also the least objectionable because it can be predicted and
designed for with relative ease. "B$
2.11.2 G)$?)*#6 C-&&-0#-*
@alvanic corrosion occurs when two metals or alloys having different
compositions are electrically coupled while exposed to an electrolyte. !he less
noble or more reactive metal in the particular environment will experience
corrosion; the more inert metal, the cathode, will be protected from corrosion. .or
example, steel screws corrode when in contact with brass in a marine environment;
or if copper and steel tubing are joined in a domestic water heater, the steel will
corrode in the vicinity of the junction. Aepending on the nature of the solution, one
or more of the reduction reactions
!he rate of galvanic attack depends on the relative anode?to?cathode surface
areas that are exposed to the electrolyte, and the rate is related directly to the
cathodeManode area ratio; that is, for a given cathode area, a smaller anode will
corrode more rapidly than a larger one. !he reason for this is that corrosion rate
depends on current density, the current per unit area of corroding surface, and not
simply the current. !hus, a high current density results for the anode when its area is
small relative to that of the cathode. A number of measures may be taken to
significantly reduce the effects of galvanic corrosion. !hese include the following4
1. 1f coupling of dissimilar metals is necessary, choose two that are close together in
the galvanic series.
2. Avoid an unfavorable anode?to?cathode surface area ratio; use an anode area as
large as possible.
3. >lectrically insulate dissimilar metals from each other.
4. >lectrically connect a third, anodic metal to the other two; this is a form of
6)(,-7#6 /&-(%6(#-*. "B$
Page | 33
FIGURE 2!=" G)$?)*#6 6-&&-0#-* -5 ) .)+*%0#2. 0,%$$ (,)( :)0 6)0( )&-2*7 ) 0(%%$ 6-&%.
2.11.3 C&%?#6% C-&&-0#-*
>lectrochemical corrosion may also occur as a conseuence of concentration
differences of ions or dissolved gases in the electrolyte solution, and between two
regions of the same metal piece. .or such a concentration cell, corrosion occurs in
the locale that has the lower concentration. A good example of this type of corrosion
occurs in crevices and recesses or under deposits of dirt or corrosion products where
the solution becomes stagnant and there is locali'ed depletion of dissolved oxygen.
%orrosion preferentially occurring at these positions is called 6&%?#6% 6-&&-0#-*.
!he crevice must be wide enough for the solution to penetrate, yet narrow enough
for stagnancy; usually the width is several thousandths of an inch.
%revice corrosion may be prevented by using welded instead of riveted or
bolted joints, using non?absorbing gaskets when possible, removing accumulated
deposits freuently, and designing containment vessels to avoid stagnant areas and
ensure complete drainage. "B$
FIGURE 2!7" P$)(% :,#6, :)0 #..%&0%7 #* 0%):)(%&8 6&%?#6% 6-&&-0#-*
,)0 -662&&%7 )( (,% &%+#-*0 (,)( :%&% 6-?%&%7 A4 :)0,%&0.
2.11.4 P#((#*+
&itting is another form of much locali'ed corrosion attack in which small
pits or holes form. !hey ordinarily penetrate from the top of a hori'ontal surface
downward in a nearly vertical direction. 1t is an extremely insidious type of
Page | 34
corrosion, often going undetected and with very little material loss until failure
occurs.
!he mechanism for pitting is probably the same as for crevice corrosion in
that oxidation occurs within the pit itself, with complementary reduction at the
surface.
1t is supposed that gravity causes the pits to grow downward, the solution at
the pit tip becoming more concentrated and dense as pit growth progresses. A pit
may be initiated by a locali'ed surface defect such as a scratch or a slight variation
in composition. 1n fact, it has been observed that specimens having polished
surfaces display a greater resistance to pitting corrosion. 7tainless steels are
somewhat susceptible to this form of corrosion; however, alloying with about -O
molybdenum enhances their resistance significantly. "B$
FIGURE 2!8" T,% /#((#*+ -5 ) 3<4 0()#*$%00 0(%%$ /$)(% A4 )* )6#7!6,$-&#7% 0-$2(#-*.
2.11.5 I*(%&+&)*2$)& C-&&-0#-*
As the name suggests, intergranular corrosion occurs preferentially along
grain boundaries for some alloys and in specific environments. !he net result is that
a macroscopic specimen disintegrates along its grain boundaries. !his type of
corrosion is especially prevalent in some stainless steels. When heated to
temperatures between 0// and ;//
/
% *90/ and ,80/
/
.+ for sufficiently long time
periods, these alloys become sensiti'ed to intergranular attack. 1t is believed that
this heat treatment permits the formation of small precipitate particles of chromium
carbide *%r-E%#+ by reaction between the chromium and carbon in the stainless
steel. =oth the chromium and the carbon must diffuse to the grain boundaries to
form the precipitates, which leaves a chromium?depleted 'one adjacent to the grain
boundary. %onseuently, this grain boundary region is now highly susceptible to
corrosion.
Page | 35
1ntergranular corrosion is an especially severe problem in the welding of
stainless steels, when it is often termed :%$7 7%6)4. .igure shows this type of
intergranular corrosion. 7tainless steels may be protected from intergranular
corrosion by the following measures4
a. 7ubjecting the sensiti'ed material to a high?temperature heat treatment in which
all the chromium carbide particles are re?dissolved,
b. 3owering the carbon content below /./E wtO % so that carbide formation is
minimal,
c. Alloying the stainless steel with another metal such as niobium or titanium;
which has a greater tendency to form carbides than chromium so that the %r
remains in solid solution. "B$
FIGURE 2!" W%$7 7%6)4 #* ) 0()#*$%00 0(%%$. T,% &%+#-*0 )$-*+ :,#6, (,% +&--?%0
,)?% 5-&.%7 :%&% 0%*0#(#C%7 )0 (,% :%$7 6--$%7.
2.11.= S%$%6(#?% L%)6,#*+
7elective leaching is found in solid solution alloys and occurs when one
element or constituent is preferentially removed as a conseuence of corrosion
processes. !he most common example is the de'incification of brass, in which 'inc
is selectively leached from a copperM'inc brass alloy. !he mechanical properties of
the alloy are significantly impaired, since only a porous mass of copper remains in
the region that has been de'incified. 1n addition, the material changes from yellow
to a red or copper color. 7elective leaching may also occur with other alloy systems
in which aluminum, iron, cobalt, chromium, and other elements are vulnerable to
preferential removal. "B$
Page | 36
2.11.7 E&-0#-*FC-&&-0#-*
>rosionMcorrosion arises from the combined action of chemical attack and
mechanical abrasion or wear as a conseuence of fluid motion. Virtually all metal
alloys, to one degree or another, are susceptible to erosionMcorrosion. 1t is especially
harmful to alloys that passivate by forming a protective surface film; the abrasive
action may erode away the film, leaving exposed a bare metal surface. 1f the coating
is not capable of continuously and rapidly reforming as a protective barrier,
corrosion may be severe. Helatively soft metals such as copper and lead are also
sensitive to this form of attack. <sually it can be identified by surface grooves and
waves having contours that are characteristic of the flow of the fluid. !he nature of
the fluid can have a dramatic influence on the corrosion behavior.
1ncreasing fluid velocity normally enhances the rate of corrosion. Also, a
solution is more erosive when bubbles and suspended particulate solids are present.
>rosionMcorrosion is commonly found in piping, especially at bends, elbows, and
abrupt changes in pipe diameterVpositions where the fluid changes direction or
flow suddenly becomes turbulent. &ropellers, turbine blades, valves, and pumps are
also susceptible to this form of corrosion.
(ne of the best ways to reduce erosionMcorrosion is to change the design to
eliminate fluid turbulence and impingement effects. (ther materials may also be
utili'ed that inherently resist erosion. .urthermore, removal of particulates and
bubbles from the solution will lessen its ability to erode. "B$
FIGURE 2!1<" I./#*+%.%*( 5)#$2&% -5 )* %$A-: (,)( :)0 /)&( -5 ) 0(%). 6-*7%*0)(% $#*%.
2.11.8 S(&%00 C-&&-0#-*
7tress corrosion, sometimes termed stress corrosion cracking, results from
the combined action of an applied tensile stress and a corrosive environment; both
influences are necessary. 1n fact, some materials that are virtually inert in a
particular corrosive medium become susceptible to this form of corrosion when a
Page | 37
stress is applied. 7mall cracks form and then propagate in a direction perpendicular
to the stress; with the result that failure may eventually occur. .ailure behavior is
characteristic of that for a brittle material, even though the metal alloy is
intrinsically ductile. .urthermore, cracks may form at relatively low stress levels,
significantly below the tensile strength. :ost alloys are susceptible to stress
corrosion in specific environments, especially at moderate stress levels. .or
example, most stainless steels stress corrodes in solutions containing chloride ions,
whereas brasses are especially vulnerable when exposed to ammonia. !he stress that
produces stress corrosion cracking need not be externally applied; it may be a
residual one that results from rapid temperature changes and uneven contraction, or
for two?phase alloys in which each phase has a different coefficient of expansion.
Also, gaseous and solid corrosion products that are entrapped internally can give
rise to internal stresses. &robably the best measure to take in reducing or totally
eliminating stress corrosion is to lower the magnitude of the stress. !his may be
accomplished by reducing the external load or increasing the cross?sectional area
perpendicular to the applied stress. .urthermore, an appropriate heat treatment may
be used to anneal out any residual thermal stresses. "B$
FIGURE 2!11" P,-(-.#6&-+&)/, 0,-:#*+ #*(%&+&)*2$)& 0(&%00 6-&&-0#-* 6&)6@#*+ #* A&)00.
2.12 CORROSION PREBENTION TECHNIGUES
7ome general techniues include material selection, environmental
alteration, design, coatings, and cathodic protection. &erhaps the most common and
easiest way of preventing corrosion is through the judicious selection of materials
once the corrosion environment has been characteri'ed.
1. M)(%&#)$ S%$%6(#-*"
7tandard corrosion references are helpful in this respect. 5ere, cost may be a
significant factor. 1t is not always economically feasible to employ the material that
Page | 38
provides the optimum corrosion resistance; sometimes, either another alloy and6or
some other measure must be used. "9$
2. E*?#&-*.%*()$ A$(%&)(#-*"
%hanging the character of the environment, if possible, may also
significantly influence corrosion. 3owering the fluid temperature and6or velocity
usually produces a reduction in the rate at which corrosion occurs. :any times
increasing or decreasing the concentration of some species in the solution will have
a positive effect; for example, the metal may experience passivation.
1nhibitors are substances that, when added in relatively low concentrations to
the environment, decrease its corrosiveness. (f course, the specific inhibitor
depends both on the alloy and on the corrosive environment. !here are several
mechanisms that may account for the effectiveness of inhibitors. 7ome react with
and virtually eliminate a chemically active species in the solution *such as dissolved
oxygen+. "9$
3. D%0#+*"
7everal aspects of design consideration have already been discussed,
especially with regard to galvanic and crevice corrosion, and erosionMcorrosion. 1n
addition, the design should allow for complete drainage in the case of a shutdown,
and easy washing. 7ince dissolved oxygen may enhance the corrosivity of many
solutions, the design should, if possible, include provision for exclusion of air. "E$
4. C-)(#*+0"
&hysical barriers to corrosion are applied on surfaces in the form of films
and coatings. A large diversity of metallic and nonmetallic coating materials is
available.
