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Chapter 1: The Basics

Microtonal Notation
There have been a number of attempts to
devise logical signs for microtones but there
is still limited agreement between
publishers, musicologists or composers.
This situation is partly due to there being
a number of ways to organise microtones
in composition. The main ones are listed
below:
to divide the tone into more than 2 parts
(e.g. third-tone; quarter-tone; ffth-tone; sixth-
tone, etc.)
to divide the octave into more or less than
12 parts (11-div; 13-div; 19-div, etc.)
to use structured pure intervals based
on the harmonic series (referred to as Just
Intonation)
The above represent the principal
organisational categories used by
microtonal composers over the past ffty
years or so.
1
It will be noted that all of
those in the frst category could also be
described using the second (though not visa
versa). In such cases, it is not uncommon
for systems to be identifed by reference to
either the tone or the octave. For example,
third-tone music may be described as 18-div
and ffth-tone music as 30-div, and so on.
While there is no categorical reason why
the word division should be associated
with a division of the octave as opposed to
a division of a tone (or any other interval)
this terminology is widely accepted. The
terms tet, et, edo or equal are also used,
as in 19tet (19 tone equal temperament);
19et (19 equal temperament); 19edo (19
equal divisions of the octave) or 19 equal.
All these terms refer specifcally to equal
divisions of the octave. The description
n-tone, in the sense that it is sometimes
used to describe n-divisions of the
octave (as in 19-tone), is best avoided in
1
For two concise summaries of past and present microtonal composers and their work, see: Bob Gilmore, The
Climate Since Harry Partch, Contemporary Music Review, Microtones and Microtonalities 2003, Vol. 22, Parts
1 and 2, pp. 15-34, and Daniel James Wolf, Alternative Tunings, Alternative Tonalities, Contemporary Music
Review, Microtones and Microtonalities 2003, Vol. 22, Parts 1 and 2, pp. 3-14. Although there are many other
ways to organise pitch in microtonal compositions, for example, with unequal divisions of an interval, with non-
octave divisions and so on, the three approaches listed have all been regularly applied to acoustic music which is
the main focus of this book.
Basics 1
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Music in the First Category
(divisions of the tone)
In music which is structured by subdivid-
ing the tone, the predominant notational
method has been to design a different sign
for each subdivision. This is logical enough:
the known and established signs (the sharp,
fat and natural) remain unchanged and new
signs are devised which indicate (and usu-
ally suggest visually) a deviation from these
established standard-bearers.
This can be seen clearly in the quarter- and
eighth-tone signs below. In the sequence
of quarter-sharp, sharp and three-quarter
sharp, for example, the addition of vertical
lines suggest a sequence getting sharper, in
increments of a quarter-tone. The fats are
less logical and there are probably a number
of as-good equivalents. The choices below
take Tartinis quarter fat as standard, with a
three-quarter fat which is one symbol (as
opposed to two, which is a common vari-
ant) and not a flled-in fat (which is also
common but is too easily read as a pitch).
Example 1: Quarter-Tone signs used in this book
&
quarter-sharps
n m
n
1/4 1/2 3/4
b
quarter-flats
n B b
n
1/4 1/2 3/4
All the signs used are available in standard
music engraving software programmes,
which was one reason for their selection.
The reason why no absolute consensus has
developed has been because the aspirations
and objectives of composers have been
different. A system devised mainly for quar-
ter-tones may not expand naturally to third-
tones, twelfth-tones or sixteenth-tones for
example the logic of the symbols may
break down, or some signs may be too simi-
lar to others. Conversely, systems which
have as part of their objective to normalise
smaller intervals, such as twelfth-tones have
often utilised non-standard quarter-tone
signs, which tends to alienate performers
whose excursions into microtonality are
usually complicated enough.
Other issues which may affect the choice of
sign are whether or not the microtones are
structural or ornamental. Ornamental
suggests that microtones are for colour
and are inexact; while structural suggests
that each pitch is equal with any other. The
authors have chosen to use arrows, added
to the standard sharp, fat and natural signs,
to indicate exact eighth-tones even though
these signs have been used previously to
represent inexact infections, for example
the authors view because of the possibility
of confusing a division of the octave with a
division of a tone.
2
Furthermore, there is
the suggestion that there are 19 tones to
the octave when in fact the unit size is c.63
cents, less than a semitone.
3
Division (n-div) is preferred in this pub-
lication frstly because it doesnt have any
other pitch-related connotations (as tone
does) and, secondly, because it doesnt refer
specifcally to equal divisions. This second
point is important in relation to perfor-
mance on acoustic instruments where, just
as in 12-div music, there is a natural ten-
dency to alter intervals by subtle degrees
depending on context.
4
In cases where it is necessary to describe a
division specifcally as equal tempered
(perhaps to defne it theoretically as equal
steps) the term et is used, as in 19et.
For clarifcation, here is a concise defnition
of the use of the term division as used in
this book:
n-division
(where n is any number)
An octave division of theoretically equal
steps which, in performance on acoustic
instruments, will undergo many small infec-
tions from the theoretical pitch depending
on context.
Understanding how these microtonal systems
infuence notational approaches is
fundamental, and in the next section we will
explain why.
2
the size of the number will probably imply the correct meaning but there could be ambiguity, for example, with
11-tone, which would be feasible as a division of the tone or the octave.
