Conclusion

Weare accumulating a wealth of data on Recent

reefs which relates to the ecology and distribu-
tion of the organisms and to their influence on
the patterns of carbonate generation and accre-
tion. The data show that present day growth is
no older than about 7000 years and that the total
duchess of limestone formed in that time is
only about 10 metres. They also question our
simple models of the way in which reefs grow
and emphasise deposition of loose sediment
within the energy shadow down-current from
the reef frame. This contrasts with the textbook
model of coarse debris accumulating on the reef
front. However, although we can apply these
principles of growth and development to fossil
reef systems, it has become clear that they are
not sufficient to explain the total character of
Recent reefs and that wemust also consider the
foundations of these structures. This wewill do
in a future article, where we will look at their
deep structures in relation to sea-level change
and plate tectonics.
Suggestions for further reading
Chave, K. E., Smith, S . V. & Roy, K. J . 1972.
Carbonate production by coral reefs. Marine
Geol. v. 12, pp. 123-140.
Graus, R. R., Chamberlain, J . A. J r. & Boker,
A. M. 1977. Structural modhcations of corals
in relation to waves and currents. In: Reefs
and related carbonates: Ecology and Sediment-
ology. Frost, s. H., Weiss, M. P. & Saunders,
J . B. (eds). American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Studies in Geology 4, pp. 135-153.
Land, L. S . & Moore, C. J . J r. 1977. Deep fore-
reef and upper island slope, North J amaica.
In: Reefs and related carbonates: Ecology and
Sedimentology. Frost, S . H., Weiss, M. P. &
Saunders, J . B. (eds). American Association of
Petroleum Geol ogm, Studies in Geology 4,
pp. 53- 65.
Macintyre, I. G. & Glynn, P. W. 1976. Evdu-
tion of Modern Caribbean Fringing Reef
Galeta Point, Panama. Bulletin of the American
Association of Petroleum Geologists, v. 60,
pp. 1054-1072.
Rosen, B. R. 1981. The tropical high diversity
enigma - the corals-eye view. In: The evolving
Biosphere. Forey, P. L., (ed). British Museum
(Natural History), Cambridge University
Press. pp. 103-129.
Stehli, F. G. & Wells, J . W. 1971. Diversity and
age patterns in hermatype corals. Systematic
Zoology. v. 20, pp. 115-126.
Colin Braithwaite is Senior Lecturer in Geology,
Dundee University
Minerals explained 6:
Baryte
whi l e there are relatively few naturally occurring
barium compounds in the Earths crust, barium sul-
phate in the form of the mineral bartye is common
and geographcally widespread. But although com-
mon, oftensin the form of massive orebodies, it
is frequently found in the form of beautiful crystals
and ina range of pastel shades of colour. Most often
found in medium-to-low-temperature hydrothermal
deposits, where it occurs as a gangue mineral associ-
ated with such ores as lead and zinc, it may also be
present in sedimentary rocks where it may acr as a
cementing agent. I t may also be produced by pro-
cesses of metasomatism, especially of limestones.
Owing to its insolubility, it often forms residual
strata-bound deposits following the erosion of such
limestones. Beautifully transparent crystals may also
befound in the vesicles of some igneous rocks.
The name baryte is derived from the Greek barys,
heavy, alluding to its density. The many synonyms
and variations of the spelling have produced a confus-
ing picture. In 1868 Dana, in an attempt to rationalise
mineralogical nomenclature, modified the Greek to
produce the name barite, a spelling s t i l l in common
use in America. The International Commission on
Mineralogical Nomenclature has decreed, however,
that Karstens derivative of 1800, baryr, should have
preference. The names barytes, barytine and barytite
are obsolete, as are the many names of Latin deriva-
tion. Other names still in use include (1) Bologna
Stone (Spar) - a locality term; (2) Brain Stone- a tight
grouping of crystals which, when cut and polished,
resembles the convolutions of the surface of a brain;
(3) Cawk (Cauk, Caulk, Calk) - a descriptive term
used by Derbyshire miners to describe an earthy,
massive variety; (4) Heavy Spar - a miners term;
( 5 ) Hepatite - a fetid variety arising from the presence
of oily compounds; and ( 6) Sand crystals - crystallised
baryte containing a proportion of sand grains. There
are famous localities in the United States (e.g. Okla-
homa and Kansas) where these last are known as
desert roses.