1t is essential that the coating maintain a high degree of surface adhesion, which
undoubtedly reuires some pre?application surface treatment. 1n most cases, the
coating must be virtually nonreactive in the corrosive environment and resistant to
mechanical damage that exposes the bare metal to the corrosive environment. All
three material typesVmetals, ceramics, and polymersVare used as coatings for
metals. "E$
5. C)(,-7#6 P&-(%6(#-*"
Page | 39
%athodic protection is a techniue to protect a buried or immersed metallic
structure by making it the cathode of a galvanic cell or by impressing a current from
an external power source using an inert anode this techniue has been successfully
applied for more than 0/ years and is now accepted as a proven and an established
technology. "B$
7election of material and cathodic protection are discussed below in detail4
2.13 SELECTION OF MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION
!he first and important step for the pipe line network is the selection of
material, that it should have the desire properties like toughness, ductility, strength,
weldability, wear resistant and corrosion resistant. .urthermore it should also be
economically available in the market.
.or economic reasons carbon?manganese steels are used whenever possible
for the fabrication of pipelines for production and transmission of oil and gas and
also for water injection systems. &ipeline engineers need to be familiar with the
modern methods of fabrication of pipe and also be aware of the limitations of
particular steels to the type of product that can be safely transported. 1n this 7ection
the manufacture of carbon?manganese steel pipelines is described including the
compositions and fabrication methods of the steel plate used for forming pipe.
%orrosion, calculation of corrosion allowances and corrosion limitations of the
carbon?manganese steels are also discussed.
!he steels used form the pipe joins are low?carbon carbon manganese
structural steels. !he higher strength grades are micro?alloyed and are often termed
high strength low allows *573A+ steels. 7imilar types of steels are used for ships,
pressure vessels, pump bodies and (%!@ tubular goods.
.rom a materials and corrosion viewpoint it is generally the case that pipeline
service is becoming more severe M both for new pipelines and pipelines in service.
.or example there are new multiphase pipelines operating at temperatures above
,-0 P% at very high shut?in pressures and high concentrations of carbon dioxide.
7ometimes abundant water is present in the region. !he pipelines production
systems operated with dry hydrocarbons thus avoiding corrosion problems. As a
Page | 40
conseuence of the more severe service higher uality of pipe is reuired both for
new fields and for replacements in the older fields, which are now in the
refurbishment phase. !o meet these demands the steel and pipe production
processes have become much more complicated. ",0$
2.14 PIPELINE MATERIALS SPECIFICATIONS
1n most parts of the world the pipe joins for oil and gas will conform to the
American &etroleum 1nstitute A&1 7pecification 03. 1n ,999 this 7pecification was
converted into an international standard, 17( E,;E, which covers the selection and
use of seamless, longitudinal welded and helical *spiral+ welded line pipe. 1n
comparison to A&1 03, 17( E,;E is in three parts with the various steel grades
divided between &arts , and -. &art E is based on the >>:<A &ublication ,## and
deals with both compositional and sour service reuirements and is only relevant to
submarine pipelines.
!hough the A&1 03 7pecification dated back to the ,9-/)s it became the basic
international specification in about ,98;. At that time the highest strength grade was
K8-. !he 17( 7tandard now includes pipe grades up to K;/. Aespite the recent
conversion to 71 units it remains common parlance in the (il and @as 1ndustry to
use the feet pound second *.&7+ units for general discussion. !o accommodate
previous and present design terminology reference is made here to A&1 03 and A&1
03K though it is to be understood that the same comments relate to 17( E,;E.
>uropean 7tandard >2 ,/-/;, derived from =7 >2 ,/-;, &arts , G -, is related to
the new 17( E,;E; >2 ,/-/; gives compositional specifications for pipe usually as
the maximum compositional values only; if considered relevant minimum values
need to be additionally specified. >2 ,/-/; is only used within >urope; elsewhere
17( E,;E will be the primary document. ",0$
2.15 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
&ipeline steel reuires having high strength whilst retaining ductility and
fracture toughness and weldability. 7trength is the ability of the pipe steel *and
associated welds+ to resists the longitudinal and transverse tensile forces imposed on
the pipe in service and during installation. Auctility is the ability of the pipe to
absorb over stressing by deformation. !oughness is the ability of the pipe material
to withstand impacts or shocks loads. :etallic engineering materials are generally
Page | 41
tough and fall in a ductile manner, i.e. they yield before they break. 1n comparison
non?ductile or brittle materials are glass?like and fail suddenly by brittle fracture.
Weldability is the ability and ease of production of a uality weld and heat
affected 'one of adeuate strength and toughness. :ost metals can be welded but
not all have good weldability. .or example the parts of an aluminum alloy aero
plane are held together with bolts, rivets and adhesive rather than by welding.
!he balance of properties *strength, toughness and weldability+ reuired
depends on the intended use of the pipeline. An example of a severe service pipeline
would be a high?pressure sour gas6condensate pipeline in Arctic conditions; such a
pipe would reuire heavy wall thickness with high toughness at low temperatures
whilst having resistance to sulphide cracking. !he heavy wall thickness would
complicate the welding process. !o obtain both high strength and toughness without
sacrifice of weldability reuires limited alloying combined with complex thermo?
mechanical treatment of the steel combined with micro alloying. ",0$
2.16 SUGGESTIONS FOR POSSIBLE FUTURE MATERIALS
,. !he modified ,EO %r materials, often termed weld able ,- %r; will be widely
used as confidence is gained. !o date about E// km of pipe has been installed.
-. !he super?austenitic materials are possible materials for use either as solid
pipelines or, more likely, as a cladding material. !he lower nickel content would
reduce the cost of the steels to midway between the type E// austenitic steels
and the high nickel allows. 7uper?austenitic steels have high &H>
2
values and
hence good resistance to pitting, crevicing and stress corrosion cracking. !hese
materials are also readily wieldable compared to the duplex stainless steels.
E. 7eamless pipes are without any welds; in spiral welded pipes line pipes are
joined through different welding processes. As weld itself and the heat affected
'one has short life span than the base material. 7o it better to use seamless pipe
instead of spiral welded pipes. !he only one drawback of seamless pipe is that
they are costly.
8. 1f we carryout comparison between &73, and &73- pipes, we will reach at the
conclusion that &73- is better than &73,.!he one drawback is that &73- pipes
are costly than &73,. !esting reuirement for &73- is more than &73,. !he
plate uses for &73- pipes do not contain any weld repair. ",0$
Page | 42
2.17 CATHODIC PROTECTION
INTRODUCTION
%athodic protection is a techniue to protect a buried or immersed metallic
structure by making it the cathode of a galvanic cell or by impressing a current from
an external power source using an inert anode this techniue has been successfully
applied for more than 0/ years and is now accepted as a proven and an established
technology. 1n order to reduce corrosion to manageable levels, cathodic protection
systems must be designed, engineered, installed, operated and maintained to high
standards.
7acrificial anode may be magnesium, 'inc or aluminum alloys. !he material
for impressed current anode may be silicon iron, graphite, mixed metal anode and
titanium mesh.
<nderground steel pipelines are commonly protected by the application of
cathodic protection which provides corrosion control to buried or submerged areas
and where the coating rapping is damaged. (ver recent years the use of cathodic
protection to protect reinforcement steel within concrete structures has become
increasingly important. %athodic protection can be applied to most steel structures
that are either buried or immersed in soil, sand or water. Above ground reinforced
concrete structures can be protected using recently developed anodes which are
incorporated within a sprayed or poured cementitious mortar. 7uch systems can be
fitted most economically during construction or even to existing structures to
prevent further deterioration of the reinforcement. "E$
2.18 PRINCIPLE OF CATHODIC PROTECTION
!he principle of cathodic protection is to make the potential of the whole
surface of the steel structure sufficiently negative with respect to the surrounding
medium to ensure that no current flows from the metal into the medium. !his is
done by forcing an electric current to flow through the electrolyte towards the
surface of the metal to be protected, thereby eliminating the anodic areas. !he
current may be obtained from any convenient external source, such as a rectified
alternating current supply, direct current generator or by galvanic action.
!he principle when impressed current is used is illustrated below figure in
which a A% current source is shown connected to the structure to be protected and
Page | 43
to an auxiliary anode buried in the electrolyte. !he auxiliary anode is arranged to be
at a higher potential than metal structure to protected, so that current will flow from
the former to the latter.
%orrosion of steel pipeline in normally aerated soils and waters can be
entirely prevented if the pipeline is maintained at a potential minus /.;0 volts *?
/.;0V+. <nder anaerobic conditions where sulfate?reducing bacteria are present, this
potential will increase to minus /.90 volts *?/.90 V+. ",$
2.18.1 E$%6(&-6,%.#6)$ C-*6%/(
%orrosion means a process of metal dissolution and generation of electrons
at anodic side. !his anodic reaction can be represented by the following reaction
F% H F%2I I 2%
!he reaction indicates that if a flow of electrons is applied from an external
source towards the anodic sites, the generation of electrons and hence the metal
dissolution can be stopped at the anodic site. 1n order to achieve this; the corroding
must be made cathode in the electrical circuit and this is exactly what cathodic
protection is. ",$
2.18.2 T,%&.-74*).#6 C-*6%/(
%orrosion will not occur unless there is a thermodynamic possibility for the
corrosion to occur. !his thermodynamic concept is illustrated by the potential? p5
of the metal. 7uch concept is also called pourbaix concept. !his concept defines
domains of corrosion, passivity and immunity. !his concept also illustrates how the
corrosive condition can be converted to protective condition by changing the
corrosion potential of the structure. !his change in potential is achieved by making
the structure cathode. ",$
2.18.3 P-$)&#C)(#-* C-*6%/(
&olari'ation may be defined as change in electrochemical potential due to
flow of current. 1n each corrosion cell we have an anodic site and a cathodic site.
!he potential of anodic site is called anodic potential and the potential of cathodic
site is called cathodic potential. When the anodic site is connected to the cathodic
site a certain corrosion current starts flowing between the anodic and the cathodic
site. !he open circuit potential values of the anodic and cathodic sites will change
with a flow of this current and tend to shift towards each other. !he anodic potential
Page | 44
shifts towards the cathodic potential and the cathodic potential shift towards the
cathodic potential. !he resulting potential in this situation is called mixed potential
or corrosion potential. !he change in potential of anodic side from the open circuit
to the cathodic site from the open circuit to the steady corrosion potential is termed
as cathodic polari'ation. ",$
2.19 CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEM
=asically two types of cathodic protection systems are available4
7acrificial anode system; which make use of the protective current generated by
galvanic action of the sacrificial anodes system. !he sacrificial anodes are made
from magnesium, 'inc, aluminum, or their alloy.