3
This usage has clearly developed from the double meaning of tone in music as an interval and as a sound, or
pitch, so 19-tone would generally be interpreted as meaning 19 pitches per octave.
4
For further information see: Donald Bousted, Tuning In: Intonation in Performance, The Recorder Magazine,
Summer 2002, pp. 28-61; Donald Bousted, An Empirical Study of Quarter-Tone Intonation, Contemporary Mu-
sic Review, Microtones and Microtonalities 2003, Vol. 22, Parts 1 and 2, pp. 53-85; and Mieko Kanno, Thoughts
on How to Play in Tune: Pitch and Intonation, Contemporary Music Review, Microtones and Microtonalities
2003, Vol. 22, Parts 1 and 2, pp. 35-52
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and E fat), equate to different pitches. With
a tuning such as 17-div this approach to
notation leads to rather odd consequences
in that D fat is lower than C sharp which
looks very odd in an ascending sequence
and would be extremely counter-intuitive to
most performers.
For this reason, it is normal to use
replacement signs as is common practice in
another popular alternative tuning, 31-div.
8

In the case of 19-div, one of the subjects
of this study, enharmonic notation behaves
logically without substitute signs and, with
practice, is relatively intuitive for the per-
former.
If this all sounds complicated and confusing,
dont worry we will discuss faux notation
in much more detail in the sections on 19-
div and we believe that the patient reader
will be rewarded not only with a clear un-
derstanding of the microtonal implications
of 19-div but also with an appreciation of
ideas which have key in the development of
western music.
Music in the Third Category
(pure intervals)
Music in this category is called Just Into-
nation. Just Intonation has, as its basis,
the pure intervals of the harmonic series
(although the organisation of such intervals
is usually much more sophisticated than this
may imply). Although some of the pitches
at the beginning of the series correspond
more or less to equal tempered pitches,
there are substantial differences from the
seventh harmonic upwards. These intervals
have mathematical relationships with each
other which can be described by mathmati-
cal ratios. Historically, music composed in
just intonation has often been notated using
the rather musician-unfriendly language
of ratios rather than stave-based notation
although Ben Johnstons notation, which is
fully explained and used in the musical ex-
amples throughout David Dotys introduc-
tion, The Just Intonation Primer
9 and 10
is a
convincing alternative. David Dotys book is
thoroughly recommended to readers who
wish to pursue this area.
8
see Erv Wilson, A Classifcation of Tonal Systems, and a Proposed Standardisation of Signatures, Xenharmon-
ikn, No. 2 (Autumn, 1974), unpaged
9
David B. Doty, The Just Intonation Primer (San Francisco, 1994)
10
Despite the sometimes off-putting notational complexity of just intonation, musicias should be encouraged
to pursue this area because it, essentially, uses intervals which they use all the time: the beat-free, pure sounds
which characterize good tuning. The techniques described in this book will encourage an open-minded and
fexible approach to tuning which will enable players to fnd solutions to music in just intonation: this book does
not concern itself with structured just intonation but it does discuss the infuence of just intervals in harmonic
music in relation to the 3 tuning systems covered.
in Brian Ferneyhoughs solo fute piece
Cassandras Dream Song.
5
The suggestion
of fexibility created by the arrow (which
could be interpreted as an infection in the
direction of ) perhaps does not sit
perfectly with the concept of structural
microtonal writing. However, there is a
satisfying graphical logic to the eighth-tone
chromatic scale and it is also believed that
the logic of the system can realistically be
extended to twelfth-tones.
6
Given what we
have already suggested about fexibility of
pitch, this does not seem to be taking com-
promise too far and Ferneyhoughs piece is,
after all, just a single pieces as opposed to a
genre.
Example 2: 48-div signs used in this book
&
n
eighth-sharps
k L m l
K n
1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 6/8 7/8
n
eighth-flats
K B j b J b
k n
1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 6/8 7/8
Arrowheads could clearly be attached to
quarter-tone signs too. They are not in this
volume in order to keep things as clear
and simple as possible. The signs chosen
correspond to the suggested names of the
intervals given in Basics 2.
Music in the Second Category
(divisions of the octave)
Pitches in the second category are generally
notated using a different approach which
follows the Pythagorean note-naming
system (based on a cycle of ffths). The
principal derives from meantone tuning sys-
tems. Historically, such systems sought to
overcome the problem associated with the
non-closure of a cycle of pure ffths.
7
The
premise is that the closest mathematical ap-
proximation to the ffth in the given division
(a compromised or tempered ffth) forms
the basis of a cycle of those intervals (writ-
ten as a ffth). This is sometimes known as
faux or enharmonic notation.
One of the consequences of this approach
is that sharps and fats, which we normally
recognize as being enharmonic equivalents
of the same pitch (for example, D sharp
5
Brian Ferneyhough, Cassandras Dream Song (London, 1975)
6
Donald Bousted, More Microtonality ATS: ZNS, The Recorder Magazine, Winter 2002, pp. 136-138
7
This is fully explained in the sections on 19-div although the same approach has been applied to
other systems.
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This project is concerned with quarter- and
eighth-tones, which fall under the frst and
second category (so the music is described
as quarter- or eighth-tone or 24- or 48-
div) and 19-div, which belongs only to the
second.
In Basics 2, terminology is presented for
describing intervals in quarter- and eighth-
tones, thus fulflling the need for a
clear and comprehensive language with
which to describe these new intervals.