Chemical composition
Baryte is essentially barium sulphate (BaS04). Being
isostructural with celestine (SrS04) and anglesite
(PbS04), elemental substitution of the barium by
strontium, and less commonly by lead, is possible.
Although there is no series between barium and lead,
the substitution being in the order of Pb:Ba =1:4, a
complete series may exist between barium and stron-
tium. There may be minor substitution of calcium for
barium, but there is no isosuuctural relationship
GEOLOGY TODAY Jam~y- Febncory 1987121
Although beautiful specimens have come from such
mines as the Ale and Cakes, near St Day in Cornwall,
virtually nothing may be collected in Cornwall today
at the surface. The collector has to rely on dealers who
may have acquired Cornish baryte from an old collec-
tion. However, good crystallised material may be
found in Devon, from localities in the Christow area
or in the quarries about Brixham and Torquay.
Material of a similar habit may be found in the
quarries at Cannington, near Bridgwater in Somerset.
In the same county, a variety closely resembling the
Derbyshire variety, cawk, may readily be found in the
Mendip Hills, and well crystallised baryte occurs in
the Dolomitic Conglomerate (Triassic) at such locali-
ties as Dulcote Hill near Wells.
Fine crystal groups associated with sprays of tiny
svontianite crystals occur from time to time in the
quarries about Portland in Dorset. Beautiful groups
of crystals in the form of rosettes occur in the septa-
rim nodules of the London Clay (Eocene) on the Isle
of Sheppey in Kent (Fig. 3). Large masses of baryte
occur in the course of working the Lower Cretaceous
Fullers Earth of Nutfield in Surrey. Cavities in these
masses often contain he, transparent, golden-
coloured, highly modified crystals. Sand crystals,
white in colour and in large groups, occur in the
Lower Cretaceous Woburn (glass) Sands of the
Leighton Buzzard area of Bedfordshire, but they are
rare and diligent searching is necessary.
The mines in the Shelve and Church Pulverbatch
areas of Shropshire have been important producers of
baryte. Well-crystallised material may still be found
on the old mine dumps there. Unique pisolitic
aggregations of spheroids occur in the neptunean
dykes cutting the Dinantian limestones of north
Leicestershire. Baryte is also abundant in Derbyshire,
and its habits are as diverse as its many localities.
Most commonly adopting the cockscomb habit, fine
crystal groups occur, especially in the mine dumps
and quarries of the Sheldon and Castleton areas. The
collector should do well in Derbyshre. The unique
dark-brown stalactitic material, formerly found at
Arbor Low, near Middleton-by-Youlgreave, may still
be found cut and polished in a characteristic manner
in the many rock shops in the county. It is sold
under the trade name of oak stone (Fig. 2).
Occasionally, good specimens of baryte may be
found in the Triassic sandstones of the Cheshire Basin
- for example, at Alderley Edge. Sand crystals in the
form of spherical aggregations of platey crystals are
abundant in Perm+Triassic Sandstones in the sand
pits of Nottinghamshire, especially in the neighbour-
hood of Bramcote where they almost constitute an ore
body. Formerly, the counties of northern England
were internationally famous for the abundance,
beauty of colour, and perfection of their crystallised
barytes. The names of many mines in west Cumbria,
the northern Pennines and Weardale became house-
hold words. Sadly, such names as the Mowbray Mine,
near Frizingtoa (Fig. l(b)), the Silverband Mine, near
Knock (Fig. l(a)), in which area some crysds found
inclay-filled cavities attained 247 kg in weight, and
the Haggs Mine, near Nenthead, where baryte
pseudomorphous after witherite made attractive
coral-like masses, have al l become history.