1mpressed current system where an >xternal A% source is used to provide
the reuired amount of current in impressed cathodic protection system current is
provided by suitable Hectifier through inert type of anode. 1mpressed %& system
current must be discharged from ground bed. !he sole purpose of this ground bed is
to discharge current. 1n this process of discharging current anodes *ground bed+ are
consumed by corrosion. 1t is desirable to use materials for ground bed that are
consumed at a much lower rate than are usual pipeline metals. !his will ensure
reasonable long life for anodes. ",0$
2.20 CATHODIC PROTECTION WITH GALBANIC ANODES
1n a corrosion cell of two dissimilar metals, one metal is active with respect to
the other and corrodes faster. 1n a %& with galvanic anodes, this effect establishes a
dissimilar metals cell strong enough to counteract corrosion cell normally existing
on pipelines. !his is done by connecting a very active metal to pipeline. !he metal
will corrode and discharge current to the pipeline and reduce its corrosion.
FIGURE 2!12" C)(,-7#6 P&-(%6(#-* :#(, G)$?)*#6 A*-7%
Page | 45
1n case of %& with galvanic anodes, %& does not eliminate corrosion. <nder
normal conditions, the current available from galvanic anodes is limited. 7imilarly,
the driving voltage existing between steel pipe and galvanic anode metals is limited.
!herefore, the resistance between the anodes and the earth must be low for the
anodes to discharge useful amount of current. A normal installation is one in which
the current from galvanic anode is expected to protect a substantial length of
pipeline. "E$
2.2<.1 A7?)*()+%0 )*7 D#0)7?)*()+%0 -5 S)6&#5#6#)$ S40(%.

A7?)*()+%0"
,. 2o main power is reuired.
-. %an be fitted on needed basis.
E. 1s practically self regulating on current outputW
8. Aoes not usually cause interference effects on neighboring structures thus
reducing the possibility of stray current corrosion.
0. Anodes can be bolted, welded or bra'ed directly on to the structure to be
protected
#. 1t can be designed up to the reuired design. 1f there are no weight limitation.
B. 1t cannot be incorrectly connected.
;. 1t can be manufactured up to any si'e or shape which suits the installation.
9. 1t does not reuire specialists to install system.
,/. (nce installed, limited inspection is reuired for performance checkups.
,,. 1t is relatively easily to design and install. "E$
D#0)7?)*()+%0"
,. Anodes have limited current output therefore can only be used for certain
applications in low resistivity electrolytes.
-. Aifficult to monitor effect because the anodes usually cannot be disconnected.
E. <sually reuires to be replaced at intervals.
8. Aifficult to monitor the effect because the anodes usually cannot be
disconnected
0. (ften awkward anode si'e and shapes may have extra weight or may be
affected by liuid. "E$
Page | 46
2.21 CATHODIC PROTECTION WITH IMPRESSED CURRENT
1n this system current from some outside source is impressed on the pipeline
by using a ground bed and a power source the most common power source is the
rectifier. !his device converts alternating currents to low voltage direct current.
7chematically %athodic protection system with impressed current is shown in the
fig. below
FIGURE 2!13" C)(,-7#6 P&-(%6(#-* :#(, I./&%00%7 C2&&%*(
=ecause of the high current reuirement underground transmission pipeline
system are always protected by impressed current system. 5owever in certain areas
it may necessary to enhance it locally with sacrificial anodes.
Hectifiers usually are provided with the means for varying the A% output
voltage, in small increments, over a reasonably wide range. :ost pipeline rectifiers
operate in the range between ,/ and 0/v and can be obtained with maximum current
outputs ranging from less than ,/ A to several hundred amperes. !his serves to
explain the flexibility in choice of power source capacity available to the corrosion
engineer when planning an impressed current %& system. ",$
2.21.1 A7?)*()+%0 )*7 D#0)7?)*()+%0 -5 I./&%00%7 C2&&%*( S40(%.
A7?)*()+%0
,. @ood throwing power so can be used to protect a wide variety of structures.
-. @rounds can be installed at remote sites.
E. Variables voltage overcomes high resistivity circuits.
8. (utput currents can be individually very accurately controlled.
Page | 47
0. (perates with high output density there by reducing the anodes overall si'e
and weight.
#. 1t evolves a smaller number of anodes than a sacrificial system.
B. %an be self regulating using suitable electronics circuits.
;. 7ystems parts can be replaced for example; the system can be rehabilitated by
installing new ground bed but utili'ing the remaining original components. "E$
D#0)7?)*()+%0
,. Heuires continuous alternating current main
-. :ore complicated design than sacrificial anode system are more system
components reuired.
E. Heuires specialist contractors for installation.
8. Heuires cabling and high integrity insulation.
0. Hegular inspection and maintenance
#. 1ncorrect operation can cause damage to coating
B. Heuires interference effects on neighboring structures to be checked. "E$
2.22 SACRIFICIAL ANODES
!he anodes are materials used in %& systems as to provide protective current for the
pipelines. !here are certain reuirements for a metal to be a practical galvanic
anode, which are as follows4
!he potential between the anode and corroding structure must be a large
enough to overcome the anode?cathode cells on the corroding structure.
!he anode material must have sufficient electrical energy content to permit
reasonably long life with a practical amount of anode material.
Anodes must have good efficiency, meaning that a high percentage of the
electrical energy content of the anode should be available for useful cathodic
protection current output. !he balance of the energy, which is consumed in
self?corrosion of the anode itself, should be very small. ",$
!here are several sacrificial anodes as magnesium, Aluminum, %opper, Iinc,
:anganese, 1ron etc, but the common anodes used for sacrificial %& system
*specially at 77@% Sarachi+ are4
a+ :agnesium.
b+ Iinc.
c+ Aluminum. ",0$
Page | 48
2.22.1 M)+*%0#2.
:agnesium anodes are used for the protection of steel pipelines in soil and
fresh waters. !here are two magnesium alloys are used for sacrificial anodes. !hese
are slandered alloy and high potential alloy. !he basic difference between the
materials is that the standard alloy has a slightly lower driving potential that the
high potential alloy anodes. .or a steel pipeline polari'ed to M/.;0 V, the driving
potential for the standard magnesium alloy is /.B V, for the high potential alloy
anodes, the driving potential is /.9 V.
@enerally the magnesium alloy anodes have limited applications. !hey are
generally restricted to environments where the average resistivity is up to about
0,/// ohm?cm. 5owever, they can be used in higher resistivity environments of
about B,/// ohm?cm, provided the pipeline are well coated and the current
reuirements are small. .or underground applications, both high?purity 'inc and
magnesium alloy anodes are normally consist of a mixture surrounded with special
backfill. !he process is called anode backfilling. =ackfill generally consist of a
mixture containing @ypsum, =entonite, and sometimes sodium sulfate. !he backfill
commonly used for the magnesium alloy anodes contain the backfilling material
composition *@ypsum B0O, =entonite -/O, sodium sulphate 0/O+. :agnesium
alloys anodes are usually furnished as castings and extruded; ribbons also available.
!he chemical composition of magnesium anode is given below4 ",0$
ELEMENT PERCENTAGE
%opper /./- max.
Aluminum 0.E M#.B
7ilicon /./, max.
1ron /.//E max.
:anganese /.,0 min.
2ickel /.//- max.
Iinc -.0 ME.0
:agnesium Hemainder
TABLE 2!4" T,% %$%.%*()$ 6-./-0#(#-* -5 .)+*%0#2. A*-7%
2.22.2 ;#*6
Iinc has higher current output efficiency, but most of the sacrificial anodes
installed for the protection of underground steel pipelines are fabricated from
magnesium alloys because they provide larger driving potential. !he driving
Page | 49
potential of 'inc is about /.-0V. !his is significantly less than the driving potential
range of /.B to /.9 V that is available so because they are generally restricted to
those application where the average resistivity of the electrolyte is than about -,///
ohm?cm. 1n 'inc back filling the common composition of 'inc back filling materials
are @ypsum 0/O and =entonite 0/O. %asting, extrusion, ribbons and etc usually
shape the 'inc anodes. !he chemical composition of 'inc anode is given in below
table4 ",0$
E$%.%*(0 P%&6
%*()+
%
%opper /.//0 max.
Aluminum /.//, M /.0
7ilicon /.,-0 max.
1ron /.//0 max.
3ead *&b+ /.//# max.
Iinc Hemainder
TABLE 2!5" T,% %$%.%*()$ 6-./-0#(#-* -5 ;#*6 )*-7%.
2.22.3 A$2.#*2.
!he uses of aluminum anodes are very restricted *especially at 77@%
Sarachi+ because, the surface film that forms on anode tend to reduce the current
output. Aluminum anodes are used to cathodically protect steel in seawater and
other saline electrolyte. ",0$
2.22.4 C)$62$)(#-* F-& C2&&%*( O2(/2(
!he current output can be estimated using the following expression4
!o measure the current output for 'inc anode4
I
C*
H 15<8<<<JF3 ' /
!o measure the current output for magnesium anodes.
I
.+
H 115<8<<<JF3 ' /
Where4 1 is the current output in mA.
& is the soil resistivity in ohm?cm.
. is the factor for anode weight in pounds.
2.22.5 C)$62$)(#-* F-& A*-7% L#5%
!he useful life of a sacrificial anode *;0O consumption+ can be estimated, using the
following expression4
.or measuring Iinc anode life.
Page | 50
L
;*
H 123.5 J W3 ' I
.or measuring :g anode life.
L
M+
H 148.5 J W3 ' I
Where4
3 X useful anode life in years.
W X the anode weight in pounds.
1 X current output of the anode in mille?amperes.
2.23 IMPRESSED CURRENT ANODES
2.23.1 G&)/,#(% A*-7%0
About E/?8/ years back graphite anodes were very popular and commonly used
anodes for all type of ground beds. &resently it is not much in use.
1t is not usual to operate graphite anodes at the high current densities although
their relatively light weight and large surface area makes them particularly useful
for deep well installation, as suspended anodes, for conventional hori'ontal ground
beds where space is limited.
@raphite anodes are made into standard si'es E inch diameter <p to #/ inch
long, 8 inch diameter <p to ;/ inches long and in plain graphite for ordinary soil
conditions and linseed oil impregnated for saline soil or sea water use. !he typical
consumption rate for the graphite anodes is /.- Sg6amp 6year. "E$
2.23.2 H#+, S#$#6-* C)0( I&-* A*-7%0
7ilicon iron anodes are probably the most common anodes used in ground bed
construction, high degree of corrosion resistance of silicon iron and silicon
chromium iron alloys results in higher lifetime, which is an important factor in the
system.
7ilicon iron anodes can be used for seawater and fresh water application. !he
most common use of these anodes is in hori'ontal; vertical or deep well ground
beds.
!here are two types of high silicon cost iron anodes.
2ormal anodes
%hrome anodes
Page | 51
N-&.)$ A*-7%0"
2ormal silicon cast iron anodes are excluded from the chromium content, and
are use in neutral soils and fresh water environments. !he typical composition of
normal silicon cost iron anodes is given below
7ilicon ,8.0 O
:anganese /.B0 O
%arbon /.;0 O
7ulfur /., O
&hosphorus /.-0 O
1ron Hemainder
And the typical consumption rate for the normal silicon cast iron anodes is
/.0Sg6amp6year
C,&-.% A*-7%0"
%hrome anodes content a relative percentage of chromium and silicon anodes
are used for aggressive acidic or alkaline soils and seawater environments. %hrome
anodes have the composition as follows4
7ilicon ,8.0 O
:anganese /.B0 O
%arbon /.;0 O
%hromium 8.0 O
7ulfur /., O
&hosphorus /.-0 O
1ron Hemainder
!he chrome anodes consume at the rate of /.- Sg6amp6year. ",$
2.23.3 M#E%7!M%()$ OE#7% A*-7%0
!hese anodes have a mixed metal oxide film, thermally applied to precious
metals such as titanium or niobium. !hese types of anodes are generally preferred
for deep well ground beds. !hese oxide coatings are4
>xcellent electronic conductor
Page | 52
Anhydrous and insoluble in acids
Are chemically stable
5ave relatively low and uniform wear rate
%onsumption rate is /.0?0./ mg6amp6yr. ",0$
2.23.4 P$)(#*2. C-)(%7 A*-7%0
!hese types of anodes are used for special purposes such as %& for offshore
structure, jetties etc. anodes of these types can be operated at high current densities
in seawater typically 0//?B// A6m s. 6at B/ volts for niobium.
!he thickness of the platinum and current density determine the usefulness of
the anode while electrolyte or anode resistance *and hence the voltage reuired to
produce current+ is directly proportional to the length for any given electrolyte
resistivity. ",0$
2.23.5 L%)7 A$$-4 A*-7%
3ead, alloyed with ,?-O silver and #O antimony is also used as an impressed
current anode for seawater applications and operates up to -8 volts A%. Alloys
containing /.,O silver and /./,O tellurium from efficient anodes when small
platinum by?electrodes are inserted into the surface and are operate at reliable
current density between ,// and 0// A6m
-
. ",0$
2.23.= C2&&%*( R%>2#&%.%*( F-& C)(,-7#6 P&-(%6(#-*
!he current reuired for cathodic protection depends upon the corrosion rate
and the surface area of metal exposed to the electrolyte. Anything that increases the
corrosion rate increases the current reuired for protection, similarly, the current
reuired for protection increases as the surface area of metal exposed to the
electrolyte increases. 1n general, the corrosion rate increases with4
1ncreasing temperature.
Aecreasing electrolyte resistivity.
1ncreasing oxygen differential.
%ertain bacteria activity.
Aecreasing &5.
7ince corrosion rate can be converted into a corrosion current density
euivalent, it would appear that the current reuired for the protection could be
Page | 53
readily estimated for many environments. .or example, if the average corrosion rate
for steel in a particular environment is known to be Empy, the euivalent corrosion
current density would be about # ma6ft
-
. !he current reuired to cathodically protect
0 miles of ;?inches diameter pipeline *00,-9- ft
-
+ in this environment would be
about EE- amperes. !his basic techniue for estimating the current reuired for
protection is theoretically accurate because the corrosion rate for steel exposed to
the soil is usually cathodically controlled.
<nfortunately the corrosion rate of the steel in many underground
environments is not known and significant variation in the corrosion rate can occur
along a pipeline. .urther, corrosion rates are generally obtained using relatively
small specimens; the results do not include the effect of any long?line corrosion
current that might be present.
%urrent reuired for the cathodic protection of steel in a variety of pipeline
environments is given in below table, which are obtained from field experience.
Whenever current density data is used to estimate the current reuired for
protection, it should be appreciated that corrosion damage to old, uncoated pipelines
can increase the effectiveness surface area of the structure. %orrosion produced
surface roughness can increase the current reuirement by as much as -/O. !he
surface area of the metal that must be protected can be significantly reduced by the
application of an organic coating to the underground structure. Well?coated pipeline
reuires much less cathodic protection current than those that are bare or poorly
coated.
.or example, the theoretical current reuired to cathodically protect 0 miles
of ,;?inch diameter, uncoated pipeline exposed to a well?aerated neutral soil could
be -0/ amperes. <nfortunately, it is usually difficult to estimate the coating
efficiency; this creates a problem in calculating the current reuirement, even if the
current density reuired for protection is known.
.or optimum design, the current reuired for the cathodic protection should
be estimated using the results of current reuirement test. !hese tests are conducted
by using the temporary anode bed *ground bed+. "E$
Y
E*?#&-*.%*( C2&&%*( 7%*0#(4 #* .A'5(
2
2eutral soil /.8 to ,.0
Well aerated neutral soil - to E
Wet soil -.0 to #
Page | 54
5ighly acidic soil 0 to ,0
7oil supporting active 7ulfate reducing
bacteria
<p to 8-
5eated soil 0 to -0
7tationary fresh water <p to 0
:oving fresh water 0 to #
!urbulent fresh water %ontaining
dissolved oxygen
0 to ,0
7ea water 0 to -0
!A=3> -?#4 !he %urrent Heuired for %athodic &rotection
2.23.7 P-:%& S2//$4 F-& I./&%00%7 C2&&%*( C)(,-7#6 P&-(%6(#-* S40(%.
!he power source reuired for 1%%& is A% *direct current+. !here are
number of euipment and systems which are used for this purpose, each one of them
has its own merits and limitations in terms of power output, input source, and other
respect. !he different power supply system for 1%%& and their input sources are as
follows4 ",0$
S40(%. I*/2( 0-2&6%
!ransformer?rectifier --/?V or 8//V A%
!hermo?electric generator 2atural gas or propane
%lose cycle vapor turbo
generators
2atural gas or 3&@
>ngine?generator set 2atural gas or diesel
Wind mill Wind
7olar 7un
!A=3> -?B4 Aifferent power supply system for 1%%& and their input sources
S%$%6(#-* O5 P-:%& S2//$4 S40(%."
While selecting a particular system the following points should be kept in mind4
Available output power of euipment
Heliability
Availability of input power reuired for the euipment)s electric power or
fuel.
1nitial cost per kilowatt
(perating cost per kilowatt
Page | 55
:aintenance cost
7ervice life
Snowledge and skill reuired to operate the system. ",0$
2.23.7.1 T&)*05-&.%&!R%6(#5#%&
A transformer?rectifier has the following three major components. !he
combined function of the three components gives a A% power output
1. T&)*05-&.%&
A transformer changes the incoming supply voltage called the Cinput
voltageD or Cprimary voltageD to either a higher voltage or a lower voltage. !he
changed voltage is called the Coutput voltageD or Csecondary voltageD. When the
output voltage is higher than the input voltage, the transformer is called a step up
transformer and when the output voltage is lower than the input voltage, the
transformer is called step down transformer. !he input supply is either single phase
,,/?volts or --/?volts or three phases 8//?volts, the freuency is 0/ cycles or #/
cycles. "-$
2. R%6(#5#%&
A rectifier converts the alternating current into A%, a silicon diode bridge is
used for this purpose, present day practice is to use silicon diodes, but selenium
stacks are also being used. !he rectifiers are either half wave rectifiers or full wave
rectifiers. A half wave rectifier as the main implies, rectifier only fifty percent of
alternating current in the single?phase system. !herefore, it is not suitable for
cathodic protection systems. A single phase full wave rectifier although is suitable
for cathodic protection application but the A% ripples and to improve the efficiency.
1n a three?phase rectifier the filter choke is not reuired, because the rectified A%
has negligible A% ripples. "-$
FIGURE 2!14" R%6(#5#%& )( SSGC
Page | 56
3. T,%&.-%$%6(&#6 G%*%&)(-&
When junction of certain dissimilar metals is heated, electricity is generated;
this principle has been in use for decades to measure high temperatures where
temperature measurement is not possible by a thermometer. !he voltage generated
is directly proportional to the heating temperature and the voltage thus produced is
connected to a voltmeter, which is calibrated in terms of temperature. !he same
principle has been used in the thermoelectric generators. !he development of high
capacity semi conducting thermoelectric materials has been developed for power?
generation use.
Loining one leg of p?type material and one leg of 2?type material forms a
thermocouple electrically by a hot junction electrode. Adjacent thermocouples are
joined together by cold junction electrode; each pair produces about 9/ mV. !he
thermocouple pairs are connected in series to obtain the desired output voltage. !he
hot junction is heated to about ,///
o
.. !he fuel for heating is natural gas or
propane. !he cold junction is cooled with heat pipes to maintain a lower
temperature, which is about E0/
o
. maintained. !he heat pipes, which are
thermodynamically sealed, contain a special fluid. When the fluid is heated, it boils
and carries away heat with it. !he pipe has fins where the vapors of the fluid
condensed due the cooling effect of the fins. !he thermoelectric generators are
available in power outputs up to #// watts with voltage ratings up to 8; volts.
Adding the units in parallel can increase the power output. .or higher voltage
reuirement a A%?to?A% converter is used.
:aintenance of thermoelectric generators is easy and economical the
breakdowns are negligible. !he thermoelectric generators are a reliable source of
power for cathodic protection systems. "-$
2.23.7.2 S-$)& E$%6(&#6#(4
(nly a small A% voltage external power is reuired for impressed current
cathodic protection system to prevent the metals from corrosion. 1f conventional
grid connected utility power is used, the voltage must be lowered and the power
must be converted from A% to A% and this reuires a transformer and rectifier. Also
there is a problem of discontinuity in electricity supply from grid connected power
supply in &akistan because of the load shedding, over billing, improper maintenance
etc. the supply of grid. "-$
Page | 57
FIGURE 2!15" S,-:0 E$%6(&-*#6 C-*(&-$ U*#( )( SSGC
%onnected electricity is uneconomical as compared to solar &V generated
electricity for transmission lines of more than ,/ km with small load reuirement.
&akistan receives ,#?-, :j6m- per day of solar radiations as an annual mean value,
with ,9 :j6m- per day over most areas of the country. !his minimum level of solar
radiation is higher than the world average, which shows that &akistan lies in an
excellent solar belt range. !he total available solar energy potential over the total
geographical area of &akistan is 0.-E &j6m- per year. 7uch conditions are ideal for
solar &V. !he provinces like 7indh and =aluchistan are ideal for utili'ation of solar
energy. 7olar energy is indigenous, abundant and environmentally friendly. 1ts use
also removes the risk of volatile matter like oil etc, supply disruption and
environmental pollution problems. 7olar powered %& system consist of solar &V
array, storage battery, charge controller, %& controller, mounting stand, cables or
connecting wires and etc. A %& unit using solar &V generated electricity as an
external power source is shown in figure below. !he solar &V array consists of solar
modules connected in series or parallel to each other form a complete &V generator.
!he &V array of the system charges a battery bank and supply A% power to a %&
unit through a charge controller during daylight hours. !he %& unit is also
connected to the battery to provide power supply for %& continuously -8 hours. !he
%& controller regulated the power supply to the %& system. :ounting stands are
used to support the components of the %& system. !he cables and connecting wires
are used in connecting the components of the %& system. !he solar &V system are
capable of producing the low voltage A% power directly, resulting in a much more
efficient use of energy and avoids the need of transformer and rectifier. !he solar
Page | 58
cell is an important junction device which converts the radiant energy of sunlight
directly into electrical energy.
!he system has no moving parts, no heating parts and therefore the
maintenance is minimal. 1f standard storage batteries are used then the only
maintenance reuired is that of storage batteries which need top up from time to
time. !he solar power system is presently available up to ,/// watts, with voltages
up to -8 volts and currents up to 0/ amperes.