Although it may be possible to acquire cleavage
masses and the rare crystal group on old mine dumps,
the collectors best hope is to visit the dealers as far as
Fig. 3. Baryte on calcite
in septarian nodule,
Minster, Isle of Sheppey,
Kent. The rosette is
21 mmindiameter.
(Natn. Mus. Wales No.
83.41G.M87S8.)
the north of England is concerned. Only there may he
or she be able to acquire something comparable to
that seen in the museums of the world. While
relatively common in some of the old mining districts
of Wales, the most likely oppormnity to collect well-
crystallised baryte is in the working quarries of South
Wales. Quarries working in the South Crop of the
Dinantian limestones which flank the South Wales
Coalfield frequently produce fine crystal groups.
Scotland, hitheno a large producer of baryte (with
the exception of the Leadhills-Wanlockhead area) has
not been noted for the excellence of well-crystallised
or beautifully-coloured baryte. Nevertheless, the col-
lector may s t i l l be successful at such localities as the
Glen Sannox Mine on the Isle of Arran and from old
mine dumps elsewhere, especially in the Leadhills
area of the Southern Uplands. The same may besaid
of the Isle of Man and Ireland. On the former, the
Foxdale mines have produced rare groups; and in the
latter, localities such as Glendalough in County Wick-
low and old mine sites in County Cork may still
reward a keen eye.
The uses of baryte
As the worlds reserves of witherite dwindle, baryte is
increasingly sought as an economic source of barium
and its compounds. It is the chief source of the
metailic element. With the increasing awareness of
the toxicity of lead, baryte is now much used in the
manufacture of paints, as a filler for paper, in the
production of floor coverings and some textiles, and in
better-quality wallpapers. It is also used extensively in
the sugar industry. The barium meal used to render
the alimentary canal opaque to X-rays is composed of
finely-ground barium sulphate. By far the largest
consumer of baryte is, however, the oil industry,
which uses it as the principal constituent of drilling
mud for oil and gas wells.
The curation of baryte
Baryte, being relatively heavy, soft and possessing
perfect cleavage, needs careful handling. Its weight is
disarming and can catch the unwary. Owing to its
softness it is easily bruised, and the bruises cannot be
removed because of the minerals insolubility. Should
a specimen with well-developed cleavage be dropped
or placed down abruptly, the cleavage may develop
GEOLOGY TODA Y January-Februnry 1987123
Mantl e: the portion of the
Earths interior between the
base of the crust and the top
of the core, volumetrically
the largest component of the
Earrh, and comprising
mady olivine and
pyroxene.
Picrite: an ulvamafic rack
with accessory plagioclase;
an olivine-rich basalt.
and the specimen be destroyed. For the same reason,
well-cleaved baryte should not be subject to cleaning
by ultrasonic means. Baryte will submit, without ill
effects, to extremes of relative humidity but not to
extremes of temperature, and it should never be
stored or vansported without insulation in sub-zero
temperatures. Any moisture trapped wi thi nthe cleav-
ages or as fluid inclusions will freeze and burst the
specimen.
Baryte from some localities is notoriously meta-
stable under strong lighting, the onpal colour fading
or becoming lost altogether. Such photosensitivity
was taken advantage of by west Cumbrian iron
miners, who would expose normally yellow-coloured
baryte to strong sunlight to produce a blue coloura-
tion which could besold at a higher price to collec-
tors. Coloured baryte placed in a showcase under
strong lighting should be carefully watched for the
onset of colour loss or change.
Providing there are no metastable or delicate associ-
ates, such as pyrite or acicular aragonite, the appear-
ance of baryte may be improved by gentle washing in
solutions of soap in lukewarm water. I t is a beautiful
mineral and worth good care. There is a high pre-
mium on crystallised British baryte. It cannot be
replaced.
Suggestions for further reading
Battey, M.H. 1972. Mineralogy for Students. Oliver
and Boyd.