!he const of solar power system as compared to other systems of the same
power output is relatively high. 5owever, it is perhaps ideal system for impressed
current cathodic protection system. ",0$
.
FIGURE 2!1=" S,-:0 M-72$%0 5-& S-$)& S40(%.
2.24 TYPES OF GROUND BEDS
.or the %& system to work, current must be discharged from an earth
connection *ground bed+. !he sole purpose of this ground bed is to discharge
current. 1n the process of discharging current, the anodes in the ground bed are
consumed by corrosion. .or impressed current cathodic protection system there is
two basic types of ground beds, one is the shallow ground bed and other is the deep
ground bed.
D%%/ +&-2*7 A%7" deep ground beds are installed below 0/?ft. depths
S,)$$-: +&-2*7 A%7" shallow ground beds are installed up to the depth of 0/ ft.
2.24.1 D%%/ G&-2*7 B%7
A7?)*()+%0"
Aeep ground beds may be located in congested areas where shallow ground
bed poses geographic, topographic, interference, or right?of?way problem.
Aeep ground beds may provide lower resistance than shallow ground beds in
areas of high resistivity surface soils.
Page | 59
Aeep ground beds may provide better current distribution than shallow
ground beds.
Aeep ground beds are less affected by seasonal moisture variations than
shallow ground beds and usually are not subject to free'ing.
D#0)7?)*()+%0"
%urrent reuirement tests that accurately simulate actual deep ground bed
installation are difficult to conduct.
Aeep ground beds are often more expensive to install than shallow ground
beds for similar current output.
1nspection, replacement, or repair of ground bed components may be
difficult with close whole deep ground bed installation.
%lose whole deep ground beds reuire special design consideration because
of their susceptibility to gas blockage.
7upplemental ground beds may be reuired to4
i. &rovide adeuate protective current distribution to certain structures. (r
ii. &rovide adeuate potential shifts for structure located in the immediate
vicinity of the deep ground bed.
%ompaction of backfill material around the anode in deep ground bed is
difficult to achieve.
Aetermination of deep ground bed performance is more difficult and less
exact than surface ground beds. ",0$
2.24.2 S,)$$-: G&-2*7 B%7
A7?)*()+%0"
7hallow ground beds are less expensive to install than the deep ground beds.
%urrent reuirement tests that accurately simulate actual installation are easy
to conduct.
7hallow ground beds may be installed with anodes either in vertical or in
hori'ontal position. Vertical anode ground bed has slight edge over the
hori'ontal ground bed in terms of resistance and current spread. 5owever,
field condition lead to the selection.
Page | 60
%ompaction of backfill material around the anode in a shallow ground bed is
easy to achieve.
Anodes may be added in a shallow ground bed after installation if reuired,
provided there is capacity in the power supply and the cable.
1nspection, replacement or repair of ground bed components is easy.
Aetermination of shallow ground bed performance is easy and fairly
accurate.
D#0)7?)*()+%0"
7hallow ground bed resistance is higher in areas of high resistivity surface
soils.
7hallow ground beds are more affected by seasonal variations than deep
ground beds
1t may not be possible to install a shallow ground bed in congested areas and
areas of interference.
7hallow ground bed may results in higher anodic potential gradients to other
structures than a deep ground bed. ",0$
2.25 CALCULATION FOR GROUND ED RESISTANCE
Hesistance of a single vertical anode *in ohm+ in a soil resistivity of ,///?ohm6cc,
with respect to their dimensions is given in below table4
D#).%(%& #*
#*6,%0
L%*+(, #* 5%%(
2 3 4 5 = 7 8
3 ;.E #.- 0 -.0 E.B E.E E
4 B.0 0.B 8.B -.# E.0 E., -.;
= #.8 0 8., -.; E., -.; -.0
8 0.B 8.0 E.B E -.9 -.# -.E
1< 0., 8., E.0 E.- -.B -.8 -.-
12 8.# E.; E.- E.0 -.0 -.E -.,
14 8.- E.0 E 8 -.E -., -
1= E.9 E.E -.; 8.E -.- - ,.9
!A=3> -?;4 Hesistance in ohm of single vertical anode in ,///?ohm6cc 7oil
!he resistance of anode in the soil which have resistivity other than ,///
ohm6cc, can be calculated by following formula
R%0#0()*6% -5 )*-7% H R'1<<< J5
Where4
H is the given resistivity of soil; f is the multiplying factor from the above table. "-$
Page | 61
2.26 CARBONACEOUS BACKFILL
&ipelines are often buried in a carefully selected medium known as
=A%S.133 in an attempt to better control the environment. !he purpose of using
carbonaceous backfill is to lower the anode resistance between the backfill material
and the anode, hence increasing the affective anode si'e. 7ometimes slaked lime
*,/O by weight+ is added to counter act the tendency into the loose moisture by
>lectro?osmosis, since it is essential that an aueous electrolyte is present to conduct
the current to the protected structure. !he other purpose is to bear the consumption
resulting from the current discharge. !he consumption rate of any type of backfill
material should not be exceeding than - lbs. 6A6y. "-$
2.2=.1T4/%0 O5 B)6@5#$$
!here are three types of backfilling materials, which are given as follow4
1. S()*7)&7 .%()$$2&+#6)$ 6-@% A&%%C%"
7tandard metallurgical coke used for impressed current cathodic protection
system has the following chemical composition4
%arbon ;E?;9O
:oisture E?#O
Volatile matter E.- O max.
Ash ,0O max.
7ulfur ,?-O
=ulk density #8/?;// Sg.6meter
-
Hesistivity 0/ ohms?%m
&article si'e ,//O to pass through ,0 mm screen ;0
;0O to pass through ,/ mm screen
,0O to pass through 0 mm screen
7lacked lime ,/O by weight as to mix with the coke
2. P%(&-$%2. 6-@% A)6@5#$$"
!he petroleum coke must be calcinated *heat treated+ to remove all other
petroleum products; otherwise its resistivity will be too high. !he following is the
typical composition of petroleum coke backfill4
%arbon 99.0O
Page | 62
Ash /.,9O
:oisture /.EO
Volatile matter /.-O
=ulk density 9//?,-// Sg.6m
E
*B#.96ft
E
+
Hesistivity /./8?/.,/ ohm?%m.
3. N)(2&)$ -& .)*25)6(2&%7 +&)/,#(%"
2atural or manufactured graphite is available in flake form; flakes are not
desirable for ground bed use where gas must be vented, because the interleaving
flakes may block discharge. !his applies particularly to deep well ground beds.
2atural graphite may be obtained in granular form and would involve less
possibility of gas block difficulties. "-$
2.27 FIELD SURBEY AND MEASUREMENTS
.or effective management of a %& system the following field surveys and
measurements are very useful. !hese surveys are measurements may be performed
at following stages of pipeline installation4
, =efore &ipeline 1nstallation
- &ipelines not under %&
E &ipelines under %&
2.27.1 S-#$ R%0#0(#?#(4 S2&?%4
!he electrolyte path resistance is a function of electrolyte resistivity the path
length *l+, and the cross?sectional area *A+. =ecause of the variable geometry of the
electrolyte, the current paths and the cross?sectional area through which the current
flows are not easily defined, and therefore, resistance of the electrolyte path is not
easily determined. !he electrical resistivity can, however, be measured by a number
of techniues such as Winners .our?&in *electrode+ method.
!he basic concept involves passing a known current through the electrolyte
and measuring the voltage drop caused by this current with the pins arranged. !he
unit of resistance is ohm. A resistance of one ohm will allow one ampere to pass
when one volt of potential difference is applied. Hesistivity is a physical property of
the material and its unit is ohm ?cm. Hesistance is related to resistivity by expression
R H P L ' A
Where 3Xlength *cm+ of the current flow path
Page | 63
AXcross?sectional area *cmZ-+ perpendicular to the current flow path
HX resistance *ohms+
&X resistivity *ohms?cm+
.rom this euation it follows that the resistivity of a given soil is
numerically eual to the resistance of a cube of the soil of one %entimeter
dimensions. !he most common method for resistivity measurement is the winner)s
8?pin method. !he instrument measures the resistance directly and a multiplication
factor *-TE.,8a+ is applied where [a[ is the chosen pin spacing. !hus
P H 2J3.14) R
!he soil resistivity calculated by this method represents the average
resistivity of the soil at a depth eual to the pin spacing [a[. %onventional resistivity
instruments use alternating current to eliminate polari'ation effects and the
influence of any direct current in the soil. Hesistance measurements are typically
performed to a depth eual to that of pipeline being evaluated. !ypical the pin
spacing is increments of -.0 feet.
>rrors can occur due to the presence of underground metallic structures or
heterogeneous *stratified+ soils. 1n such cases, the pins must be arranged remote
from any metallic structure; otherwise a lower resistivity will be obtained.
%onventional resistivity instruments are alternating current to eliminate
polari'ation effects and influence of any direct current in the soil. .urthermore, the
generating freuency approximately *9/ 5I+ is one which is not commonly
encountered in the electrical power industry, thereby eliminating errors from the
presence of power system alternating current.
>rrors can occur due to the presence of underground metallic structures or
heterogeneous *stratified+ soils. !hus the pins must be arranged remote from any
metallic structure. 1n some instances *e.g. underground pipelines+ the error can be
reduced by placing the pins perpendicular to the piping. !he pins should not be
positioned parallel with an underground :etallic structure; otherwise a lower
resistivity will be obtained. ",0$
P2&/-0% -5 R%0#0(#?#(4 S2&?%4
,. 7oil resistivity gives idea of the soil corrosivity. !he following table shows
degree of corrosivity versus soil resistivity.
Page | 64
-. A soil resistivity profile is extremely helpful in the selection of sites for
cathodic protection installations *rectifier, anode?beds etc+. "-$
2.27.2 P-(%*(#)$ S2&?%4
1n potential surveys, measurements are made of electrical pipeline *voltage+
between the buried pipeline and its environment using a reference like copper
sulfate electrode. A potential survey gives general idea of the extent to which
corrosion has &rogressed, the location of hot spots and the location of areas that are
subject to stray current corrosion.
A general idea of corrosion extent can be obtained from average line
potential. 1f potentials are measured with respect to remote reference electrode,
every mile or so along a pipeline and the readings are averaged*excluding those
subject to stray current+, it will be noted that the less corroded the pipeline, the
higher the average potential will be. &otential survey may also be taken so close
reference electrode. 1n this techniue measurements are taken a fairly close interval
*,// ft or less+ between the pipeline and copper sulphate electrode directly over the
line.
3ocation of hot spots *severe corroding areas+ can be determined by such
potential surveys. 1n case a stray current electrolysis is encountered, extreme
variations in measured potentials will be observed. 1n severe cases, the variation
can be from several volts positive to several volts negative with respect to copper
sulfate electrode. While making the potential measurements of a pipeline it is
important to determine the actual electrochemical potential that does not include the
effect of (hmic resistance in the circuit. !he (hmic resistance causes an error in the
measurement that is called (hmic error or (hmic drop or 1H voltage drop. !his
error is created by the %& current flowing in the electrolyte *soil+ between the
reference electrode and the steel to be protected, leading to a potential drop which
may typically range from ,/?,//mv.
!he techniue normally used to avoid this (hmic error is that of
instantaneous?off potential measurement which eliminate the effect of the inherent
differences in the resistance and electrochemical properties of the system.
1nstantaneous?off potential is defined as the electrochemical potential obtained not
less /., second and not more than ,./ second following interruption of dc power to
the anode system.
Page | 65
!he reference electrode must be placed close to the structure or steel area to
minimi'e the effect of 1H error as it is effected by the %ircuit resistance. "-$
FIGURE 2!17" S,-:0 P-(%*(#)$ S2&?%4 )( S#(% B#0#(
2.27.3 O,.#6 E&&-&
!he voltage drops as a result of current flow in the electrolyte *soil+ are
generally referred to as ohmic or 1H voltage drops. 1H voltage drops are more
prevalent in the vicinity of an anode be or in areas where stray currents are present
generally increase with increasing soil resistivity.
.or bare or very poorly coated structures, 1H voltage drops can be reduced
by placing the reference electrodes as close as possible to the structure. .or the
majority of coated structures, most of the 1H voltage drop is across the coating, and
the measurements are less affected by reference electrode placement. !he 1H
voltage drop can be minimi'ed or eliminated by interrupting all of the direct current
sources of the %& system and measuring the instantaneous off? potential will be
force of the 1H voltage drop errors if all of the current sources, including sources of
stray currents, have been properly interrupted and if long line currents are
negligible. 3ong?line currents occur on a structure as a result of the presence of
macro cells. !he difference between the on?and the off?potential indicates the
magnitude of the 1H voltage drop error. "-$
2.27.4 L#*% C2&&%*( S2&?%4
1f corrosion is taking place on a pipeline, there will be current flow to the
line at some points and flow from the line at others. .or small local cells, this
pipeline path may be very short but for large cells, this pipeline path may be very
Page | 66
short but for large cells, the current may follow the pipe for hundreds or thousands
of feet. 1t is these \long line\ currents that can be detected in a line current survey.
=ecause the pipe has itself resistance to flow of electric current, there will be a
voltage drop in the pipe if current is flowing through this resistance. :any pipeline
companies install permanent test point installations with wires bridging a known
*say ,// ft+ span of length. (n lines not having permanently installed test points,
contacts bar may be used to establish a span for test purpose. At each point of
measurement, the voltage drop and the circuit resistance are measured. Snowing the
span resistance of pipe being surveyed, the voltage drops may be converted to
euivalent current flow by applying ohm[s law. !he values of current together with
the direction of flow then may be plotted versus line length. !he area where current
flows from both directions towards a particular point on the line; indicates an area
of current discharge and corrosion activity. 3ikewise, the lesser peak on the right of
the plot indicates current loss even though direction of the flow doesn)t change.
3ine current surveys generally will be more meaning full on the bare line than on
well coated lines. (n a well coated pipe, therefore there is no need to perform this
survey. (n a well coated pipeline current can enter and leave only through breaks or
pin holes in the coating. With current concentrated
%oating defects, the current density at these defects usually is greater than
that on bare pipe. !his means the degree of attack will be greater at coating defects
in anodic areas on coated pipe than would be the case with bare pipe. 2evertheless,
the total current flow on coated pipe would be much less than on bare pipe. ",0$
2.27.5 S-#$ A6#7#(4
2ormally the soils encountered along a pipeline approximately neutral *&5
B+. !here may however, be locations, where due to unusual conditions the soil may
be alkaline or acidic .Alkaline conditions do not pose any serious problem because
such an environment is not aggressive to steel. Acidic conditions around the pipe
make it difficult to polari'e the line to protective potentials *the acidic acts as
depolari'ing agent+ when %& is applied. !his increase reuirement in the area, thus
during a corrosion survey, it would be of value to check the soil &5 in areas where
there is a possibility of unusual chemical conditions. !he result could have
considerable effect on the locations selected for %& rectifiers or galvanic anodes.
Page | 67
A particularly acidic soil conditions, for example would indicate the need for
a relatively high current density to maintain cathodic protection. !his could in turn
make it desirable to locate %& installations at or near the area of high current
reuirement. "E$
2.27.= SRB D%(%6(#-*
<nder anaerobic conditions sulfate reducing bacteria *7H=+ in the soil close
to a pipeline surface have the ability to reduce any sulfates present consume
hydrogen in the process. !his in turn would depolari'e the steel at cathodic areas
and increase the corrosion rate. !he practical effect of 7H= activity on the
application of %& is an increase in the amount of current reuired to maintain the
reuired level of %&. !hus in such case higher than normal protective potentials are
should be used. An additional ,//mv potential has been recommended by 2A%> *?
/.90 v to copper sulfate electrode instead of?/.;0v+. "E$
2.28 PROTECTIBE COATING
All new ha'ardous pipelines *carrying oil, gas, or other potentially
dangerous substances+ are reuired to use an effective coating and %&.
!he coatings by themselves may not be good enough for long term protection.
5owever, they are extremely effective when used with cathodic protection. (n a
typical well coated pipeline the protection is better than 99O and, along with the
%&; the protection should reach almost ,//O. According to 2A%> standard
H&(,#9?9# section 04 coating, is a comprehensive guide to pipeline coatings.
According to 2A%> standard coating should have the following desirable properties
,. >ffective electrical insulator
-. >ffective moisture barrier
E. Applicability
8. 5oliday resistance
0. @ood adhesion to pipe surface
#. Ability to withstand normal handling, <V degradation and installation
B. Hesistance to disbonding
;. >ase of repair "-$
Page | 68
2.29 PREPARATION FOR CATHODIC PROTECTION
=efore the cathodic protection installation some of the operation are carried on
the pipelines as to improve the life of cathodic protection system and to maintain
the average potential difference across the pipeline surface easier. !hese steps
including
7and blasting or blast cleaning.
%oating6=ituminous coating.
2.2.1 S)*7 A$)0(#*+
7and blasting removes mill scale, rust, and foreign matter from the pipelines
by the high velocity impact of suitable abrasive particles *so called blast sand at
77@% Sarachi they get this type of sand from 2oriabad Sarachi+. ",0$
2.2.2 C-)(#*+
%oating is the first line of defense against corrosion; it is complemented by
cathodic protection for buried steel pipelines and structures. A properly selected and
properly applied coating should provide the major portion of the protection
reuired. A good pipeline coating practically isolates the metal from the
environment.
&ipe coatings may be initially holiday free but, handling, rock penetration,
soil stress, chemical deterioration or damage during construction will eventually
expose bare metal to the environment and its corrosive effects.
5olidays in the coatings accelerate corrosion, if not cathodically protected.
With a high electrical resistant coating, cathodic protection energy consumption is
only used at the holidays in the coating and can therefore maintain the external
surface of the pipeline essentially free of corrosion damage. !he better the coating,
the lower will be the current reuirement for cathodic protection system.
Although it is technically possible to protect bare pipeline without coating
by applying cathodic protection only, it is seldom desirable to do so because of the
cost of providing the large current reuired and, often the difficulty of arranging
anodes so as to give uniform current distribution. !he current reuired to protect a
pipeline is approximately proportional to the bare area at pipelines so therefore
coating improves the efficiency of the %& system. 7ome common coating materials
used for the pipelines are4
Page | 69
>poxy powder fusion?bonded
Asphalt enamel
!ape wrap
>poxy coal tar
&olyethylene
=ituminous coating
After the coating of primer paint the pipeline is coated with bituminous as it
can be protected from the erosion of soil pebbles stones and other environments.
!he diameter of the bituminous coat is probably up to half inches however, diameter
is difficult to maintain uniformly because it is a rough practice or labor work. ",0$
2.30 HOLIDAY RESISTANCE
!he coating should have holiday resistance. !he term holiday is applied to
flaw in coating. !he coating should be free of pinholes, blowholes etc. and the
coating materials should not develop holiday with time. Aefects such as pinholes,
blowholes etc. are indicated though 5oliday !ester. ",$
Page | 70
3 CHAPTER
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
3.1 INTRODUCTION
A small research work on sacrificial anodes i.e. Iinc and aluminum; in
which the properties of these both anodes in salt water *corrosive atmosphere+ are
compared; that which anode is more suitable for that condition6environment.
3.2 MATERIAL OF SAMPLE USED
&lain carbon steel pipes are used for research purpose. !hey have the
following specifications4
:aterial ,/-/
3ength # in.
Aiameter , in.
Area 8.B, s. in
Aensity B.;0 gm6 cu. cm.
]ield 7trength E80:&a
!ensile 7trength 8#0:&a
!he chemical composition of the samples is as follows4
ELEMENT PERCENTAGE
%arbon /.-/O
:anganese /.,O *max+
7ilicon /.,O*max+
7ulfur /.//0O*max+
&hosphorus /.//0O*max+
1ron =alance
3.3 WELDING OF THE PIPE!
>lectric arc welding is done on the steel pipe samples. !he specifications of
samples and filler rod are as follows4
:aterial ,/-/
3ength # in.
Aiameter , in.
%ode 7 ,E
>lectrode AW7 >#/,E
7i'e E.- x E0/ mm
:aterial :ild steel
5igh !itania !ype
&osition All position
%urrent used A%. A%. *N+ B/?,8/ A
Page | 71
After the welding, welded sample has following specifications4
:aterial ,/-/
3ength ,- in.
Aiameter , in.
Area 9.8- s. in
3.3.1 W%$7#*+ P&-6%72&%
!he two pieces were placed parallel and straight in such a way that the
notches were facing each other.
!he welding *Arc+ was then applied on the notched area. A%. %urrent used
for welding of ,-/ A.
At first the base line was joined by welding with single pass. !hen a number
of passes were applied until and unless the V?notch was completely filled.
!hree passes were applied for this purpose.
1t was taken care that the weld speed may remain constant for each passes
applied to each sample.
!he welding operations were carried out at the workshop of the :<>!,
Lamshoro.
FIGURE 3!18" W%$7%7 0)./$%
3.4 CORROSION PROTECTION
!he welded pieces then placed in water *salt water, acidic in nature+ for
investigating the corrosion resistance of the samples. .or this purpose three
containers were taken and in every container two welded samples were placed. !he
arrangement of the containers is as follows4
a. C-*()#*%& 1" !he samples were placed in the container unprotected.
*7A:&3> 2(. , G -+
Page | 72
b. C-*()#*%& 2" !he samples were placed in the container protected with
Aluminum.*7A:&3> 2(. E G 8+
c. C-*()#*%& 3" !he samples were placed in the container protected with Iinc.
*7A:&3> 2(. 0 G #+
3.4.1 E*?#&-*.%*(
!he >nvironment of the container is salt water; it is little bit acidic in nature.
1t has the following specifications4
p5 0.9
!emperature -0
/
% *Hoom temperature+
3.4.2 A*-7%0
!wo anodes are used Aluminum and 'inc. !hese both anodes have the
capability to protect the steel pipes by cathodic protection method *act as sacrificial
anodes+.