Bishop, A.C. 1967. An Outline of Crystal Morphology.
Hutchinson.
Collins, R.S. 1972. Barium Minerals. Mineral Dossier
No. 2, Institute of Geological Sciences (HMSO).
Dines, H.G. 1922. Barytes and Witherite. Institute of
Geological Sciences (HMSO).
Palache, H., Berman, H. and Frondel, C. 1951.
Danas System of Mineralogy (7t h edn), v. 2. J ohn
Wiley.
R.J . KI NG
Department of Geology
National Museum of Wales
The latest on
Oceanic basalts
T o many geologists basalts are rather nondescript,
uninteresting rocks, but to the igneous petrologist
they are revealing some fascinating insights into how
the Earth works. No longer are basalts merely fine-
grained, basic igneous rocks which often remain
obscure to the most ardent microscopist. Extremely
subtle variations in their chemistry, detectable only
by high-precision analytical instruments, can now be
related to large-scale events which occurred within the
Earth millions, if not billions, of years ago. The story
that is beginning to emerge is an exciting one that
involves global recycling of the outer layers of the
Earth throughout long periods of geological time.
Diversity of eruptive settings
Basaltic magmas are the main product of melting of
the mantle. The exact nature of the melt, or magma,
that is initially produced is still disputed, even after
decades of experimental petrological research; but it is
essentially basaltic or picritic. Basalts are erupted in
virtually every tectonic setting, but they are particu-
larly common in the ocean basins - at mid-ocean
ridges, within subduction-related island arcs and
back-arc basins, and on intra-plate islands.
Mid-ocean ridge basalu ( MORB) , the most volumi-
nous basalt type, form the half-kilometre-thick cara-
pace of sheet flows and pillow basalts of the
uppermost oceanic crust (Fig. 1). They are erupted in
response to crustal extension, the basaltic magmas
oozing from fissures or s mal l volcanoes sited at abyssal
depths on the mid-ocean ridge system. MORB effec-
tively underlie all of the abyssal plains.
Island arcs (for example, the Mariana Islands in the
western Pacific) are more localised, being associated
with subduction zones, and basaltic rocks are an im-
portant product of their volcanic activity. Most intra-
oceanic islands arcs are sited on oceanic crust which
may have formed by the process known as back-arc
spreading. Back-arc basalrs are formed in an exten-
sional setting similar to MORB, but their chemistry is
often intermediate between MORB and island arc
basalts.
Basalts are also ubiquitous on oceanic islands, which
are not usually sited on the ridge axis and can be
considered as within-plate or intra-plate. Here,
magmatism has been sufficiently prolific and pro-
longed for the volcanic pile to emerge from the sea.
Emergence is aided by the doming of the oceanic plate
above buoyant mantle, a phenomenon which only
rarely occurs on mid-ocean ridges - for example,
Iceland, on the mid-Atlantic Ridge. In many cases of
off-axis activity, the volcanism is insufficient for an
island to emerge, in which case a seamounf will result.
(Seamounts or guyots may also develop when islands
subside as the associated thermal bulge dies away.) A
recent estimate suggests that some 20% of the Pacific
Ocean crust is made of seamount-related basalt -
much more than is generally appreciated.
The very existence of an oceanic island suggests
that unusual conditions exist locally within the
mantle. The doming of the lithosphere and the asso-
ciated volcanic activity have led to the suggestion that
islands are underlain by mantle hot spots. Deep-
seated hot spots are also termed plumes or blobs,
depending on how vertically continuous they are
thought to be. The concept of plumes has been given
a recent boost by seismic tomography, essentially a
three-dimensional whole-Earth body-scan using seis-
mic waves instead of ultrasound. This shows columns
of anomalous, hotter mantle extending from beneath
oceanic islands into the deep mantle. There are still
several unsolved problems, however. How do the
plumes remain intact in a convecting mantle and not
get dissipated? Is the mantle where the plumes origi-
nate different from the overlying mantle? How can we
2WGEOLOGY TODAY January-February 1987