1. A$2.#*2."
%ommercially pure Aluminum was used, with the following specifications4
SAMPLE WEIGHT SI;E BOLUME DENSITY
7ample A, E9., gm ,.,cm x ,.-cm
x ,.-cm
,.80- cm
E
-.B, gm6cm
E
7ample A- 8-.E gm ,.,cm x ,.,cm
x ,.-cm
,.0;8 cm
E
2. ;#*6"
%ommercially pure Iinc was used, with the following specifications4
SAMPLE WEIGHT SI;E BOLUME DENSITY
7ample =, -/B.E gm ,.8cm x ,.8cm
x ,.0cm
-.98 cm
E
B.,8 gm6cm
E
7ample =- ,9E./ gm ,.8cm x ,.8cm
x ,.8cm
-.B88 cm
E
3.5 TESTING
3.5.1 H)&7*%00 T%0(
5ardness is usually defined as resistance of a material to penetration. 1t also
refers to stiffness or resistance to scratching, abrasion or cutting.
!he hardness value obtained in a particular test serves only as a comparison
between materials or treatments. 1t is a useful and rapid mechanical test. !he test
procedure and sample preparation are usually simple, and the results may be used in
Page | 73
estimating other mechanical properties. 5ardness testing is widely used for
inspection and control. 5eat treatment or working usually results in a change in
hardness.
!he most commonly used hardness tests are4
,. Vickers hardness test
-. Hockwell hardness test.
E. =rinell hardness test
!he hardness tests measures the resistance to penetration of the surface of
material by a hard object, Vickers and Hockwell hardness testers are used therefore
they are discussed in detail.
B#6@%&0 H)&7*%00 T%0("
I*(&-726(#-*"
!he Vickers hardness test, uses a diamond pyramid indenter, it can be
conducted either as a macro or micro?hardness tests are suitable for materials that
may have a surface that has a higher hardness than the bulk, materials in which
different areas shown different levels of hardness or an sample that are not macro?
specially flat.
P&-6%72&%"
Vickers hardness is a measure of the hardness of a material, calculated from
the si'e of an impression produced under load by a pyramid?shaped diamond
indenter. Aevised in the ,9-/s by engineers at Vickers, 3td., in the <nited
Singdom, the diamond pyramid hardness test, as it also became known, permitted
the establishment of a continuous scale of comparable numbers that accurately
reflected the wide range of hardness found in steels.
!he indenter employed in the Vickers test is a suare?based pyramid whose
opposite sides meet at the apex at an angle of ,E#P. !he diamond is pressed into the
surface of the material at loads ranging up to approximately ,-/ kilograms?force,
and the si'e of the impression *usually no more than /.0 mm+ is measured with the
Page | 74
aid of a calibrated microscope. !he Vickers number *5V+ is calculated using the
following formula4
HB H 1.8541F'D23
With . being the applied load *measured in kilograms?force+ and A- the
area of the indentation *measured in suare millimeters+. !he applied load is usually
specified when 5V is cited.
FIGURE 3!1" B#6@%&0 D#).-*7 6-*% )*7 B#6@%&0 H)&7*%00 T%0(%&
T,% R-6@:%$$ H)&7*%00 T%0("
I*(&-726(#-*"
!he Hockwell 5ardness test uses a small?diameter steel ball for soft materials
and a diamond cone for hardener materials. !he depth of penetration of the indenter
is automatically measured by the testing machine and converted to a Hockwell
5ardness 2o. *5H+.
Page | 75
7everal verities of the Hockwell test are used, Hockwell = *5H=+ test is used for
soft steels, Hockwell % *5H%+ test is used for hard steels, whereas a Hockwell .
*5H.+ test might be selected for aluminum, Hockwell tests provide a hardness 2o.
that has no units.
P&-6%72&%"
!he specimen is placed on the object table under the indenter of the machine.
!he specimen is brought is touch with the indenter by twining the wheel *capstan+
of the machine until the small pointer *needle+ on the dial stands approximately at
the red dash. !his shows that the initial minor lead of ,/ kg has been applied and
the big pointer takes the vertical position with the accuracy of N0 divisions. !he
major lead is applied by the needle is the anti?clockwise direction and when it
comes to the rest position, the rank handle is pulled forward again. =y doing so the
major lead is removed but not the major load. Aial reading then gives the Hockwell
hardness 2o.
FIGURE 3!2<" H)&7*%00 T%0(%&
3.5.2 C-&&-0#-* P%*%(&)(#-* R)(%"
I*(&-726(#-*"
!he %orrosion rate, or the rate of material removal as a conseuence of
chemical action, is an important corrosion parameter. !his may be expressed as the
6-&&-0#-* /)&).%(%& &)(%, or the thickness loss of material per unit of time. !he
formula for this calculation is4
Page | 76
CPR H KW
KA(
Where4
%&H X %orrosion penetration rate.
W X Weight loss after exposure time *milligrams+.
^ X Aensity of specimen *gm6cm
E
+.
A X Area of specimen *in
-
+.
t X >xposure time *hr+.
S X %onstant X ;B.#
.or most applications a 6-&&-0#-* /%*%(&)(#-* &)(% less than about /.0/
mm6yr is acceptable.
P&-6%72&%"
1t is important to examine a material[s reaction in corrosive atmosphere. .irst of
all dimensions of the specimen are noted. !hen weight loss is determined by the
digital balance and then by putting the values in the formula the C-&&-0#-*
P%*%(&)(#-* R)(% is calculated.
3.5.3 T%*0#$% T%0(#*+
I*(&-726(#-*"
After yielding, the stress necessary to continue plastic deformation in metals
increases to a maximum, point, and then decreases to the eventual fracture. !he
tensile strength !7 *:&a6psi+ is the stress at the maximum on the engineering
stressMstrain curve. !his corresponds to the maximum stress that can be sustained by
a structure intension; if this stress is applied and maintained, fracture will result. All
deformation up to this point is uniform throughout the narrow region of the tensile
specimen. 5owever, at this maximum stress, as mall constriction or neck begins to
format some point, and all subseuent deformation is confined at this neck. !his
phenomenon is termed__necking)) and fracture ultimately occurs at the neck. !he
fracture strength corresponds to the stress at fracture. !ensile strengths may vary
anywhere from 0/:&a *B///psi+ for an aluminum to as high as E///:&a
*80/,///psi+ for the high?strength steels.
P&-6%72&%"
Page | 77
7pecimens are placed in the grips of the 1nstron at a specified grip separation
and pulled until failure. .or A7!: A#E; the test speed is determined by the
material specification. .or 17( 0-B the test speed is typically 0 or 0/mm6min for
measuring strength and elongation and ,mm6min for measuring modulus. An
extensometer is used to determine elongation and tensile modulus.
!he following calculations can be made from tensile test results4
,. !ensile strength *at yield and at break+.
-. !ensile modulus.
E. 7train.
8. >longation and percent elongation at yield.
0. >longation and percent elongation at break.
FIGURE 3!21" D#)+&). O5 T%*0#$% T%0( S/%6#.%*
Page | 78
FIGURE 3!22" S6,%.)(#6 7#)+&). 5-& (%*0#$% (%0(#*+ .)6,#*%
3.5.4 I./)6( T%0(#*+
!he 1mpact test is generally employed to measure the toughness of the materials.
T-2+,*%00"
!oughness is a mechanical term that issued in several contexts; loosely
speaking, it is a measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy up to fracture.
7pecimen geometry as well as the manner of load application is important in
toughness determinations. .or dynamic *high strain rate+ loading conditions and
when a notch *or point of stress concentration+ is present, notch toughness is
assessed by using an impact test. .urthermore, fracture toughness is a property
indicative of a material)s resistance to fracture when a crack is present. .or the static
*low strain rate+ situation, toughness may be ascertained from the results of a tensile
stressMstrain test. 1t is the area under the curve up to the point of fracture. !he units
for toughness are the same as for resilience *i.e., energy per unit volume of
material+. .or a material to be tough it must display both strength and ductility; and
often, ductile materials are tougher than brittle ones. 5ence, even though the brittle
material has higher yield and tensile strengths, it has a lower toughness than the
ductile one.
!here are generally two types of 1mpact testing4
a+ %harpy 1mpact test
b+ 1'od 1mpact test
!he major differences between the tests are that the 1'od test specimen is held
vertically and usually tested at room temperature and the %harpy specimen is held
hori'ontally and is usually tested at specific temperature.
P&-6%72&%"
1t is important to examine a material[s reaction to short yet intense loads because
under such conditions, the material may behave in a more brittle manner than is
indicated from a simple tensile test. !he %harpy impact test is commonly used for
this purpose. A notched bar is placed in the test machine, and then a hammer is
allowed to fall and break it. !he energy absorbed in fracturing the specimen is
measured by the height to which the hammer rises. Views from the front and rear
show how the hammer breaks the sample. 1n slow motion, the hammer strikes the
Page | 79
bar behind the notch, and the fracture starts at the bottom of the notch and tears
through the bar.
FIGURE 3!23" 1"3 S/%6#.%* 20%7 5-& C,)&/4 )*7 IC-7 #./)6( (%0(0.
1#3 A 06,%.)(#6 7&):#*+ -5 )* #./)6( (%0(#*+ )//)&)(20.
3.5.5 M%()$$-+&)/,4
!he samples were prepared for metallographic investigation such as cutting,
grinding, polishing, and etching; and finally metallographic investigation was
carried out by using optical metallurgical microscope.
)3 C2((#*+
.irst small pieces were cut from both the discs by using abrasive cutting
machine shown in figure. 1t uses silicon carbide cutting wheel. Water was
continuously used during cutting for preventing from overheating and breaking of
the cutting wheel.
Page | 80
FIGURE 3!24" AA&)0#?% 62((#*+ .)6,#*%
A3 M-2*(#*+
!he pieces cut were very small and it was not easy to handle for further grinding
and polishing operation therefore pieces were mounted in thermoplastic resin using
metallographic mounting machine as shown in figure.
FIGURE 3!25" M-2*(#*+ M)6,#*%
63 G&#*7#*+
After mounting, the samples were grounded by using emery papers of
progressively finer grades. !he grinding was done on grinding machine as shown in
figure using --/ grit, E-/ grit, 0// grit, B// grit ,/// grit G ,-// grit. !he
specimens were first grinded on --/ grit emery paper then E-/ grit, 0// grit and so
on. !he sample is washed with water, every time the paper is changed.
Page | 81
FIGURE 3!2=" G&#*7#*+ M)6,#*%
73 P-$#0,#*+
After grinding fine polishing was done on metallographic polisher as shown in
figure using alumina *Al
-
(
E
+ powder. Water was used as lubricant. .ine polishing
removes fine scratches and very thin distorted layers remaining from grinding.
FIGURE 3!27" P-$#0,#*+ .)6,#*%
%3 E(6,#*+
.inally the polished samples were etched by using a proper reagent we use nital
*9;ml ethyl alcohol and -O nitric acid+. !he samples were dipped for 0?; sec and
then washed with water. !he purpose of using etching is to make visible many
structural characteristics of samples.
Page | 82
FIGURE 3!28" E(6,#*+ A+%*(0
53 M#6&-06-/4"
After etching microscopic examination of the prepared sample is taken by
using metallurgical microscope.
FIGURE 3!22" M%()$$2&+#6)$ M#6&-06-/%
Page | 83
4 CHAPTER
RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 INTRODUCTION!
!his chapter represents the results and discussions of experimental work,
described in chapter E, which is carried out to the measurement of hardness,
corrosion penetration test, and impact test and investigate the microstructure of the
samples. !he hardness, corrosion penetration test, impact test and metallography
were carried out in the :aterials and :etallography lab of the :etallurgy and
:aterials >ngineering department of :.<.>.!.
4.2 T$%&'() *+ W$,-'()!
After welding hardness test and tensile test is done. .ollowing results are noted4
4.2.1 T%*0#$% T%0("
]ield 7trength EE8 26mm
-
!ensile 7trength 80- 26mm
-

4.2.2 I./)6( T%0("
1mpact 7trength #.; 26mm
-
4.2.3 H)&7*%00 T%0("
TEST WELD HA; BASE METAL
5ardness*5V+ ,B/ ,;/ ,B/
5ardness*5H=+ 0- 08 0-
B#%:0"
!he hardness of the weld area is similar to the base metal, even the heat
affected 'one is not that much hard, the hardness measured in all three 'ones
is found to be similar, so there is euality in the mechanical properties.
!he tensile strength is little bit lower, but that does not affect much.
!he impact energy is also high, which means the weld is stronger.
4.2.4 METALLOGRAPHY"
Page | 84
FIGURE 4!3<" H)C X1<<
FIGURE 4!31" P)&%*( M%()$ X1<<
FIGURE 4!32" W%$7%7 X1<<
B#%:0"
!he microstructure of the sample shows ferritic and pearlitic structure in
5a', &arent metal as well as welded area at ,// magnifications.
Page | 85
4.3 TESTINGS FOR CORROSION!
4.3.1 A( (,% (#.% -5 #*0()$$.%*("
1. /H -5 :)(%&"
p5 0.9
2. T%./%&)(2&% -5 :)(%&"
!emperature E-
/
%
3. W%#+,( -5 0)./$%0"
SAMPLE WEIGHT
,. 8--., gm
-. 0-8 gm
E. 0,E.E gm
8. 8E;.# gm
0. 8#9.0 gm
#. 0/E gm
4. H)&7*%00 T%0("
SAMPLE
WELD
1HRB3
HA;
1HRB3
BASE METAL
1HRB3
,. 0- 08 0-
-. 0- 0E 0,
E. 0, 08 0-
8. 0- 08 0-
0. 0E 00 0-
#. 0- 08 0,
5. I./)6( T%0("
!he impact strength of the welded sample is considered over here.
1mpact 7trength #.; 26mm
-
Page | 86
4.3.2 A5(%& 5-2& .-*(,0"
1. /H -5 (,% :)(%&"
i. C-*()#*%& 1" !he samples are placed in the container unprotected.
*7A:&3> 2(. , G -+
FIGURE 4!33" C-*()#*%& 9 0)./$% -5 :)(%& -5 2*/&-(%6(%7 0)./$%0 1)5(%& 4 .-*(,03
p5 0.0
ii. C-*()#*%& 2" !he samples are placed in the container protected with Aluminum.
*7A:&3> 2(. E G 8+
FIGURE 4!34" C-*()#*%& 9 0)./$% -5 :)(%& #* :,#6, 0)./$%0 )&% /&-(%6(%7 :#(, A$2.#*2.
1A5(%& 4 .-*(,03
p5 8.9
iii. C-*()#*%& 3" !he samples are placed in the container protected with Iinc.
*7A:&3> 2(. 0 G #+
FIGURE 4!35" C-*()#*%& 9 0)./$% -5 :)(%& #* :,#6, 0)./$%0 )&% /&-(%6(%7 :#(, ;#*6
1)5(%& 4 .-*(,03
p5 B.,
B#%:0"
Page | 87
!he color of the water of the container and the p5 of the samples determine
that after four months the container of 'inc has neutral p5 hence it has the
less corrosive environment.
2. T%./%&)(2&% -5 :)(%&"
i. C-*()#*%& 1" !he samples are placed in the container unprotected.
*7A:&3> 2(. , G -+
!emperature E-
/
%
ii. C-*()#*%& 2" !he samples are placed in the container protected with Aluminum.
*7A:&3> 2(. E G 8+
!emperature E-
/
%
iii. C-*()#*%& 3" !he samples are placed in the container protected with Iinc.
*7A:&3> 2(. 0 G #+
!emperature E-
/
%
B#%:0"
!he temperature of the containers is at room temperature hence there was
not much effect of temperature on the corrosion rates.
3. H)&7*%00 T%0("
i. C-*()#*%& 1" !he samples are placed in the container unprotected.
*7A:&3> 2(. , G -+
SAMPLE
WELD
1HRB3
HA;
1HRB3
BASE METAL
1HRB3
,. 08 0# 08
-. 08 00 0E
ii. C-*()#*%& 2" !he samples are placed in the container protected with Aluminum.
*7A:&3> 2(. E G 8+
SAMPLE
WELD
1HRB3
HA;
1HRB3
BASE METAL
1HRB3
E. 0- 00 0E
8. 0- 00 0E
iii. C-*()#*%& 3" !he samples are placed in the container protected with Iinc.
*7A:&3> 2(. 0 G #+
Page | 88
SAMPLE
WELD
1HRB3
HA;
1HRB3
BASE METAL
1HRB3
0. 0E 00 0-
#. 0- 08 0,
B#%:0"
!he hardness of the samples that are unprotected have greatest hardness, the
samples which are protected with Aluminum have high hardness than the
samples protected with Iinc.
1t can be said that the corrosive layer at the unprotected layer rise its
hardness while the samples protected with Aluminum have the less corrosive
layer and the samples protected with Iinc have very little or negligible layer.
4. C-&&-0#-* P%*%(&)(#-* R)(%"
i. C-*()#*%& 1" !he samples are placed in the container unprotected.
*7A:&3> 2(. , G -+
W%#+,( $-00 -5 (,% 0)./$%0"
SAMPLE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
FINAL
WEIGHT
WEIGHT
LOSS
,. 8--., gm 8/,.E gm -/.; gm
-. 0-8 gm 0/#.# gm ,B.8 gm
C)$62$)(#-*"
7ample ,4
%&H X SW
^At
H *;B.#+ *-/;//+
*B.;0+*9.8-+*-;;/+
X ;.00 mm6yr
7ample -4
%&H X SW
^At
H *;B.#+ *,B8//+
*B.;0+*9.8-+*-;;/+
X B.,0 mm6yr
ii. C-*()#*%& 2" !he samples are placed in the container protected with Aluminum.
*7A:&3> 2(. E G 8+
W%#+,( -5 (,% 0)./$%0"
Page | 89
SAMPLE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
FINAL
WEIGHT
WEIGHT
LOSS
E. 0,E.E gm 0/9.# gm E.B gm
8. 8E;.# 8E0.8 gm E.- gm
C)$62$)(#-*"
7ample E4
%&H X SW
^At
H *;B.#+ *EB//+
*B.;0+*9.8-+*-;;/+
X ,.0- mm6yr
7ample 84
%&H X SW
^At
H *;B.#+ *E-//+
*B.;0+*9.8-+*-;;/+
X ,.E, mm6yr
iii. C-*()#*%& 3" !he samples are placed in the container protected with Iinc.
*7A:&3> 2(. 0 G #+
W%#+,( -5 (,% 0)./$%0"
SAMPLE
INITIAL
WEIGHT
FINAL
WEIGHT
WEIGHT
LOSS
0. 8#9.0 gm 8#;.# gm /.9 gm
#. 0/E gm 0/,.9 gm ,., gm
C)$62$)(#-*"
7ample 04
%&H X SW
^At
H *;B.#+ *9//+
*B.;0+*9.8-+*-;;/+
X /.EB mm6yr
7ample #4
%&H X SW
^At
H *;B.#+ *,,//+
*B.;0+*9.8-+*-;;/+
Page | 90
X /.80- mm6yr
B#%:0"
!he %orrosion &enetration Hates of samples protected with Iinc are in the
limit while the samples protected with Aluminum have higher corrosion
rates than the limit; the limit is /.0 mm6yr.
5. I./)6( T%0("
i. C-*()#*%& 1" !he samples are placed in the container unprotected.
*7A:&3> 2(. , G -+
SAMPLE
IMPACT
STRENGTH
,. 0.B 26mm
-
-. 0.9 26mm
-
ii. C-*()#*%& 2" !he samples are placed in the container protected with Aluminum.
*7A:&3> 2(. E G 8+
SAMPLE
IMPACT
STRENGTH
E. #.0 26mm
-
8. #.# 26mm
-
iii. C-*()#*%& 3" !he samples are placed in the container protected with Iinc.
*7A:&3> 2(. 0 G #+
SAMPLE
IMPACT
STRENGTH
0. #.; 26mm
-
#. #.B 26mm
-
B#%:0"
!he impact strength of the samples that are unprotected is very low; the
samples which are protected with Aluminum have low strength than the
samples protected with Iinc. 5ence the samples protected with Iinc haven)t
lost their strength.
Page | 91
5 CHAPTER
CONCLUSION
!he present experimental work including %orrosion &enetration Hate and
mechanical properties i.e. hardness and impact strength reveals that the samples
protected with Iinc are better protected than the samples protected with Aluminum.
!he main conclusion of this work is as follows4
,. !he p5 analysis of the containers reveals that samples protected with Iinc are
better protected than the samples protected with Aluminum; as the environment
become less corrosive *neutral atmosphere+.
-. >xperiment conducted for hardness and impact strength clearly shows that the
samples protected with Iinc are better protected than the samples protected with
Aluminum.
E. >xperiment conducted for %orrosion &enetration Hate clearly shows that the
samples protected with Iinc are better protected than the samples protected with
Aluminum.
Page | 92
REFERENCES
,. %orrosion for 7cience and >ngineering *-
nd
>dition+
S.H. !rethewey and L. %hamberlain
-. &eabody)s %ontrol of &ipeline %orrosion *-
nd
>dition+
A. W. &eabody >dited =y4 Honald 3. =ainchetti
E. %orrosion and &rotection
>iner =ardal
8. A7: 5andbook Welding, =ra'ing And 7oldering *Volume #+
A7: 1nternational
0. Welding !echnology *-
nd
>dition+
@iachino6 Weeks6 Lohnson
#. Welding >ngineering And !echnology
Ar. H. 7. &armar
B. :aterials 7cience and >ngineering; An 1ntroduction *7eventh >dition+
William A. %allister, Lr.
;. !he 7cience and >ngineering of :aterials *!hird >dition+
Aonald H. Askeland
9. &rinciples of :aterials 7cience And >ngineering *!hird >dition+
William .. 7mith
,/. C:echanical :etallurgyD. *!hird >dition+
@eorge >. Aieter. :c@raw?5ill %ompany <.7.A ,9;B
,,. C&hysical :etallurgyD. 7econd >dition
7idney 5. Avner. :c@raw?5ill %ompany
,-. www.wikipedia.com
,E. www.myarticles.com
14. www.answers.com
,0. 1nformation collected from 77@%
,#. >ncarta *7earch engine+
Page | 93